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RESEARCH RESEARCH METHODS + THEORY

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

RESEARCHPART1

RESEARCH PARADIGMS: The Basics

The ResearchProcess

Introduction

There are many ways to conduct a research. You often have to adjust yourobjectives to the field you’re working in and to the environments and people you are working with. The field you’re working in could be “website usability” and the specific environments and persons (informants) you areworking with could be an office environment and its staff.

During this lesson you will work theoretically and practically with two maintypes of research processes:

The quantitative research process + the qualitative research process

Literature: This lesson is based on Klaus Bruhn Jensen’s (et al) (2005):A Handboook of Media and Communication Research. Routledge.“The Quantitative Research Process” by Barrie Gunter (chapter 13, p. 209–234). “The Qualitative Research Process” by Klaus Bruhn Jensen (chapter 14, p. 235–253).

RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

Desk ResearchSecondary data

Desk research relies on existing data and information published on the net, in printed magazines or any other valid source (!)

TIP: Reading economy articles, trend news, articles based on web surveys and reports from cultural and national organisations gives you a good pictureof your target group based on desk research ...

SecondaryResearch


Basic research is also referred to as field research.PrimaryResearch

Field ResearchPrimary data

Field research refers to the collection of new data through primary research. That means direct contact with people through interviews, focus groups and surveys.

Bigger and complex surveys are often done by bying this expertise from companies specialized in conducting effective, reliable surveys.


Researchparadigms

Introductionto the Basic Concepts

Often there is a mix between the two paradigms:

P R IM A RY DATA

QualitativeData

S E CONDA RY DATA

• Observations• Interviews (open questions)• Movie recording (actively)• Think aloud test

• Documents• Notes (from secondary source)• Letters• Sound and movie recordings(other’s material)

• Artifacts (to be interpreted)• Articles and pictures, etc.(to be interpreted)

QuantitativeData

• Closed questions• Surveys• Clearly defined objectivesin observations.

• Page traffic• Statistics• Registrations

Artifacts like for example letters and movies etc. can be used to support primary data for some purposes. Statistics can also support qualitativearguments i user research.


ResearchParadigms


S C O P E Q U A L I T A T I V E M E T H O DQ U A N T I T A T I V E M E T H O D

Examples of investigations Surveys by mail, online or handout Casestudy with interview

General approach Precision: an exact mappingof the quantitative variation

Empathy: the best understandingof the qualitative variation

General perspective Width: seek information about as manyquantifiable units as possible

Depth: seek as much information as possible on a few qualitative units

The purpose of the research Average: seek common, representative features

Specific: find out what can be saidto be unique and special.

Criteria of methodology Representative: Chosen informants must represent the target group.

Relevanse: Informants are relevant in relation to problems and meaning

Design of method Systematic: Survey with closed questions Fleksibilitet: Interview with no clear answers, dialogue, interaction.

Level of structuration High: The possibilities of answers are laidout for response. Low flexibility.

Low: Open answers and a variety of interpretations. High flexibility.

Key concepts of methodology Explanation: How. How many. Who does what. Causal explanations.

Understanding: Why. Who thinks whatabout ... Meanings and attitudes

Example of web researchand possible methods/tools

How many are using the site?What are the user patterns?:

Google analytics combined with a surveydesigned for representative users.

What motivates the target group to visit the website and buy products? What aretheir preferences for colour, menus etc?:

Think aloud tests and focus groups.


ResearchParadigms

Introductionto the BasicConcepts

The Basic Concepts in Quantitative Research

The Quantitative approach to research is based on the scientific tradition of studying aspects of human reality with empirical proof.

Research in anthropology, economics, geography, linguistics, history, politalscience etc. can often be done by initiallymeasuring hard facts.

Quantitative research often aims at closed questions—questions yourrespondents can answer yes or no to; questions that are very narrow defined.

RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QuantitativeResearch


Examples

Numbers: You can measure howmany women there are in a roomand you can measure how many men there are.

Specific actions: You can measure people’s actions (but not why they do it!)

Opinions: You can measure people’s opinions by asking closed questions: “Do you think our prime minister will win the next election?” This question would be followed up by additional (anonymous) information from the informant: gender, age, city etc.

You can use these data as valuable information in your research objective.


AssignmentSee usibilia.com … What is this?See surveymonkey.com … What is this?

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

ResearchParadigms



The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research

The qualitative approach to conducting research has for many years beenthe ‘soft’ area of science.

The qualitative aspects deals also with observable facts, but not always the same ‘hard’, measurable emperical facts that is the focus for quantitativeresearch.

Qualitative reseach investigates the concept of meaning, its embeddingin and orientation of social actions. It is the connection between meaning and action—for example as performed inside media contexts—that tells us how weare, howwe think and act in a realistic context.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QualitativeResearch


Examples: Designing Qualitative Research: Interviews

To design an emperical study is to identify and delimit a portion of reality (Jensen 2005: 237). Ask into why instead of what.

Respondent interviews: The informant is percieved as a representative of a social and cultural category. This can be a key to the decoding of the user‐pattern in relation to user behaviour (think aloud test for example).

Group interviews: In order to explore what goes on in a more or lessnaturalistic social setting, a group can form the basis for discussions, thatexplore aspects of a product credibity, of lifestyles, advertisements etc.

Focus groups: Gathering a specific type of users, this kind of interviewing is often based on the strategy of getting to know attitudes toward a product or political and ethical issues. Again, it’s why instead of what.

RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QualitativeResearch


Designing for Research


AssignmentSee http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_focus_group … What is this?What are the pros and cons in online and offline qualitative surveys?Is a think aloud test a qualitative or a quantitative survey method? Or can it be both? Why?

RESEARCHPART2

RESEARCH PARADIGMS: Variables and Concepts

ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Variables

The basic part of the research process is the notion of the variable. Variables are in this context the emperical representation of a concept.

Man, woman, number of …, high/low, happy, not happy etc.

Variables provide operational measures that can bequantified and manipulated by researchers.

The concepts of gender, age, economics, and personal behaviour arevariables that you can measure. These variables must be described in further detail as concepts and/or constructs (see the next slides)


ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Variables and Concepts

A concept represents an abstract idea that embodies the nature of observable phenomenon, or an interpretation of why such phenomea occur.

For example, individuals may be differentiated in terms of their use of media: What you define as a “active user” could be distinguished from whatyou define as a “passive user” (in questions based on how often a specificmedia or an application is used).


Media usage can be linked to explain different behavioual patterns: Media usage becomes an explanatory concept (Jensen 2005: 210).

ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Single‐Concept Example (Media Usage as Behavioural Patterns)

The observable phenomenon: More and more people over the age of 65 use FaceBook (FB).source/desk research: http://www.insidefacebook.com/2009/12/11/facebook‐a‐top‐destination‐for‐users‐over‐65/

The concept I want to use:What is it to be “user”—it’s a bit too vague a concept! Just because you have a FB account you’re not always active. I find it interesting to investigate the single concept of the “active user” in the age group 65+.

First, I define the concept of a “user” by describing precisely what this impliesin relation to skills in the use of FB. Second, I suggest the number of visits onFB per day in order for one to be a “active user” of FB.

Objective: How many “active users” in the age group 65+ are there on FB in Denmark alone. I base this on my concept, my problem statement and on a sampling of informants (say, 1000 FB‐users in the age group 65+)


ResearchVariables

and Concepts(Constructs)

Constructs (Combined Concept Example)

A construct comprises a combination of concepts.

This term can be used as a way of defining characteristics or actions of individuals that are associated with their personality type.

For example, one personality type is defined as a range of sensation‐seeking individuals: High‐sensation seekers generally need higher levels of environmental stimulation than low‐sensation seekers.

High‐sensation seekers may be described by a series of other concepts as:sociability, tolerance for strong stimulation, risk‐taking etc.

Constructs have a dimensional quality, so that individuals may beclassified (in this example) as high or low on the personality dimension of sensation‐seeking (Jensen 2005: 210).


ResearchVariables

and Concepts(Constructs)

Variables, Concepts and Constructs: Example

In other words: The variables get more substantial when they are appliedto a) a concept and b) a construct.

Example: Gender is interesting because of the construct of the differences between certain actions of men and women, say, buying actions. It’s not just a single concept you can establish without any goals for your research.


ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Independent and dependent variables

Variables can be further defined in terms of their relationship with each other.

Before the research: The independent variable (concept/construct) can bemanipulated by the researcher—it is meant to produce some measurableresponse or outcome.

You design your variables (concept/construct/attributes) to fit your objective, for example light user, active user etc.

After the research: The dependent variable is the measure of the response oroutcome. It is the obtained data which is treated as information.


ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Reliability and validity

Another important aim of a research is to determine its reliability.

To meet the demands for reliability and validity, you can … repeate evidence/tests to show similar results over time

or in another context. differentiate between the respondent (age, gender, education, etc.) explain accurately how and why you conduct your research. use good internal validity: the design of the research process must be free

from theoretical and methodological errors. Use validated theory.

The reliability concerns the dependability and consistency of the relationshipin one or between more variables. The validity indicates whether a measureproperly captures the meaning of the concept or construct it represents. (Jensen 2005: 212).


RESEARCHPART3

RESEARCH PARADIGMS: More on Methods

ResearchSurvey

Methods

The Survey: Field Research

A descriptive survey simply attempts to document current conditions. Public opinion polls, for example, can rovide information about people’spresent attitudes on a specified topic. The concept of “fear of terrorism” canbe constructed through a variety of constructs from “no fear” to “very afraid,” and the survey can gain answers from different age groups. The outcome is descriptive and can of course be used as an initial research narrowing down a target group.

Analytical surveys also collect descriptive data, but attempt to go on to examine relationships among variables in order to test research hypotheses. A survey may assess the impact of an advertising campaign on public awareness of a brand and changes in the market’s share of a product. Suchexplantory surveys can also research social effects in‐ and because of media.


ResearchSurvey

Methods


The Survey: Field Research, Observing and Coding

Thick description: The thick description means that when you observe a situation, you usemeans of gathering data that accounts for everyhing. You could use movie‐recording devices and then later describe artefacts as well as actions. This can lead to a very detailed description of an environment and the interpretation of the actions.

Coding: The coding means fixating and capturing certain qualities of the units, i.e. person/persons, texts, events (or other unit), you are observing.

For example can the thematic coding (concept variable) function as an important objective to make way for interpretations and for applyingabstract theory of culture and perception.

ResearchSurvey

Methods

The Survey: Field Research

Telephone interviews:You can accomplish the data very quickly and directly.It is cheap to conductThe respondents can be reached globally.

Face‐to‐face interviews:Short interviews as well as longer interviews can be conducted, i.e. in a shopping mall or in a home.Video‐ and audio techniques can be used.Better personal credibility can be achieved by personal interview.

Web‐/mail‐/online‐ or paper questionnaire:Simple forms can be filled out by respondents. By using web or mail the statistical answers will be easy to monitor quickly afterwards.


QuantitativeResearch

The Survey

Describing Data

Links: See more on percentage calculation here …http://www.math.com/everyone/calculators/calc_source/percent.htm

http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/statistics.php

http://www.euromonitor.com/

Don’t panic!

If you use an online survey tool all the calculations are done for you.


ResearchAn Overview

1. The hypothesis Propose that if an independent variable is assumed to have a certain strength, it may beexpected to exert a measurable impact on a designated dependent variable. Then it can betested, if this hypothesis can be proved or disproved. (Jensen 2005: 212).

2. The Variable … is gender, age, nationality etc.

… is the empirical representation of a phenomenon (like trends) …

Concept and a… Construct (combination of concepts)

A concept representsan abstract idea thatembodies the nature of observable phenomena, or an interpretation of why such phenomeaoccur. (Jensen, 2005)

Example: Individualsare defined in terms of their use of a media. You define the notionsof a “light user” and a “heavy user” based on media types, levels of defined usage etc.(Jensen, 2005)

A combination of concepts used to define the characteristics of the individual users as grouped in concepts (in the example).Heavy users may be described by suchconcepts as sociability, tolerance for strongstimulation, risk‐taking etc. (Jensen, 2005).

3. Independent Variables

… can be manipulated by the researcher. … means the way the research process is constructed to measure a response. (Jensen, 2005)

4. Dependent Variables

… is the measure of the outcome of the research based on its construct and itsdependent variables, i.e. it is the information created by the variables and the hypothesis.(Jensen, 2005)

Before

the research

Afterthe

research


Qualitative and/or quantitative research design

ResearchThe Survey

Example

Let’s visithttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFbmHDs7TmI …

… and have a talk about this type of survey and its components.

Variables? Concepts? Independent variables/dependent variables?Qualitative, quantitative, mix, goal, interpretation?


Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience

T E S T I N G1. Make a test of a website or a mobile application: Heuristics.2. What is your hypothesis as a media designer, based on your initial test,

on usability in relation to the concepts: navigation, readability and design?3. Work with these valid concepts in relation to:

the attitudes toward the visual design (qualitative method) the ability to read the text (quantitative method).Interview two, three or more people (Who? / why?)

4. Record, write down, observe etc. (how? / why?)

Present according to the template on the next slide →


Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience

R E P O R T I N G (validating your results)1. Summary of the main results with conclusion.2. Introduction:

hypothesis, problems and research questions, concepts in use.3. Describtion of method/methods:

A mix of quantative and qualitative approaches? How? Focus?Independent and dependent variables? Your unique research design?

4. Observations and results, focus points. Pie chart templates may be used.

5. Conclusion (short, recap on 1)6. Recommendations for improvements of media.

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