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ELFUTURODELAALIMENTACIÓNYRETOSDELAAGRICULTURAPARAELSIGLOXXI:Debatessobrequién,cómoyconquéimplicacionessociales,económicasyecológicasalimentaráelmundo.

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AGRICULTUREINTHE21stCENTURY:Debatesaboutwho,howandwithwhatsocial,economicandecological

implicationswewillfeedtheworld.ELIKADURARENETORKIZUNAETANEKAZARITZARENERRONKAKXXI.MENDERAKO:Munduanork,nolaetazer-nolakoinplikaziosozial,ekonomikoetaekologikorekinelikatukoduenizangodaeztabaidagaia

BringingtheCountryintotheCity?SignalsofagrariancitizenshipandfoodsovereigntyinthepracticeofurbanagricultureinBrazilandCanada

EvanBownessandHannahWittman

Apirila–Abril–April

24,25,262017

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ylaAgriculturaenelSigloXXI.

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BringingtheCountryintotheCity?SignalsofagrariancitizenshipandfoodsovereigntyinthepracticeofurbanagricultureinBrazilandCanada

EvanBownessandHannahWittman

Draft–commentswelcome,pleasedonotcitewithoutpermissionfromtheauthors.

Abstract

Whatrole(s)dourbanactorsplayinthedevelopmentofthefoodsovereigntyframeworkinparticularandinfood-systemschangeingeneral?Urbanagriculture,whilenotaunifiedsocialmovementinitsownright,isagrowingsocialpracticesurroundedbyclaims--includingfromsomemovementsforfoodsovereignty--toincreasefoodsecurity,empowerconsumersindecision-makingaboutthefoodsystem,reclaimurbanlands,closenutrientcycleloopsand‘reconnect’urbanresidentstonature.Assuch,itoccupiesarichconceptualspaceinthinkingthroughmechanismstorepairthe“metabolicrift”betweentownandcountry,drivenbyurbanization,capitalaccumulationandtheindustrializationofagriculture.ThroughthedevelopmentofthreecasestudiesofurbanagricultureinitiativesthatdeploythelanguageoffoodsovereigntyinCanadaandBrazil,ourpaperexploresif,howandtowhatextenturbanagriculturecan“closetherift”bydiscursivelyandmateriallymobilizingtheurbanintoagrarianstrugglesrelatedtosocialandecologicaljusticeandfoodsovereignty.

Ononehand,principles,practicesandvaluesrelatedtoagrariancitizenshipareexpressedinurbansettings,asconsumersandurbanfarmersarticulateandre-assertagrarian“identities,knowledges,positionsandpoliticalstruggles”(Roman-Alcalá,2015)adaptabroadeningcollectiveidentityof“agrariancitizenship.”Ontheotherhand,someurbanfarminginitiativesinNorthAmerica,aspartofgrowingalternativefoodmovements,havealsobeenwidelycritiquedfortheexclusionarytendenciesof“progressivewhiteness”(Slocum2007),divertingenergyandresourcesawayfromparticipationinradicalpeasantstruggles.Ourinterrogationintowhetherandhowthetheoreticalreachoffoodsovereigntyextendsintourbancontextsthroughurbanagricultureaddressesthefollowinginterrelatedquestions:1)whatprocessesofurbanagricultureradicalizeandwhichonesderadicalizeurbanactors?2)amongdifferenturbanactors,doesthepracticeofurbanagriculturemaintainconceptualseparationsofnature/society,urban/rural,producer/consumerordissolvethosebinaries,andtowhateffectforurbanagrarianism?3)areurbanagrarianismandruralagrariancitizenshipdifferentidentityframes,ifsohowandwhattensionsexistbetweenthem?and4)inwhatwayshasurbanagrarianismadvancedandhinderedfoodsovereigntyasapoliticalproject?Inunpackingtheconceptofurbanagrarianism,

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ourpaperbeginstoclarifythe‘urbanfoodquestion’withintheglobalstruggleforfoodsovereignty.

ThePlaceofUrbanAgricultureinFoodSovereignty

Whatrole(s)doactorsinvolvedinurbanagricultureplayinthedevelopmentofthefoodsovereigntyframework,inparticular,andinfood-systemschange,ingeneral?Thispaperstartsbysituatingurbanagriculturewithinthecontextofthefoodsovereigntymovement,andthenwithinthecontextofthemetabolicrift.Wethenjuxtaposethecross-scalarurban/ruralconceptofagrariancitizenshipwiththeideaofurbanagrarianismasapossiblevehicletoarticulateurbanenergyintostrugglesforfoodsovereignty.

Risingconcernsamongacademicsandpolicymakersintheglobalfoodsystemhaveshapedaninternationaldiscourseofhowto“feedtheplanet”(Godfrayet.al.,2010).Oppositiontocorporate-ledindustrialproductionmarkedbyintensiveagrochemicaluse,greenandgenerevolutiontechnologieswithemphasisonproductivityandefficiencyofscale,hasbeengloballyexpressedthroughadiscourseof‘foodsovereignty,’whichemphasizessmall-scaleagroecologicalproduction,andequitabledevelopmentoflocalfoodsystems(Wittman,DesmaraisandWiebe2010and2011).Originallyaformofsocialmovementresistancetoneoliberalglobalization,thisalternativediscoursehasmountedpressureonstateandinternationalactorscallingforradicalchange.IncreasinglyfeaturedingrassrootscallsforchangeinEurope,Australia,andless-soinothercountriesintheGlobalNorth,foodsovereigntyisalsobecominginstitutionalizedbystatesinlegislationandformalgovernmentpoliciesandprograms.

Whiletransnationalcampaignsforfoodsovereigntyhavebeendrivenbyaglobalizedcrisisinwhatmightbeconsidered“rural”issues(suchasaccesstoland,livelihoodsandecosystemconservation),in2008theUNprojectedtheworldwouldbecomepredominantlyurban(UnitedNations,2008),emphasizingtheneedtoexploretheroleurbanactorsplayinsustainableandjustfoodsystems.Onlyrecentlyhasthefocusoffoodsovereigntyscholarsandactiviststurnedtotheurbancontext,andanemergingthreadinthefoodsovereigntydialogueconcernstheroleofurbanactorsinruralstrugglesoverlandandfoodsystems.PhilMcMichael(2014)hassuggestedthat“[i]nits‘secondgeneration’phase,[foodsovereignty]operatesonbothruralandurbanfronts,separatelyandtogether,connectingproducers,workers,consumersandvariousactivistorganizations”(194-5).FoundingmemberofLaVíaCampesinaPaulNicholson,capturesthissentimentinasking

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Whatismotivatingpeopletotakeonboardfoodsovereignty?Itisfoodinsecurity,heatingupoftheplanet,ecologicalcrisis,longerfoodmilesandtheneedforfoodqualityandlocaleconomies.Thesearecitizens’preoccupations,peoples’preoccupations.LaVíaCampesinadoesnotownfoodsovereignty.Foodsovereigntywasnotdesignedasaconceptonlyforfarmers,butforpeople—thisiswhywecallitpeoples’foodsovereignty.[…]We’retalkingaboutidentifyingallies,developingallianceswithmanymovementsoffisherfolk,women,environmentalistsandconsumerassociations,findingcohesion,gaininglegitimacy,beingawareofco-optationprocesses,theneedtostrengthentheurban-ruraldialogue,togeneratealternativetechnicalmodels.Andaboveallthereistheissueofsolidarity(Wittman,DesmaraisandWiebe,2010:7).

Embeddedinthedialoguearefundamentalquestionsabouttheplaceofurbanactorsinfoodsovereignty.Areurbanfoodconsumersaroadblockoranopportunitytothetransformationofagrariansystems?Howdourbanization,sprawlandissuesofurbaninequalityintersectwithfoodsovereignty?DofoodjusticemovementsintheGlobalNorth,withtheiremphasisonfoodsecurityandaccess,advanceordirectenergyawayfromagrarianstruggles?AndintheglobalNorthandSouth,whatpromisemight‘urban’foodproductionholdamidstitsmanyclaimsforimprovedfoodsecurity,environmentalsustainabilityandsocialcapital?Edelmanandcolleaguesposethefollowingquestions:

Whatdo[es]thegrowingmaterialandstrategicimportanceofurbanagriculturemeanfortheconstructionoffoodsovereignty?Howcanfoodsovereigntyhelpbridgetheland,resource,marketandpolicystrugglesofruralandurbanproducers?(2014:919).

Inthispaper,wearguethaturbanagriculturehasthepotentialtocultivateurbanagrarianisms–acounterparttoagrariancitizenshipintheagri-activismofthefoodsovereigntymovement,acollectivizationofruralandurbancollectiveidentitiesintherecognitionofandparticipationinpeasantandproducerstruggles(Wittman,2009AandB).Agrariancitizenship,conceptually,canbethoughtofas‘bringingthecountrytothecity’,wheresymbolsofruralityarebroughtintourbansocialspacesthroughactivismandagroecologicalnetworkstoadvanceclaimsforfoodsovereignty.Thequestioniswhetherandthroughwhatprocessesthistranslatesbackthroughurbanparticipationinregional,nationalorinternationalfoodsovereigntymovementssuchtheNationalFarmers’UnionintheCanadiancontextorinsocialmovementssuchastheMSTorotherruralagrarianandenvironmentalmovementsinBrazil.Beforewestartunpackingurbanagrarianismandtherelationshipbetweenurbanagricultureandthefoodsovereigntymovement,thefollowingsectionbrieflyreviewstherecentliteratureonurbanagriculture,withemphasisondiscussionsofitspoliticalfunction.

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UrbanAgriculture’sClaims

Urbanagriculture,whilenotaunifiedsocialmovementinitsownright,isagrowingsocialpracticesurroundedbyclaims--includingfromsomemovementsforfoodsovereignty--toincreasefoodsecurity,empowerconsumersindecision-makingaboutthefoodsystem,reclaimurbanlands,closenutrientcycleloopsand‘reconnect’urbanresidentstonature.Oftencombinedintheliteraturewith‘peri-urbanagriculture’(surroundingurbanareas),growingfoodandraisinganimalsforfoodinandaroundcitiesandtownsisawidespreadanddiversesocialpractice(Mougeot,2005).Itrangesfromhomegardeningwhereindividualhouseholdshaveprivateaccesstoraisedbedsforprivateconsumptiontopublically-managedcommunitygardenstolargescalehydroponicsystemsforcommercialfoodproduction,wherecommercialproductionisusuallyreferredtoas‘urbanfarming.’

Theglobalfoodcrisishasdrivencompetingperspectivesonurbanagriculture’sroleinfeedingtheworld.Ononehand,amidsttheglobaltrendtowardsurbanization(UnitedNations2008)anddecliningratiooffoodproducerstoconsumers(Satterthwaite,McGranahan&Tacoli2010),urbanagricultureisincreasinglytoutedaspartofsustainablefoodsystems1andcities(Cockrall-King2012;Pearson,Pearson&Pearson2010).However,availableurbanspaceimposesseriousconstraintsonthecapacityforurbanagtocontributetofoodsecurityintheglobalcontext(Badami&Ramankutty,2015).Inastudyestimatingglobalextentofurbanagriculture,urbangrowingspacetookup11%and4.7%ofthetotalirrigatedandrain-fedcropland,respectively(Thebo,Drechsel&Lambin,2014).However,localfoodproductionismostlimitedwheretheneedisgreatest,suchasdenselypopulatedcitiesinthepoorestcountries(Martellozzoetal.2014),althoughintheseareasitcontributesmoresignificantlytohouseholdincomes(Zezza&Tasciotti,2010).

Inadditiontoconstraintsofphysicalspaceavailablewithincitiestodedicatetofoodproduction,agrowingliteraturedocumentsthediversechallengesfacingurbanagriculture.Thisincludescompetitionfromconventionalagriculture(Debolini,Valette,François&Chéry,2015;Pfeiffer,Silva&Colquhoun,2014)andotherlandusesandsprawl(Pribadi&Pauleit,2015),aswellasenvironmental(Wortman&Lovell,2013;Sharma,Cheng,&Grewal,2014)andregulatoryissuespertainingtolabour,labellingandinspections(Bradshaw,2013).Despitethesechallengesandthelimitationstoscalingupproduction,agricultureintheurbanlandscapeisoftenjustifiedbyits‘multifunctional’benefitsbeyondjustfoodproduction(Pourias,Aubry&Duchemin,2015;Lovel2010).Thesebenefitsinclude 1It’simportanttonotethaturbanagricultureisdecidedlyunabletomakeanysignificantimpactongrainproduction,sothemajorityofacademicstudiesofurbanagriculturefocusprimarilyonvegetableandfruitproduction.

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ecosystemservices(Lowenstein,Matteson&Minor,2015;Clarke&Jenerette,2015;Lee,Lee,&Lee,2015;Lin,Philpott&Jha,2015;Lovell&Taylor,2013),healthbenefits(Brown&Jameton,2000;Bellows,Brown&Smit,2003)andclimatechangemitigation(Lwasaetal,2015;Dubbeling&deZeeuw,2011).

Despitelimitationstoproductivityandotherchallenges,urbanagriculturehasbeenassociatedwithotherpositivesocialandcommunityeffects.2Inastudyofurbanfarmermotivations,Dimitri,Oberholtzer&Pressman(2016)document“socialmissions”includingeducation,communitybuildingandfoodjustice.Andurbanagricultureisalsoconnectedtomobilizationaroundlandtenancyissues(Kennedy,2008;Roman-Alcalá,2015),orengagementwithandoccupationofcontestedspacesinurbanenvironments.Atraditionofpoliticallymotivated‘guerrillagardening’(Reynolds,2009)exists,especiallyintheUS,andisattimesapoliticalstatement,despiteitsusuallyfragmentedandindividualizedapproach.Empirically,however,thesocialimpactsofurbanagriculturehavebeenhardtocapture.Measurementtoolkitshavebeendeveloped(seeforexamplehttp://fiveboroughfarm.net/impact/),howeverdataaccumulatinghereismeanttojustifygardeningprojectstofundersandgovernmentsmoresothantoaccrueevidenceofspecificsocietalimpacts.Andassuchtheindicators(suchasnumberofparticipantsingardens)arenotdesignedtomeasureorlinkurbanagriculturetosocialchange.

Inparticular,thedemobilizingpotentialofurbanfoodactivismrequirescriticalattention,followingagrowingliteraturerevealingtheneoliberalunderbellyofalternativefoodmovements(seeforexampleGuthman,2006).Runningalongsidethepurportedbenefitsarecriticismsoftheroleurbanagricultureplaysinoffloadingstateprovisionofwelfaresupportonto,oftendisadvantaged,communities(Weissman,2014and2015;DeLind,2014;McClintock,2014).Notonlycanprogramspromotingurbanagricultureservetoresponsibilizeurbanactorswhoarealreadydisadvantagedwithinthefoodsystemto“feedthemselves,”italsopresentsanumberofstallingmechanismswhichmaybottleneckpotentialpathwaystoscalejumpingfromimmediateurbanconcernstoissueselsewherethefoodsystem.

Thewaythatpeopledirecttheirenergytowardsfoodsystemschangeisimportant.Somemayseebuyingorganicproduceandsupportingthemainstreamingoftheorganicsectorthroughthemarketasaformofethicalconsumerism(Johnston,2008).Othersmayinvestenergyintocampaigningtosaveacommunitygardenunderthreatofurbandevelopment(Kennedy,2008).In“citiesoftheglobalnorth,theveryvisiblegardenbattlesaretheexceptionsinthepoliticsofgardens,nottherule(Wekerle&Classens,2015:1179).Andbeyond

2Thisappliesmostlyinwealthynations,butalsoseeforthetransformationinCuba(Koont,2011).

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that,discoursestosavealocalgardenorfarmtellusverylittleabouturbanparticipationinotherfoodsystemsstrugglesthatmoresociallydistantbeyondtheurbansphereofexperience,suchaslandgrabbing,ruraldispossession,orexploitationofmigrantfarmworkers.Soalongsidethemobilizationthroughurbanagriculturecomes‘demobilizingtendencies’inurbanfoodmovements.Historicallythisparallelsagloballydispersed‘ruralexodus’thatbroughttheruralcountrysideintothecityinsearchofjobsinfactories,wheretheprospectsforurbanworkquelledruralunrestandcallsforafairerdistributionofpower,wealthandproperty.Todaytheprocesshasevolved,wecontend,inthatfoodmovements,whileakeylocusforpotentialfoodsystem,areembeddedwithinbroaderneoliberalstructuresthatlimittheirradicalpotential.Thislinkage,whichtiesurbanagriculturetothehistoryofurbanizationandagriculturaldevelopment,ismoreclearlyvisibleinhistoricaltermsthroughthelensofMarx’s‘metabolicrift.’

TheMetabolicRift:SeparationofCityandCountry

Ourapproachadoptsanurbanpoliticalecologyframe,inparticularinitsconsiderationoftheurbanexpressions,mechanismsanddynamicsinvolvedintheco-constitutionandreproductionofsocialrelationsandenvironmentalproblems.Firstweoutlineurbanpoliticalecologyasanemergingperspectiveandhighlightsomeofitsmainconcepts,narrowinginonacentralconceptinsocio-environmentalliterature,Marx’s‘metabolicrift.’Then,weconsidertheapplicabilityofthemetabolicrifttounderstandingthepracticeofurbanagriculture.Weofferascale-basedcritiquehereandposethequestionwhetherornotthisextendsbeyondurbanenvironmentsintoruralstrugglesforfoodsovereignty.

UrbanPoliticalEcologySwyngedouwcoinedthetermUrbanPoliticalEcologyin1996(Heynen2013).It’sbasedonpoliticalecology,aperspectivethatstudiesthepoliticaleconomyofenvironmentalproblems.Politicalecology’smaintaskhasbeentobringecologyintocriticalanalysisofsocialandpoliticalprocessesinunderstandingthelinksbetweenpowerimbalancesandthecommodification,transformationandconsumptionofnaturalecologiesandresources.Afterbriningthe‘environment’intocriticalpoliticalanalysis,adistinctstrandofpoliticalecologyscholarssoughttobringtheurbancontextintothedialogue.Thiswasbasedonsomeconceptualblindspotsinsocio-environmentalscholarship.UrbanPoliticalEcologicalscholarshipproblematizedthedistinctionbetweennatureandsocietyinearlyenvironmentalsociologicalwork,pointinginsteadtohownatureandsocietyarebothsociallyproduced.Thereisno‘nature’untouchedbysocialactivity,andallofsocietyismadeupoutofsocio-ecologicaltransformations.Forthisreason,theconceptofhybridityisofteninvokedtofocusontherelationsbetweensocialand

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ecologicalprocesses(Zimmer2010;Heynenetal2006).Thissplitbetweennatureandsocietymirrorsaboundarylineseparatingthecityfromcountry,wheretheconceptualizationofmetabolicrelationsbetweendifferentscalesofcapitalistproduction,andthecorrespondinginterests,powersandcontrolstructures,shapelandscapesfortheextractionandtransformationofresourcesthatmakeurban,andrural,lifepossible.Thisdistinctionbetween“urban”and“rural”spaces,bothphysicalandsocial,thereforehashistoricaloriginsinthedevelopmentofagriculturalrelationsthatemergedalongsideprocessesofindustrialization,urbanizationandtheconcentrationofwealthandcapitalistproductionincitiesandtowns.

Henceinurbanpoliticalecologicalscholarship,there’sarecognitionofaco-constitutionbetweentheseconceptuallydistinctplaces—therelationalboundingofurbanandruraltogetherasmetabolism,wheretheurbanfeedsontherural,positioningtheminunequalpositions.Urbanpoliticalecologyasaframeworkthenrecognizestheimpactthatthishistoricaldistinctionhasandcontinuestohave,theeconomiccausesofit,aswellaslookstoprocessestoreconnectthethetwo.ThisanalyticframeismostclearlyevidentintheheavyinfluenceofMarxistpoliticaleconomyandthenotionofaMetabolicRift,whichappearsinMarx’sthirdvolumeofcapitalwhereheidentifiedanopenloopinthatnutrientswerebeingdrawnoutofthesoilascropsgrewandwereendingupinurbansewagesystemsratherthanbeingcycledbackintothesoil(Marx,1967).Hepointedtohowcapitalismdroveurbanizationandtheindustrializationofagriculture,causingbothsoildepletionandurbanpollution.Successivetransformationsinspatialandeconomicorganizationhavedrivenaneverwideningrift.Fromtheenclosureofthecommons,totheurbanizationandprolitarianizationofthepeasantry,thestorycapturedbytheconceptofthemetabolicriftisonewherenaturebecomestransformed,withnegativeconsequences,forthebenefitofaswellinggeographicallyconcentratedpopulation.Thismeansthatincreasingly,foodneedstobebroughtinfromsurroundingproductivelandscapes.Aspacegrewbetweenwherefoodcomesfromandwhereitendsup,withtheeconomicandpoliticaldriversofagriculturalactivityandurbanconsumptionononesideandagriculturalactivityanditsimpactsontheother.Thisspacecanbethoughtofintermsof“distance”betweenwherefoodcomesfromandwhereitendsup,alongwithanincreasedefficiencyinmaintaining,throughabstractionofcommodificationandfinancializationoffoodmarkets,thatdistancetohidetheexternalitiesbehindgettingfoodintoconsumers’shoppingcarts(Clapp,2014).

AsSchneiderandMcMichael(2010)argue,theecologicaldimensionofthisriftismorecomplexthanwhatMarxhadpresented,notingthecomplexityofsoilhealthcannotbeboileddowntonutrientcontent.Butnotonlyisthisriftanecologicalone,it’salsoasocialone,recognizingthattheembodiedpracticeofecologicalproductionwasleftbehindduringurbanmigration.Alienationfromthelandhasimpliedacrisisnotonlyofecologybutalsoofknowledge,andasgenerationsof

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urbanworkersareincreasinglydistancedfromtheland,fromtheoncecommonlyheld‘foodliteracy’toproduceandpreparefood,andfromparticipationinagriculturalgovernance,anepistemicrifthasopenedseparating“theexperienceandknowledgeofhuman/naturerelations(orthepracticeofagro-ecology)fromtheconditionsofsociallifeundercapitalism”(Schneider&McMichael,2010:480-1).Thisseparationbetweentownandcountryhasintensifiedintotodayastheworldcontinuestourbanizeandasagriculturecontinuestoindustrialize(Reardon,BereuterandGlickman,2016).

UrbanAgricultureandClosingtheRift?

WefollowTornaghi2014’scallfora

criticalapproachwhichputsUAinitiativesinthecontextofspecificsociopolitical(andfood)regimes,andinvestigatestherolethattheyplayinthereproductionofcapitalism,inthetransformationofurbanmetabolicprocesses,andinthediscursive,politicalandphysicalproductionofnewsocio-environmentalconditions(553)

Asapracticethatstraddlestheconceptualspaceofurbanconsumptionandruralproduction,thetwospacesofactivitydividedbythemetabolicrift,whatrolemighturbanagricultureplayinclosingorrepairingit?NathanMcClintocksuggestedthattherearethreeformsofriftimpliedinmetabolicrifttheory,andthaturbanagricultureworkstoclosethemall(2010).Urbanagriculture,ifhighlyproductive,canhelpclosetheecologicalriftbylessoningtheextractionofnutrientsfromruralsoilsandevencyclingnutrientsbackandhealingthesoilthroughhumanurecaptureinurbanproductivespaces.Healsosuggeststhaturbanagriculturehistoricallyarisestolessenthenegativeimpactsofunbridledmarkets,andthereforeisaresponsetotheunfoldingofprimitiveaccumulation,thecommodificationofland,labourandfood.Urbanpovertyinsomeinstancescanbedampenedthroughsubsistenceurbanagricultureorthroughsupplementingdietswithfoodgrownathome.Andfinally,theseprocessesofcommodificationoflandandfoodandgenerationsofurbanizationisexperiencedonanindividuallevelintheformofalienationfromtheprocessofproducingfood,sointheglobalnorthwherefoodproductionisn’tnecessarilytheendgoalofurbanagriculture,itdoesserveto‘reconnecturbanfolkstonatureandtoagriculturalexperiencesoflabourandsubsistenceproduction.

Whileurbanagricultureprovidesanopportunityfordealienationandprotectionagainstenclosureandmarketforces,theactualpotentialfordecommodificationofnatureandlandthroughurbanagricultureislimitedinboththeGlobalNorthandSouth.Inurbanenvironmentswithhighlyvaluedproperty,landinterestsare

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powerfulanddrivetowardseconomicgrowth(Harvey&Molloch,2007),soanyattempttotransformpropertyrelationsinurbanenvironmentswithstrongwillbemetwithstrongresistancefromthestateandcapital.Inpoorerareas,theremightbemoreopportunityhere,whereintheGlobalNorththisisexpressedintheformoffoodjusticeactivismandguerillagardening,activitiesthatoperateininterstitialsocialspaces.However,inurbanareasintheSouth,arguablywheredecommodificationmightmakethebiggestimpactinsuturingthesocialrift,thereisn’tenoughspacetochallengeexistingeconomicrelationsatameaningfulscale(Badami&Ramankutty,2015).Thatbeingsaid,anestablishedscholarshippointstourbanspacesasbothepicentersofcapitalaccumulationononehandandthepivotalpointsfortheformationofrevolutionarypoliticsandmovements(Castells1983;Harvey,2009).Doesurbanagricultureplayarolehere?

TheUrbanFoodSovereigntyQuestion:FromAgrarianCitizenshiptoUrbanAgrarianism?

Urbanagriculturemayfactorintoclosingthegapbetweenurbanandruralasaformofagrariancitizenship(Wittman,2009AandB).LaVíaCampesina,thetransnationalpeasantorganization,bridgesurbanandruralsubjectivitiesthroughpracticesofagroecologyandthecreationofalternativemarketrelations(2009B).Thefoodsovereigntymovementisanexampleofreframingofwhohastherighttomakedecisionsandexertpoweroveraterritory.Inchallengingpowerinstitutions,suchasthestate,andlargecorporateinterest,foodsovereigntymovementscarriesaradicalizationofanewpoliticalsubject:thecollectiveagrariancitizen.Inthisway,foodsovereigntyengageswithandexpandshorizonofcitizenship.Whilecitizenship,asapoliticalconcept,isoftenevokedinitsWestphalian,nation-statecentredform,referringoftheconferringofrightsandimposingobligationswithinasocialcontract(the‘Marshallian’conceptualizationofcitizenship),agrariancitizenshipdescribesanalternativebasisforpoliticalparticipationintransnationalmovementsforfoodsovereignty.It’sthecollectivesubjectivityforaglobalizingsocialmovement,whatgivesfoodsovereigntyavoicecallingforthetransformationoffoodsystem,entailingbothanadvocacyforpeasantaccesstoproductiveresourcesandthetransitiontowardsmoresustainableagriculturethroughagroecology.

Foodsovereigntyasasocialmovementseekstoaddressfood-relatedstruggles,whichoriginallywerefocusedonruralspacesingeographictermsfoughtwith,byandonbehalfofruralpeople.Thatbeingsaidthemovementismulti-scaleinoriginandimpetus(Bowness&Desmarais,2016;Iles&DeWitt,2015).Thisistosaythatthediscourseoffoodsovereigntyemergedinthe1990sasruralandurbanfolksinboththeglobalSouthandNorthcametogetherinarticulatingavisiontochallengestatepoliciesandcorporatepowerinthepoliticaleconomyoffood.Nowthediscourseoffoodsovereigntyhasspreadtourbanenvironmentsas

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well(Blocketal.2011;Laidlaw&Magee,2015;Davila&Dyball,2015).Someissuesarisinginurbandiscussionoffoodsovereigntyincludeaccesstoecologicallyandlocallyproducedfoodthatrespectstherightsofindigenouspeoples,thenotionofacommonsandtherighttoproducefoodinurbanspacesandmakeafairwage.Thereisaresonancehere,expressedintheurbancontext,towhathavebeencharacteristicallyconstructedas‘rural’foodsovereigntystruggles:Strugglesoveraccessland,overenvironmentalconditions,overstateregulations,andmarketconstrictions.Wenametheseaffinitiesandsocialprocessesofalignmenturbanagrarianism.

UrbanAgrarianism:FromFoodLiteracytoFoodCitizenshipFoodsovereigntymovements,suchasLaVíaCampesinaandtheMSTinBrazil,callonurbanpeoplesforactsofsolidarityinrelationtoagrarianstruggles,seekingsupportersfordemonstrations,declarations,landoccupationsandpolicyproposals.Urbanagriculturemayconnect,throughadialecticalrelationship,thecityandcountrytohelpsupportthispathway,wherethe“citygoestothecountry”inexperiencing‘rural’conditionswithincitylimitsconceptuallyandthen,physicallybygettinginvolvedinsocialmovementsandpolicymobilization.Inthissense,foodproductioninandaroundcitiesandtownsmightstimulateagrarianismwhichinturncanfeedintoagrariancitizenship.

Agrarianismisadiscoursethatvalorizesself-sufficiency,relianceandsimplicity(Carlisle,2013).A‘new’agrarianismtodayisevidentinplacessuchasBritishColumbiainCanadawheresocialgroupssuchastheYoungAgrariansendorsefarmlandprotectionmeasuresthatstifleunbridledeconomicdevelopmentandurbansprawlaswellasprovidesupportforcommunity-basedformsoffarmlandmanagementthatenablesyoungergenerationsoffarmerstosecuretenureamidstincreasinglandvalues(Wittman,Dennis&Pritchard2017).Thenewagrariansalsocarryoutamandateinfindingandsupportingemergingfarmerslivingincitieswhoarelookingtoearnalivelihoodinsociallyandecologicallyresponsibleagriculturebyparticipatinginlandaccessstruggles.Thisdrawingofurbanenergyoutintoruralspaceswhilesimultaneouslytransitioningindustrialagriculturetoorganicorlow-impactfarmingandprotectingfarmlandispartofaruraltransitionisonerural-urbanconfluenceinthestruggleforfoodsovereignty.

Asurbanspacesareafocalpointforsocialchangeandthemyriadofruralissuesamidstincreasingurbanization,urbanagrarianism,ortheurbanprioritizationofconcernsforfoodproducersinthecountryside,isalsoneededtosupportfoodsovereignty.Basedontheideaof‘transformativefoodactivism’(Levkoe,2011),urbanagrarianismkindlesaconceptualethicofcareforlandintheurbanconsciousness,expandingthespaceofengagementwiththefoodsystembeyondurbanspacesofconsumptionandtocritiquethelocalfocusofmuchofcontemporaryfoodmovements.Inthissense,inanidealformurbanagrarianism

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isaculturaldiffusion,andurbanideology.Urbanagrarianismdevelopsthroughandwithfoodliteracy,food-system/criticalfoodliteracyandfoodcitizenship.

FoodLiteracy

WendellBerryfamouslylamentedthe“industrialeater[…]whodoesnotknowthateatingisanagriculturalact,whonolongerknowsorimaginestheconnectionsbetweeneatingandtheland,andwhoisthereforenecessarilypassiveanduncritical—inshort,avictim”(1992:375).Thischaracterizationisofthefoodilliterate.Startingfromtheperspectiveofindividuals,thedesiretochangethefoodsystemstartswithunderstandingfoodanddevelopingarelationshipwithit,withknowingwhatweeat.Thisunderstanding,knowledgeofandconnectiontofoodisvariouslydescribedas‘foodliteracy.’Emergingfromtherobustliteratureonhealthliteracy,foodliteracy,foodliteracyhasbeendefinedasa“collectionofinter-relatedknowledge,skillsandbehavioursrequiredtoplan,manage,select,prepareandeatfoodtomeetneedsanddetermineintake”(Vidgen&Gallegos,2014:54).Foodliteracyinthissensereferstopracticalknowledgeassociatedwiththebiologicalnecessityofeatingforhealthydevelopmentandthepreventionofdisease.

Knowledgeaboutconsumingfoodsisn’tlimitedinfocustonutrition.Foodliteracyalsoexistswithinacontextofculturalnorms(Fieldhouse1995).Howfoodispreparediscultural,asiswhatfoodsareavailableandwhenandhowtheyshould/canbeeaten,andthemeaningsimbuedinthem.Foodmeansmorethanjustnutrition,it’sasocialpracticeandsomedefinitionsoffoodliteracytakethatintoconsideration.Therealsothepracticalskillsassociatedwithbeingabletoproducefood,togrowedibleplantsandtoraiseanimalsforfood.Foodproductionisalsoasetof‘inter-relatedknowledge,skillsandbehaviours’whichindividualscanhavemoreorlessofinagivenproductioncontext.

Food-SystemLiteracyandCriticalFoodLiteracy

Foodliteracyasdefinedabovereferstoafairlylimitedspectrumofactivity:thepurchasingandhandlingoffooditemsforconsumption.Whilethisbaseconnectiontofoodisarguablyessentialtobeingacommittedparticipantinthemovementtobuildadifferentfoodssystem,otherdefinitionsbroadenthescopetoknowledgeaboutthefoodsystemtoincludetheproduction,processing,distributionorwastemanagement.“Foodsystemliteracy”involvesdevelopingknowledgeatatleastthreedifferentscales:thebiologicalandphysicalproperties,socialrelationsandglobalsupplychains(Widener&Karides2014).Andsoquestionsbeyondpersonalhealthimpactscanbroadenthescopein

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understandingthebroaderimplicationsoffood.InaqualitativeexplorationofknowledgesharingwithinthefoodmovementinSouthFlorida,YamashitaandRobinson(2014)identifiedthreesensitiveissues:GMOs,climatechangeandfarmworkerjustice.Andsofoodsystemliteracy,asdefinedhere,emergesfromengagingwithquestionssuchas:Whataretheimpactsforthefarmerswhoproducedit?Whatroledoesgeneticmodificationandnewagriculturaltechnologiesplayinfoodsecurityandecologicalstability?Howdoesagriculturalproductionaffecttheclimate,locallyandglobally?

Implicitincriticalfoodliteracyisarecognitionofthesocialinequitiesinthefoodsystem,whichismoreprominentinthedefinitionofferedbyYamashita&Robinson(2016),whodefinecriticalfoodliteracyas

theabilitytoexamineone’sassumptions,grapplewithmultipleperspectivesandvaluesthatunderliethefoodsystem,understandthelargersociopoliticalcontextsthatshapethefoodsystem,andtakeactiontowardcreatingjust,sustainablefoodsystems(269)

Ehlert&Voßemer(2015)arguefortakinganactor-orientedapproachtoconceptualizingfoodsovereignty,whereeachactor’slife-worldisaspaceinwhichfood-systemchallengesmanifestthroughmicronegotiationswithothers,policies,institutionsandecologicalconditions.Takingthisapproachconsidersindividualpeople(forexample,urbanfarmers,consumers,activistsandpolicyactors)askeyactorsinfoodsovereigntyandtakesintoaccounttheirlivedrealitiesintheirday-to-dayexperiencesaswellastheiractivitiesinthevariousinstitutionalrolestheyplay.Butit’salsoimportanttoconsidercollectiveactorsaswell(institutions,organizations),suchasnon-profits,branchesofgovernment,farmsandeducationalinstitutions.

Doesurbanagricultureholdpotentialforrepairingthemetabolicrift,bringingthecitytothecountrybyfosteringurbanagrarianism?Doesurbanagriculturegrowcriticalfoodorfood-systemsliteracywhichinturnfeedsagrariancitizenship?Ourinterrogationintowhetherandhowthetheoreticalandpracticalreachoffoodsovereigntyextendsintourbancontextsthroughurbanagricultureaddressesthefollowinginterrelatedquestions:

1) areurbanagrarianismandruralagrariancitizenshipdifferentidentityframes,ifsohowandwhattensionsexistbetweenthem?

2) whatprocessesofurbanagricultureradicalizeandwhichonesderadicalizeurbanactors?

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3) amongdifferenturbanactors,doesthepracticeofurbanagriculturemaintainconceptualseparationsofnature/society,urban/rural,producer/consumerordissolvethosebinaries,andtowhateffectforurbanagrarianism?

4) inwhatwayshasurbanagrarianismadvancedandhinderedfoodsovereigntyasapoliticalproject?

Inunpackingtheconceptofurbanagrarianism,ourpaperbeginstoclarifythe‘urbanquestion’withintheglobalstruggleforfoodsovereignty.

CaseStudyDevelopment

ThroughthedevelopmentofcasestudiesofurbanagricultureinitiativesthatdeploythelanguageoffoodsovereigntyinCanadaandBrazil,ourprojectisexploringif,howandtowhatextenturbanagriculturecan“closetherift”bydiscursivelyandmateriallymobilizingtheurbanintoagrarianstrugglesrelatedtosocialandecologicaljusticeandfoodsovereignty.Thesecasestudiesarepreliminary/pilotcases.Theseobservationsaredrawnfromthepasttwoyearsofformalandinformalparticipantobservation,interviewsandfocusgroupsinWinnipegVancouver,andFlorianopolis.

TheSouthOsbornePermacultureCommonsinWinnipeg,MB,isanetworkofeducationalandproductivegardenspaces,programsandevents.TheCommonsinvolvesavarietyactorsandinstitutions,buttwoinparticularhaveemergedastakingonamanagementrole:SustainableSouthOsborne(SSO)andtheSouthOsbornePermacultureWorkers’Cooperative.SSOhasthemandateof‘fosteringacultureofsustainabilityandresilienceintheneighbourhood’(www.SouthOsborneCommons.com).Thegroupstartedin2009,inthefirstfewyears,thefairlymodestinitiativeamountedtogardeningprograms,alocalfoodbuyingclubandafewfundraisingeventsandlocalmarkets.In2012theyunderwentabroadeningofmandatealongwithanamechangeandbroadermandatetofostera“cultureofsustainabilityandresilienceintheneighbourhood”througheducationandcommunity-basedurbanagriculture.

WhileSSOhostsafewsmallereventsduringWinnipeg’slongwinterwhenthegardensarenotinoperation,mostoftheirworkhappensduringthegrowingseason.SSO’sprimaryresponsibilityinmanagingtheCommonsissecuringaccesstospaceandfindingandallocatingresourcestodevelopagriculturesites(inparticular,infindinggrantfunding).Theyalsocoordinatefundraisingefforts,suchastheperennialSouthOsborneHarvestDinnerwhichfeeds175communitymembersamealbothservedandgrowninthecommunityorchardhostedbyafewpopularlocalrestaurants.

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Thegardensitessitonpublically-ownedland(mostoften,CityofWinnipegparkspace).SSOentersagreements–sometimesformal,sometimesinformal–withgroupsandindividualswhoshareastakeintheland,andthenusesthespacetohosteducational‘GardenClubs,’andtogrowproduceeithertodonatetolocalorganizationswhosupportlower-incomefolksorforsale.Whennewspacesneedtobedeveloped,partoftheexpansionworkisdonebyvolunteersinthecommunity,andotherpartsaredonethroughacommunity-basedappliedcourseofferedthroughtheUniversityofManitoba’sDepartmentofSociologycalled‘BuildingaCommons.’

In2015theexpansionofexistingsitesbecametoomuchofaheavyburdentomanagebyvolunteerandstudentinvolvementalone.SSOdevelopedanurbanfarmingsocialenterprise,theSouthOsbornePermacultureWorkers’Cooperative(SOPWC),whowouldberesponsibleformanagingthefoodproductionandgardenclubsatthesites.Membersoftheco-op,deemed‘GardenStewards,’wouldtakeontheroleofdesigningnewspaces,overseeingtheirconstruction,managingexistinggardens,hostingtheGardenClubs,distributingfoodtoparticipantsandsocialjusticeagencies,andsellingproducetopaytheirwages.Thislastpartiskey,asamajorpartoftheSOPWC’smissionistomakeurbanfarmingaviablecareer.Theworkerco-opalsofollowspermacultureprinciplestotheextentthattheycan,focusingonsoilbuildingandgrowingtechniquesthat,asmuchaspossible,growbothhealthyfoodandlandscapes.

In-depth-interviewswiththeparticipantsintheCommons(n=6)andtwofocusgroups(n=12)duringthispilotresearchalsoindicatedthatthegroupismixedwithrespectofseeingthemselvesasadvancingfoodsovereignty.Someinthegroupsawaccessingpubliclandforeducationalandsocialentrepreneurialgoalsasaformof‘sovereignty’inthefaceofconstraintbyexternalpressures,suchasmunicipalregulation.AlthoughgenerallytheframeemployedbythoseintheCommonsmorecloselyalignedwiththeideaofeducationandsharingspaceratherthancontrollingaccesstoitandreclaimingproductiveresources.

VancouverUrbanFarmingSocietyandFarmFolkCityFolk

Vancouver,BC,hasrecentlybecomesomethingofahotspotforeco-initiatives,especiallysince2010whenthemunicipalgovernmentcommittingtobeingtheworld’sGreenestCityby2020(ValleyandWittman,2016).Amongtheplansforrealizingthisgoalisthecity’sfoodstrategy,withastrongemphasisonurbanagriculture.Thesameyearthatthemayordeclaredthisambitiousgoal,theVancouverUrbanFarmingSocietywasformedas:

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anetworkofurbanfarmersthataimstoadvanceurbanfarminginVancouverthroughpublicoutreachandpolicydevelopment.ThesocietyhasacloserelationshipwiththeVancouverFoodPolicyCouncilandoftencollaborateswithCitystaffforeducationalurbanfarmtours,policyconsultation,andoutreachtodemonstrateandpromotepolicyrelatedinitiatives(86).

UrbanagricultureorganizationsinVancouver‘gobeyond’foodproductioninthattheirmotivationsarediverseandrangefromimprovingfoodliteracyamongparticipantstopromotingsocialjusticeandcommunityfoodsecurity.AnorganizationintheBCcontextthatlinksurbanandruralspacesthroughagriculturalpracticeisthenon-profitFarmFolkCityFolk(FFCF),agroupthat

workstocultivatealocal,sustainablefoodsystem.Ourprojectsprovideaccessto&protectionoffoodlands;supportlocalgrowersandproducers;andengagecommunitiesinthecelebrationoflocalfood(FFCF2016)

ThroughanarrangementbetweenFFCFandtheLandConservancyofBC,alandtrust,FFCFmanagesthe‘CommunityFarmsNetwork’which:

1. Supporttheadvancementofmodelsof“sharedfarmingonsharedland”andalternativelandownership

2. Tocontributetotheprotectionofworkingagriculturalandfood-producinglands,

3. Tosupportfarmlandaccessfornewfarmers

Toadvancesustainable,community-ledandsociallyembeddedmodelsoffarmlandownership,access,governanceandproductioninBC,theCFPsupportslinkingfarmerswithurbansupporters,throughthecreationoffarmer-to-farmerandfarmer-to-consumersupportopportunities,andthroughhostinganannualroundtableforcommunityfarmers(FFCF,2014).FFCFboastsamongitsprojectsamicroloanprogramwithno-interestloansavailabletoproducers,aseedsecurityprogramto“maintainandexpand”plantdiversity,alocalfoodhubthatservesasanonlinemarketplaceandcentraldeliverysiteforanetworkoffarmersnearmetroVancouvertocommercialbuyers,adiverseeventseriesandanetworkof‘YoungAgrarians’whosupportyouthandfarminginBC.

Florianopolis,Brazil

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notefordraft:ThisthirdcasestudycontextinBrazilisintheearlystagesofdevelopment…

Asoneofthefirstfederalgovernmentstoenshrinefoodsovereigntyinitsconstitution,BrazilhasanextensivenationalfoodstrategyimplementedatthestatelevelthroughFoodandNutritionalSecurityCouncils(orCONSEA).TheCONSEAinSantaCatarina,arelativelyeconomicallywell-offregionintheSouthEast,hasestablishedaworkinggrouponUrbanAgriculturethatisrapidlyadvancinginnovativepolicysuggestionsforincreasingtheviabilityandscopeofurbanagricultureintheregion.CEPAGRO(CentrodeEstudosePromoçãodaAgriculturadeGrupo,ortheCentrefortheStudyandPromotionofGroupAgriculture),anon-profitorganizationaffiliatedwiththestateuniversity.CEPAGRO’sorganizationaltaglinetranslatedmeans“agroecologyforthehealthofmankind[sic],earthandinthecity.”Inadditiontoplayingakeyroleintheworkinggrouponurbanagriculture,CEPAGROalsocoordinatesacityurbancompostingprogramcalledthe“RevoluçãodosBaldinhos”ofthe‘revolutionofbuckets.’]

AgrarianCitizenshipinUrbanContexts

Foodsovereigntystrugglesinurbanandruralareascansharethesamefundamentalprincipleofchangingsocialrelationsaroundfood,rootedontheprinciplesofdemocraticempowerment,ecologicalsustainabilityandsocialequity.Agrariancitizenshipisasharedidentityframeandpoliticalsubjectivitytakenupbydiversesocialmovementactorsfightingforfoodsovereigntyinruralareas.Momentuminthefoodsovereigntymovement,however,dependsonwidespreadurbanparticipationkeepingpacewithurbanizationandtheprogressionofinterlinkedchallengesforfoodproduction.Agrariancitizenshipspansurbanandrural,withmovementparticipantssituatedinandacrossbothscales.Urbanagrarianism,ontheotherhand,existsasaculturalideologyormovementinurbanenvironments.Thismakesthemseparateyetoverlappingidentityframes,relatedinthaturbanagrarianismscanbringurbanenergyintoagrariancitizenship,raisingfoodissuesinurbanenvironmentswheredecision-makingandsocialmovementpowerprimarilyresides.

Someurbanagriculturistsconsidertheirpracticeaformoffoodactivism(Counihan&Siniscalchi,2013).Inanoftquoteddefinition,permaculturalistscalltheirpractice“revolutiondisguisedasgardening,”theterm‘guerillagardening’evokesimagesofsocialrebellionandcivilunrest,andintypologyofurbanagriculture,McClinktock(2014)includesa“radical”variantthatexpressesideals

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suchasthe‘righttothecity’and‘foodjustice.’However,inthecasestudiesexaminedhere,thedegreetowhichurbanagriculturehasyetproducedsubstantialsocialchangeisnegligible,althoughtherearesomereasonstoseepotentialintheformofsocialmovementmobilization.Whiledefinitionsofsocialmovementsdiffer,mostagreeonthecentralityofanintendedpoliticaloutcomepursuedoutsideoftherealmofthepoliticalsystem,andsotheframingofasocialproblemiscentraltoasocialmovement.Acollectiveactionframeisasetofdiscursiveresourcesthatdefinetheintendedchange,helpingparticipantsknowwhatisatissueandhowtobringaboutabetterworld.Theframedesignatesacollectiveactor,anagentofchange,andservesasacalltoactiontomobilizeforit.Inthecasesexaminedhere,urbanagricultureprovidesameansofaframeconstructiontoconnecturbanandruralsturggles.

Anadditionaltwoideasdrawnfromsociologicalliteratureusefulheretoconceptualizingurbanagrarianism:identityinsocialmovementparticipationandsocialnetworks.Oneoutcomeofframingisthecreationofcategoriesofbeliefandbelonging,socialgroupingsof‘we’and‘them.’Theconstructionofashareddefinitionoftheproblemandoutliningpossibleavenuesforcollectiveactioncreatesthisseparationandsimultaneouslythecreationofacollectivesubject.Thiscanunifyanaggregatearoundasharedsenseofparticipation,obligationorinjustice.Alargestrandofsocialmovementconceptsandstudiesfocusonthiselementofcollectiveidentity–itsformationandmanagementandhowidentitycanbeadrivingforceforpoliticalchange(Polletta&Jasper,2001;Simon&Klandermans,2001).Asidefromthesubjectiveelementsofsocialmovements,inobjectivetermstheyrefertopatternsofrelationshipsbetweenactors,bothindividualandcollectiveengagedinchange-making.Asocialmovementthencanbethoughtofasarelativelystablesetofconnections,orinteractionsbetweenthosewhichtheframeisadvancedbyandfor,whileatthesametimebeingaconnectionwithaprocessofstruggleagainstsomeopposingforceorstate.

Urbanagriculturecanlinktomovementsforchangeaffectingextra-urbanspacesinthatprinciples,practicesandvaluesrelatedtoagrariancitizenshipareexpressedinurbansettings:asconsumersandurbanfarmersarticulateandre-assertagrarian“identities,knowledges,positionsandpoliticalstruggles”(Roman-Alcalá,2015).Forinstance,theidentityofan‘urbanfarmer’placesasenseofstewardshipofthelandintheurbancontextofcomplexlanduserelations,restrictionsandtensions.Participantsinanurbanagriculturenetworkorcommunitygardenmayalsodevelopasharedidentityasacollective.Forinstance,formalmembershipinanorganization,oreveninformaltiestoagroupofgardenerscanprovideasenseofbelongingandconnectionthroughsocialrelationstobasedefinitionsofproblemsandproposalsforsocialchange.Further,urbanfarmingidentitiesalsoincorporatetheroleoffoodsystemseducator,wheretheyoften“seektodemonstratethatenvironmentallyandsociallyresponsiblefoodproductionispossible”(Valley&Wittman,2016:56).

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It’sbecomingincreasinglyrecognized,forinstance,thatlandaccessisamajorissueforurbanagriculture(Wekerle&Classens2015).Thereareaffinitiesintheexperiencesofhardshipofurbanfarmers,gardenersandactivistsandthoseofruralproducers,althoughtheintensitymaybequitedifferent.Whiletheexclusionfromaccesstolandforpeasantproducerscanbelifethreatening,urbanaccessintheGlobalNorthismorelikelytoresultinalossofincomeorcommunityspace.Thestruggleforlandandaccesstoresources,orstrugglesagainstthestatecansharearesonancebetweenurbanandruralfarms.Thestruggleforlandsovereignty(Roman-Alcalá,2015)mightalignacollectiveidentityurbanagriculturistsandfarmerswhoaccessagriculturallandinthefaceoffarmconglomerationandrisinglandvalues.

AndsowithFFCFandtheCommunityFarmsPrograminBCthereisadeliberateconnectionlinkingurbanproducerstoruralspacesinanorganizedefforttoaddresstheissueoflandtenuresecurityforfarmers.Whilenotalways,implicithereisanassumptionthaturbanagriculturecanfeedintothestreamfromcitytofarmbysupportingfood,oragricultural,literacy.Urbanagricultureorganizationsalsocanserveasnetworkinghubsthatlinkacrosstootherorganizations–formalandinformal,interstitialandsymbiotic(touseWright’sterminology,2010),stateandnon-state.Suchorganizationsmayserveasabridgebetweenruralandurbanintheirconnectiontourbanagriculturalorganizationsmayserveasaportalforurbanmobilization.InManitoba,theHarvestMoonSocietyforinstanceisanon-profitorganizationinthesouth-westernpartoftheprovincebasedoutofthesmallruralmunicipality(population<100).Theycanalsoserveasmembersonfoodpolicycouncilsformingalinkbetweenurbanagricultureasapracticeandpolicydecisionsaboutthefoodsystem.Theorganizationhostsanannualmusicfestival,isthehometoalearningcentreandpermaculturedemonstrationgardeninthelocalelementaryschoolwhichwhenclosedthemunicipalitysoldtotheHMS,andafoodbuyingclubforanetworkof16directmarketingsmall-farmsintheregion.TwouniversitycoursesbringstudentsouttoClearwatertoconnectwithfoodproductionandruralstrugglesthroughtheHarvestMoonSociety:LivinginRuralEnvironmentsandCommunitiesandBuildingaCommons,whichconnectsSSOtoRuralManitoba.

UrbanAgrarianism’sBinaries

Anurbanpoliticalecologicalapproachtothestudyofurbanagricultureraisessomequestions:doesurbanagriculturemaintainconceptualseparationsofnature/society,urban/rural,producer/consumerordissolvethosebinaries,andtowhateffectforurbanagrarianism?BasedontheirethnographicfieldworkintheNorthEasternUnitedStates,MincyteandDobernig(2016)suggestthaturbanagriculturereducessocialdistancecausedbythemetabolicriftthrough‘experientialproduction,’“reconnectingparticipantstonature”and

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decommodfyingagriculturallabourthroughsimulationsoffarmconditionsforvolunteers.Thephysicalspaceofagardensiteitselfblursthedivisionbetweennatureandsocietyinthatnaturalinputs(thesun,precipitation)aswellasnaturalprocessesshapedbypeople(suchascompostingandseedstarting),makethedistinctionbetweennatureandsocietylesscleartoparticipants.Thisbecomesevenmorepronouncedinperi-urbanagriculturesites,orruralcommunitygardensitessuchastheHarvestMoonLearningCentreinClearwaterMB,in‘urban’environmentssurroundedmorecloselybyopengreenandagriculturalspacesorrurality.Recognitionofafarm’sdependenceonbiologicalprocesses,soilhealthandastableclimateembedshumanactivitywithinabroadereconomyofnature.Butatthesametime,theappealofurbanagricultureprovidesanopportunityto‘reconnect’tonature,therebyreinforcingtheseparationbetweennatureandsocietyinsuggestingthatnatureissomethingthatwecanreconnectto.Andsoawidespreadurbanagrarianismwoulddispersebothrecognitionofsocietyaspartofnature,whileatthesametimeseparatefromit.

Thebasicpremiseofthemetabolicriftisthatindustrializationandurbanizationcauseenvironmentalandsocialproblemsinruralareaswhichremaininvisibletothoseinurbanenvironments,andtheliteratureonurbanagricultureaswellascasestudiesunderdevelopmenthereshowhowtheseissuesareexpressedinurbanspacesaswell.Tensionsoverlandaccess,pollutionaffectingsoilconditions,collapsesthedistinctionbetweencityandcountryforthosewhogrowfoodincitiesandprovidesurbanpeopleaframeofreferencethatconnectstoruralspaces.Thiscanhelpinthedevelopmentofagrariancitizenshipinurbanenvironmentswhereurbanandruralidentitiesmergeinasharedcollectiveactionframeagainstsimilarstruggles.

It’shardtotellhow‘selfsufficient’urbanfarmersareasthatdatadoesnotexist.Itisreasonabletoexpectthatmosturbanfarmersdonotproducealloftheirownfood,anddependonthemarketforfoodprovisioning.Growersarethereforebothproducersandconsumersoffood,whichmayormaynotbecommodifiedinthemarket.Further,asurbanfarmsareeducationalandvolunteer-oriented,thosethatinvolveparticipantsinmanagementdecisionsalsoblursubjectpositions,integratingurbanconsumersintoametabolicprocess,albeitonafairlylimitedscale.Thiscollapsingofsubjectpositions,aswiththenature/culture,urban/ruraldividesmighthelpinrelatingurbanactorstoasharedagrarianidentityframe.

UrbanAgriculture’sDemobilizingTendencies

Thisisthemeltingpotwhereurbanagrarianismcandevelop,butalsoinpotentiallycontradictingways.Whilethereisreasontobelievethaturbanagriculturecanbeacatalystforchange,ontheotherhandurbanagriculturealso

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hasthepotentialtodemobilizeurbansocialenergyfromleavingthecitybacktothecountry.Andthetensionshereinemergenturbanagrarianismsareexpresseddifferentlyacrossanumberofinterrelatedurbanactorpositions(farmer,gardener,consumer,activist,andpolicy-maker).

McClintock(2014),citingPudup,AllenandGuthman,suggests“thegooddeedsoforganisedurbanagricultureprojects,likeotherAFNs,actuallybolsterneoliberalismbyprovidingfoodtothosehithardestbytheroll-backofthewelfarestate”(156).Suchfoodjusticemaylessentheblowdealtbycapital’sinequalitybutfailstoaddressrootsystemicandhistoricalcausesofpovertyandracism.Thealternativefoodmovementhas,inthissense,beendismissedfortheexclusionarytendenciesof“progressivewhiteness”(Slocum2007)or‘elitistfoodie-ism,’potentiallydivertingenergyandresourcesawayfromparticipationinradicalpeasantstruggles.Andsoforfarmersandgardeners,activistsandpolicymakers,urbanagriculturemayservetopacifypotentialparticipantsinmoreradicalsocialmovements.

Orcollectiveactionconnectedtourbanagriculturemayorganizeforthe‘wrongtarget.’Inthetheproposaltodevelopnew‘green’trendy(andexclusive)“agrarian-urbanism”inspiredneighborhoods,forexample,lowdensityhousingpepperedwithfoodproductionthroughout“couldneverrepresentalivingsolutionforeveryone,butratheraprivilegeforafew”(Tornaghi,2014:516).TheTransitionTownmovement,alocalizationmovementaddressingtheinterlinkedchallengesofpeakoil,climatechangeandglobalfinancialinstability(Hopkins,2009),hasbeencritiquedanexampleofthis,wheretheproposaltocreate‘resilient’self-reliantecotownsareviewedaselitistandexclusionary.SustainableSouthOsborneiscloselyconnectedwiththeTransitionMovement,withoverlappingmembersparticipatinginSSOandinTransitionWinnipegactivities,andadoptsthroughTWthelanguageofresilienceandlocalization.Thesevaluesorvirtuesappearthroughouturbanagriculturalpracticeasparticipantsandorganizationsstrivetobepartofthemakingofamoresustainable‘local’foodsystem.Failingtotakeabroaderscalefallsinto‘thelocaltrap,’praisingtheassumedecologicalandjusticesuperiorityofthatwhichisnearirrespectiveoftheactualperformancealongtheselines(Born&Purcell,2006).Focusingonthelocalandfailingtoadopta‘reflexivelocalism’failsontheotherelementsofdevelopingwhatCharlesLevkoecallsa“transformativefoodpolitics,”asitnecessarilylimitsthescopeofanalysistoasubsetofthewiderfoodsystemanddoesnotincluderuralproducersintheidentityframe(2011).Infocusingonthelocal,andproductionwithinthecity,considerationofmoreremoteissuesinthefoodsystemfallawayasanurbanagrarianismleadstoa‘buryourheadsinthesand’responseto‘external’problemsthreateningsustainablefood.

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Severalurbanagricultureinitiatives,likeSustainableSouthOsborneinWinnipeg,usethediscourseof‘thecommons,’whichhasrootsasaradicalproposalfordecommodificationoffoodandland.TheSouthOsbornePermacultureCommonsisaspacethathasasetofcommunity-basedmanagementrelationsthathaveemergedorganicallyfromacommunityofusers,embeddedwithinanetworkstructurethatincludesanumberofdifferentpositions(suchasgardenclubparticipant,gardensitesteward,memberofSustainableSouthOsborne,ormemberofanaffiliatedorganizationwhosharesgardenspacecontainedwithinthecommonssuchaslocalschools,communitycentersoracommunitygardensociety).Overtheyears,ruleshaveformalizedaroundwhatcountsasacceptableandunacceptableuseofthesharedfoodgrownonsite.However,thisisonlyonelayerofsovereigntyoverthefoodproducingresourcesandtheland.Thegroupsstilloperateunderregulationbymunicipalbranchesofgovernment,whocaneasilyrevokethetenuousarrangementtousethespace.Aconflictisalreadydevelopingovertherighttosellfoodproducedonpublicland,whereasthenon-profitorganizationhascreatedasisterworker-co-opwiththemandateofstewardingthelandusingrevenuefromproducesoldtopayitsmembers.UndermunicipalregulationinWinnipeg,thisisn’tstrictlyallowed,andnoprogresshasbeenmadeinamendingexistingregulations.Thishasleadtoareorganizationoftheworkerco-op,wherethegrouphastakenonmoreofaneducationalroleinthecommons,providingworkshopsanddemonstrationstogeneraterevenuetopaywages.However,thisisalsopartofabendingtotheneoliberalizationofthefoodmovementinWinnipeginthatSSOhasadopteda‘socialenterprise’modelwhilestillusingthelanguageofacommons.Foodgrowninthecommonsisnowfeaturedinaperennialfundraisingeventhostedbythecity’stopchefs,makingtheorganizationmoreorganizationallysuccessful,whileadoptingamore‘mainstream’identity.Therefore,thefringesofthenotionofashared,decommodifiedcommunalresourcehasstartedtofray,whileatthesametimetheorganizationisarguablymoresuccessfulinpursuingitsmandatetoincreaseurbanagricultureinthecommunity.Thecommonsisalsocontextualizedwithinaverynon-decommodifiedpoliticaleconomyandaresubjecttootherconstraintsinadditiontostateregulation,someeconomic(asincompetingagainstotherlandinterests,likeproposalstousethespaceforthecreationofaparkinglotforanearbyhospital)andotherscultural(asinneighbourhoodrejectionofthe‘messiness’ofafarmsiteinaresidentialneighborhood).

Concludingnotes

Whatwayshasurbanagrarianismadvancedandhinderedfoodsovereigntyasapoliticalproject?Foodsovereigntyasaglobalmovementwasmadepossiblethroughtheinterconnectionsbetweenurbanandruralactorsinthearticulationofavisonforsocialchange.Urbanmovementactors,policyallies,urbanandruralproducersandageneralpublicofprotestmixesinamulti-scalaragrariancitizenshipoperatingonbothurbanandruralfronts.Urbanparticipationhas

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beeninstrumentalinthisregard.Networkinghubsforlocalorganizations,centresforprotests,majorinstitutionalheadquartersandsummitshaveallbeenurban-basedwithmassurbanparticipation,energyandresources.Agrariancitizenshipthereforehasbeenpartiallyurbanbased,andweargueholdspotentialtorevitalizefoodsovereigntyindiversecontexts.However,givenurbanagriculture’sdemobilizingtendenciesoutlinedabove,urbanagrarianismalsopresentsitsownstumblingblocks.AsisthecasewithanyurbanmovementsintheGlobalNorth,urbanagrarianismcandistractactivistswhocampaigntosavecommunitygardensindangerofbeingdevelopedwhilehundredsofthousandsofacresoffarmlandarepavedoverorfinancialized.Amissinglinkconcernshoworganizationsbridgingurbanandrurallandscapescanworktoreinvestenergygeneratedinurbansocialmovementstowardsagrarianchange.Andsoanewsetofresearchquestionsemergeshere,suchaswhethertheseorganizationscounterurbanagriculture’sdemobilizingtendencies?Howcanorganizationsbalancetheneedtosupporteffortsaddressinglocalconcernswhilealsodirectingattentionoutsidethecity’sborders?Arefoodjusticemovementsthatworktoreduceurbanhungerapotentialsourceforurbanagrarianismorissocialmovementenergyazero-sumgamewhereactivismscompeteforparticipation?Anddosymbioticorganizationssuchasgreenbusinesses,largeNGOsandstatepolicyorganizationsserveasdemobilizationforurbanagrarianisminthesamewaythaturbanagriculturemay,andifsoarethereprocessestocounteractthis?Thesequestionsframethenextstageintheconceptualdevelopmentandexplorationoftheurbanlocusforthefoodsovereigntymovement.

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NazioartekoHizketaldiaELIKADURARENETORKIZUNAETANEKAZARITZARENERRONKAKXXI.MENDERAKO:

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