Alfred Adler

Biography

Born in 1870 in ViennaSecond child of the family; older brother was Sigmund, younger brother, Rudolph, died in childhoodWas a frail child who had several brushes with deathBecame a doctor to learn how to defeat deathGraduated from the University of Vienna in 1895 and set up his own practiceMarried Raissa Epstein and had four children

Disagreements with Freud

1902: invited to join Freud’s Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and eventually became president of it1911: left the group because of heated disagreements with Freud and the others over the idea that pleasure and sexuality were the prime motivators for humansSet up his own society called the Society for free Psychoanalysis (later changed to the Society for Individual Psychology).

Individual Psychology

Adler named his theory “Individual Psychology” because he believed that human motivations were complex and unique to the individual.He thought humans were motivated by their perceived niche in society.Like Jung, he believed in the teleological (goal-directed) nature of humans.Also much more concerned than Freud was with social conditions.Believed that people had to take preventive measures to avoid personality disturbances.

Inferiority Complex

1930: Adler wrote that a central core of personality was striving for superiority. Inferiority complex arises when people feel overwhelmed with a sense of helplessness or powerlessness that leaves them feeling inferior.Normal feelings of incompetence become exaggerated, and person feels hopeless that goals can be achieved.

Dealing with Inferiority

People deal with inferiority in two ways:Compensation: trying to build up the weak areas and concentrate on other areas. Motivated to strive from a “felt minus” (feeling of inferiority) to a “felt plus” (feelings of superiority, perfection, and totality).Motivating force behind all behavior is called Striving for Perfection or Superiority—the desire for competence and mastery over one’s environment.

More on overcoming inferioity

Masculine protest—the way in which a person strives for competence and independence rather than being merely an outgrowth of his or her parentsPerfection striving—people spend their lives trying to meet their fictional goals (sometimes called fictional finalism)—imagined future achievements.

Superiority Complex

An exaggerated arrogance in an attempt to maintain one’s self-worth and overcome an inferiority complex.Perceived as obnoxious by others.

Two additions to Adler's theory

Adler’s theory started changing as his thoughts about human motivation changed.Organ inferiority—the idea that everyone is born with some physical weakness where incapacity or disease is most likely to take root. The body tries to compensate for the weakness in another area—an important motivator of life choices.Aggressive drive—a reaction to perceived helplessness/inferiority—lashing out against inability to master something.

Style of Life

Established by age 4 or 5 using the Creative Self, the dynamic force that allows us to use our experiences and heredity to construct our “style of life,” including goals, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitudes toward the world.The interaction between heredity, environment, and one’s creative power.Should not be rigid or inflexible.Can be identified through early memories.

Doesn’t matter if memories are true or not.Represents one’s first perceptions of self and world.

Social issues

Adler was very concerned about three fundamental social issues, which are all intertwined:

Occupational tasks—choosing/pursuing a career that makes one feel worthwhile.Societal tasks—creating friendships/social networksLove tasks—finding a suitable life partner.

Adler's Typology

Based on the Greek notion of temperamental humors

Greek Humors

Greek Type Social Interest

Activity Adler’s Type

Yellow bile Choleric Low High Ruling-Dominant

Phlegm Phlegmatic Low Low Getting-leaning

Black bile Melancholic Very low Low AvoidingBlood Sanguine High High Socially

Useful

Ruling/Dominant

Aggressive & domineering May bully othersMay be passive-aggressive (suicide attempts, addictions)Seeks to dominate others in some way

Getting-leaning

Takes from othersSomewhat passiveDependent on others for everythingMost common type, according to Adler

Avoiding

Conquers problems by running awayTries not to deal with problems at allPhobias are an example

Socially useful

Meets problems realisticallyCooperative and caringThe only orientation thought to grow out of early experiencesInnate trait that makes all humans value societal contributions and helping othersMost productive way to compensate for feelings of inferiorityThe more socially oriented, the healthier the person: Gemeinschaftsgefuhl

Maladjustment in Neurotics

Underdeveloped social interestLive in their own private worldSet their goals too highHave rigid and dogmatic style of lifeMight develop in children with physical/intellectual disabilities—the mind sees the body as a burden, and they become self-centered (egoistic) as a result.Road to physical & mental health is overcome self-centeredness.

Safeguarding Strategies

Neurosis creates a need for safeguarding strategies, similar to defense mechanisms.

Excuses or rationalizing strategies (“Yes, but…”; “If only…”)Aggressive strategies (open or disguised hostility toward others)

Depreciation (devalue others through threats or inflating own value)Accusation (blame others—no personal responsibility)Self-accusation (blame self in such a way that it attracts attention, sympathy—sometimes induces guilt in others)

Distancing strategies—avoiding situations and problems; avoiding challenges

Parenting: Mom's perspective

Social interest arises from mother-child relationship during first months of infancyMom needs to foster a bond that encourages child’s social interest and fosters a sense of cooperationMom should be centered on her child’s well-being not her own needs and wants.If she favors the child over the father, child may become spoiled or pampered. If she favors father over child, child may feel neglected and unloved.

Parenting: Father's perspectiveFather must show caring attitude toward wife and othersIdeal father cooperates on equal footing with mother in caring for child & treating child as human beingSuccessful father avoids the errors of emotional detachment and paternal authoritarianism.Emotionally detached fathers child has a sense of neglect and warped social interest; parasitic attachment to MomPaternal authoritarianism sees Dad as tyrant; strives for power and personal superiority

Importance of Parents

Adler believed parents were so important early in life that the relationship with mother and father smothers the effects of heredity.By the time a child is 5, the effects of heredity become blurred by the powerful influences of the child’s social environment.By this time, environmental forces have shaped or modified nearly every aspect of child’s personality.

Birth Order Effects

Adler believed that birth order was an important factor in determining personality.First child: the worst position to be in. Second-borns: the best positionLast-borns: second worst positionBirth order has generated a lot of research.

Adler's view of birth order effectsBirth Order Positive traits Negative traits

Oldest child Nurturing and protective of othersGood organizer

Highly anxious, exaggerated feelings of power, unconscious hostility; fights for acceptance; must always be “right”; highly critical of others; uncooperative

Second child Highly motivated, cooperative, and moderately competitive

Highly competitive; easily distracted

Youngest child Realistically ambitious Pampered; dependent on others; wants to excel in everything; unrealistically ambitious

Only children Socially mature Exaggerated feelings of superiority; low feelings of cooperation; inflated sense of self; pampered

Research about Firstborns/Only children

More achievement-oriented and perfectionist. Also more visits to mental health clinicsMore likely to support parental authorityLess open to new ideasMore responsible, ambitious, organized, academically successful, energetic, self-disciplined, and conscientious.Negative side: more neurotic, anxious, temperamentalMore assertive and dominant

Middle-borns

Lots of research on these childrenLess likely to define self-identities by their familiesFeel less close to families; more into friends than siblingsMore rebellious, impulsive, less conscientiousLess likely to ask parents for help or visit parentsReport feeling less loved as childrenMore likely to live farther apart from parents

Later-borns

Charmer of the familyMore agreeableWarmerMore idealisticEasygoing, trusting, accommodating, altruistic, adventurousProne to fantasy, attracted by novelty; untraditionalMore sociable, affectionate, fun-loving, excitement-seeking, and more self-conscious.

Bottom line on birth order effects

Not shown consistently across studiesBirth order alone is not as big of a factor as birth order combined with other factors such as number of children, level of conflict between each child and parents, gender of the children, spacing between children, temperament, social class, and loss of parent.Birth order studies usually do not separate biological birth order from rearing order. They need to do this.

Social Interest

For Adler, social interest was of supreme importance. Not synonymous with charity.The sole yardstick for measuring psychological healthThe “sole criterion for human values”The only gauge for judging one’s worth and the value of a life.To the degree that people possess true social interest, they are psychologically mature.