Norwegian Wool

Norwegian sheep husbandry as basis for Cradle to Cradle ® development

Kjersti Kviseth

2025design

Oslo 10.05.2011

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Content

Sheep Farming in Norway

1. Summary 2. Facts and figures 3. Animal Welfare 4. Land use - Grazing 5. Diseases 6. Insecticides 7. Agriculture 8. Energy 9. Water 10. Cradle to Cradle Design 11. Case Study; Climatex Lifecycle

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1. Summary

Norwegian Wool is a renewable resource grown mainly on renewable resources (grass, crop, water).

Part of the year the sheep are grazing on outlands without alternative economic value, keeping both

wild and cultural formed landscape in shape.

Norwegian sheep husbandry is conventional farming and animal husbandry, only 4% of the total organic. It has a focus on animal health and welfare. It is far less strain on soil and use of water than for instance Australia with very different climate and farming methods. Norwegian sheep husbandry does have challenges too. Many sheep (approx. 10%) are taken by wolves each year, which causes a lot of animal suffering and political discussion about wild animals versus farm animals grazing in the outlands. Norwegian wool is clean compared to wool from large wool producing countries. Approximately 50% of the sheep are treated with insecticides against ekto-parasites, typically pour-on solutions. There is no dipping in Norway. Most sheep are also treated with pharmaceuticals against entero-parasites, based on the same harmful insecticide substances. Residues of these insecticides may be found in the wool. 70% of the Norwegian wool is scoured and traded through Curtis Wool UK, and will in 2011 be tested in their laboratories on residues from insecticides. To develop Norwegian Wool into a clean and safe material for human health and nature, there are

lot of possibilities and advantages. Residues from insecticides and issues on animal welfare through

the sheep life cycle are two main areas to evaluate and investigate further.

The Norwegian Wool is a wonderful material for future fashion, textiles and carpets. But wool has

huge possibilities and advantages in many more areas than the traditional sweaters. Technical

products like house insulation or oil cleaning, and even bullet proof wests, are emerging product

areas.

This report has looked at sheep husbandry and Norwegian Wool as a raw material. It remains to look

at the rest of the value chain of developing yearns and textiles, from scouring to finished products

and end-of-life solutions for recycling and keeping material value.

It is clear that Norwegian Wool has environmental advantages compared to wool from other countries, and a basic performance that makes it possible to create clean and safe material for fashion, textiles, carpet, isolation etc. An opportunity we should not miss.

The next step should be a Cradle to Cradle® (C2C) Design concept and development. The first goal could be C2C wool yarn and textiles for Norwegian designers and brands to use. These would be the first C2C wool clothing and fashion textiles worldwide. But also the coarser wool is a huge opportunity to develop carpet yarns and isolation materials that are safe for indoor use and skin contact. This could be further developed on an EU level.

Any feedback and input on this report is welcome.

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2. Sheep farming in Norway

Facts and figures

15 500 sheep farmers, 600 of them organic

1 million productive sheep fed during winter

15 000 all year outdoor sheep

1,5 mill lambs born in springtime

2,5 mill sheep and lambs graze in the hills, fields and forests during summer (ca 10% lost)

4,5 mill kilograms of wool are produced every year (4500 tons)

Number of sheep in Norway 1969-2005

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The number of farmers and farms in Norway is decreasing. It is difficult to make money to support a family by just being farmer. Sheep farmers often earn their living from other jobs, and the sheep farming might be as low as only 20% of their total income. There is generally less income from sheep than from other animal husbandry1. About 25% of the economic value comes from the wool, 75% from meat.

3. Animal Welfare2 Norwegian sheep are generally in good health. Most sheep graze in the outfields 3-4 months per

year, where they have possibility for natural sheep behavior.

“Norwegian sheep farming shall have an animal welfare prior to other sheep farming countries, with the ambition to be a leader in animal welfare standard. Legislations are seen as a minimum”3 Sheep Keeping Norwegian sheep keeping is conventional farming, and normally a combination of outdoor grazing (up to 4 months) and indoor keeping. Mainly due to climate conditions sheep in Norway spend longer periods indoor than what is usual in other main sheep farming countries. The past years it has become more focus on how to combine the indoor and outdoor keeping in the best way possible. Both are connected with welfare challenges. Sheep will, if allowed to, often prefer to stay outside. Still it is important that they have possibility to seek shelter against wind and cold weather. The combination of wet wool and wind means bad isolation and cooling of the body. All sheep must have access to a place with warming qualities to lay down, and at least three walls. Some sheep types like Wild Sheep stay outside all year around, the farmer need special permissions for this and it is related with special challenges on animal welfare. Especially important are; number of animals related to grazing area size, that the landscape can provide enough shelter, the control on health, shearing etc Many animals on a small indoor space might be problematic related to animal behavior and illness.

Sheep barns and its interior must be designed to avoid stress, injuries and illness. It might be good to

have an outdoor yard for daily breaks; these must be designed to keep the animal clean and dry.

Food and water

The need for water and food varies through the seasons and the animal life time, hence they need

access to proficient water and food of good quality, all the time. Sick animals or mothers without

enough milk for the lambs must not be let into the outlands, and controls be performed as often as

needed.

1 Landbrukets Utredningskontor 2007

2 www.animalia.no, www.nsg.no, www.landbruk.no, www.dyrevelferd.info

3 Action Plan for animal welfare Norway 2006-2008; Norsk Sau og Geit (NSG) Gilde Norsk Kjøtt (GNK) Kjøttbransjens Landsforbund

(KLF) Helsetjenesten for sau

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4. Land use - Grazing Most Norwegian sheep and goats are grazing in the outlands between 12 and 16 weeks per summer. During the winter period the sheep eat mainly grain feed. Sheep and goats are ca 85% of the total of outland grazing animals in Norway. Norway has a challenge with overgrowing landscapes that traditionally used to be grazing land or farmed. Hence there is a need and wish to have more animals grazing in the outlands and farmers get financial support from local and national governmental funding for having sheep grazing in the so called cultural landscape.

Across America4, people have rediscovered sheep for an age-old skill: grazing vegetation to create healthier landscapes. Sheep work like inch-wide, self-propelled lawnmowers, clipping the invasive weeds that are rapidly engulfing millions of acres. They're mowing grass and brush that fuel wildfires. They're helping forests grow more vigorously. They're even fighting weeds and insects on cropland. The result: controlled vegetation without the use of costly herbicides and gas powered machinery. Sheep eat a wide range of plants, even those toxic to other animals, making them ideal for tackling noxious weeds invading millions of acres of public and private land. Farmers and ranchers are finding that sheep grazing can fight weed and insect pests in agronomic crops. Even ski resorts in the United States and Canada are recognizing the value of sheep for clearing slopes of invading brush and weeds Sheep grazing can be an effective biological control program to increase conifer growth. Furthermore, sheep are far less costly than chemicals or mechanical vegetation-control measures. In the United States and Canada, sheep grazing has helped regenerate ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, radiata pine, sugar pine, spruce, and western hemlock forests. In Canada, 60,000 sheep have eplaced herbicides on reforestation projects, increasing seedling survival and decreasing seedling hosts. So valuable is the service, that Canadian sheep producers are paid an average $5 per sheep per month to graze their animals in the newly planted forests. In shrub dominated watersheds and riparian areas, sheep grazing can be used to manage vegetation and decrease soil erosion. The animals’ pointed hooves puncture the soil pan and increase the ability of seeds to germinate and grow, ultimately establishing a beneficial vegetation root base for better water penetration Improved rangeland conditions contributed to a significant increase in U.S. wildlife. Since 1960, elk populations have increased by nearly 800%, moose by 500%, bighorn sheep by 435%, and antelope by 112%. Sheep eat woody and broadleaf plants as well as tall weeds and grasses. As a result, sheep are an ideal tool for controlling undergrowth in forests and other wooded areas.

4 American Sheep Industry Association; Fast facts on sheep ecology 6911 South Yosemite Street • Centennial, CO 80112-1414

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The U.S. Forest Service uses “firefighting” sheep as a low-tech, low-cost approach to undergrowth control on national forests. This approach benefits the forest environment by eliminating the need for herbicides, it benefits the Forest Service by reducing the need for costly manual clearing, and it benefits communities at risk of wildfires in neighboring forests. Noxious weeds are a major threat to both public and agricultural lands, killing surrounding vegetation and triggering soil erosion. The weeds not only make the land unfit for agriculture and cattle, they threaten to drive out native plant species and destroy wildlife habitat. Sheep are unique in that they readily consume plants other animals avoid or find toxic. As a result, sheep are used extensively to control noxious plants.

5. Disease All illness has negative impact on the animal welfare. Preventing disease is therefore important.

Compared with other sheep farming countries the situation in Norway is good related to heritable

diseases on sheep. Knowledge and consciousness among farmers about contact with livestock and

risks connected to importing animals are important actions. Breed on healthy animals and avoid

spreading heritable diseases. What kind of parasites occur is depending on both climate and

geographical area.

Illnesses caused by different parasites are widely spread today in global sheep farming. On the skin

they may cause direct disease or support other disease creating organisms. Internal parasites can

make great harm especially to lambs, mainly through diarrhea, loss of weight and dehydration.

Diarrhea may cause dirty filthy wool, followed by fly strike that is very painful. This affects animal

welfare as well as product quality and economy.

There are several treatments and medicines against skin parasites. Traditionally sheep were bathed

in the autumn to get rid of lice and other insects. Today parasite prevention is widely connected with

use of pesticides, known as insecticides when used against insect attacks.

Entero parasites.

Parasites are more often a problem on inland grazing (farm) where the sheep must be treated more

often, than on the outlands (mountains, forest). Generally Norwegian sheep are treated less against

entero parasites than sheep in other countries due to the high extent of outland/mountain grazing.

Almost all sheep in Norway are treated against intestinal worms. 40% of the lambs are treated

against Coccsidiosis, (intestinal worms) causing diarrhea. This is a typical farm problem in spring, and

Norwegian lambs are probably treated just as much as lambs in other countries. Manure from

treated animals will over time effect the vegetation and soil, and manure is recommended not to be

spread on the same field more often than every third year. 5

There are mainly two classes of pharmacuticals used against worms (antihelminthics) in Norway: Benzimidazol and Avermectine. Avermectine is a highly toxic substance. It is toxic to bees and fish, affects reproduction and suspected an endocrine disruptor!.6

5 The Norwegian Veterinarian Catalogue

6 http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC33818#Toxicity http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/AB/abamectin.html

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Some negative aspects connected to use of these are;

Safe food – perspective: Norwegian lamb meat is known to be without medicines…..doesn`t fit with the picture of clean meat.

Development of resistance

Environmental knowledge is not sufficient yet. Avermectines is toxic, slowly broken down in nature and will over time prevent nature from composting manure and dead animal bodies.

Might be found in the wool and meat.

Main parasites The largest and most increasing problem in Norway is the infestation of ticks, and mainly along the south and west coast. The ticks are spreading further north and east each year. Climate changes and overgrowing of grazing landscape are two reasons for this. In 1995 ca 40% of the sheep were treated against ticks. Today the number is probably higher since ticks now are found in larger areas also in the inland.7

Fly strike is another painful disease that can be reduced or partly prevented. This is most found in the southern part of Norway, same as the ticks. Sheep with dry and clean wool are normally not attacked. Moist and filthy wool is good for the insect, so shearing the body parts that get easily filthy one extra time is a good idea even if more work. Prevention is commonly done with insecticides that prevent the fly from sitting down. Partly fly strike is prevented by the tick treatment. In Australia flies are more aggressive; hence they must use more insecticides. Mulesing is a widely used painful method for removing extensive skin on Merino Sheep in Australia without using anesthetics. This is not an issue at all in Norway.

6. Insecticides – a group of Pesticides A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest such as insects, weeds, roundworms, microbes etc that spread disease or are a vector for disease. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other animals. According to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 10 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent organic are pesticides. 8

7 Snorre Stuen (Norges veterinærhøgskole i Sandnes) 1995

8 www.wikipedia.com

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Many substances are registered used as pesticides, most of them are used in insecticides and insect repellants. The Pesticide Manual lists 759 substances.9 Greenpeace has registered more than 1000 commercial available chemicals for pesticides10, but there is no actual numbers known on how many of these are used on animals.

Insecticides used in sheep production can pose risks to human health and the environment. All insecticides are harmful to humans. Synthetic products like this are not designed for the biological cycle and cause problems. Insecticides used in sheep dips have consistently been linked with damage to the nervous system in workers that have been exposed to them in the United Kingdom.11 Even low-dose exposure over the long term has been conclusively linked with reduced nerve fiber function, anxiety, and depression.12 Long-term exposure to sheep dip has also been linked to reduced bone formation.13 Pour-on solutions (like Coopersect® and Bayticol®) that are mainly used in Norway, are based on pyrethroides, a synthetic version of the pyrethrum derived from chrysanthemum that has been used for ages to fight insects. The natural Pyrethrum is biodegradable and allowed in organic farming.

Both Naturpyrethreum and synthetic Pyrethroides are neuro toxins, but Naturpyrethreum is less toxic and biodegrades fast. Pyrethroides accumulate in human brain and some are acute toxic. Children, cats and bees are especially sensitive. Pyrethroides are very dangerous to waters and water living creatures. Pyrethroides contain halogens like chlor, bromium and fluor. They accumulate in nature and are often found in house dust. When sprayed inside, the surroundings need one year to reach its original dust state.

The pyrethroide based insecticide Permethrin is covered under the European IPPC regulations and is banned as a residue on scoured wool likely to be processed in Europe because of the risk of releasing toxins to water.14 Both Permethrin and Cypermethrin are assumed to be hormone disrupters and disturbing reproduction. Some insecticides containing the human toxic and persistent organo phosfates (e.g. Neocidol®) are allowed to be used in Norway. Even if the market is too small for such products to be marketed, it is allowed to import and buy through veterinarians and special allowance. More than 14,000 pounds of insecticides were applied to sheep in the United States in 2000, the most recent year for which data is available in the 22 states which have the highest sheep

9 The Pesticide Manual, a World compendium. Herausgeber: British Crop Protection Council. 1997. 11te Ausgabe.

10 Die Schwarze Liste der Pestizide. Greenpeace. Februar 2008. Internet:

http//marktcheck.greenpeace.at/uploads/media/Schwarze_Liste_Pestizide.pdf

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Pilkington, A., D. Buchanan, G.A. Jamal, R. Gillham, S. Hansen, M. Kidd, J.F. Hurley, and C.A. Soutar. "An epidemiological study of the

relations between exposure to organophosphate pesticides and indices of chronic peripheral neuropathy and neuropsychological abnormalities in sheep farmers and dippers." Occupational and Environmental Medicine, November, 58:702-710, 2001.

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Morris, Kelly. "Risks accumulate with cumulative sheep-dip exposure." The Lancet 354:9173 (1999), 133. 13

Compston, J.E., S. Vedi, A.B. Stephen, S. Bord, A.R. Lyons, S.J. Hodges, and B.E. Scammell. "Reduced bone formation after exposure to

organophosphates." The Lancet 354:9192 (1999), 1791. 14

www.greenpeace.com, report on pesticides, 2007

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production.15 In the UK about 1.25 –30 ml of 100% active ingredient sheep dip per sheep and year are used (Ellebäk Laursen et al. 1997, calculated from Blackmore & Clark 1994). (Dahllöf 2004) Numbers for Norway are not available because pesticides are registered in the same base as for cattle and sheep. The use is assumed to be far less per sheep than in other sheep farming countries with warmer climate and different farming methods. Natural substances Several natural substances have an insect repellant feature, like pyrethrum, and may be an positive substitute to the toxic chemical pesticides. Etheric oils from neem, anise, citrus, cinnamon, eucalyptus, lavender and peppermint may be interesting substitutes. This is more and more used for mosquito repellents. Studies show that natural ingredients may have higher resistance and longer protection time than synthetics. This may be due to some natural but not known synergies. Natural repellents are mostly stronger and longer lasting than their synthetic copies16 This needs more research to see if it is possible to find positive ingredients to replace the toxic substances. Use of insecticides in Norway Insecticides are mainly used as pour-on solutions on the sheep back. These medicines are likely to be washed away if there is immediate rainy weather, releasing toxins into nature. The medicine is also collected in the skin fat, and residues might be found in the wool. When treated in spring the effect may not last long enough to have enough effect in the high peak of late summer. Pesticides may also arise in waste-water from processing of natural fibers, which often use relatively large volumes of treatment and wash waters Using pesticides does not match well with the picture that the consumer have of meat from lamb grazing in the mountains without chemical treatment. In addition we do not know enough about the

environmental consequences. 17 Norwegian Sheep Associations and veterinarians work towards less use of pesticides to avoid permanent resistance and environmental damage. There is probably the same use of pesticides in Organic Sheep farming, which counts for about 4% of the sheep farms in Norway. Sheep dip In some countries, like UK and Australia, where sheep scab still is a plague, dipping is common. In Norway sheep scab has not been a problem since the 19th century. Hence dipping has not been used for many years. Instead there are pour-on solutions that are far more efficient and easy to use and handle. Residues of diflubenzuron, an insecticide used in sheep dips, persist in the environment for more than a year18.

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United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Chemical Usage - 2000 Sheep and Sheep Facilities. 2001. 16

Trigg JK J. Evaluation of a eucalyptus-based repellent against Anopheles spp. in Tanzania. American Mosquito Control

Association. 1996(12):243-6 17

www.animalia.no, 2010 18

12 Levot, G.W. "Diazinon and diflubenzuron residues in soil following surface disposal of spent sheep dip wash." Australian Journal of

Experimental Agriculture: 44(10), 975-982, 2004. 13 United States Food and Drug Administration. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapters 128 and 450: 15 September 2005 <http://dil.vetmed.vt.edu/cfr/Display.cfm?Directory=558&Chapter=128.txt.>

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Pesticides in textiles Pyrethroides are also found in textiles, not only on the animals and in nature. Woolen carpets and wool insulation is often treated with Permethrin und Cyfluthrin1 against moths and other insects. According to textile industry a large part of woolen textiles are treated with pyrethroids, a highly human toxic substance! To reach the label „Wollsiegel Qualität“ a protection against insects is demanded. In the Ökotex standard pyrethroides are prohibited19. Pesticides may also arise in waste-water from processing of natural fibers, which often use relatively large volumes of treatment and wash waters.20 (DEFRA 2009) A nano-scale silicon-based product from Austria - claiming to be an eco-treatment- may replace traditional Permethrin treatments as moth proofing for wool garments, as well as flame retardants.21 It remains though to look at the actual eco-profile of a silicone based product! Silicone as a synthetic substance is not suitable for the bio cycle, and nano-particles may find their way into human skin… We need to develop safe and clean materials based upon nature`s principles.

7. Agriculture In general, natural fibers are characterized by low energy use, low water demands, and a high direct requirement for land area. Wool production needs very large amounts of grazing land, but sheep farming also produces meat and can take place on land unsuitable for crop cultivation. Part of the land demand impact for wool fiber production can be offset by allocation to meat produced as a by-product, but this is anticipated to only have a limited impact, given that energy and water use in raw wool production is already low, and only up to a third of the impacts are typically allocated to non-fiber applications.

Conventional agriculture Mostly due to the use of synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pharmaceutical products (like antibiotics, etc.) conventional agriculture including animal husbandry has normally negative impacts on the environment, bio diversity and humans.

Organic agriculture Criteria for organic agriculture are compiled in the European Union. http://www.bmelv.de/SharedDocs/Standardartikel/Landwirtschaft/Oekolandbau/EG-Oeko-VerordnungFolgerecht.html

Organic animal husbandry is described and defined as the following: Organic animal husbandry is defined as a system of livestock production that promotes the use of organic and biodegradable inputs from the ecosystem in terms of animal nutrition, animal’s health, animal housing and breeding. It deliberately avoids use of synthetic inputs such as drugs, feed additives and genetically engineered breeding inputs [IFOAM 2009].

In the last 30 years the percentage of organic agriculture farm land is raised continuously. Of all European countries Switzerland, along with Austria, has the highest proportion of usable land given over to organic farming. (http://www.swissworld.org/en/economy/farming/organic_farming/). In 2000 the Government of Germany decided to enhance the percentage of organic agricultural farm

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www.greenpeace.com, 2007

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DEFRA 2009 21

Baur Vliesstoffe, article in Ecotextile News February 2011

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land up to 20 % from the entire arable land until 2010 [Klumpp, Häring 2003]. In Norway there is ca 4% organic sheep husbandry, while the goal for the agriculture in general is 15% in 2020. Organic animal husbandry is normally an integrated component of farms which have implemented organic agriculture. It promotes the natural cycle in covering the need of nutrients for crops and in improvement of the quality of organic soil compounds. This takes place via the connection from crop farming and animal husbandry and requires a surface-related production. That means also that organic agricultural methods strive to provide the best available animal welfare within animal husbandry.

The sheep also contribute to nurturing the soil by giving back manure as natural fertilizer. If the soil contains more humus and fibres it will store more CO2 as well. Modern agriculture has reduced the soils ability to be the best CO2 storage there is. Humus is capable of storing 2-4 times more than the biomass on the earth surface. Conventional agriculture lead more to soil degradation and especially when transferring moors into crop land or growing monocultures more CO2 is produced. This should be one main aspect in future farming, and the sheep could contribute positively to restoring the soils ability to store CO2. Manure is one good contributor to more storage of CO2 in the soil. Hence outland grazing is positive.

Emissions into air from agriculture22 According to preliminary statistics for 2009, agriculture alone accounted for 63 per cent of the total emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) in Norway. This is a vigorous greenhouse gas, 310 times stronger than carbon dioxide (CO2). Emissions derived from manure and commercial fertilizer accounted for 76 per cent of nitrous oxide from agriculture. Animal husbandry accounts for almost all emissions of methane (CH4) in agriculture, and together with waste disposal, it constitutes the main source of emission of methane in Norway. Domestic animals release methane directly from enteric fermentation and indirectly from manure applied to the fields. In 2009, those two “activities” accounted for 52 per cent of the total emissions of methane in Norway. Methane as climate gas is 21 times stronger compared with carbon dioxide.

8. Water Wool is rain fed but has high water demands in both fabric production and finishing due to high cleaning and washing requirements, but compared to most synthetic and regenerated cellulosic fibers water use for wool from cradle to gate is relatively low. Though a lot of water is used in wool production in cleaning and scouring operations, overall this has only a low impact on overall water use in wool textile production. In Norway there is a lot of water, making the water issue not very relevant to discuss. Other

countries have huge water problems and water usage will have a negative impact. Hence, water use

and management must be further investigated related to the specific site.

9. Energy Energy use in wool production tends to be relatively low, similar to other natural fibers. The sheep run on sunshine part of the year. Inside during winter Norwegian hydro based power is the main source for electricity and heating. Norway has in general renewable energy use of minimum 60%.

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Statistisk Sentralbyrå 2010

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Old facts from 1981 (Wiesman) and 1995 (Nguyen) are probably no longer relevant info. Still, Nguyen determined that the energy required to produce 1 kilogram of greasy wool was calculated at 8 MJ/kg. This was based on a stocking rate of 10 sheep per hectare, 5 kilograms of greasy wool per sheep and 40% of the inputs being allocated to wool. Energy consumption for 1 kg of greasy wool from different studies ranges from 8 MJ/kg to 38 MJ/kg, and to compare, between 13MJ/kg and 60 MJ/kg for conventional cotton. Numbers are depending on different countries, farming methods, allocation rules, LCA system boundaries and individual scientific evaluations. There is considerable variation in energy use between different farms and countries. Hence, energy must be further investigated related to the specific site or country.

10. Wool processing This chapter only touches some main aspects of wool processing with the objective to give a brief

overview and basic information on some main challenges. The whole process chain must be looked

into and evaluated more specifically.

70% of the Norwegian Wool is handled through Norilia and exported to Curtis Wool UK for scouring and further processing..23 This partner is equipped and managed with state of the art technology, closed water loops and their laboratories will start analyzing the wool on chemical residues this spring. Wool processing data is the area with which the least confidence is associated, due to the difficulty of finding suitable literature and industry data Scouring Wool scouring leads to effluent discharge with a high organic content (which leads to COD and variable amounts of pesticide pollutants (organophosphates, pyrethroids and even organophosphates from some source countries (EC, 2003) Scouring (cleaning and de-waxing) of wool accounts for a significant part of the energy input, but also a very high waste-water output. Harsh alkaline scouring agents (mostly sodium hydroxide) are also used, and chlorine bleaches are also often used. Finishing treatments are similar to those used for cotton and cotton-like materials. (DEFRA 2009) Scouring is being done only in a few countries in Europe, like UK and Belgium. In Germany no scouring facilities have permission due to waste water challenges. Waste water The World Bank Group (1998) recommended that wastewater loads should be less than 100 m3/t textile produced, though up to 150 m3/t is acceptable. Clearly, many textile production systems exceed this target, particularly natural fiber processing, in part this is due to increased need for washing (oil and grease removal) and bleaching to facilitate even dying and achievement of desired color grades. Waste water from dye baths or rinsing baths are loaded with non exhausted dyes. A dye-formulation only contains approximately 30-60% pure dye stuff, the major part of the formulation consists –

23 www.curtis.co.uk www.haworthscouring.co.uk

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depending on dyestuff class and application field – of other chemicals and treatments to aid the dying process. (DEFRA 2009) Owing to the large amounts of chemicals used, discharges to water are of great environmental concern for the textile industry and textile users. Another aspect making the problem with chemical discharges to water important is that a substantial part of the textile industry is situated in the developing world, where the wastewater treatment possibilities are limited.

The biggest issue are from COD and salt – oxygen depletion and salination of fresh water. People who focus on toxicity alone miss the biggest problems. Starch is a ‘benign’ chemical (you can eat it with no problems) but it wreaks havoc in the environment. (Phil Patterson 2011)

Chemicals Many chemicals are used in the textile chain, for which process flow data (data for emissions, resource and energy use) causing environmental impact from their production are unknown. The production of natural fibers cause soil erosion, leaches nutrients from soil, contaminates soil and water through use of chemicals such as pesticides, biocides, and herbicides, weakens crop strain, and uses energy and water in an unsustainable manner. The dyes, fire retardants, and other additives used to treat both natural and manmade fabrics contain toxic components, such as carcinogens, mutagens, endocrine disrupters, and sensitizers24. Bleaching is carried out on almost all natural and man-made fibers prior to dying, with use of different bleaching methods typically matched to different fiber types. Chlorite bleaching can result in release of chlorine dioxide if pH is not well controlled. This process is banned in some countries, such as Germany (Schönberger and Schäfer 2003). Sodium hypochlorite bleaching of fibers leads to formation of organic halogen compounds (such as trichloromethane) and low concentrations can still be found in the following spent hydrogen peroxide bath (EC, 2003). Reductive bleaching uses sodium dithionite and formaldehyde sulphoxylates, which again lead to contaminated waste problems. The peroxide approach is viewed as the least damaging preferred option (EC, 2003), and is used in preference with most natural and protein based fibers, while the regenerated cellulosic fibers tend to be bleached using the chlorite treatment. (DEFRA 2009) Dyeing is typically carried out using reactive, disperse, metallic, or acid dyes, using a wide range of techniques, and each of these has their own specific environmental issues. The liquor ratio (ratio of water to textile substrate used in the dyeing process) tends to decrease (from highest to lowest water consumption) in the following order: winch, beam dyeing, jigger, jet, and airflow techniques (Schönberger and Schäfer 2003). The lower the water to textile ratio, the less waste-water is generated, which is typically loaded with non-exhausted dyes, dyeing auxiliaries, salts, alkalis, and acids. The methods used are influenced by product make up (i.e. fabric type, yarn, hank or rope etc), weight of fabric, dye type and therefore textile fiber.

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EPEA

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RenewaWool

11. Sheep to Sheep

The intention of this study is to define basic environmental qualities and possibilities of Norwegian wool. It is clear that Norwegian Wool has some environmental advantages compared to wool from other countries, and a basic performance that makes it possible to create clean and safe raw material for fashion, textiles, carpet, isolation etc. Compared to other suppliers the Norwegian Wool is connected with few negative issues and hence the road towards clean yarns and textiles has less hurdles than what is the case for most others. An opportunity we should not miss.

The next step should be a Cradle to Cradle® (C2C) Design concept and development. The goal could be C2C wool yarn and textiles for Norwegian designers and brands to use. These would be the first C2C wool clothing and fashion textiles worldwide. But also the coarser wool is a huge opportunity to develop carpet yarns and isolation materials that are safe for indoor use and skin contact.

Such woolen yarns and textiles will be developed as biological nutrients. They will be on the one hand suitable to enter (endlessly) the biological cycle, or to be recycled in technical cycles as material for new products. Hence all chemicals/material inputs of the entire wool textile chain will be positively defined and become beneficial for both humans and nature.

Following traditional sustainability strategies with reducing impacts and being less bad, is not enough! The scientific C2C Design concept is developed to strive towards “being good”.

Renewawool – Cradle to Cradle Wool Value Chain Ill. 2025design

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12. Positive wool qualities All wool has several functional qualities that are normally not spoken about or highlighted in an LCA.

These features are important to consider in a holistic view and life cycle development of wool

products.

Sheep work like inch-wide, self-propelled lawnmowers, clipping invasive weeds. They're mowing grass and brush that fuel wildfires and host insects. They control vegetation without use of herbicides and machinery.

Wool is being turned into oil-thirsty pads, mats, booms and mitts that can cleanup major oil spills quickly, cheaply, and without additional environmental damage. The products can be squeezed clean and reused up to eight times, and are then biodegradable in landfills.25

Felted wool can be used in bulletproof wests, proving high resistance to bullets penetration

Wool is comfortable to wear year-round because - it is an absorbent fiber that helps regulate body temperature.

Woolen textiles absorb/transport smell and dirt, reducing the need for laundry and cleaning

Wool fibers resist pilling, snagging and breaking, fibers are naturally elastic and wool garments don't wrinkle, bag or sag out of shape.

It is the only fiber that naturally resists flaming, wool usually only smolders or chars. It will burn under intense fire, it normally self-extinguishes when the flame source is removed.

In case of fire no toxic gases are released from wool, (as long as no chemicals been used)

Good as building insulation material due to high isolation capacity.

In contact with air, wool absorbs toxic substances like formaldehyde from the air.

Wool absorbs, stores -without feeling wet- and releases, moist up to 40% of its own weight.

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American Sheep Industry Association

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13. Nature`s principles Recognizing the problems associated with textiles, many groups within the industry have tried to be less bad by decreasing their impact on the environment and human health. Many facilities have decreased the amount of energy and water used, and others use fewer pesticides in the growth of natural fibers. However, these eco-efficient attempts to be good, in essence, are only less bad. Water, air, and soil are still polluted, energy and natural resources are still wasted, and humans are still coming in contact with toxic materials. Less bad is not good!

CRADLE TO CRADLE® DESIGN26 Rather than reducing the amount of toxic materials and minimizing the amount of waste, eco-effective strategies use only healthy materials and design so fibres become “nutrients” for future textiles. Instead of eco-efficient solutions and end-of-pipe-solutions the textile industry needs to think beyond – towards an eco-effective approach. Cradle to Cradle® Design, is an approach to redesign of human industry based on the conviction that rigorous science and design can move industry beyond simple concerns for “sustainability” toward a new positive paradigm where growth is good. With science providing the physical laws and design serving as the signal of human intention, Cradle to Cradle® Design mirrors the healthy, regenerative productivity of nature, and thereby creates industry that is continuously improving and sustaining life and growth. Modelling the principles of nature, there are three basic principles of Cradle to Cradle® Design:

1. waste equals food, 2. use current solar income, 3. celebrate diversity.

These principles allow Cradle to Cradle® Design to conceive industrial systems that emulate the healthy abundance of nature. Applying the effectiveness of natural systems to the making of things, human industry can achieve abundance, and enables the creation of wholly beneficial industrial systems driven by the synergistic pursuit of positive economic, environmental and social goals. From an industrial design perspective this means developing supply chains, manufacturing processes, and material flow systems that generate multiple positive effects. It means rather than making products that will be used and thrown away, designers can begin to create goods and services that flow effectively within material loop systems, providing after each useful life either nourishment for nature or high quality materials for new products. Ultimately this is transitioning from cradle-to-grave industrial systems to those that replenish nature, eliminate the concept of waste, and create enduring wealth and social value. The practical, strategic expression of the philosophy, defines designing products and industrial processes that turn materials into nutrients by enabling their perpetual flow within one of two distinct metabolisms. One is the biological metabolism—the cyclical processes of nature. The other, the technical metabolism, is a model for industrial systems that circulate valuable materials in a closed loop of production, use, recovery and reproduction.

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EPEA Hamburg

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ill. EPEA As members of the ecosystem, humans can participate productively in the biological metabolism. Materials that flow optimally through the biological metabolism are called biological nutrients. As defined for Cradle to Cradle® products, biological nutrients are biodegradable (or otherwise naturally degradable) materials posing no immediate or eventual hazard to living systems that can be used for human purposes and be safely returned to the environment to feed ecological processes. Products conceived as biological nutrients may be called “products of consumption”. They are designed for safe and complete return to the environment to become nutrients for healthy living systems. Detergents, ‘disposable’ packaging, and products that dissipate during use (shoe soles, brake pads, etc.) are typical products to be designed as biological nutrients. The technical metabolism is the Cradle to Cradle® system for industrial production of primarily synthetics and mineral resources (see Figure). It is modelled on the biological metabolism: it creates no waste, only nutrients that perpetually circulate in closed-loop cycles. A technical nutrient is a material that remains in a closed loop system of manufacture, recovery and reuse, maintaining its highest value through many product life cycles. Technical nutrients are used in products of service, which are durable goods that render a service to customers. The product is used by the customer but owned by the manufacturer, either formally or in effect. Washing machines, automobiles, and television sets are products of service that could be designed for perpetual return, reprocessing, and re-use. Under the right conditions, wool is totally biodegradable. Wool is made up of natural amino acid

chains, which are often referred to as “the building blocks of life”. As wool bio-degrades, rich,

essential plant nutrients are released such as potassium, nitrogen and phosphorous. Even if a wool

carpet is placed in landfill, it will decompose leaving no harmful residues. Still, the process of

biodegrading takes a long time.

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14. Example of how to do Cradle to Cradle (C) Design with wool;

Case study Climatex Lifecycle27 by Rohner Textiles28

Rohner Textile Business Challenges

After1980, the European Textile Industry, especially in Germany and Switzerland, suffered an enormous decline. A large number of companies closed their businesses because severe competition drove selling prices downward. In addition, textile firms faced more stringent environmental regulations and costs for emissions to air, noise, and wastewater. Rohner Textil AG, a textile company located near St. Gallen, Switzerland, faced these market conditions. The firm had 30 people by 2000 and manufactured high-end designs of upholstery fabrics. Many of Rohner‘s customers, such as Designtex, Herman Miller, Giroflex, Girsberger, Sitag, JAB Anstoetz, Team 7, had international recognition. In addition to facing productivity and waste emissions issues common to the textile industry in the 1980‘s, Rohner faced additional local challenges. The company was located in a building with historical status, impossible for architectural changes. It was situated in a residential neighborhood, subjected to strict noise restrictions. These noise restrictions also hampered efforts at improving productivity because newer, higher capacity looms generated more vibrations, which would be transmitted through the air and, the clay on which the mill and residential structures were built. The firm already had to decide to eliminate the use of cotton from its product line because the cotton dyes would have required Rohner to install special wastewater treatment equipment. Moving the firm was not an economically acceptable option. By 1989 Rohner, like other firms, was facing an increasingly complex situation involving economic and environmental requirements. In 1992 the company set out on a new strategy: to move from reactive to proactive management. The first step involved subjecting all of Rohner‘s products to tests to obtain the Eco-label, Oeko-Tex Standard 100. Rohner‘s products passed these tests; however the tests did not resolve all of the environmental issues involved with the dyeing process and other manufacturing processes, as only the remaining chemical compounds in the finished products were analyzed. The severe market conditions in the early 1990‘s forced the companies to boost investments in new equipment to increase productivity. These investments left little margin for resources for investments to offset increasing governmental regulations in air pollution, wastewater treatment, noise reduction, solid waste disposal, and resource efficiency. It was in this context that Rohner Textil built a strategy to balance the values in economy and ecology in order to survive. At the heart of the challenge was looking for a way to allocate funds for investments in ecological efforts while simultaneously investing in new equipment for productivity gains. Over 10% of Rohner‘s turnover had to be invested in new equipment to increase competitiveness, and few resources to spare for the ecological initiatives. Management at Rohner Textil struggled with these questions: How can management convince the board of a company to accept investments in environmental projects in addition to the productivity investments of over 10% annually over the next 8 years? Was it management‘s job to change the board‘s thinking so that it conformed according to an environmental ideology?

27 Climatex, ClimatexLifecycleand ClimatexLifeguardFRare patents and trademark of Rohner Textil AG

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www.gessner.com

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The solution lay in finding a solution in the common language of the business: economic advantage. Rohner's tax consultant discovered that the canton St. Gallen provided special tax treatment for depreciation of capital related to environmental investments. Beginning in 1993 Rohner included environmental investments in its annual budgets. The investment amount consisted of one- percent of the total budget. In addition, an environmental cost was included in calculating the cost of producing the product. The existing accounting systems were modified to incorporate these two measures. During this time management recognized another necessity: the transparency of its environmental factors to achieve a clear understanding resulting in improved management decisions and better management tools. The company conducted an inventory and analysis of its environmental factors, and each department measured and catalogued its environmental problems. Rohner Textil certified its quality management according to the ISO 9001 system during 1994. As an extension, management realized it needed to encourage transparency about what its products were made of. Rohner Textil developed Eco-Controlling, a quantitative assessment of each product's overall environmental impact, a focus for their entire product line, enabling the R&D department to focus more on environmental issues. Susan Lyons, Design Director of the firm Designtex, Inc., a subsidiary of Steelcase, Inc. and located in New York, approached Rohner in the fall of 1993, as her investigations on environmentally sound textiles did not give her many other alternatives. Lyons requested that Rohner collaborate with DesignTex, architect William McDonough, and chemist, former Greenpeace activist, and head of the Hamburg-based EPEA Internationale Umweltforschung GmbH, Prof. Dr. Michael Braungart. Lyons proposed that the team develop an "environmentally intelligent“ line of textiles.

Redesign for nature Sustainable Design The process began with the examination of raw materials used in a previous design from the Rohner product, Climatex . This product, originally developed in 1988 with climate control seating features, contains wool, ramie and polyester, materials with properties for humidity absorption and transport. According to the Intelligent Product System™ and the McDonough Braungart Design Protocol™, this combination was neither a biological nor a technical nutrient and therefore presented an opportunity for redesign. Step One: The fibers Ramie, a plant similar to linen, was found to be an excellent alternative to polyester in Climatex fabrics. When combined with wool, the resulting fabric transported moisture away from the skin, allowing a person to remain comfortable when seated for a long period of time. This patented process is registered under the brand name Climatex Lifecycle . Step Two: The dyes and textile auxiliary chemicals Michael Braungart, his assistant Dr. Alain Rivière, and their associates at EPEA requested 60 major chemical suppliers to submit to them information relating to their dye chemicals and auxiliaries. They were unwilling to open their books to share the information on their deep chemistry – except Ciba, which co-operated with the requests. From the information submitted on about 1600 dye chemicals, Braungart and EPEA selected 16 dye chemicals according to the guidelines of their design criteria, which addressed effects on human health and the environment. These design criteria include a requirement that the chemicals selected for the product must be free of negative impacts like mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, accumulation in bodies and food chains or persistent toxins, heavy metals and endocrine disruption.

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The approved chemicals also performed well according to industry standards for upholstery fabrics such as light fastness, rub test durability, perspiration test durability, and manufacturing process colour reproducibility. All colours, with the exception of black, could be developed from the 16 dyes selected. Step Three: The Manufacturing The team needed to overcome many additional hurdles, and in some cases unorthodox solutions were adopted. McDonough, Braungart and their colleagues at EPEA conducted a comprehensive assessment of:

Raw materials, the agricultural production of fibers and their extraction and purification.

Spinning mill processes and auxiliaries were approved by EPEA or not used at all for Ramie.

Twisting mill processes, for which no auxiliaries were used.

Yarn dyeing procedures, with waste water analyses and water and energy reduction programs approved by EPEA. (16) (17)

Weaving techniques, with no coating of the warp yarns, and the use of water instead and spinning and twisting alternatives to strengthen the yarns for the weaving process.

Finishing processes, no chemicals used during finishing process, not even washing chemicals. Step Four: The final product It took eighteen months of research to create this product, which is highly optimized with respect to the minimization of material streams, with respect to the goal to close biological cycles, and with respect to health soundness. The final product, Climatex Lifecycle , is competitive with standard upholstery fabrics in terms of:

Aesthetic Criteria : any design and most colours can be constructed.

Industrial Technical Criteria: all performance tests are met or exceeded.

Cost Criteria: same price as other high end products with similar raw materials.

Function Criteria: climate control seating (successfully used in extreme conditions).

Environmental soundness: safe for biological cycles and environmentally sound Step Five: Beyond Recycling: The Felt Even with the environmental optimizations associated with Climatex Lifecycle , the production process still generates remaining materials, especially solids. In the case of textiles, this occurs in the form of trimmings on both sides of the fabric and of cutting of the seat covers. This solid waste is being manufactured into felt for upholstery interlines or mulch-felt for gardening strawberry plants. The felt fulfills first a function as weed control while it slowly degrades. After degradation it is a perfect fertilizer for the next gardening season according to an old farmer‘s saying: "Hair and Nail fertilize your ground for seven years“ Step Six: Ready for Nature This fabric is designed to be safe for humans and can become safe food for other organisms when it is no longer useful and is "consumed by natural systems“. When properly used, the fabric can be returned into biological cycles when removed from a chair frame if you wish: it will decompose naturally and return to the ecosystem. The marketing and communication system The marketing and communication system had to be developed for the U.S. market and for the European market. Perceptions of different people, such as architects, end users, customers, and the media, had to be taken into consideration for communicating the product and for achieving the credibility of the product. This was accomplished through the sensitive selection of designs and colors in the development for each individual market, as well as in the marketing language and tools.

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USA Market The first collection was called „The William McDonough Collection“, and was released with an booklet entitled "Environmentally Intelligent Textiles.“ The collection was launched at the Solomon Guggenheim Museum in New York. At the first office furniture trade exhibition at the Neocon convention in Chicago, the collection received the award, the "best of Neocon.“ In 1996 William McDonough received a Presidential Award from President Bill Clinton for his work in Sustainable Design, and was proclaimed the 1999 Designer of the Year in Interiors magazine. McDonough also received recognition in Time magazine as a "Hero for the Planet“. European Market Concept In Europe, upholstery fabric manufacturers are always sub-suppliers to the furniture industry or to the textile merchandisers, as furniture is the final product. Rohner Textil, as a small company, was not able to market the products directly to the end user, due to the complex European Market distribution. Rohner decided to select 16 key customers who had the credible market image or capable technology. In Europe, the first collection was launched in the fall of 1996. The press reacted quickly, and within 8 months over 40 newspapers, magazines and TV Channels presented the innovation. Climatex Lifecycle was awarded several design prizes and awards.

The path towards a sustainable company In 1995 Rohner Textil signed a five-year consulting and design contract with EPEA in order to continue their collaboration. Rohner invested in updated machinery during this period, with new dyeing equipment that possessed environmental advantages and computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) methods at its weaving facility. Productivity increases and the improved economic performance demonstrated the competitiveness of the company. The environmental improvements impressed experts. For example, government officials were surprised that subsequent waste water analyses showed little or no hazards in the waste water from Rohner, or textile experts were impressed by the efficiencies achieved in the manufacturing processes. Rohner‘s management developed several ecological accounting and financial methods and systems for their products and the manufacturing to gain further transparency in managing their environmental agenda. By 1997, Climatex Lifecycle comprised one third of Rohner‘s entire production volume, only two years after the product was introduced. The management of Rohner Textil (now Gessner) will continue to demand dramatic improvements in its economic, environmental, and social aspects. Part of this vision has been articulated in its company document, "The Path Towards a Sustainable Company: Rohner Textil 1998 – 2008.“ The concept articulates such goals as:

Balancing Economic, Environmental and Social Aspects. Implementing an Employee Development Program (EDP) for education, health, and profit sharing. Analyzing the entire product line and modifying it to the standards set by Climatex Lifecycle . Eliminating waste water in the dyeing process. Eliminating waste from all of Rohner‘s products. Continuously developing management and accounting systems in order to align a "virtual

management system network“ (ISO 9001, ISO 14001, EMAS (Environmental Management Auditing System, LCD (Life Cycle Development) versus LCA (Life Cycle Analysis), company concepts, and others).

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Conclusions

What matters most is credibility. Climatex Lifecycle embodies the results of 6 years of experience in the ability to create transparency, to ensure consistency and reliability, and to form a network of committed partners. Trust, fairness, openness and the ability to change are characteristics the partners must incorporate. Rohner Textil is responsible for building and maintaining this network along the entire supply chain, from the raw material extraction; through the spinning, twisting, and dyeing of the yarns; and through the weaving, finishing, and distribution of the fabrics. In addition the firm must manage several supplier levels for chemical inputs, the producers of the felt, and the recommendations from EPEA and MBDC. The development process faced many challenges throughout the years. Several suppliers went out of business due to the severe market conditions of the textile industry. Chemical companies resisted co-operating by refusing to open their books. The company needed to come to terms with ISO 14001, the new standard for environmental management systems. It had to develop new management tools, new environmental accounting methods, new life cycle development processes (defining closed lifecycles in every individual process). The company also had to support the development of MBDC's "Index of Sustainability“ design tool, measuring environmental strengths and weaknesses. These challenges situated the company within a context of innovation and of pioneering. This atmosphere led to the expansion of the network to include universities and NGO‘s who were interested in overseeing and participating in the process. The challenges also led to new arrangements among competitors: MBDC, Designtex and Carnegie agreed to promote Climatex Lifecycle jointly in the U.S and at the Environdesign5 Conference in April 2001 Designtex announced the “next natural step” to open the product to the entire market. These ways of thinking and acting in business have helped to develop credibility. Respecting and reinforcing the contributions of each network partner while maintaining a common vision and commitment to continuous improvements to satisfy the customers and the environment was and continues to be the strategy.