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CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION
2 kinds of cell division:
1. Mitosis: division of somatic cells
2. Meiosis: creation of new sex cells
Cell Division Vocabulary
Somatic cell a body cell; a cell whose genes will not be passed on to future
generations.
Germ cell - a cell that is destined to become a gamete (egg or sperm); a cell
whose genes can be passed on to future generations
diploid (2N)
a cell with 2 chromosome sets in each of its cells; all body(somatic) cells
represented by the symbol 2N
Found in somatic or body cells (ex. Skin, digestive tract)
Example : Humans 2N = 46
haploid (N)
a cell with 1 chromosome set in each of its cells; all gametes(sperm, eggs)
represented by the symbol N or 1N
Found in gametes or sex cells sperm & egg
Example: Humans N = 23
MITOSIS
Characteristics of Mitosis
A diploid cell will give rise to a diploid cell
Chromosome number remains the same
The DNA remains identically the same
One cell (2N) gives rise to two cells ( 2N)
the division of the nucleus to produc e two d aughter ce l ls ,each contain
same numb er & same kindof chromosome as the parent cell
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Occurs in al l somat ic cel lsexcept gametes.
Somatic cells contain 2 sets of chromos omes, 1 set from female parent, 1
set from male parent diplo id(2n)
Single set of unp airedchromosome
haploid (n)
Each somatic cells produce 2 new diploid cells identical to the parent cell
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
For growth, repair & replaces cells that are dead or damaged
A form of asexual reproduction to increase the number of organisms (Amoeba
sp.)
To ensure that the offsprings/new cells are genetically identical to the parent.
Preserves the diploid number of chromosomes
The Cell Cycle
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INTERPHASE (G1, S, G2)
G1 : Growth phase 1
The cell growth by producing proteins & cytoplasmic organelles
S : Synthesis
Synthesis of DNA, chromosomes are duplicated & DNA has replicated to form 2
identical sister chromatids joined together by centromere
G2 : Growth phase 2
Cell growth & cell differentiation occur
M PHASE(Cell Division)
Mitosis : nucleus divides
Cytokinesis : division of cytoplasm
STAGE OF MITOSIS
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Nucleus divides = cytokinesis (cytoplasm divides)
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1. Prophase
Centrioles move apart to opposite poles
The chromosomes coil up, condense & shorten
Two identical chromatids (sister chromatids) appears, attached at centromere
Nuclear membrane breaks down
Nucleolus disappears
Spindle fibres begin to form extend between the centrioles.
2. METAPHASE
The chromosomes move to the cells
equator
The chromosomes line up along the
equator of the cell with the centromeres
attached to the spindle fibres
Each chromatid of the chromosome faces
its own pole
Metaphase ends when the centromeres
divide
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ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm.
In animal cells, a Cleavage Furrow forms and separates Daughter Cells
In plant cells, a Cell Plate forms and separates Daughter Cells.
The centromere of each chromosome
divides into two
The sister chromatids of each
chromosome separate and move to
opposite poles of the cell
The spindle fibres pull the centromere
toward each pole
In telophase the nucleus actually divides.
The chromosomes are at the poles of the
cell.
The nuclear envelope re-forms around the
two sets of chromosomes
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APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE ON MITOSIS
1. IN CLONING
A TECHNIQUE / the process of producing clones or genetically
identical organisms through asexually reproduction
Contain same genetic content & chromosomal number with one
another as well as with the parent organism
To increase the quantity of the product
To improve the quality, to produce new species & to ensure uniformity
in the traits of the plants
Cloning of animals
1. Reproductive cloning
Producing an entire animal that is genetically identical to the parent animal
The entire animal is produced from a single cell by asexual reproduction
through mitosis.
2. Therapeutic cloning
Is a branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of diseases.
Parts of a person skin, heart, liver or even just a few cells are duplicated to
produce a clone.
The clone tissue is used to replace a damaged or diseases tissue without the
risk of tissue rejection.
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Cloning in plant
1. Tissue culture
Plants can be cloned using tissue culture.
A technique in reproduction which involves the transfer of tissues orcells from an organism into a suitable culture medium to produce a
whole new organism (identical to the existing organism)
Tissue culture produces genetically identical clones.
Tissue culture techniques
a) A pieces of tissue, called explants, its taken from a parents plant (e.g. carrot
root or stem tissue,)
b) The pieces of tissues are sterilised with dilute sodium hypochlorite solution toprevent the growth of pathogens (such as bacteria and fungus).
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c) Each sterile tissue piece is placed on to a growth medium (gel containing
nutrients and growth regulators).
d) The tissues cells divided by mitosis to produce a mass of loosely arranged
undifferentiated cells called callus.
e) Callus is stimulated with shoot-stimulating hormone to form multiple shoots.
f) The shoots are separated and each is placed in nutrient medium with root-
stimulating hormone to encourage rooting
g) Once the roots grow, the plantlets (little plants) are planted in sterile compost
to grow.
ADVANTAGES
1. Produced in a short time (increase quantity)
2. The good qualities of the plants/ animals can be selected & maintained in the
clones
3. Increases the rate of production & the quality of the product
4. Ensure the continuity of hereditary traits from parent to the clones
5. Can be carried out any time of the year
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DISADVANTAGES
1. The resistance of the clones towards diseases & pests is the same. 1 infected
with a disease/pests, all the clones will also affected. Lead to the extinction of
the species.
2. Carried out under controlled environment. External environment changes, the
will be destroyed
3. Prevents natural selection
4. No variation
The effects of uncontrolled mitosis in living things
Mutation is the change in the DNA structure of the cell.
This change in the DNA corrupts the coded genetic instructions for mitosis
control.
This leads to uncontrolled mitosis, which is the non-stop division of cells,
producing a mass of new daughter cells, called tumour.
How cancer occur
- Mitosis is a process of cell division that creates two identical daughter cells,
- each carrying a copy of the original cell's DNA.
- Errors in mitosis result in an incorrect DNA copy; the effect of errors on the
health of the organism range from benign to deadly, depending on the amount
and type of errors.
- One potential consequence is cancer; all cancer types are traced back to
harmful mutations multiplied by mitosis.
Causes of Cancer
1. Genetic- some forms of cancer like prostate, colon, breast, skin, ovary are
suspected to be inherited from the parents
2. Carcinogens- these are chemicals which affect genetic activity and cause
cancer, e.g. of carcinogen a diesel exhaust, cigarette smoke, hair dyes, soot,
arsenic, benzene and formaldehyde.
3. Radiation- excess exposure to x-ray, gamma-rays and ultra violet rays lead to
increase cancer risk.
4. Age- some cancers are found primarily in young people (e.g. leukemia), while
some cancers (e.g. colon cancers) are found mostly in older adults.
5. Viruses- some viruses (such as the EB and HIV-1) cause cancer.
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MEIOSIS
Human Chromosomes
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total)
22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sexchromosomes
Half of each pair came from oneparent and half came from the otherparent
Meiosis
A division of the nucleus to produce 4 daughter cells each containing half the
chromosome number of the parent nucleus.
A type of cell division - occurs in reproduction organs to produce 4 daughter
cells called gametes.
Meiosis takes place in the gonads(sexual organs)
For humans, these are the ovaries and testes
The process of meiosis produces eggand spermcells
Two gametes come together by fertilization
The haploidsperm and egg join to form a diploid zygote
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Meiosis Phases
Meiosis I Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I
Meiosis II Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II
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Interphase
Before Meiosis (just like before Mitosis) the cell must prepare for division:
Cells increase in size
DNA is replicated
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Necessary proteins
and RNAare
synthesized
During this phase, chromosomes are not yet visible.
Meiosis: Prophase I
Crossing over increases genetic variation
Crossing over happened : non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA
new combination of genes on a chromosome
Chiasmata
the points at which segments of chromatids cross over
Chromosomes become visible
Nuclear envelope disappears
Centrioleshead to opposite poles and spindle forms
Homologous chromosomes (one pair of sister chromatids
from the motherand one from the father) pair up to form
a tetrad
The tetrad pairs up so tightly that crossing overoccurs
Crossing over happens when parts of the homologues
chromosomes switch places after overlapping
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METAPHASE I
The paired chromosomes are lined up at the equator of the cell
One chromosome of each pair faces each pole of the cell
the chromosomes attached to the spindle fibres at their centromere
The centromere does not divide
ANAPHASE I
The paired chromosomes separate from one another & move to opposite
poles
The spindle fibres pulled one chromosome of each pair to each pole
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TELOPHASE I
The chromosomes arrive at the poles.
Each pole has a haploid daughter nucleus (contain one set)
The spindle fibres disappear, the nuclear membrane & nucleolus reappears in
each nucleus.
Chromosomes uncoil
Cytoplasm dividesinto two cells
Cytokinesis occurs
No interphase, no replication of chromosomes
Meiosis: Prophase II
Chromosomes become visible
Spindle forms
If nuclear membrane reformedafter Telophase I, it will break downnow
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Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Chromosomes lined up at the equator
of the cell facing opposite poles
Each sister chromatid is attached tothe spindle fibres at the centromere
The sister chromatids together split
Chromatids separate
Spindle fibres pull each chromatid
to opposite poles
Centromere are divided
Chromatids reach the poles &
become new chromosomes
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus
form again at each chromosome
Chromosomes become extended
& not visible
Cytokinesis occurs & 4 haploid
daughtercell are formed.
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THE COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS I & MEIOSIS II
MEIOSIS I SIMILARITIES MEIOSIS II
Consist of 4 stages : P,M,A,T
Involve division of nucleus & cytokinesis
DIFFERENCES
Occur Synapsis Not occur
Yes Cross over No
MI-paired
homologous
chromosomes line
up at the equator
Metaphase MII each
chromosome with
sister chromatids
line up at the
equator
AI pairedhomologous
chromosomes
separate & move
to opposite poles
Anaphase AII the sisterchromatids separate
& move to opposite
poles
2 haploid cells are
formed
At the end 4 haploid cells are
formed
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THE COMPARISON BETWEEN MITOSIS & MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS SIMILARITIES MITOSIS
Division of cells
The chromosomes replicates only once
DIFFERENCES
In reproductive organ Place occ ur In somatic cell
Parent cell divides twice Number of d iv is ions Parent cell divides once
Four haploid daughter cells Number of daugh ter
cel ls
Two diploid daughter cells
Occurs during prophase I Synapsis of
homo logous
chromosomes
Not occurs
Occurs twice Number of c ytok ines is Occurs once
Occurs during prophase I Cross ing over of
chrom at ids of
homo logous
chromosomes
Not occurs
Half of number of
chromosomes of the parentcell (haploid)
Number of
ch romosom es indaugh ter cel ls
Genetically identical to the parent
cell
Genetically non-identical to
the parent cell & each other
Genet ic comp osi t ion of
daugh ter cel ls
Genetically identical to the parent
cell
Occurs once during
interphase before meiosis I
DNA repl icat ion Occurs during interphase before
mitosis begins
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