Quality Circle is a small group of employees doing similar or related work who meet regularly to identify, analyze, and solve product-quality and production problems and to improve general operations. The circle is a relatively autonomous unit usually led by a supervisor or a senior worker and organized as a work unit."

-Joel E. Ross and William C. Ross

Quality Cirle

Efforts by:-Pooja-101193Richa-101094Ruchi-101031

Akanksha-101229Rubi-101070

Surleen-101196Vishakha-101067

Rupal-101238

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude towards my Prof.Hartaj Singh (reader, Department of Commerce), for his kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.

I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to faculty members for giving me such attention and time.

My thanks and appreciations also go to my team members in developing the project who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

-Pooja Jain

Index

S.no. Topic1 Concept of Quality Circle2 History of Quality Circle3 Advantages and disadvantages of Quality Circle4 Dimensions of Quality Circle5 Research on Quality Circle6 Implementation of Quality Circle in Indian co.7 Techniques related to Quality Circle8 Growth prospect of Quality Circle9 Bibliography

Quality Circle-A way to Quality Improvement

People are the greatest assets of an organisation, because, through people all other resources are converted into utilities. However, management of ‘People Resources’ has always been a vexed problem ever since the beginning of organised human activities. A number of managerial responses have been developed to answer this question.Participate methods in the workplace are one way to improve both the work environment for employees and productivity and quality for the company.

The traditional job design of scientific management focuses mostly on division of labor, hierarchy, close supervision and the one best way of doing work. This, no doubt, has brought several benefits to society but its disadvantage has been its high human cost. The highly specialized jobs have made workers socially isolated from their fellow workers, weakened their community of interest in the whole product and deskilled them to such an extent that workers have lost pride in their work. The system of hierarchy has made workers totally dependent upon their superiors. It is always the superior and not his subordinates who initiates actions and controls the working environment. Close supervision further accentuates workers dependence on their superiors. The result is high turnover and absenteeism. Quality declines and workers become alienated.

Workers are becoming more and more educated; skilled, affluent and unionized the above dysfunctional consequences of work are becoming less and less acceptable. It is no longer possible to design jobs solely according to the needs of technology completely overlooking the needs of workers. The jobs need to be excellent both from the point of view of technology and human needs. The traditional job design needs to be replaced by enriched job design. This demand for redesigning of jobs has come to be known as quality of work life. It enjoins management to treat workers as human resources that are to be developed rather than simply used.

The scope of QWL movement which originally included only job redesign efforts based on the socio-technical systems approach has gradually widened very much so as the include a wide variety of interventions such as quality circles, suggestion schemes, employee participation, empowerment, autonomous work teams etc.

Other Names of Quality Circles

o Small Groups o Action Circles o Excellence Circles o Human Resources Circles o Productivity Circle

Quality Circle is one of the employee participation methods. It implies the development of skills, capabilities, confidence and creativity of the people through cumulative process of education, training, work experience and participation. It also implies the creation of facilitative conditions and environment of work, which creates and sustains their motivation and commitment towards work excellence. Quality Circles have emerged as a mechanism to develop and utilize the tremendous potential of people for improvement in product quality and productivity.

Definition

Participative management technique within the framework of a companywide quality

system in which small teams of (usually 6 to 12) employees voluntarily form to define

and solve a quality or performance related problem. In Japan (where this practice

originated) quality circles are an integral part of enterprise management and are called

quality control circles. It is "a way of capturing the creative and innovative power that

lies within the work force".

GENESIS OF QUALITY CIRCLES

After the Second World War Japanese economy was in the doldrums. Seeing this disastrous effect of war, Americans decided to help Japan in improving the quality standards of their products. General Douglas Mac Arthur who, at that time, was the commander of the occupational forces in Japan took up the task of imparting quality awareness among Japanese to help them improve their products and the reliability of manufacturing systems including men, machine and materials. Thus, by 1975, they were topping the world in quality and productivity. This astonishing and unique achievement in modern history became an eye – opener to the world. Industrialists and politicians from all over the world started visiting Japan to know how they have achieved such magical results in such a short span. The answer to this was painstaking and persevering efforts of the Japanese leaders and workers and the development and growth of the philosophy of small working groups. This resulted in the Quality Circle concept being accepted all over the world as a very effective technique to improve the total quality of work life.

PHILOSOPHY

Quality Circle is a people – building philosophy, providing self-motivation and happiness in improving environment without any compulsion or monetary benefits. It represents a philosophy of managing people specially those at the grass root level as well as a clearly defined mechanism and methodology for translating this philosophy into practice and a required structure to make it a way of life. It is bound to succeed where people are respected and are involved in decisions, concerning their work life, and in environments where peoples’ capabilities are looked upon as assets to solve work-area problems.

The Quality Circle philosophy calls for a progressive attitude on the part of the management and their willingness to make adjustments, if necessary, in their style and culture.

If workers are prepared to contribute their ideas, the management must be willing to create a congenial environment to encourage them to do so.

CONCEPT

The concept of Quality Circle is primarily based upon recognition of the value of the worker as a human being, as someone who willingly activises on his job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience, attitude and feelings. It is based upon the human resource management considered as one of the key factors in the improvement of product quality & productivity. Quality Circle concept has three major attributes:

a. Quality Circle is a form of participation management. b. Quality Circle is a human resource development technique.

c. Quality Circle is a problem solving technique.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of Quality Circles are multi-faced.a) Change in Attitude.From "I don’t care" to "I do care" Continuous improvement in quality of work life through humanisation of work.

b) Self DevelopmentBring out ‘Hidden Potential’ of peoplePeople get to learn additional skills.

c) Development of Team SpiritIndividual Vs. Team – "I could not do but we did it"Eliminate inter departmental conflicts.

d) Improved Organisational CulturePositive working environment.Total involvement of people at all levels.Higher motivational level.Participate Management process.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

A Quality Circle has an appropriate organisational structure for its effective and efficient performance. It varies from industry to industry, organisation to organisation. But it is useful to have a basic framework as a model. The structure of a Quality Circle consists of the following elements.

i. A steering committee: This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior executive and includes representatives from the top management personnel and human resources development people. It establishes policy, plans and directs the program and meets usually once in a month.

ii. Co-ordinators: He may be a Personnel or Administrative officer who co-ordinates and supervises the work of the facilitators and administers the programme.

iii. Facilitator: He may be a senior supervisory officer. His co-ordiates the works of several quality circles through the Circle leaders.

iv. Circle leader: Leaders may be from lowest level workers or Supervisors. A Circle leader organises and conducts Circle activities.

v. Circle members: They may be staff workers. Without circle members the porgramme cannot exist. They are the lifeblood of quality circles. They should attend all meetings as far as possible, offer suggestions and ideas, participate actively in group process, and take training seriously with a receptive attitude. The role of Steering Committee, Co-0rdinator, Facilitator, Circle leader and Circle members are well defined.

LAUNCHING QUALITY CIRCLES

The major prerequisite for initiating Quality Circles in any organisation is the total understanding of, as well as complete conviction and faith in the participative philosophy, on the part of the top and senior management. In the absence of a commitment from the Chief Executive to support the Quality Circle movement totally, it would be inadvisable to seriously attempt the starting of Quality Circles. The launching of Quality Circles involves the following steps:

Expose middle level executives to the concept.Explain the concept to the employees and invite them to volunteer as members of Quality Circles.Nominate senior officers as facilitators.Form a steering committee.Arrange training of co-ordinators, facilitators in basics of Quality Circle approach, implementation, techniques and operation. Later facilitator may provide training to Circle leaders and Circle members.A meeting should be fixed preferably one hour a week for the Quality Circle to meet.Formally inaugurate the Quality Circle.Arrange the necessary facilities for the Quality Circle meeting and its operation.

TRAINING

Appropriate training for different sections of employees needs to be imparted. Without a proper understanding of the real concept of Quality Circles, both the workers and management might look at this philosophy with suspicion. Each group should know

beforehand the commitments and implications involved as well as the benefit that can be obtained from Quality Circles. Such training comprises of:

Brief orientation programme for top management.Programme for middle level executives.

Training of facilitators.

Training for Circle leaders and members.

PROCESS OF OPERATION

The operation of quality circles involves a set of sequential steps as under:

1 Problem identification: Identify a number of problems.2 Problem selection: Decide the priority and select the problem to be taken up first.3 Problem Analysis: Problem is clarified and analysed by basic problem solving methods.4 Generate alternative solutions: Identify and evaluate causes and generate number of possible alternative solutions.5 Select the most appropriate solution: Discuss and evaluate the alternative solutions by comparison in terms of investment and return from the investment. This enables to select the most appropriate solution.6 Prepare plan of action: Prepare plan of action for converting the solution into reality which includes the considerations "who, what, when, where, why and how" of solving problems.7 Present solution to management circle members present solution to management for approval.8. Implementation of solution: The management evaluates the recommended solution. Then it is tested and if successful, implemented on a full scale.

BASIC PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES

The following techniques are most commonly used to analyse and solve work related problems.1 Brain storming2 Pareto Diagrams3 Cause & Effect Analysis4 Data Collection5 Data Analysis

The tools used for data analysis are:

1 Tables 2 Bar Charts

3 Histograms 4 Circle graphs 5 Line graphs 6 Scatter grams 7 Control Charts

The Quality Circles also are expected to develop internal leadership, reinforce worker morale and motivation, and encourage a strong sense of teamwork in an organisation.

A variety of benefits have been attributed to Quality Circles, including higher quality, improved productivity, greater upward flow of information, broader improved worker attitudes, job enrichment, and greater teamwork.

Problem quality circles often suffer from unrealistic expectations for fast results, lock of management commitment and support, resistance by middle management, resentment by non-participants, inadequate training, lack of clear objectives and failure to get solutions implemented.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF QUALITY CIRCLES

It took more than two decades for the quality control concept to get acceptance in India, after its introduction in Japan. This may be due to the differences in the industrial context in the two countries. Japan needed it for its survival in a competitive market. India had a reasonably protected, seller’s market, with consequent lethargy towards efforts to improve quality and productivity. However, with the policy of liberalisation of economy and privatisation of infrastructure development, contexts changed. The concept now needs to be looked upon as a necessity.

Examples Where the Concept is used Quality circles can be used by large business and small groups. One example of a large firm using this concept is Xerox.  Xerox has an annual teamwork day and because of a past teamwork day they were able to prevent 6500 tons of waste from going to a landfill.  Their solution at the time of seeing the problem with the about of waste they were producing was a recycling program-which worked (Russell, 649).  United Airlines used quality circles to look at the problem of no-shows and sick leave problems.  As a result of the employees analysis of the problem sick leave was cut by 17 percent which saved United Airlines $18.2 million in the first year (Russell, 650). Quality circles have been used to help smaller group of people like Kimberly Oshiro.  Kimberly used this concept to try and find out what caused road rage among her and her friends.  From that quality circle they learned that speeding and tailgating were causes of road rage.  As a group they learned to calm themselves while driving (Report, 3). This concept has been shown to improve work productivity, save money and even to save lives.  Xerox did a good thing by improving the world by making less waste.  United Airlines increased productivity and saved money, which in the long run could have lowered fairs.  From Kimberly her life and the life's of her friends could be preventing road rage.  Quality circles are a very powerful concept in the real world. 

History of Quality Circle

A quality circle is a participatory management technique that enlists the help of employees in solving problems related to their own jobs. In their volume Japanese Quality Circles and Productivity, Joel E. Ross and William C. Ross define a quality circle as "a small group of employees doing similar or related work who meet regularly to identify, analyze, and solve product-quality and production problems and to improve general operations. The circle is a relatively autonomous unit, usually led by a supervisor or a senior worker and organized as a work unit." Employees who participate in quality circles usually receive training in formal problem-solving methods—such as brainstorming, pareto analysis, and cause-and-effect diagrams—and then is encouraged to apply these methods to either specific or general company problems. After completing an analysis, they often present their findings to management and then handle implementation of approved solutions.

Quality circles are alternatives to the dehumanizing concepts of the division of the labor, where workers or individual basis is uneconomic, but when use in group forms, it can be devastatingly powerful and enables the enrichment of the life of the workers or students and create harmony and high performance in the work place.

The term quality circles drives from the concepts of PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) circles developed by Dr. W .Edward Deming quality circle normally paid a share of the cost benefits of any improvements but usually a proportion of the savings made is spent on improvements to the work environment.

The interest of U.S. manufacturers in quality circles was sparked by dramatic improvements in the quality and economic competitiveness of Japanese goods in the post-World War II years. The emphasis of Japanese quality circles was on preventing defects from occurring rather than inspecting products for defects following a manufacturing process. Japanese quality circles also attempted to minimize the scrap and downtime that resulted from part and product defects. In the United States, the

quality circle movement evolved to encompass the broader goals of cost reduction, productivity improvement, employee involvement, and problem-solving activities.

HISTORY

After second world war, most of the countries in the world had to face the problem of industrial development. Japan was worst hit and the industrial units in Japan were going from bad to worse and it was necessary for Japan to put their shattered economy back to the rails. To do so modern concept of quality control came to Japan after 1945, from USA, but it was only after 1955 that this system of management of quality control was actually implemented to the company from the bottom of the organization that could also share in the quality control function at the workshop level. Quality circle provides the employees at the bottom level to proceed towards the top level with opportunities to perform effectively and solving the daily problem of the unit. It this paper, the authors tried to study the impact of quality circle techniques through a case study dealing with causes of the material losses related to 4-Ms (man, machine, materials, methods), in a small production shop floor. The observed data was analyzed through Pareto diagram and ‘Ishikawa diagram’ and following results were obtained: Drastic reduction in materials wastage, average saving per year increased and financial losses were minimized, workers were motivated to keep and operate materials with care and prevent wastage, and good team relationship was built among the workman and management.

A quality circles were first established in Japan in 1962; Kaoru Ishikawa has been credited with their creations. The movements in Japan were coordinated by the Japanese Union of Scientist and Engineers (JUSA). The first circles were established at the Nippon Wireless and Telegram Company But then spread to more than 35 other companies in the first year. By 1978 it was claimed that there were more than one million quality circles involving some ten million Japanese workers. There are now quality circles in most East Asian countries; it was recently claimed that there were than twenty quality circles in China.

Qualities have been implemented even in educational sectors in India, and QCFI (Quality Circle Forum of India). However this was not successful in the United States, as it (was not properly understood) turn out to be a fault- finding exercise although some circles do still exist. Ref Don Dewar who together with Wayne Ryker and Jeff Beardsley first established them in 1972 at the Lockheed Space Missile factory in California. And there are different quality circles tools, namely; the Ishikawa or Fishbone diagram – which shows hierarchies of causes contributing to a problem the Pareto Chart-which analyses different causes by frequency to illustrate the withdrawal cause, Process Mapping, Data gathering tools such as check sheets and graphical tools such as Histograms, frequency diagrams, spot chart and pie charts.

The Origin

The concept of Quality Circle is primarily based upon recognition of the value of the worker as a human being, as someone who willingly activises on his job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience, attitude and feelings. It is based upon the human resource management considered as one of the key factors in the improvement of product quality & productivity. Quality Circle concept has three major attributes:

a. Quality Circle is a form of participation management. b. Quality Circle is a human resource development technique. c. Quality Circle is a problem solving technique.

History of quality circle in academics

The history of mankind in terms of origin of our World and Universe is but a giant step from the pre-historic man to the 20th century. Early inventions and discoveries were either accidents of nature or devices for survival. Added to that were natural instincts of enquiry, experimentation and adoption so unique in homosapiens, which set them on course to become the ruling species of the universe. 20th Century proved to be a landmark in the history of mankind. It is marked by a rapid progress in the field of medicine, science and technology on one hand and major wars on the other bringing with themselves catastrophe and destruction all around.

Two atom bombs dropped on Japan during 1945, converted the thriving, industrial empire of Japan to dust and smoke, with millions killed or maimed. Everyone thought it would be centuries before Japan re-captures its pristine glory, but Japan rose like a phoenix from ashes to become the leading nation of the world within a short span of time. The power behind this miracle was fierce will, determination and commitment of Japanese people and their quest for quality. They adopted Quality Circles, Kaizen & TQM as ways of building attitudes to surmount problems, improve quality and to be competitive.

Sir Edward Deming’s idea of Quality Circle took a firm root in Japan and became a way of life. Now Japan boasts of 1 million QCs’ in various industries and business. After this there was a quality revolution with various quality gurus like Dr. J.M. Juran, Dr. Kauru Ishikawa, and Dr. W.A. Shewart spreading the message of quality throughout the

world. People all over the world soon realised that quality was the panacea for survival.Quality Circles or Quality Control Circles, as they are called in Japan, is a participative philosophy woven around quality control and problem solving techniques at the bottom level. It exemplifies the policy of people building, respect for human beings and creates a participative management culture. This concept enables the grass-root level employees to play a meaningful and significant role in their organisation. The responsibility for the attainment of Quality depends on all the departments of an Organisation. The main purpose behind Quality Circles is to build the people and produce quality people first before making quality products or providing quality services. It is to make a ‘Man’.

Quality Circle philosophy, a value based concept has also been fruitfully adopted in Schools for infusing a spirit of excellence, emotional development, humaneness, harmony, co-operation, character building and discipline. The credit for introducing the concept of Quality Circles (QC) in Education goes to Mr. Jagdish Gandhi. It was during his visit to Japan in 1992 that Mr. Gandhi first became aware of Quality Control Circles (QCC) and how Prof. Ishikawa successfully shaped them as formal groups within factories and offices, for the purpose of improving the quality of manufactured goods and services on a continuous basis. The resultant quality revolution firmly established Japan as an economic superpower after the devastation caused by the Second World War.

Mr. Gandhi thought of using Kaizen philosophy of continuous improvement and QCs’ in schools to inculcate quality awareness at a tender age in children, when minds are impressionable and the attitudes can be built. The basic aim was to ‘Catch Them Young’.

He collected literature on Quality Circles and on his return to India; he introduced the idea at the CMS Principal’s meeting. Taking inspiration from Mr. Gandhi, Dr. Vineeta Kamran, Principal, City Montessori School, Kanpur Road, Lucknow sought the help of Mr. P.C.Bihari and Mr. Saomi Das, the QC experts from Indian Railways to start QCs’ in her school.

CMS, with a co-operative and encouraging background, provided rich soil for experimentation. History was created when a group of five of Dr. Kamran’s students constituted Quality Circle ‘Jai Jagat’, the world’s first Quality Circle by school children, and prepared a case study "How to Concentrate on Studies". Their path-breaking effort won accolades at national and international levels and was proclaimed the most "outstanding case study" at the International Convention of Quality Control Circles at Hong Kong in 1994.

History of Quality Circle by Izumi Nonaka (attached file)

AdvantagesQuality circles are also commonly known as work improvement or quality teams, but no matter the name, their functions share similar characteristics. Generally, the quality circle is a small group of employees who voluntarily meet at regular times to identify, analyse and solve quality and other problems in their working environment. Quality circles can recommend and implement improvement strategies and be a useful reservoir for the generation of new ideas. Normally, members of a quality circle face and share similar problems in their daily work lives and create a programme to tap human creative energy that is capable of generating handsome rewards.Members of the circle obtain training in the mechanics of running a meeting, rules of quality circle participation, techniques of group problem solving, and making management presentations.

Objectives of Quality CircleThe perception of Quality Circles today is ‘Appropriateness for use’ and the tactic implemented is to avert imperfections in services rather than verification and elimination. Hence the attitudes of employees influence the quality. It encourages employee participation as well as promotes teamwork. Thus it motivates people to contribute towards organizational effectiveness through group processes.The following could be grouped as broad intentions of a Quality Circle: To contribute towards the improvement and development of the organization or a department. To overcome the barriers that may exist within the prevailing organizational

structure so as to foster an open exchange of ideas. To develop a positive attitude and feel a sense of involvement in the decision

making processes of the services offered. To respect humanity and to build a happy work place worthwhile to work. To display human capabilities totally and in a long run to draw out the infinite possibilities. To improve the quality of products and services. To improve competence, this is one of the goals of all organizations. To reduce cost and redundant efforts in the long run. With improved efficiency, the lead time on convene of information and its subassemblies is reduced, resulting in an improvement in meeting customers due dates. Customer satisfaction is the fundamental goal of any library. It will ultimately be achieved by Quality Circle and will also help to be competitive for a long time. Change in Attitude:

From "I don’t care" to "I do care" Continuous improvement in quality of work life through humanization of work.

Self-DevelopmentBring out ‘Hidden Potential’ of peoplePeople get to learn additional skills.

Development of Team SpiritIndividual Vs. Team – "I could not do but we did it"Eliminate inter departmental conflicts.

Improved Organisational CulturePositive working environment.Total involvement of people at all levels.Higher motivational level.Participate Management process.

ADVANTAGES OF QUALITY CIRCLEQuality circle through a process of indirect training provides workers with knowledge, skills and attitudes which enable them to produce quality goods or services. It raises their productivity, increases the service concept of undertakings taps the energy and ingenuity and thus contributes to the general economic development. The Quality Circles also are expected to develop internal leadership, reinforce worker morale and motivation, and encourage a strong sense of teamwork in an organization.

Quality circles are applicable to a wide variety of business situations and problems. They are based on two ideas: that employees can often make better suggestions for improving work processes than management; and that employees are motivated by their participation in making such improvements. Thus, implemented correctly, quality circles can help a small business reduce costs, increase productivity, and improve employee morale. Other potential benefits that may be realized by a business include greater operational efficiency, reduced absenteeism, improved employee health and safety, and an overall better working climate. In their book Production and Operations Management, Howard J. Weiss and Mark E. Gershon called quality circles "the best means today for meeting the goal of designing quality into a product."

There are no monetary rewards in the QC’s. However, there are many other gains, which largely benefit the individual and consecutively, benefit the business. These are:

Self-development:QC’s assist self-development of members by improving self-confidence, attitudinal change, and a sense of accomplishment.Social development:QC is a consultative and participative programme where every member cooperates with others. This interaction assists in developing harmony.Opportunity to attain knowledge:QC members have a chance for attaining new knowledge by sharing opinions, thoughts, and experience.Potential Leader:Every member gets a chance to build up his leadership potential, in view of the fact that any member can become a leader.Enhanced communication skills:

The mutual problem solving and presentation before the management assists the members to develop their communication skills.

Job-satisfaction:QC’s promote creativity by tapping the undeveloped intellectual skills of the individual. Individuals in addition execute activities diverse from regular work, which enhances their self-confidence and gives them huge job satisfaction.Healthy work environment:QC’s creates a tension-free atmosphere, which each individual likes, understands, and co-operates with others.Organizational benefits:The individual benefits create a synergistic effect, leading to cost effectiveness, reduction in waste, better quality, and higher productivity.8 Quality aspects:Product quality is judged according to criteria such as reliability, design, life expectancy etc. certain quality. These standards give many advantages to customers including the elimination of time consuming and costly quality audits leading to quicker product.

A variety of benefits have been attributed to Quality Circles, including higher quality, improved productivity, greater upward flow of information, broader improved worker attitudes, job enrichment, and greater teamwork. All these benefits are lasting in nature, which bring about progress over a period of time.

Quality circles are supposed to bring the following benefits for the organisation:

Formation of quality circles in Japan and other countries has helped in bringing out several innovations and changes.

Quality circles have proved to be a valuable tool for increasing productivity, improving quality and increasing workers job satisfaction.

Encourage a team culture and team environment; Encourage the flow of new ideas; Improve customer relations and service delivery; Improve levels of communication; Improve operational efficiency; and Create problem prevention attitudes. It will enhance quality and create cost awareness. Requires little or no change in organisational structure. Is educational and work oriented? Rewards are in the work itself. Is flexible and adaptable to any organisation. Implementing the concept of quality circle in affiliated. Quality circle is one of the useful concepts that can be adopted in an educational. Small groups bring big results train them in the operation of quality circles. The

circles would be truly voluntary and trained workers.

IT's easy to get the players, GETTIN’EM to play together In spite of all the obvious advantages, team participation is one of the key areas quality, while it is a major consideration of the circle is only a part of circle.

IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY CIRCLE: Case study

Over 50 percent of the general public believes that the American people are not as productive as they should be. This view is also shared by those in the labor force as over three-fourths say that they are not working at full potential. Findings such as these and troubling economic trends have made the search for productivity techniques - those that enhance efficiency and effectiveness in organizations - a national priority.

As a result, many management improvement ideas - job enrichment, participative management, co-determination, quality of work life- -have been tried in business and government. A surprising number of them, in particular quality circles, have survived bad economic times, cutback management, concession bargaining - to say nothing of the dual infamy of being Japanese and a solution to everything. As productivity problems in the United States persist, interest in quality circle programs should continue. Faced with limited resources, increased demands for services, and fiscal uncertainty, state governments have been an important laboratory for productivity experiments. Perhaps the most prominent manifestation of these activities is the unparalleled growth of quality circles - small, voluntary, homogeneous, problem-solving employee groups.

The dramatic spread of quality circles (QCs) in and beyond Japan is telling proof of their general appeal and practical utility; they are the premier strategy for mobilizing human talent to enhance competitive performance.(1)Major programs in government include more than 2,500 QCs in federal agencies, state projects in Missouri, California, and Florida, and numerous circles in selected counties and municipalities around the nation. In American business, over 7,000 large and small companies use QCs to improve productivity among blue as well as white collar employees.(2) The quality circle "revolution", in fact, has spawned an entire movement replete with an international association, regular conventions, local chapters, publications, and consultants specialized in program development.(3)Considering the rapid diffusion of quality circles and their apparent promise for the future, it is important not to draw sweeping, premature, and perhaps erroneous conclusions. In Japan many companies (and most government agencies) do not have QCs, and those firms using them do not always find them to be effective. Similarly, in the United States, while there are many self-reported success stories, there are also instances of failure. Clearly, then, a systematic examination of the American experience with QCs is preferable to uncritical acceptance of claims made by their advocates and critics.

Despite the common tendency to use business as a model to improve government, the public service may be able to lead the effort to develop greater productivity. In a service economy, white collar workers are ripe for quality circles since they have the responsibility and means for influencing productivity. Not only does government's labor intensive nature make productivity a serious issue, but also key characteristics of the Japanese management style that support QCs - lifetime employment, seniority

systems, limited unions, intrinsic rather than extrinsic rewards - parallel those in American public service. Finally, industry continues to seek scapegoats - tax disincentives, the work ethic, government regulation, insufficient research and development - which have relatively little to do with faltering productivity. Any discussion of productivity improvement, then, should examine the public sector, an employer that hires more workers than all durable goods manufacturing industries.

Accordingly, this study adds to the limited data base on QCs by exploring their use in Florida, a state seen by many as a part of and contributor to leading social trends First Missteps

So began a rather tenuous experiment: the formation of quality circles in which small groups of employees and supervisors--"volunteers"--would receive basic training in statistical quality control techniques and then, under the leadership of a trained facilitator, meet regularly to analyze, solve and recommend solutions to quality problems to top management.

While these early efforts were hailed as revolutionary first-time efforts at participative management, they largely failed. Indeed, just as some government agencies were starting up their quality circles; private companies were abandoning the effort in droves.

Of course, there were many small successes within quality circles. Federal organizations as diverse as the Norfolk, Va., Naval Shipyard, NASA's Lewis Space Center and the U.S. Customs Service reported varying degrees of success in using quality circles to improve products and services. But any comparison to the Japanese model showed vast inadequacies.

Model Japanese companies had 75 percent or more of their workforce in quality circles--in fact, many workers participated in several quality circles. Top managers relentlessly pushed all of their cost, quality and performance data down to the lowest levels of the organization for rigorous evaluation and action. Every worker and supervisor already had extensive training in quality measurement concepts and trust between management and employees were high. Most Japanese labor unions were company unions that supported different kinds of employees meeting and discussing work process changes.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITY CIRCLE

A quality circle is inclined sooner or later to take off from the reality. It lacks the suggestions therefore practice proximity. Exploring quality circles in the provision of the therapeutic recreation. This article provides a discussion of the advantages of implementing a quality circles program in to a therapeutic recreation setting. Quality circle, a Japanese Management concept, has received increased support in American industry and human service organisations. It is founded on the principle of employee involvement and concern for the improvement of the organisation.

Disadvantages of QC include:

Lack of management support

Time required to implement.

Failure to hire consultants.

Improper composition of circles.

Problems quality circles often suffer from unrealistic expectations for fast results are lack of management commitment and support, resistance by middle management, resentment by non-participants inadequate training, lack of clear objectives and failure to get solutions implemented.

Disadvantages of quality circles in an organization are:The disadvantages of quality circles in an organisation have to do with management. The Quality Circle can come up with good ideas and management will fail to implement them. This is a bigger slap in the face than not having a quality circle in the first place. It is doing work to improve the organisation only to see it shot down. Management sees the quality circle as a tool to get the members of the quality circle to figure out how they can improve their own work. The members of the quality circle as a tool see what they need so the company can become more effective.

*People do not like change so dislike change management*people have to meet compliance levels.*Depends on partner/suppliers to achieve like for like efficiencies are disliked.*nowhere to hide for people not meeting set standards.*Poor management is highlighted very quickly.

Disadvantages of group discussionGroups are everywhere in our society and learning more about them and how to work better in them can enhance the quality of each person's life. Five of the most widely used techniques: brainstorming, brainwriting, buzz sessions, quality circles, and nominal group technique. Point out the advantages and disadvantages of each approach with a view to reducing failures in implementing techniques as a result of lack of knowledge. The article will be useful for anyone involved in groups.eg: managers or people wishing to improve their skills.

Equity Method AccountingShoehorn corp.owns 40 percent of the stock of Amalgamated Leather Tanneries and is debating the proper procedures to use in reporting its ownership. Shoehorn Corporation produces high-quality leather products and purchases approximately 85% of Amalgamated Leather's annual production. Because of the importance of having a dependable source of supply and one which provides high quality leather of a uniform grade, Shoehorn paid a 15 % premium over current market price to acquire its ownership in Amalgamated leather. The price per share paid was approximately 250% of book value per share at that date. Shoehorn signed an agreement that gives the former owner the right to purchase back the share of Amalgamated leather anytime during the next five years at the price paid by Shoehorn.Several corporations’ corporate officers disagree on how best to account for the Amalgamated leather shares. The following alternative means of accounting for the investment in Amalgamated leather have been identified.

1. Adjust the carrying value of the shares to market value at the end of each period and report the cumulative change as an unrealized adjustment to stakeholder's equity. Treat dividends received as dividend income.2. Carry the investment at cost and treat dividends received as dividend income.3. Carry the investment at cost plus Shoehorn's proportionate share of the undistributed earnings of Amalgamated leather since the date of acquisition. Treat dividends received as dividend income.4. Use the equity method.

Although quality circles have been successful in many organizations research literature suggests many disadvantages associated with them also. The research literature which is written about the advantages according to Wilson is also a speculative matter. The criticism is made that “Those who write about the success of their introduction often have a vested interest in stressing their success rather than documenting their failure. Stone identifies some problems as to why quality circles fail, managers feel threatened, quality circles are forced, high turnover makes them ineffective and employees focus on problems where they have no control. Quality circles were designed in Japan after the World War two and then the theories were passed through to Western civilization. Because of the differences in the way Western civilization acts in comparison to that of a Japanese workplace problem will occur when attempting to use quality circles in the west. Bradley and Hill support evidence of this in their research stating, “Japanese

company policy emphasizes group work and collective responsibity, rather than the Western emphasis on individual effort and reward". Based on research literature it is clear that there are many disadvantages in relation to quality circles.When weighing up the evidence from research literature the assessment can be made that the disadvantages outweigh the advantages when considering quality circles. Although quality circles are thought to give employee a high job satisfaction andIncrease their productivity and efficiency it is clear that in most cases this has a negative impact on organisations. Research literature clearly indicates that in general quality circles will eventually cause conflict with the objectives of management and the organisation. Because of these facts quality circles cannot be considered an effective tool in a majority of organisations.

ConclusionIt has been claimed that 'Quality Circles have proven to be an effective tool to get employee participation in company efforts to improve quality, efficiency, and work methods and to reduce cycle time, wastage and rework.' Source: The National Human Resources Handbook (2000), ministry Manpower, Singapore page 48ISBN 9971-88-771-1, page 48. According to Stone the objective of Quality circles are to "identify problems as a group, process suggestions and examine alternatives for improving (at relatively low cost) product and service quality." However it is speculative as to whether quality circles are an effective tool for improving organisations. It has been claimed that quality circles can 'improve quality, efficiency, and work methods and reduce cycle time, wastage and rework.' (National Human Resources Handbook, 2000). This statement has been welcomed and supported by some however there are those who disagree.

Impact of Quality Circle—a Case StudyAfter Second World War, most of the countries in the world had to face the problem of industrial development. Japan was worst hit and the industrial units in Japan were going from bad to worse and it was necessary for Japan to put their shattered economy back to the rails. To do so modern concept of quality control came to Japan after 1945, from USA, but it was only after 1955 that this system of management of quality control was actually implemented to the company from the bottom of the organization that could also share in the quality control function at the workshop level. Quality circle provides the employees at the bottom level to proceed towards the top level with opportunities to perform effectively and solving the daily problem of the unit. It this paper, the authors tried to study the impact of quality circle techniques through a case study dealing with causes of the material losses related to 4-Ms (man, machine, materials, methods), in a small production shop floor. The observed data are analysed through Pareto diagram and ‘Ishikawa diagram’ and following results were obtained : Drastic reduction in materials wastage, average saving per year increased and financial losses were minimized, workers were motivated to keep and operate materials with care and prevent wastage, and good team relationship was built among the workman and management.

INTRODUCTIONIn older times, during the post-world war the Indian workshop and industries were generally practicing older concept of system to manage the scientific techniques, as a result of following the older concepts unwisely a barrier of mistrust, individualism and non-involvement of different levels of manpower and management has been erected between the important sections of the organization. For example, during the post Second World War era Japan was worst hit by the above mentioned crisis and the individual units in Japan were going from bad to worse and it was necessary for Japan to put their shattered economy back to rail. For that they had to wipe out their poor image of quality, with the help of some quality management experts from America, namely, Dr Deming, Dr Juran. At this point Dr Ishikawa of Mushashi Institute of Technology, Tokyo added a new dimension to this effect by involving task performer at the grass root level to work towards the quality improvement. He motivated the workmen to follow the quality control techniques in their shop floor by forming small groups and sought their help in solving the daily problem coming during the production of the job. After all the person who is actually doing the job knows the job best. This was the basic guideline in forming the quality circle. Hence, by introducing this modern concept of quality control in any organization employees at the grassroots level have the opportunity to perform effectively and meshing well with the activities of other levels, i.e., total involvement of the worker and the intellectuals and hence there was a tremendous change in the working environment between the management, and the workforce. Various studies have been conducted on the implementation of quality circles in different organization and the results were very encouraging. Study conducted by S K Dey, et al involving quality circles for a steady reduction in chemical wastage proved to be very gainful to the industries related to the material wastage. Also study conducted by Reddy, et al on dimensional quality control of casting gives a result of

good quality casting at minimum cost. Another study conducted by Shiva Gonde, et al which was different from other studies in the sense that he has implemented quality circle approach in technical education systems for solving work related problems and found that there were major dimensional change in decisions and actions, conventional bureaucratic approach to self-empowering employees along with the responsibilities of managing the institutions.

Promotional prospects of employees

Maintaining a change friendly workforce is not an easy task. The success of an

organisation will depend upon their ability to tab the abilities and talents of their staff by

encouraging staff involvement in various spheres of organisation activities. Staff

participation can be used as a management tool. Quality circle is one such tool which

proposes staff involvement. A quality circle is a participatory management technique

that enlists the help of employees in solving problems related to their own jobs.

It essentially involves giving due recognition to the contribution of employees and deriving full benefit from their experiences, so as to achieve improved work planning, better product quality and higher employee morale, all of which leads to higher productivity & better human relations.

The concept of Quality circle was developed for improving product quality through greater involvement of workers in job planning. It is concerned with activities through the employee which are prepared to share higher responsibilities more effectively and also enables them to improve their career prospects for higher promotional avenues, thereby helping them to lead a better quality of work life.

METHODOLOGYFormation of Quality CircleThe following basic elements constitute the structure of the quality circle:i) Top Managementii) Steering committeeiii) Co-ordinatorsiv) Facilitatorv) Leadervi) Membersvii) Non-members

Figure 1 Structure of quality circle

The success of the quality circles depends solely on the attitude of the top management and plays an important role to ensure the success of implementation of quality circles in the organization. Steering committee called middle management consists of chief executive heads of different divisions or a co-ordinators plays a positive role in quality circles activities for the success of the efforts. The meetings are conveyed at least once in one to two months interval. Co-ordinators also acts as facilitators is an individual responsible for coordinating and directing the quality circles activities within an organization and carries out such functions as would make the operations of quality circles smooth, effective and self-sustainable. Facilitator also acts as a catalyst, innovator, promoter and teacher and is nominated by the management. Leader of the quality circles is chosen by the members among themselves and they may decide to have a leader by rotation since the members are the basic elements of the structure of quality circle. Members of the quality circles are the small group of people from the same work area or doing similar type of work whereas non-members are those who are not members of the quality circle but may be involved in the circle recommendation.

Methodical procedure in quality circles

The consultations have the character of a results seminar, ideas conference or a problem-oriented workshop.

Procedure:

The leader explains the problem. Working groups are formed where necessary.

The members pool ideas.

The suggestions are recorded. Basic principles are:

o Quantity before quality

o No limits to fantasy

o No criticisms of others' suggestions

o No assessment of the suggestions

o The present ideas are read during any break

o Only the group performance is valid

The suggestions are structured and summarized.

The participants in the consultation are free to make amendments and additions.

The suggestions are evaluated and weighted according to their feasibility and practicability.

Suggested decisions are formulated and recorded jointly

The managing directors in the enterprise are informed of the results of the consultation in the quality circle. Different solutions are suggested and argued.

Quality circles were particularly further developed in Japan and used in the enterprises as a form of cooperation. The quality circle promotes a stronger identification with the enterprise and increased personal responsibility for the job on the part of the employees. Quality circles also make it possible to connect the existing informal groups with the management to the general advantage of the enterprise. Quality circles contribute to the qualification of employees, lead to in-house dialogue and generally improve the working environment.

Problem Solving TechniquesQuality circle commonly use the following basic techniques to identify and to analyse problemsi) Team work (Brainstorming)ii) Collection of dataiii) Pareto analysisiv) Ishikawa diagram (Fishbone diagram)v) Cumulative line diagram

PROBLEM FORMULATIONThe present study was conducted by selecting a problem concerning with the material loss in workshop of University Polytechnic, AMU by forming a quality circle. The authors

were involved as internal observer in the operation of quality circle working in workshop. The production involves manufacturing of crankshaft, spindle and metallic numerals in the machine and fitting shop. The operation involves in producing the above products comprises of various methods of manufacturing such as facing, drilling, filling, cutting, shaping, threading etc. The operations of these quality circle as given below realize the impact of quality circle.

PROCESS OF OPERATION

The operation of quality circles involves a set of sequential steps as under:-

How to Stitch the Problems through QC:-

1. The use of various techniques must be supported with accurate information and data.   

Data  and information collection or insufficient  data could  lead  to  a  situation where decisions or  corrective  action  be implemented  effectively. 

Data and information should be collected for the following purposes:-

(a)  To understand the actual situation and to support or reinforce an option; and( b)  To  established the relationship between the problem  and  its causes..

Data Compilation Method:-

* Data can be collected using five methods, namely:(a)  Interviews (b)  Questionnaires(c)  Observation(d)  From reports and(e)  From complaints by the public..

* The data collected should be recorded information on the date of Collection, method of collection and the individual who collated the data.  The data must be recorded in a manner which facilitates its use that is, it must be arranged in specific categories. For example, it should be categorized according to the four management resources namely, man, method, material and machine.

Sampling: - A way to simplify  

26.   In data collection, samples are used. This involves the collection of data from a small population of the total population involved.  The sampling techniques generally used are:-

(a)  Random Sampling,

This process involves the random selection of the sample units. The selection can be made by the use of a random number through table or lists of names to prevent any bias.

(b)  Systematic Sampling

This process involves the systematic selection of the sample to be used. For example, choosing every tenth name from a list of names.

(c)  Stratified Sampling

This process involves the selection of the sample according to specific categories such as age, sex and income group, etc.

* QC members may use various techniques in the problem-solving process. The effective techniques generally are:-

     (a)  Brainstorming;     (b) Cause and Effect Analysis;     (c) Check sheets;     (d) Pareto Analysis;

(a)  Brainstorming

Brainstorming can be defined as the methodology used to encourage every individual in the Circle to express freely their opinions or give ideas in an open discussion.

Brainstorming can be used to list down all the problem faced by an organization, their causes and the potential effects if a certain suggestion is implemented.

To ensure the success of the brainstorming process, it is important for the Circle to flow the following rules:

(i)   The subject for brainstorming should be clear and accurate. For example, members may brainstorm to identify the causes and reasons why a certain task cannot be completed on schedule.(ii)  Each member will give only opinion/idea at each turn regardless of the number of ideas he/she may have.(iii) A tension-free atmosphere must be maintained to encourage free expression of ideas.(iv)  Every idea expressed should be written on the black/white board, flip chart or noted down by a secretary.(v)   At the end of the brainstorming session, all the ideas expressed should be evaluated one by one and short listed.(vi)  Voting is used to list the ideas according to priority.  The prioritization is based on number of votes received for each idea.

(b)  Cause and Effect Analysis

The Cause and Effect Analysis is also known as the Fish-Bone Analysis.  This technique is used to analyse problems with the identification of causes of a problem through brainstorming.   This technique is easy to use   as   it summarizes, arranges and explains all the causes of a problem which has been identified in the form of a diagram.  It also allows for the identification of many possible causes of a problem.  There are five steps in the construction of a Cause and Effect Diagram.

Step 1: Identify a Problem

The first step is to identify the problem and to state the problem accurately.  For example the problem identified is `Reports Cannot be Printed Within The Time Period Specified'.  Start the Cause and Effect Diagram with an arrow pointing from left to right towards the problem:-

     -----------------------------------------------------------                                         EFFECT               CAUSE--------> Reports Cannot be Printed Within The                             Time Period Specified     ----------------------------------------------------------

Step 2: Determine the Main Causes

A problem is caused by various factors.   These  factors  can  be categories  according  to  the resources of  production  such  as  man, machine, material and method like:-

DETERMINING THE MAIN CAUSES

     Material       Man            \           \             \           \       -------------------------> Reports cannot be printed              /           /         On Time            /           /      Machine       Method

Step 3: Determine the Sub-Causes under the Main Causes

Through a process of brainstorming, the sub-causes of the problem are identified and entered below the appropriate main causes.  Where possible, the sub-causes are further broken down into more detailed sub-sub-causes

DETERMINING THE SUB-CAUSES

     Material       Man           \           \---------------Attitude            \           \                       |              \           \             going on emergency leave too often        --------------------------------> Reports cannot be Printed on time             /           /                                        /           /           /           /      Machine       Method

For instance, the sub-cause to the main "Man" is "attitude" and "Going on emergency leave too often" is the sub-sub-cause.  this is because a negative attitude results in an officer going on emergency leave too often.   When all the sub-causes and the sub-sub causes have been identified, the Cause and Effect Diagram will appear as:-

     Material                 Man            \                           \

             \----Shortage         \---- Lack of manpower              \   of printing       \---- No detailed checking               \ supplies           \---------------Attitude

c) Check Sheets:-

Check Sheets are an effective means of gathering data in a helpful and meaningful way. 

Kaoru Ishikawa is often credited with "democratizing statistics."  This relates to his desire to spread quality control ideas throughout the workplace.  His tools make it easier to comprehend raw data, making quality improvements simpler.  Check Sheets are a perfect example of this.  Although they can vary a good deal depending on the type of data being collected, the purpose of the check sheet is always the same.

"The Check Sheet is used to facilitate the collection and analysis of data.  'Garbage in, Garbage out' is an old cliché, but it is true.  Therefore, the purpose for which data is being collected must be clear.  Data reflects facts, but only if they are properly collected.  The number of defects and where they are found can be recorded and analysed for causes" (Soin 297).

d) Pareto Analysis:-

Pareto analysis provides the mechanism to control and direct effort by fact, not by emotion. It helps to clearly establish top priorities and to identify both profitable and unprofitable targets. Pareto analysis is useful to:

Prioritize problems, goals, and objectives Identify root causes

Select and define key quality improvement programs

Select key customer relations and service programs

Select key employee relations improvement programs

Select and define key performance improvement programs

Address the Vital Few and the Trivial Many causes of non-conformance

Maximize research and product development time

Verify operating procedures and manufacturing processes

Product or services sales and distribution

Allocate physical, financial and human resources

* A Pareto chart is used for: Focusing on critical issues by ranking them in terms of importance and frequency (example: Which course causes the most difficulty for students? Which problem with Product X is most significant to the customers?) Prioritizing problems or causes to efficiently initiate problem solving (example: Which discipline problems should be tackled first? or, what is the most frequent complaint by parents regarding the school? Solution of what production problem will improve quality most?) Analysing problems or causes by different groupings of data (e.g., by program, by teacher, by school building; by machine, by team) Analysing the before and after impact of changes made in a process (example: What is the most common complaint of parents before and after the new principal was hired?; has the initiation of a quality improvement program reduced the number of defectives?)

Quality management is not a one-time effort but a continual long term endeavor which has to be recognized, reinforced and rewarded by continuous monitoring the on-going data collection, evaluation, feedback and improvement programmes. The top management should have to create an atmosphere where the management and the workers cooperate with each other for smooth functioning of the organization.

Elements

As in any structure, to implement a stable quality circle process you need to build a solid foundation. Four pillars underpin the process; they are:

* A philosophy of group participation;

* A set of guiding principles to assure process prosperity;

* Intense education on problem-solving and group techniques; and

* A complete infrastructure for implementation and verification.

These interconnected dimensions constitute the formula for a triumphant exercise of the betterment process. Below is an in-depth look at each one:

Quality Circle Philosophy -- A complete observation of human activity cannot disregard a wider context of social relations. Although, the concept of quality circles stemmed from a desire to improve quality, the fundamental end feeds on a strong aspiration to develop and enhance human beings. People compose the primary resources of the organization and a fruitful quality circle practice has to develop specific policies and actions around that attitude. The ultimate aspiration of the process rests in creating a knowledgeable work force proudly participating in the implementation of their ideas and constantly improving the system.

Vanguard attitudes like investment in training, lifetime employment for core employees, broad career path within the company, collective decision-making and promotions from within indicates that the company's leadership positively reacts to its personnel.

Materialistic emphasis in failed quality circle programs makes it difficult for managers to adopt the "enhancement of human resources" view in place of determining the "cost-benefit ratio" of the quality circle. In short, the philosophy of the process reads that to get productivity, quality improvements, etc. from employees, management has to invest resources in the education of its employees and serenely wait until results pour out of the process.

Intertwined in the philosophy must be a long-term management and employee commitment. Management cannot look at the quality circle process as an activity that will yield an immediate return without an investment. They have to patiently cope with the process and let the operation mature. Only then will the program yield adequate benefits. On the other hand, employees cannot look at the program only as a personal enhancement activity; they must produce indisputable contributions. The crux for a productive labor-management relationship hangs on "balance." This interdependence, backed with the proper amount of enthusiasm, will produce a harmonious and competitive organization.

Guiding Principles -- To translate the philosophy to practical terms, guiding principles must be in place. These precepts will allow management and employees to ease the day-to-day activities and will set the engagement rules for smooth interaction. In my experience these principles bring tremendous awareness and dynamics to the process implementation, avoiding unnecessary delays. Here is a small sample:

A) Listen with an open-mind to what the other party has to say. Avoid prejudgment of circle recommendations or management answers.

B) When discussions get too hot, temporarily suspend them and involve other people as arbitrators. Also, management and labor should clarify their argumentative points, keep emotional involvement out of the issue, and if possible, write down the problem for further analysis.

C) If management rejects a circle recommendation; the circle should be entitled to an explanation of why the suggestion was rejected. A written statement is highly desirable. Do not tolerate a "no" answer without an explanation.

D) After suggestion approval, implementation should be as soon as possible if not immediately. Unnecessary delays will damage the morale of employees and the whole program. Timing is important and time standards should be developed (i.e., time to answer a suggestion, accepted time for implementation, etc.).

E) The quality circle should avoid divagation during the meetings. The meetings are a productive activity, not a mere social gathering.

F) The quality circle should keep management informed of the latest developments. Also, communication with other circles will help by sharing ideas.

G) Management should keep employees informed about problems that exist or have been solved. This will avoid duplication, direct group effort to unsolved problems, and will provide a good framework for management-labor cooperation.

The above regulations should not be construing as a finished product or limitation. On the contrary, consider the list an open and alive summary of working modes that will be changed, deleted or added as the work force learns and understands the process.

Education of Management and Employees -- Training and education play a central role in the enhancement of human resources. Learning the process and incorporating it to the organizational culture as a way to do business becomes the axis of the betterment process. Instruction should include knowledge that directly applies to the improvement of the organization and is promptly usable. More capable individuals will improve the group's probability to provide objective recommendations and implementation paths. Before any special training specific to the company's product or service occurs, teaching basic group techniques deserves special attention. Mastering these techniques will accelerate the readiness of the group to concentrate on the desired subject and obtain results. In my daily transactions, I have gathered a basic "quality circle curriculum" in the following manner:

* Guidelines for Effective quality circle meetings;

* Problem Solving Steps;

* Elements of Breakthrough Thinking;

* Decision Making;

* Pareto Analysis;

* Cause and Effect Diagram;

* Brainstorming;

* Nominal Group Technique; and

* Management Presentation.

Addressing these procedures will take several short sessions yielding an excellent return from the effort. After schooling the basics, teaching more sophisticated 'quality' tools will set up the battlefield for production/services improvements. If pertinent, exposure to elements of statistics, quality control charts, sampling plans or special techniques, will definitively expand the horizons of employees. Concentration on my

dictum "now that you know it, use it!" has given me considerable tactical gains. Once the circle's members conquer these techniques they will possess the right weaponry to deal with "real" problems specific to the business.

Methodology for Implementation and Evaluation -- The formal organizational structure equates to the fourth dimension of the process. Transformation does not happen in a vacuum. Management has to provide the infrastructure to keep the quality control process alive and growing. After securing long-term commitment from management and employees, and after the instructional process, the proper structure has to materialize. Despite each organization having a different composition, include the definition of the following four elements in the process design:

The Steering Committee guarantees the top-level management participation and is composed of highest managers from each major section of the company. Union leaders, if applicable, must also chair the committee. Roles of the committee are:

* To provide final decisions when necessary;

* To rank actions and provide resources;

* To support circle activities; and

* To evaluate quality circle program effectiveness.

The Quality Circle Facilitator epitomizes the champion of the process. This authority knows managerial and problem-solving techniques and brings a spirited leadership to the process. The facilitator could be an internal employee or an outside expert. Also the facilitator acts as the main liaison between the quality circles and upper management and among circles. Specific tasks are:

* To teach techniques and organize the process;

* To coordinate circle activities;

* To track and measure accomplishments;

* To attend quality circle meetings and help with recommendations;

* To provide group performance feedback;

* To assist quality circle leader in agenda development;

* To communicate activities to management;

* To spread ideas among different circles; and

* To render scientific support and methodology, etc.

The Q.C. Leader plays the speaker and organizer role for each group and his/her functions are:

* To lead the meetings and use the problem-solving techniques;

* To help with training of members;

* To support the members;

* To cooperate with facilitator;

* To develop meeting agenda; and

* To establish a meeting environment conducive to employee participation, etc.

The Quality Circle Members make up the foundation of the process and their duties are:

* To learn the problem-solving techniques;

* To work with the other members using the problem-solving techniques;

* To attend meetings and participate; and

* To help and contribute to the process, etc.

Although formal in content, the above structure does not have to be rigid. Your organization needs to find a balance unique to your people and culture that will allow for a growing creative and innovative process.

RESEARCHES IN QUALITY CIRCLES

In recent years, the topics of Japanese Management Practices in general And quality circles in particular have been frequently discussed in the popular press and managerial literature. Unfortunately, however, there is a paucity of scientific research into the true value and usefulness of quality circles. In particular, much of the research concerned with quality circle is anecdotal.

Change Management ProcessImplement a comprehensive change management process based on benchmarking results with more than 400 companies. Prosci's 3-phase Process for Managing Change Organizational Change Competency Connecting Change Management to Business Projects

Preparing for ChangeUtilize the most up-to-date assessment tools to prepare a change management strategy. Define Your Change Management Strategy. Prepare Your Change Management Team Develop Your Sponsorship Model

Managing ChangeTemplates, guidelines and checklists help you create effective change management plans including:

Communication Plan Sponsor Roadmap

Coaching Plan

Resistance Management Plan

Training Plan

Master Change Plan

Reinforcing ChangeCelebrating successes, diagnosing resistance and reinforcing change will make your change management process complete. Use the popular ADKAR model to manage employee resistance, resolve conflicts and identify corrective action steps.

How to collect and analyze feedback Diagnosing gaps and managing resistance

Implementing corrective action and celebrating successes

Kaizen (改善?), Japanese for "improvement" or "change for the better", refers to philosophy or practices that focus upon continuous improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, supporting business processes, and management. It has been applied in healthcare, psychotherapy, life-coaching, government, banking, and many other industries. When used in the business sense and applied to the workplace, kaizen refers to activities that continually improve all functions, and involves all employees from the CEO to the assembly line workers. It also applies to processes, such as purchasing and logistics that cross organizational boundaries into the supply chain. By improving standardized activities and processes, kaizen aims to eliminate waste. Kaizen was first implemented in several Japanese businesses after the Second World War, influenced in part by American business and quality management teachers who visited the country. It has since spread throughout the world and is now being implemented in many other venues besides just business and productivity.

The five main elements of kaizen

Teamwork Personal discipline

Improved morale

Quality circles

Suggestions for improvement

External links

Kaizen and Process Improvement Written by Shmula Guide to Kaizen question and answer Written by Mike Wilson

Toyota stumbles but its "kaizen" cult endures Reuters

Practice your personal Kaizen Written by Jason Thomas

Many of today's problem solving and quality improvement tools

Control charts Lot sampling

Process capability

Value Analysis (VA)

were first used extensively in World War II in response to the need for tremendous volumes of high quality, lower cost materials. More recently, Quality Circles, TQM, and Kaizen have demonstrated the power of team-base process improvement. Process Capability and Design of Experiments (DOE) have come to the fore in Six Sigma. Brecker Associates has combined Value Analysis and QS9000 techniques with Six Sigma in a more powerful Process Improvement methodology.

Control Charts

Statistical Quality Control (SQC) or Statistical Process Control (SPC) for repetitive, high volume production began in the 1930's when Shewhart developed control charts. Small production samples were measured periodically to monitor quality. Sample mean (Xbar) and range (R) charts were used to detect when a process was going out of "economic control."

The causes of variations that exceed the upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL respectively), such as at "A", must be eliminated in order to bring the process back into statistical control.

Deming PDCA

The Deming / Shewhart Cycle was especially useful in solving these quality problems. The PDCA Circle denotes continuous improvement by repeating the basic cycle of

Plan o Get the data

o Analyze the problem

o Plan the solution

"Do" It

Check -- Measure the change

Act -- Modify as needed

as long as significant improvements are obtained.

Since 1948, engineers at Carnegie Tech (now Carnegie Mellon University) have been trained to apply the Carnegie problem solving methodology in design. This methodology parallels the Deming PDCA cycle with the addition of an initial step to "Define the Problem."

In the last 20 years, many companies have adopted similar problem-solving models -- often with 8-10 steps or more. Special attention is given to solving process problems -- problems that occur repetitively. Process improvement models add such steps as assigning process owners, forming teams, and establishing process measures.

Juran

Juran focused on quality control with the "trilogy" quality planning quality control

quality improvement.

An SPC representation of the trilogy is used in the figure at the right. A spec is developed -- usually with a ± tolerance. A control chart is used to get the process under control. As special causes are removed to improve the process, variation is reduced. These are the basic steps in Six Sigma process improvement.

When the total quality management movement (TQM) gained prominence in the 1980's, the product planning step was expanded to include a broader evaluation of customer needs (similar to VA and QFD).

Value Analysis Teams

In Value Analysis, developed by Larry Miles at GE during WWII, multi-functional teams (design, production engineering, purchasing, quality) use a formalized process to

identify alternative materials, manufacturing processes, and designs to improve function while reducing costs.

The "Job Plan" for a Value Analysis study of a specific product or process has the following format

Pre-Study o Collect customer data

o Collect product and process data

o Build product and process models

o Form the multi-functional team

Study

o Information Phase -- analyze data

o Function Analysis Phase -- identify and cost functions

o Creative Phase -- brainstorm ideas

o Evaluation Phase -- rank then develop ideas

o Development Phase -- quantify benefits and plan actions

o Presentation -- make oral report and prepare written reports

Post-Study (added more recently)

o Complete changes

o Implement changes

o Monitor changes

The very structured function diagramming and costing techniques provide data for quantified (cost and value) decision-making. The whole VA process is a precursor of the MAI -- Measure, Analyze, Improve -- in the broad based Six Sigma improvement process. Six Sigma adds the C or Control step.

The brainstorming methodology in VA has been widely emulated in process improvement teams. Ideas are generated in a non-critical, free-flowing process. Then, ideas are grouped using affinity diagramming techniques and refined as needed for practicality.

Teams

Japanese Quality Circles demonstrated the effectiveness of worker teams in identifying and solving process problems in their work area. However, most serious quality problems in non-manufacturing (as well as manufacturing) organizations arise in activities that involve more than one department / function.

Quality Circles has evolved into Kaizen, which utilizes multi-functional worker and production engineering teams to improve quality and productivity in a given process. The teams use TQM techniques in implementing "Lean" manufacturing methods.

TQM

Total Quality Management (TQM) emphasized using multi-functional teams (professional staff and workers from all departments involved) to solve problems. The teams were trained to use basic statistical tools to collect and analyze data.

Check sheets Pareto diagrams

Histograms

Run charts

Flow charts

Cause and effect diagrams

Force field analysis

Scatter diagrams

Flow charts or process maps were used to visualize the flow of product or documents through a series of process steps. The predominant goal of Process Improvement Teams was to eliminate the non-value adding steps and to resolve quality problems in order to reduce the (cycle) time needed to complete the process.

ISO / QS9000

ISO9000 was developed as a standard for business quality systems. To be certified, businesses needed to document their quality system and insure adherence to it with reviews and audits. A key element was the identification of non-conformances and a Corrective Action System to prevent reoccurences. Specific quality improvement methodologies were not prescribed.

The automotive industry adopted the QS9000 standard for their suppliers to require the use of specific practices in quality planning and in production operations.

Advanced Product Quality Plans Design / Process Failure Mode

and Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Production Part Approval Process

Control Plans (for production)

Measurement Systems Analysis

The Juran methodology was central to maintaining control of special product and process characteristics (CTQs).

Design of Experiments (DOE)

Six Sigma process improvement emphasizes getting quantitative data on the effect of key variables in production, service, or administrative processes. Many process improvement efforts go astray because people assume they know all of the key variables -- key variables and especially interactions between variables are not always obvious. Simple statistical data gathering or testing can be used to verify or determine these key variables.

In DOE, a series of experiments (tests) are conducted to determine the relative importance of the key variables and to assist in selecting optimum operating values. The number of variables is usually limited so that the time, effort, and cost of testing is not excessive. After the array of tests (experiments) are complete, graphical techniques -- such as at the right -- can be used to illustrate the results.

DOE is especially useful in simplifying the improvement process for complex technical and administrative processes.

Brecker Process Improvement

Brecker Associates integrated the

Team-based Process Improvement of TQM Data gathering and brainstorming of VA

Quality methodologies of QS9000

Statistical process control of Juran

Process capability analysis and DOE techniques of Six Sigma

into a more powerful Process Improvement methodology that gets better results, faster, and with less effort. Identifying the most promising and rewarding process improvement opportunities and re-designing the products and processes involved are the focus of workshops in Phases 2 and 3 of the Brecker Six Sigma Improvement Methodology.

Phase 2: Process improvement solutions are identified and quantified.

Value Analysis techniques are used to collect business, product, and process data on productivity, quality, and costs. Workshop participants include marketing, design, operations, quality, purchasing, service personnel as well as suppliers, workers, and customers as appropriate. Customer requirements are determined and quantified using QFD techniques. Process mapping (from TQM) is used to develop an understanding of the product / service and the processes used to produce and deliver it. Quality issues are raised and root causes are sought. VA brainstorming is used to identify potential improvements. Ideas are refined and the benefits of the most promising improvements are quantified. Specific product and process re-design projects are selected for Six Sigma Leaders and / or teams to undertake in Phase 3.

Phase 3: Multi-functional teams improve key products and processes.

Design and operations teams (with other members as appropriate) are charged with re-designing specific components and / or processes. They examine the product and process information in detail. Critical-To-Quality parameters are determined for products and for processes. DOEs may be run to identify CTQ parameters and assign target

values. Process capability data is obtained. Additional productivity and quality tools, such as

Design for Manufacturability Lean thinking

Design for Assembly

Set-up reduction

are used as appropriate to identify specific improvement opportunities. VA brainstorming may be used to identify and refine specific design changes. Specific re-design recommendations are quantified. When approved, implementation plans are made and executed. The PDCA cycle is used until the desired improvements are obtained.

SOME INSTANCES OF COMPANIES WHO HAVE SUCCESSFULLY IMPLEMENTED QUALITY CIRCLE

COCA COLA

The Coca-Cola Company ensures the supreme quality of its beverages by employing globally accepted and validated manufacturing processes and Quality Management Systems. Let us now take you through the processes and Quality Assurance Programs followed by our world-class manufacturing facilities in India.

The site for our manufacturing plants is finalized only after the source water has been tested for all requirements of potable water. The analysis is always conducted by independent third party accredited laboratories. The source water is then properly protected and re-tested periodically to ensure that it conforms to international standards. 

The Purity of Our Sugar Is Crystal Clear

Our sugar selection process is as stringent as our water purification process. The sugar, bought from high-grade authorized mills, is cleaned with a globally acclaimed carbon treatment process. Purified sugar syrup is created which is then blended with the soft drink concentrate.

Carbon Dioxide Meeting International Purity Standards

We procure carbon-dioxide, meeting international purity standards, from authorized suppliers. The gas then goes through stringent quality control checks before it used in the beverage. 

All the three primary ingredients used in beverage, the syrup, treated water and carbon-dioxide, are blended as per The Coca-Cola Company's specifications.

ANMOL BISCUITS

One of the leading biscuit manufacturers in Eastern and Northern regions of India, Anmol Biscuits has two state-of-the-art manufacturing units.The manufacturing units have been equipped with latest modern machineries available in India, which facilitate in manufacturing uniform quality of biscuits. The Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) that are adapted at our plants, along with the use of sophisticated packing machines and materials, ensure that each and every biscuit manufactured never fails to

delight the customers with its taste and freshness. High quality products are delivered to the customers after they are subjected to stringent quality control tests. The quality control tests are done at every stage of biscuit-making, i.e., inspection of raw materials, process and post-production goods by qualified personnel at our well-equipped laboratories.

Also, the quality orientation of the company is maintained through numerous training programmes organized by the Management at regular intervals to upgrade and nurture the skills of the employees towards fulfillment of the QUALITY OBJECTIVE of the company. In addition to this, our manufacturing units and products are BIS certified and the company is ISO 9001:2000 certified.

PRAMUKH INDUSTRIES

The Pramukh range includes Pouch packing Machine, Automatic Sealing machines. The machines and systems manufactured by Pramukh are suitable for use primarily in the food, cosmetic, chemical and pharmaceutical industries. The quality aspect of the machinery is mainly based on the use of excellent materials, quality pneumatic components and first-class electronics, combined with the application of modern expertise in the field.

JINDAL HOME PRODUCTS PVT LTD

The company is a major exporter and manufacturer of LPG Burners, LPG stoves, cooktops, table top cookers, kitchen stoves and gas tables. The export network of the company is wide. Its export network is in the destinations like West Indies, Ghana, US, Middle East, Congo and many others. The products of the company are produced with quality control parameters made by the Bureau of Indian Standards

ESSEL MINING & INDUSTRIES LTD.

Essel mining& industries ltd established in 1950, Essel Mining & Industries Limited is one of India’s largest iron ore mining companies in the non-captive private sector, and the largest producer of noble Ferro alloys. All the divisions are accredited with ISO 9001 (Quality Management System), ISO 14001 (Environment Management System) and OHSAS 18001 (Occupational Health and Safety Management System). Its commitment to sustainable development has seen the company venture into wind power generation.

Essel Mining holds a leading position in the Indian mining industry for its superior mining techniques, equipment, and scale and flexibility of operations and systems. The

potential of the proven deposit, as well as the quality and quantity of reserves, are good enough to sustain the mining operations for the next 20 years at the current operating capacity.

Implementation in Govt. body

The Public Works Department of Government of Maharashtra is responsible for the construction and maintenance of about 2.00 lakhs km. of road network in the state and a large number of Government-owned buildings spread all over the state. The ultimate customer of the Department is the common man and it is not generally easy to satisfy the ultimate needs of this user to the fullest extent merely by taking decision at the top-management level. The sub-ordinate officers and staff working in the field and who are well-acquainted with the day-to-day problems in their work areas are the best judges to decide upon the line of action. The top management in Maharashtra P.W.D realized this need of the time and introduced the concept of Quality Circle as employee participation method in the organisation. The concept of Quality Circle was launched in the Public Works Department of Government of Maharashtra on 18-11-1997.In a span of about a year 17 Quality Circles have been formed in Mumbai Region wherein 22 problems have been solved so far.48 Quality Circles have been formed in Pune Region wherein, 8 problems have been solved. Nashik Region of P.W.D has formed 9 Quality Circles and solutions to 3 problems have been found out. Aurangabad Region has formed 21 Quality Circles and solved 7 problems. Nagpur Regions have formed 47 Quality Circles and have found out solution to 57 problems, so far. The results of a short period of one year are found to be very encouraging so far and many of these Circles have already come up with solutions to the various work related problems as evidenced from the last two state level conventions held at Mumbai and Aurangabad respectively. The presentations by the various Quality Circles at these conventions bear testimony to the fact that the concept of Quality Circle has been received with much enthusiasm at the grass root level. These presentations also provide concrete evidence fulfilling the expected benefits of the Quality Circle. Taking inspirations from these conventions, more staff of the Department has come forward to form Quality Circles emphasizing the fact that Quality Circles have come to say in the Department.

Some of the problems solved by the Quality Circles in P.W.D of Maharashtra are as follows:1. Eliminating delay in issuing observation memos after inspection of site.2. Preventing accidents on highways.3. Reducing electricity bill in office.4. Avoiding duplication of work.5. Removal of encroachment from Government land.6. Speeding up pot-hole filling on roads during monsoon.7. Up keeping of service records of employees.8. Maintaining Government offices clean.9. Stream-lining reservation system of Government rest houses.10. Improvement in maintenance of Government Hospital at Solapur.

Some of the problems and the solutions thereof are explained briefly below:1. Delay in issue of observation memos-The Public Works Department of Maharashtra is divided in to six regions each headed by a Chief Engineer. Each regional Chief Engineer is assisted by a superintending Engineer. Vigilance and Quality Circle who with the help of two Executives Engineer and about 6 Deputy Engineers carries out inspection of the ongoing projects. The samples of the construction material being used on project are collected and independently tested in the Regional Testing Laboratories to ascertain the level of acceptance. The findings of the inspections are communicated to the field engineers in the form of "observation memo”. It is contemplated that the Execution Engineer in charge of the project ensures immediate compliance of the remarks raised in the observation memo and carries out corrective measures in the ongoing project as well as preventive measures for the future works. However, very often the observation memos are issued after much delay defeating the very purpose of the observation memo. This problem was identified by the "OMKAR".Quality circle formed in the office of Superintending Engineer, vigilance and Quality Circle, Navi Mumbai. The members used various tools and methodology identified the various root causes that led to this problem and finally solved the problem with requisite fool proofing.

By solving this problem, it became possible to improve the quality of work in the field which ultimately brightened the image of the Department.The formation of Quality Circle also benefited employees by providing.1. A systematic style of education that helped them grows.2. Freedom to modify their work habits.3. Opportunity to use their brain for development of the department.4. Opportunity to work as a team.5. The employees were also motivated to improve work culture, self-improvement recognition and creativity in work.

2. Preventing accidents on highways-It was observed that the accident rate on Sion- Panvel highway passing through New Mumbai had gone up sharply. The circle members collected the data from the respective police stations and identified the important causes of accidents by using Pareto Analysis. They segregate the causes under Man, Machine, Material and Method. The circle members found out solutions to the problem such as closing of central verge at all locations expert function, frequent lane marking installation of caution boards. Providing lay-byes for buses etc. The data collection of accidents for a period three months after implementation of solutions near Shirvane and Turbhe revealed that the cause of accident has been eliminated and no more accidents occurred at those locations again. This way the circle members ensured the effectiveness of the solutions implemented. They made presented to their steering committee for obtaining sanction to other solutions involving more funds.

ConclusionQuality Circles are applicable for variety of organisations where there is scope for group based solution of work related problems. The P.W.D has set an example for the Government organisations marching on the path of Quality improvement.

Implementation in Polytechnic

a) Name of the organization: Workshop, University Polytechnic, AMU Aligarhb) Number of circle: 01 (one)c) Section where the circle is: Machine and fitting shop operatingd) Number of meetings held: 10 (ten) for last one year

The quality circle under consideration has a leader, a facilitator, a coordinator and four members. The object of the present quality circle is ‘reduction of material wastage’. This problem was so chosen for solution because of following facts:a) Whether there was any reduction in material wastage.b) Whether there were any saving and financial losses that should be minimized.c) Whether it had any effect on the working of the workers and relationship between workman and management.

There were differences in the actual and expected material consumption. Table 1 gives the detail of material consumption for the year 1999 to 2000, before implementation of quality circle, and Table 2 shows the detail of material consumption for the year 2000 to 2001 after implementing quality circle. After various discussion and brain storming sessions following causes related to man, machine, material and methods were located.

Causes Related to Mana) Lack of knowledge about the materialsb) Proper instruction not given about the workc) The materials were cut more than the required amountd) Lack of knowledge about the operationse) Lack of knowledge about handling special toolsCauses Related to Machinesa) Machines not operating at optimum conditionb) Frictional wear of machine partsc) Problem arising due to misalignment of machine componentsd) Lack of implementation of new and automatic machinesCauses Related to Methodsa) No proper inspection in the machine shop after the material has been issued from the storeb) No proper care was taken in storing the materialsc) Lack of knowledge of improving the existing method of productionCauses Related to Materiala) No proper inspection of the material dimension before machiningb) Materials obtained not having the required composition

Table 1 Details of material consumption for the year July 15,1999 to March 31, 2000 (before implementing quality circle)

Items Specification Material Consumption per year

Material loss in

maching

Material loss in Rs.

Expectedkg

Actualkg

Mild steel Rod

Length, mm : 50 Diameter, mm : 31Carbon, % : 0.01 to1Harden cold rolled

210 105 105 1785

Cast iron Block

Length, mm : 50 Width, mm : 50Thickness, mm : 24Carbon, % : 2-4

135 75 60 1920

Mild steel Flat

Length, mm : 75 Width, mm : 48Thickness, mm : 6

53 30 23 437

Total 4142

Table 2 Details of material consumption for the year July 15,2000 to March 31, 2001 (after implementing quality circle)

Items Specification Material Consumption per year

Material loss in

maching

Material loss in Rs.

Expectedkg

Actualkg

Mild steel Rod

Length, mm : 50 Diameter, mm : 31Carbon, % : 0.01 to1Harden cold rolled

210 105 60 1020

Cast iron Block

Length, mm : 50 Width, mm : 50Thickness, mm : 24

135 105 30 960

Mild steel Flat

Length, mm : 75 Width, mm : 48

53 45 80 152

Thickness, mm : 6Total 2132

TECHNIQUES RELATED TO QUALITY CONTROL

1) TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)

TQM is the way of managing for the future, and is far wider in its application than just assuring product or service quality – it is a way of managing people and business processes to ensure complete customer satisfaction at every stage, internally and externally. TQM, combined with effective leadership, results in an organisation doing the right things right, first time. TQM functions on the premise that the quality of the products and processes is the responsibility of everyone who is involved with the creation or consumption of the products or services offered by the organization. In other words, TQM capitalizes on the involvement of management, workforce, suppliers, and even customers, in order to meet or exceed customer expectations.

Process

The core of TQM is the customer-supplier interfaces, both externally and internally, and at each interface lay a number of processes. This core must be surrounded by commitment to quality, communication of the quality message, and recognition of the need to change the culture of the organisation to create total quality. These are the foundations of TQM, and they are supported by the key management functions of people, processes and systems in the organisation.

A core concept in implementing TQM is Deming’s 14 points, a set of management practices to help companies increase their quality and productivity:

1. Create constancy of purpose for improving products and services.2. Adopt the new philosophy.

3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality.

4. End the practice of awarding business on price alone; instead, minimize total cost by working with a single supplier.

5. Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production and service.

6. Institute training on the job.

7. Adopt and institute leadership.

8. Drive out fear.

9. Break down barriers between staff areas.

10.Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for the workforce.

11.Eliminate numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical goals for management.

12.Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship, and eliminate the annual rating or merit system.

13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for everyone.

14.Put everybody in the company to work accomplishing the transformation.

Advantages of Total Quality Management:

1. Encourages a strategic approach to management at the operational level through involving multiple departments in cross-functional improvements and systemic innovation processes

2. Provides high return on investment through improving efficiency

3. Works equally well for service and manufacturing sectors

4. Allows organizations to take advantage of developments that enable managing operations as cross-functional processes

5. Fits an orientation toward inter-organizational collaboration and strategic alliances through establishing a culture of collaboration among different departments within organization

Disadvantages of Total Quality Management:

1. Initial introduction costs- training workers and disrupting current production whilst being implemented

2. Benefits may not be seen for several years

3. Workers may be resistant to change – may feel less secure in jobs

2) Statistical process control

Statistical process control (SPC) pioneered by Walter A. Shewhart in the early 1920s is the application of statistical methods to the monitoring and control of a process to ensure that it operates at its full potential to produce conforming product. Under SPC, a process behaves predictably to produce as much conforming product as possible with the least possible waste. Key tools in SPC are control charts, a focus on continuous improvement and designed experiments.

Much of the power of SPC lies in the ability to examine a process and the sources of variation in that process using tools that give weight to objective analysis over subjective opinions and that allow the strength of each source to be determined numerically. Variations in the process that may affect the quality of the end product or service can be detected and corrected, thus reducing waste as well as the likelihood that problems will be passed on to the customer.

How to Use SPC?

Statistical Process Control may be broadly broken down into three sets of activities: understanding the process; understanding the causes of variation; and elimination of the sources of special cause variation.

In understanding a process, the process is typically mapped out and the process is monitored using control charts. Control charts are used to identify variation that may be due to special causes, and to free the user from concern over variation due to common causes. This is a continuous, ongoing activity. When a process is stable and does not trigger any of the detection rules for a control chart, a process capability analysis may also be performed to predict the ability of the current process to produce conforming (i.e. within specification) product in the future.

When excessive variation is identified by the control chart detection rules, or the process capability is found lacking, additional effort is exerted to determine causes of that variance. The tools used include Ishikawa diagrams, designed experiments and Pareto charts. Designed experiments are critical to this phase of SPC, as they are the only means of objectively quantifying the relative importance of the many potential causes of variation.

Once the causes of variation have been quantified, effort is spent in eliminating those causes that are both statistically and practically significant. Generally, this includes development of standard work, error-proofing and training. Additional process changes may be required to reduce variation or align the process with the desired target, especially if there is a problem with process capability.

The key steps for implementing Statistical Process Control are:

o        Identify defined processeso        Identify measurable attributes of the processo        Characterize natural variation of attributeso        Track process variationo        If the process is in control, continue to tracko        If the process is not in control:

-          Identify assignable cause-          Remove assignable cause

-          Return to “Track process variation”

Benefits:

Provides surveillance and feedback for keeping processes in control Signals when a problem with the process has occurred

Detects assignable causes of variation

Accomplishes process characterization

Reduces need for inspection

Monitors process quality

Provides mechanism to make process changes and track effects of those changes

Once a process is stable (assignable causes of variation have been eliminated), provides process capability analysis with comparison to the product tolerance.

3) ZERO DEFECTS

Zero Defects, pioneered by Philip Crosby, is a business practice which aims to reduce and minimize the number of defects and errors in a process and to do things right the first time. The ultimate aim will be to reduce the level of defects to zero. However, this may not be possible and in practice and what it means is that everything possible will be done to eliminate the likelihood of errors or defects occurring. The overall effect of achieving zero defects is the maximization of profitability.

Principles of Zero Defects

The principles of the methodology are four-fold:

1. Quality is conformance to requirements

Every product or service has a requirement: a description of what the customer needs. When a particular product meets that requirement, it has achieved quality, provided that the requirement accurately describes what the enterprise and the customer actually need.

2. Defect prevention is preferable to quality inspection and correction

The second principle is based on the observation that it is nearly always less troublesome, more certain and less expensive to prevent defects than to discover and correct them.

3. Zero Defects is the quality standard

The third is based on the normative nature of requirements: if a requirement expresses what is genuinely needed, then any unit that does not meet requirements will not satisfy the need and is no good. If units that do not meet requirements actually do satisfy the need, then the requirement should be changed to reflect reality.

4. Quality is measured in monetary terms – the Price of Nonconformance (PONC)

The fourth principle is key to the methodology. Phil Crosby believes that every defect represents a cost, which is often hidden. These costs include inspection time, rework, wasted material and labor, lost revenue and the cost of customer dissatisfaction. When properly identified and accounted for, the magnitude of these costs can be made apparent, which has three advantages. First, it provides a cost-justification for steps to improve quality. Second, it provides a way to measure progress, which is essential to maintaining management commitment and to rewarding employees. Third, by making the goal measurable, actions can be made concrete and decisions can be made on the basis of relative return.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Cost reduction caused by a decrease in waste. This waste could be both wasted

materials and wasted time due to unnecessary rework Cost reduction due to the fact that time is now being spent on only producing

goods or services that are produced according to the requirements of consumers.

Building and delivering a finished article that conforms to consumer requirements at all times will result in increased customer satisfaction, improved customer retention and increased profitability.

Possible to measure the cost of quality

Disadvantages A process can be over engineered by an organisation in its efforts to create zero

defects. Whilst endeavoring to create a situation of zero defects increasing time and expense may be spent in an attempt to build the perfect process that delivers the perfect finished product, which in reality may not be possible. For example, a consumer requirement may be a desire to buy a motor car that is 100% reliable never rusts and maximizes fuel consumption. However, in this instance, in practice, if an organisation doesn’t have some kind of built in obsolescence it will have a more limited life.

4) Just-in-time (business)

Just-in-time (JIT) is an inventory strategy that strives to improve a business's return on investment by reducing in-process inventory and associated carrying costs. Just in Time production method is also called the Toyota Production System. To meet JIT objectives, the process relies on signals or Kanban between different points in the process, which tell production when to make the next part. Kanban are usually 'tickets' but can be simple visual signals, such as the presence or absence of a part on a shelf. Implemented correctly, JIT focuses on continuous improvement and can improve a manufacturing organization's return on investment, quality, and efficiency. To achieve continuous improvement key areas of focus could be flow, employee involvement and quality.

Process

Just in time is a ‘pull’ system of production, so actual orders provide a signal for when a product should be manufactured. Demand-pull enables a firm to produce only what is required, in the correct quantity and at the correct time.

This means that stock levels of raw materials, components, work in progress and finished goods can be kept to a minimum. This requires a carefully planned scheduling and flow of resources through the production process. Modern manufacturing firms use sophisticated production scheduling software to plan production for each period of time, which includes ordering the correct stock. Information is exchanged with suppliers and customers through EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) to help ensure that every detail is correct.

Supplies are delivered right to the production line only when they are needed. For example, a car manufacturing plant might receive exactly the right number and type of tires for one day’s production, and the supplier would be expected to deliver them to the correct loading bay on the production line within a very narrow time slot.

Advantages of JIT

Reduced setup time. Cutting setup time allows the company to reduce or eliminate inventory for "changeover" time. The tool used here is SMED (single-minute exchange of dies).

The flow of goods from warehouse to shelves improves. Small or individual piece lot sizes reduce lot delay inventories, which simplifies inventory flow and its management.

Employees with multiple skills are used more efficiently. Having employees trained to work on different parts of the process allows companies to move workers where they are needed.

Production scheduling and work hour consistency synchronized with demand. If there is no demand for a product at the time, it is not made. This saves the company money, either by not having to pay workers overtime or by having them focus on other work or participate in training.

Increased emphasis on supplier relationships. A company without inventory does not want a supply system problem that creates a part shortage. This makes supplier relationships extremely important.

Supplies come in at regular intervals throughout the production day. Supply is synchronized with production demand and the optimal amount of inventory is on hand at any time. When parts move directly from the truck to the point of assembly, the need for storage facilities is reduced.

Disadvantages of JIT

There is little room for mistakes as minimal stock is kept for re-working faulty product

Production is very reliant on suppliers and if stock is not delivered on time, the whole production schedule can be delayed

There is no spare finished product available to meet unexpected orders, because all product is made to meet actual orders – however, JIT is a very responsive method of production

5) Cellular manufacturing

Cellular Manufacturing is a model for workplace design, and has become an integral part of lean manufacturing systems. Cellular Manufacturing is based upon the principals of Group Technology, which seeks to take full advantage of the similarity between parts, through standardization and common processing. . In Cellular Manufacturing systems machines are grouped together according to the families of parts produced. The major advantage is that material flow is significantly improved, which reduces the distance travelled by materials, inventory and cumulative lead times. Cellular Manufacturing is most suitable for batch manufacturing.

Cellular manufacturing, sometimes called cellular or cell production, arranges factory floor labor into semi-autonomous and multi-skilled teams, or work cells, who manufacture complete products or complex components. Properly trained and implemented cells are more flexible and responsive than the traditional mass-production line, and can manage processes, defects, scheduling, equipment maintenance, and other manufacturing issues more efficiently.

The Implementation Process

The first step in implementing cellular manufacturing is to break down the various items produced by the company into a number of part sets or families. The grouping process (group technology) involves identifying items with similarities in design characteristics or manufacturing characteristics, and grouping them into part families.

Once identified, similar items can be classified into families. Then a system is developed that facilitates retrieval from a design and manufacturing database. For example, the system can be used to determine if an identical or similar part exists before a completely new part is designed. If a similar part is found, it may be that a simple modification would produce satisfactory results without the expense of new part design. Similarly, planning the manufacturing of a new part after matching it with an existing part family can eliminate new and costly processing requirements.

This grouping of part or product families requires a systematic analysis. Three primary methods exist for accomplishing the grouping process: visual inspection, examination of design and production data, and production flow analysis.

The resulting number of families determines the number of cells required, as well as what machines are required within each cell. The cell usually includes all the processing operations needed to complete a part or subassembly. However, it is possible for a product to go from raw materials to packaging and be ready for shipment by the time it reaches the end of the cell.

The families will also help determine where within the cell each machine will be located for the most efficient flow, and how many employees are needed within each cell. After the product families are determined, the machines needed for the production process of a specific family are organized into cells according to processing requirements (e.g., the order of processing).

The optimal layout is one that minimizes the distance between cells, or the distance to the next production point. The resulting reduction in time and handling ultimately provides a reduction in processing costs. Some firms utilize "linked-cell manufacturing," which is the concept of arranging the manufacturing cells near the assembly cells. Again, this decreases travel distances while reducing materials handling. Hopefully, the floor layout will also provide for the easy flow of a product to shipping, if shipping is located close to the cells in a streamlined flow.

Benefits and Costs

There are many benefits of cellular manufacturing for a company if applied correctly. Most immediately, processes become more balanced and productivity increases because the manufacturing floor has been reorganized and tidied up.

Part movement, set-up time, and wait time between operations are reduced, resulting in a reduction of work in progress inventory freeing idle capital that can be better utilized elsewhere. Cellular manufacturing, in combination with the other lean manufacturing and just-in-time processes, also helps eliminate overproduction by only producing items when they are needed. The results are cost savings and the better control of operations.

There are some costs of implementing cellular manufacturing, however, in addition to the set-up costs of equipment and stoppages noted above. Sometimes different work cells can require the same machines and tools, possibly resulting in duplication causing a higher investment of equipment and lowered machine utilization. However, this is a matter of optimization and can be addressed through process design.

Concept/Method/Techniques

Primary Purpose Parts impacted in Quality School

Policy Management and Deployment

Vertical and horizontal alignment of goals and Objectives of

organisation/ functions/individuals

As a management process, the total spiral is impacted

Bench MarkingLearn from the best, to adopt and

change performanceAny part/component of the spiral

can be impacted based on priorities/strategic requirements.

Five SShape basic attitude towards

qualityInitially in manufacture-now in all

places

Quality Improvement Teams/Cross functional teams

Managerial/supervisory persons involvement in addressing vital

few issues/ problems

Initially in manufactured - products industries, spread to

pure services sector

Quality Circle

Front-line employees development and contribution in

useful many problems

Initially in production; Now in other functions also.

Manufacturing and service organisations/public utilities and

services too

Total Productive Maintenance

Improving overall equipment effectiveness

Initially in plants; Now hardware/office equipment too; also now embracing the 'ZERO'

level goalsSingle Minute Exchange of Dies

Drastic Reduction in change-over time

In production, testing and design

Poka -Yoke and Source inspection

Mistake-proof, at source-aim for zero quality control

Initially in manufacture; can be done in other aspects also

Just-in-Time (Kanban)Production management attuned

to market needsBoth in service and

manufacturing sectors, around all parts of the spiral.

Six Sigma

Production management attuned to market needs

Any part of the spiral, especially those having external customers and suppliers interface; design/

plan focus

Quality function deploymentFully understanding and satisfy

customer requirementsAll components involved in plan,

design (for research till production)

Taguchi TechniquesFor robust products with improved quality at better

profitability

Focuses on the design aspects (off-line and on-line for

manufactured products)

ISO 9000:2000Conformance, improvement and

customer focusAs a 'system - approach' the total

spiral is impacted

ISO 14000Eco-system: minimize negative impact; improve and preserve

As a 'system - approach' the total spiral is impacted

The quality circle developed through a process of integrating the problem-solving techniques with behavioral concept of participation and involvement and subsequently it spread all over of the world particularly in developing countries. But the available literatures indicate a highly mixed view on their application. This is due to the various hurdles faced in the very inception of its introduction. But there is sufficient scope for its introduction and effective use. Thus the constraints need to be identified in the way of its introduction and use for which concerned authorities, researchers and academicians can play a pioneering and an effective role in this regard.

Quality management is not a one-time effort but a continual long term endeavor which has to be recognized, reinforced and rewarded by continuous monitoring the ongoing data collection, evaluation, feedback and improvement programmes. The top management should have to create an atmosphere where the management and the workers cooperate with each other for smooth functioning of the organization.

Although most commonly found in manufacturing environments, quality circles are applicable to a wide variety of business situations and problems. They are based on two ideas: that employees can often make better suggestions for improving work processes than management; and that employees are motivated by their participation in making such improvements. Thus, implemented correctly, quality circles can help a small business reduce costs, increase productivity, and improve employee morale. Other potential benefits that may be realized by a small business include greater operational efficiency, reduced absenteeism, improved employee health and safety, and an overall better working climate. In their book Production and Operations Management, Howard J. Weiss and Mark E. Gershon called quality circles "the best means today for meeting the goal of designing quality into a product."

Requirements for Successful Quality Circles

In his book Productivity Improvement: A Guide for Business, Ira B. Gregerman outlined a number of requirements for a business contemplating the use of quality circles. First, the business owner should be comfortable with a participative management approach. It is also important that the business have good, cooperative labor-management relations, as well as the support of middle managers for the quality circle program. The business owner must be willing and able to commit the time and resources needed to train the employees who will participate in the program, particularly the quality circle leaders and facilitators. It may even be necessary to hire outside facilitators if the time and expertise does not exist in-house. Some businesses may find it helpful to establish a steering committee to provide direction and guidance for quality circle activities. Even if all these requirements are met, the business will only benefit from quality circles if employee participation is voluntary, and if employees are allowed some input into the selection of problems to be addressed. Finally, the business owner must allow time for the quality circles to begin achieving desired results; in some cases, it can take more than a year for expectations to be met.

But successful quality circles offer a wide variety of benefits for businesses. For example, they serve to increase management's awareness of employee ideas, as well as employee awareness of the need for innovation within the company. Quality circles also serve to facilitate communication and increase commitment among both labor and management. In enhancing employee satisfaction through participation in decision-making, such initiatives may also improve a business's ability to recruit and retain qualified employees. In addition, many companies find that quality circles further teamwork and reduce employee resistance to change. Finally, quality circles can improve a business's overall competitiveness by reducing costs, improving quality, and promoting innovation.

LAUNCHING QUALITY CIRCLES

The major prerequisite for initiating Quality Circles in any organisation is the total understanding of, as well as complete conviction and faith in the participative philosophy, on the part of the top and senior management. In the absence of a commitment from the Chief Executive to support the Quality Circle movement totally, it would be inadvisable to seriously attempt the starting of Quality Circles. The launching of Quality Circles involves the following steps:

Expose middle level executives to the concept. Explain the concept to the employees and invite them to volunteer as members

of Quality Circles. Nominate senior officers as facilitators. Form a steering committee. Arrange training of co-ordinators, facilitators in basics of Quality Circle

approach, implementation, techniques and operation. Later facilitator may provide training to Circle leaders and Circle members.

A meeting should be fixed preferably one hour a week for the Quality Circle to meet.

Formally inaugurate the Quality Circle. Arrange the necessary facilities for the Quality Circle meeting and its operation.

Appropriate training for different sections of employees needs to be imparted. Without a proper understanding of the real concept of Quality Circles, both the workers and management might look at this philosophy with suspicion. Each group should know beforehand the commitments and implications involved as well as the benefit that can be obtained from Quality Circles. Such training comprises of:

Brief orientation programme for top management. Programme for middle level executives.

Training of facilitators.

Training for Circle leaders and members.

DISCUSSION After implementation of quality circle, steady reduction in material wastage was observed. Considering the material wastage for the year 1999-2000 as a base year, calculated savings for the next one year 2000-2001 is obtained. Following observation were achieved after implementation of quality circle:i) Improvement of internal personal relationshipii) Self-confidence was developed in solving more complex problem related to production.iii) A good teamwork was achieved among the workmaniv) Material wastage was minimized as a result heavy monetary gain was obtained.

Table below shows a percentage of contribution of various factors that led to material loss in the given order. These four factors were chosen as the most effective factor in analyzing the problem. The various reason or causes of each factor were determined and shown in Ishikawa diagram (Fishbone diagram). The causes and effect were obtained by calling various quality circle meetings (ten) through brainstorming session and discussion. And hence these factors led to the result of the present study in the following order:

ManMachineMethodMaterial

Further this quality circle approach for quality improvement in University Polytechnic workshop may bring new dimension, shifting dependence for decisions and actions, conventional bureaucratic approach towards existing system. Empowering employees exhibit considerably owing the responsibility of managing the organization. This change revealed that quest for quality service is in the hand of all employees. This success ofquality circle in the workshop and small enterprises. This quality approach may be required to be spread in all polytechnic workshop and small-scale enterprise existing in the country. The sustenance of success will lead to total quality improvement emerging as a Centre of excellence of its own in any small enterprise in India.

Percentage of contribution of various factors towards the lossReason / Cause Percentage Cumulative

Man 35.7 35.7Machine 28.6 64.3Methods 21.4 85.7Materials 14.3 100

A TARNISHED IMAGE

In the early 1990s, however, the U.S. National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) made important rulings regarding the legality of certain forms of quality circles. These rulings were based on the 1935 Wagner Act's prohibition of company unions and management-dominated labor organizations.

In December of 1992, the NLRB ruled that Electromation Inc. of Elkhart, Indiana, was operating unlawful quality circles and employee-involvement programs, referred to as "action committees" by the firm. These programs were found unlawful in that they were established by the firm, that their agendas were dominated by the firm, and that they addressed the conditions of employment within the firm. The NLRB stated that its ruling was not a general indictment against quality circles and labor-management cooperation programs, but was aimed specifically at the practices of Electromation. Electromation had been a nonunion firm, but was unionized by the Teamsters shortly after the "action committees" were eliminated.

The NLRB made a similar ruling against E.I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co., a unionized firm, in June of 1993. The NLRB ruled that Du Pont's seven labor-management committees in its Deep water, New Jersey, plant were in effect labor organizations that were used to bypass negotiations with the plant's union, the Chemical Workers Association. The NLRB stated once again that its ruling was limited to the facts in the case at hand. Nonetheless, a number of employer representatives expressed their concern that the ruling would hinder the development of labor-management cooperation programs of all kinds.

The chilling effect from the NLRB rulings made many human resources departments wary of initiating new quality circle programs for fear of legal repercussions. This climate coincided what appeared to be a general waning of interest in quality circles among U.S. companies since the 1980s. By the mid-1990s the topic all but disappeared from discussions in the mainstream business press, and even academic journals gradually lost interest in quality circles.

Indeed, two Columbia Business School researchers, Eric Abrahamson and Gregory Fairchild, published a study characterizing quality circles in the United States as little more than a management fad. Abrahamson and Fairchild's work, based in large part on an analysis of periodical articles on the subject published over a 19-year span, suggested that the short-lived popularity of quality circles vias a product of U.S. corporations' knee-jerk decisions in reaction to a perceived competitive disadvantage versus Japanese firms. The U.S. companies grasped, the professors argued, for easy ways to emulate the practices of their Japanese competitors, and the notion of quality circles appeared to many at the time to be one such way.

Despite quality circles' decline in popularity in the United States, the practice continues to enjoy support in Japanese firms.

Summary

Results of the literature review that forms the basis for this paper suggest that U.S. management should monitor Japanese quality circles and labor closely. One cannot argue with the success in Japan. The question remains open regarding the application and success of such programs in the United States' cultural setting. Perhaps successful U.S. companies already utilize such concepts. Will quality circles lead to improved quality and productivity in U.S. firms? One is reminded of the conclusions reached by Wood and LA Forge (1979) regarding the relationship between strategic planning and performance in the U.S. banking industry-clearly, high performing banks plan strategically .But these banks also do a lot of other things very well, strategic planning being but one component of overall good management practice. Perhaps a close look at attributes of the Japanese experience will lead to a better understanding of the participation and performance relationship in U.S. firms. There may be potential gains in both productivity and quality through the use of the quality circle program. This is especially true because the white-collar area is growing so rapidly and yet has not really applied in depth the quality circle approach. The method's capacity to stimulate communication, innovation, and an increased sense of worker responsibility has coincided, in some cases, with the employee's rejecting the available financial rewards for such activities. Also, the program has succeeded in widely divergent cultures, which creates a need for empirical research on what motivates workers to join circles-an area difficult to measure. Matsushita Electric, a leader in quality circles in Japan, does not have circles in its Chicago (U.S.) plant because it does not consider the American worker suited to circle activities (Cole, 1979). Many Japanese scholars see for their country significant changes in the practices of permanent employment and seniority-based compensation that might impact greatly on the future growth of quality circles. American based firms and management scholars should review the human resource policy implications that such changes may have.

ProblemsFeedback from all types of industries and business sectors has indicated some common problems arising from the development of quality circles. Some of the problems can cause serious setbacks if not properly resolved. One of the most common problems was that after a few successes, most organisations were willing to declare victorious results and abandon the circles. In this scenario, the quality circle was not used as part of the overall long term planning process and the circle lost momentum. Other problems related to the level of commitment and support from top and middle management, mainly because the objectives of the circle were not communicated effectively. Management viewed the circles as a vehicle for employees to ‘get their own way’ over management decisions and tended to be suspicious and uncommitted when dealing with the circles’ recommendations.

Success FactorsThe success of any type of quality circle is dependent on several factors, but the most critical influences are strong management commitment and support. Like all business processes, quality circles have to be managed and a prerequisite should include a document endorsed by management setting out the purpose, policy and objectives of the quality circle. The basic philosophy of quality circles must be known to everyone before the programme is started. Employees and managers of all levels must be aware of the roles they have to play whether they are participants, facilitators or agents for change. Employees must be willing to participate and contribute to discussions to generate recommendations to improve the working lives for all members of the organisation. Individual desires and preferences should not be ignored, but settled within the context of organisational objectives to give recognition to the desire for circle achievement. The importance of management commitment and support cannot be emphasised enough. Management has to accept the principles of participatory management and be receptive to the recommendations made by the quality circle. It makes sense that the person doing a job on a daily basis is in a very good position to anlayse it and recommends ways to improve it.

PersistenceThe Office of Public Sector Reform (OPSR) encourages government departments and agencies to keep their IRC’s active. Private sector organizations should also pursue the establishment of their quality circles, because the benefits they can produce are far greater than the problems that may occur. Quality circles and IRC’s are vehicle s for building teamwork among workers and the interaction between participants contributes to the development of new leaders, cost effective services, motivated workers and more transparent relationships. More importantly, the role of a quality circle is the creation of knowledge. Knowledge requires access to information and therefore information sharing becomes a necessity for effective management. The intelligence of an organisation does not reside in top management only. Instead it comes from harnessing organisational intelligence: the gathering of all knowledge from all members. The effective use of quality circles can therefore help an organization to meet the goal of delivering high quality services to its customers.

CONCLUSION

Quality Circles are applicable for variety of organisations where there is scope for group based solution of work related problems. Quality Circles are relevant for factories, firms, schools, hospitals, universities, research institutes, banks, government offices etc. If lucratively implemented in the field of Library and Information Science the results and conclusions will not only be amazing but it will also help us to stumble on out our own lacunae and design a better system. The P.W.D. of Maharashtra has set an example for the Government organisations marching on the path of Quality Improvement. The circle is a relatively autonomous unit (ideally about ten workers), usually led by a supervisor or a senior worker and organized as a work unit."

Under ideal circumstances these voluntary groups of problem solvers focus on measurable indicators of quality that impact the company's costs, productivity, or other business interests. Such indicators are usually industry- or process-specific. So, for example, quality circles at a manufacturing company might focus on finding ways to minimize product defects, as measured in the amount of product with a particular defect per thousand or million; meanwhile, those at an insurance company might seek methods to reduce the frequency of billing errors.

Quality Circles are not limited to manufacturing firms only. They are applicable for variety of organizations where there is scope for group based solution of work related problems. Quality Circles are relevant for factories, firms, schools, hospitals, universities, research institutes, banks, government offices etc. The P.W.D. of Maharashtra has set an example for the Government organizations marching on the path of Quality Improvement. Quality Circles can work very well in the correct environment. Commitment and long-term effort are required if the Circle is to be effective.

By organizing the workforce into Quality Circle type teams, not only can the Quality Circles tackle and solve work related problems, there follows a transformation in job design. Managers begin to increase their trust of their staff, in turn the staff increases their respect for their managers and this continues progressively until a full state of self-management is reached. At some stage in this process, the teams progress beyond solving problems and move towards the phase of making continual process improvements. In those countries where this has been allowed to happen, there has been no limit to this development process.

Hence, this concept demonstrates how people can effectively become involved in the success of an organisation through the development of self- control in `small group' type activities. These activities can be organised in several different ways, and can include task force operations, value analysis teams, value engineering, project groups, action centered groups, 5S Housekeeping activities, Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) etc. Each plays a different but important part in participative activities. True `self- control' can only be introduced through Quality Circle type activities.

Bibliography

Allender, Hans D. "Using Quality Circles to Develop an Action Plan Required for Leading Organizations." Industrial Management. September-October 1992.

Gregerman, Ira B. Productivity Improvement: A Guide for Small Business. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984.

Gryna, Frank M., Jr. Quality Circles: A Team Approach to Problem Solving. AMACOM, 1981.

"New Rules on Employee Involvement." Industry Week. February 1, 1993.

Noble, Barbara Presley. "Worker-Participation Programs are Found Illegal." New York Times. June 8, 1993.

Ross, Joel E., and William C. Ross. Japanese Quality Circles and Productivity. Reston Publishing Company, 1982.

Uchitelle, Louis. "Workers Seek Executive Role, Study Says." New York Times. December 5, 1994.

Weiss, Howard J., and Mark E. Gershon. Production and Operations Management. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1989.

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