Nutrition is the all-important process which is why all Berry Readers are still alive and checking out our website. It is a process of obtaining the materials (food) to sustain life and growth. While students will most likely only think of human-edible food, the subtopics covering SPM Biology Form 4 is more than that. So this Part 1 of the new series on Nutrition for SPM Form 4 Biology by Berry Berry Easy is focussed on the types of nutrition and some basic definitions. Here, youll learn about self-sustaining autotrophs and the more reliant heterotrophs.

[Tips: Sometimes students make the mistake of not considering photoautotroph and chemoautotroph as a subset of autotrophs. Similarly, some students also fail to acknowledge that saprophyte, holozoic, carnivourous plants, parasites are subset of heterotrophs as they do not contain the word 'hetero' or 'trophs'. This is wrong and it'll be useful to draw a family tree inclusive of examples to properly categorise the categories.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part I)

Photoautotrophs

Type of Nutrition Nutrition process by which organisms obtain energy and nutrients from food, for growth, maintenance and repair of damaged tissues.

Nutrients the important substances which are required for nourishment of an organisms.

Living organisms are divided into two groups (based on the nutritional habits): autotrophs and heterotrophs.

(i) Autotroph Autotrophs organisms that are able to synthesise complex organic compounds from raw, simple inorganic substances (water and air) by using light or chemical energy. These organisms manufacture their own food by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

Photoautotrophs chlorophyll containing organisms that utilise solar energy for building organic substance.

Photoautotropic nutrition = holophytic nutrition.

Chemoautotrophs organisms synthesise organic substances by utilising chemical energy.

AutotrophsExample

PhotoautotrophTrees

ChemoautotrophBacteria

(ii) Heterotroph Heterotrophs organisms that are not able to synthesise their own nutrients but they obtain the nutrients from other organisms.

Holozoic nutrition organisms feed by ingesting solid organic matter that digested and absorbed into the bodies.

Saprophytism organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter.

Parasitism organisms obtains nutrients (absorbs readily digested food) by living on / in the body of another living organisms (the host)

HeterotrophsExample

SaprophyteFungi

Holozoic nutritionCarnivores

Carnivorous plants (Holozoic nutrition)Venus traps and pitcher plants

ParasitesLice and fleas

This ends Part 1 of the series of study notes by Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 students. In the next part, Berry Readers will learn about balanced diet and the seven important classes of food for SPM-level biology. So do stay tuned.

A balanced diet is the most important step to maintain ones good health. It is the key to reach a balance between having enough energy for daily activities and also to maintain a healthy weight. There is also a misconception that a good diet consist of no fat, no sugar, no salt and other extreme measures. This is wrong as a balanced diet is more important than the devoid of any important classes of food. This post, Part II of study notes from Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 students will be focused on balanced diet and the important classes of food. So do read on. It is a simple topic that is moderately popular in exams.

[Tips: In view of the topic, the following tips will not be study tips but nutritional tips instead. Instead of avoiding sugar and salt completely, it is advisable to just limit the intake of simple sugar and limit salt consumption (while ensuring that the salt is already iodised). Also, if you intend to go vegetarian, make sure that you take in all the essential amino acids too. Avocado and pumpkin seeds are useful to provide all the essential amino acids, which are typically only available in animal-based diet.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part II)

Human Teeth

Balanced Diet Diet the food and drink that we consume.

Balanced diet diet contains the correct proportions of all the different classes of foods for the requirement of body.

Metabolisms the sum of all biochemical reactions that occur in the cells of living organisms.

Metabolic rate a measure of the energy demands of the living body over a specified period of time. Unit kilojoule (kJ)

Energy value / calorific value of food the quantity of heat produced when one gram of food is completely oxidised. Unit Joules per gram (J g-1) or calories.

Energy value = (Mass of water x Increase in temperature x 4.2 ) / Mass of food

Energy value = (g)(C)(J g-1C-1) / (g) = J g-1Seven Important Classes of Food1. Carbohydrates (provide energy)

2. Proteins (Build new tissues / important in growth and repairing damaged tissues)

3. Fats (provide energy / storage of extra foods)

4. Water (act as medium for biochemical reaction / transportation of substances)

5. Vitamins (prevent diseases / efficient metabolism / important for normal growth)

6. Minerals (important for normal growth and development of teeth, bones and muscles)

7. Roughage / Dietary fiber (prevent constipation / stimulate peristalsis)

This marks the end of Part 2 of notes from Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 students. In the next part, Part III, Berry Readers will learn about the many factors affecting daily energy requirement and the basics of food energy content.

Daily energy requirement simply means the energy required per day for activities. Typically, it can be calculated using your basal metabolism rate (BMR), which is the least amount of energy required to ensure that your body organs are functioning well and also to maintain your body temperature around 36.9 degree Celcius. The daily energy requirement is dependent on many factors which is stated in this Part 3 of Berry Berry Easy SPM Biology Form 4 notes on Nutrition. In this post, Berry Readers will also be exposed to the concept of food energy content.

[Tips: Students often make the mistake of confusing calories and joules. Most of the time it is due not converting the units when solving calculation-based questions. Sometimes it is the use of multiplication instead of division, and vice versa during the conversion. Just remember that a calorie is 4.2 joules, so to convert calorie to joule, you'll multiply 4.2. To convert joule to calorie, you divide by a factor of 4.2. So make sure that you do all the necessary conversions of calories to joules in a correct manner.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part III)

Nutrition Tag

Factors Affecting Daily Energy RequirementBalance diet is essential for healthy growth and development of the body.

1. Age children and teenagers need more energy due to their high metabolic rate.

2. Sex male adult needs more energy due to in males have high metabolic rate.

3. Pregnancy and lactation pregnant women need more energy due to support the growing foetuses and produce milk for their babies.

4. Occupation an active person requires high energy due to the person does a lot of heavy work.

5. Size or body weight a person smaller in size has a larger surface area per unit volume. Thus, the rate of heat loss is high.

6. Climate people living in cold countries need more energy to maintain body temperature.

7. Genetics genetics disposition in certain person may decide different metabolic rate.

8. Health In sufficient secretion of thyroxine hormone may cause lower in metabolic rate.

9. Lifestyle An active person requires higher energy than a passive person

Energy Content of Food Bomb calorimeter used to calculate the energy value of various types of food samples.

One calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules (J)

Energy value of food (kJ g-1) = (4.2 x mass of water x increase in temperature) / (mass of food sample x 1000), specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.2 J g-1 C-1; mass of water in g; temperature in C and mass of food sample in g.

This represents the end of the Part 3 of the short notes on the topic of Nutrition for SPM Form 4 Biology students by Berry Berry Easy. In the next post in this series of summarised notes, youll learn about the classes of food nutrient. So do check back.

Vitamin (organic compound) is commonly recognised as one of the food category to maintain health. Unlike the big three of carbohydrate, protein and fat, vitamin is only required in small amount as nutrient. Vitamin is vital as it cannot be adequately produced by our body, hence it must be ingested through our daily diet. At the moment, there are 13 vitamins considered to be crucial to human health. They are Vitamin A, Vitamin B complex (variant in B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9 and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K.

This Part 5 of SPM Form 4 Biology notes on Nutrition by Berry Berry Easy is all about vitamins, with heavy emphasis on fat-soluble vitamins. In this post, youll learn the basics of the organic compound called vitamin and the types of fat-soluble vitamins in detail. Make sure you read it not only for your SPM examinations, but also for daily health. So it is both an SPM examination tips and also a daily health tip.

[Tips: Only vitamin B and C are soluble in water. The rest are soluble in fat. For those who are proficient in Malay, you can easily remember the word ADEK, which sounds like ADIK (younger brother). Vitamin A, D, E and K are the vitamins soluble in fat.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part V)

Vitamin Cod oil

Vitamins It is a group of complex organic compounds that are needed in small quantities by living organisms because vitamins can be reused in body metabolisms.

Vitamins do not provide energy to body metabolism and vitamins are non-protein organic compounds.

Living organisms cannot synthesise vitamins.

Vitamins can be only obtained from diet.

It is essential to maintenance of good health, normal growth and efficient metabolism.

There are two categories in vitamins: fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble VitaminsTypes of VitaminsSourcesFunctionsEffect of deficiency

A (retinol)Milk, carrots, tomatoes, eggs, fish oil, green vegetables, butter- Builds visual pigments on retina for night vision

- Immunity

- Growth of epithelial cells

- Antioxidant

- Build body resistance to diseases- Night blindness

- Xerophthalmia (cornea becomes dry)

- Scaly skin

D (calciferol)Formed (skin) during the presence of sunlight, fish liver oil, egg yolk, cheese- Enhances absorption of calcium and phosphorus

- Build strong bones and healthy teeth- Rickets (weak bones)

- Osteomalacia (softening of bones)

E (tocopherol)Palm oil, cereals, nuts, green vegetables, olive oil, milk-- Preserves healthy muscular system, blood circulatory (red blood cells) and nervous system

- Antioxidant

- Maintain healthy function of the reproduction system- Premature aging

- Low fertility

- Slow wound healing

K (phylloquinone)Green vegetable, totatoes- Helps in blood clotting- Detective blood clotting

- Anaemia

The next post, Part 6 on the short series of notes on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 student by Berry Berry Easy will continue on the sub-topic of vitamin with emphasis being given on water-soluble vitamins. So do read on.

Classes of food nutrient is the basic classes used in the formulation of a healthy diet. The classical six basic classes of food includes: Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat, Vitamins, Minerals and Water. This Part 4 in the series of summarised study notes by Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 students is focussed on the classes of food nutrients. However, this part wont explain in detail the classes on food but rather be explaining on the general tests conducted in school labs to test the content of foods. Berry Readers will be exposed to the name of tests, reagents used, observation expected and conclusions regarding the identification of classes of food nutrient. So do read on.

[Tips: Most food contain more than one of the classes of basic nutrient. To understand this, you may look at the contents section of your slice bread's packaging. You'll see that it contains protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and even water (although water might not be stated). So please remember that, chicken meat isn't all protein and rice isn't all carbohydrate. Eat healthy, stay healthy and study hard.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part IV)

Classes of Food Nutrients

Classes of Food NutrientsTestReagentObservationConclusion

Benedicts testFood sample + Benedicts solution (Place in boiling water bath)The solution turns from blue to green / yellow / brick-red precipitate formed (depend on sugar concentration).Food sample contains reducing sugar

Benedicts testFood sample + Benedicts solution + Dilute hydrochloric acid (Place in boiling water bath) + neutralise by sodium hydrogen carbonate powderThe solution turns from blue to green / yellow / brick-red precipitate formed (depend on sugar concentration).Food sample contains non-reducing sugar

Iodine / Starch testFood sample + Iodine solutionThe solution turns from brownish-yellow to blue-black.Food sample contains starch

Emulsion testFood sample + ethanolThe fat droplets formed on the surface and the solution become cloudy.Food sample contains oil (lipid)

Sudan III testFood sample + Sudan III stainA red-stained oil layer separates out and float on the water surfaceFood sample contains oil (lipid)

Fat testFood sample + filter paperA translucent mark formedFood sample contains oil (lipid)

Millons testFood sample + Millons reagent + 1% sodium nitrite (Place in boiling water bath)The solution turns brick-red precipitate.Food sample contains protein

Biuret testFood sample + 20% sodium hydroxide solution and 1% copper(II) sulphate solutionThe solution turns from blue to purple colour.Food sample contains protein

This marks the end of Part 4 of the series of notes on Nutrition for Form 4 Biology students taking SPM in Malaysia. In the next part, Berry Readers will learn all about vitamins. Read all about it to stay healthy. Water-soluble vitamins are vitamins that are soluble in water. While it sounds obvious but its implication is large. Because it is water-soluble, it has to be replaced daily as the body does not store them or absorbed in the fat globules. Since it is replaced daily, you will need to ingest them on a daily basis. Typical source of B-complex vitamins are found in cereal, egg, fish legume, meat, milk, poultry and others. While Vitamin C can naturally be found in fruits (citrus based are the best as most Berry Readers would already know from young).

So, lets think again, what the implication of water-soluble vitamin means? It also means that these vitamins can potentially be washed away during the preparation of food or even during storage due to its solubility in water. So it is very different from the fat-soluble vitamins learnt in the earlier post. As you would have guessed it, this post, Part 6 of notes on Nutrition for SPM Form 4 Biology student from Berry Berry Easy is all about water-soluble vitamins.

[Tips: For those who wonder how fat-soluble is stored in the body. Vitamin "ADEK" as mentioned in the previous post is fat-soluble, in which they are absorbed in chylomicrons which moves through the lymphatic system of small intestines, followed by circulation in the blood stream and finally stored in body tissues. (This also implies the importance of fat in our body. So do not remove too much fat from your body until you are unhealthy.As a health tip, make sure you don't ingest too much fat-soluble vitamins, as they can be stored in your body. A condition called hypervitaminosis can occur if you have too much vitamin stored in your body, and that condition is potentially harmful to your body. So remember that, moderation is the best way to go in life.]

SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part VI)

Cod fish oil

Water-soluble VitaminsTypes of VitaminsSourcesFunctionsEffect of deficiency

B1 (thiamine)Milk, legumens, wheatgerm, yeast extract, nuts, whole grains- Precursor of a coenzyme- Coenzyme for carbohydrates metabolisme- Beri-beri (muscle weakness, nerve disorder)

- Fatigue

B2 (riboflavin)Milk, wheatgerm, liver, eggs- Component of coenzyme- Healthy nervous system- Sore eyes

- Skin lesions at the corner of mouth, nose and ears

- Inflammation of tongue and lips

B3 (niacin)Liver, rice, legumes, fish, yeast extract- Component of coenzyme- Healthy nervous system, skin and intestines- Pellagra (skin and gastrointestinal lesions)

B5 (pantothenic acid)Fish, egg yolk, liver, meat- Component of coenzyme for carbohydrates, protein and fatty acids metabolism- Muscle cramps

- Fatigue

- Grey hair

- Low immunity

B6 (pyridoxine)Fish, liver, milk, potatoes- Coenzyme in amino acid metabolism- For red blood cell formation- Kidney stone

- Muscular twitching

- Diarrhea

B9 (folic acid)Green vegetables- For DNA and RNA- For red blood cells formation- Regulating the function of iron- Miscarriage birth

- Cleft lips

- Limb defects of babies

B12 (cobalamin)Cheese, milk, egg, meat- Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism- For red blood cells formation- Pernicious anaemia

- Neurological disorders

H (biotin)Legumes, vegetables- Coenzyme in the synthesis of fat, glycogen and amino acid- Nausea

- Fatigue

- Muscular pains

C (ascorbic acid)Orange, tomatoes, broccoli, cauliflower- Fats and protein metabolism- Energy production- Scurvy (bleeding gums and bruised skin)

This is the end of Part 6 of notes for SPM Biology on Nutrition. Do read on the other berry essential notes from Berry Berry Easy. Stay healthy too, take your vitamin but dont go overboard by having an overdose of vitamins.