2014 3 06 Cortex Cerebri En

Cortex cerebriCortex cerebri(anatomy, histology, function)(anatomy, histology, function)

The cerebral cortex is the outer grey The cerebral cortex is the outer grey substance of the hemispheres. Pallium is substance of the hemispheres. Pallium is the term for the greythe term for the grey-- and the underlying and the underlying thin white substance.thin white substance.

The neocortex and allocortex differ.The neocortex and allocortex differ.

The surface displays convolutions (gyri) The surface displays convolutions (gyri) and separating sulci, which have names.and separating sulci, which have names.

The pallium is divided into lobes: frontalThe pallium is divided into lobes: frontal--, , parietalparietal--, occipital, occipital-- and temporal lobes.and temporal lobes.

The tips of the lobes: frontal pole, The tips of the lobes: frontal pole, temporal pole, occipital pole.temporal pole, occipital pole.

THE CEREBRAL CORTEXTHE CEREBRAL CORTEX

AllocortexAllocortex

This term collectively describes the nonThis term collectively describes the non--neocortical areas, which are phylogenetically neocortical areas, which are phylogenetically older than the neocortex.older than the neocortex.

The allocortical areas are on the medial The allocortical areas are on the medial surface/rim of the cerebral hemisphere.surface/rim of the cerebral hemisphere.

The allocortical areas build two large The allocortical areas build two large systems: the rhinencephalon and the limbic systems: the rhinencephalon and the limbic lobe.lobe.

The rhinencephalon participates in olfactory The rhinencephalon participates in olfactory functions. The limbic lobe participates in functions. The limbic lobe participates in complex memory functions (mainly spatial complex memory functions (mainly spatial memory).memory).

1: sulcus lateralis1: sulcus lateralis

2: incisura occipitalis; 3: sulcus centralis2: incisura occipitalis; 3: sulcus centralis

LOBESLOBES

1: sulcus centralis; 2: sulcus parietooccipitalis; 3: incisura o1: sulcus centralis; 2: sulcus parietooccipitalis; 3: incisura occipitalisccipitalis

B: Broca areaB: Broca area

Other structures on the medial surface: the paracentral lobule (Other structures on the medial surface: the paracentral lobule (in frontalin frontal--and parietal parietalis lobes), the precuneus (parietal lobe), aand parietal parietalis lobes), the precuneus (parietal lobe), and the cuneus nd the cuneus (occipital lobe). 1: sulcus centralis; 2: sulcus calcarinus; (occipital lobe). 1: sulcus centralis; 2: sulcus calcarinus; 3: polus temporalis. Area subcallosa: black lines. Isth: isthmus3: polus temporalis. Area subcallosa: black lines. Isth: isthmus gyri cinguli.gyri cinguli.

Frontal lobe Frontal lobe

Central sulcus separates from the parietal lobe.Central sulcus separates from the parietal lobe.

Precentral gyrusPrecentral gyrus

Superior frontal gyrusSuperior frontal gyrus

Middle frontal gyrusMiddle frontal gyrus

Inferior frontal gyrusInferior frontal gyrus

Sulcus olfactorius (olfactory bulb and tract)Sulcus olfactorius (olfactory bulb and tract)

Gyrus rectus (straight gyrus)Gyrus rectus (straight gyrus)

Gyri orbitalesGyri orbitales

Functions of the frontal lobeFunctions of the frontal lobe

Primary somatomotor cortex: gyrus precentralis (Br. Primary somatomotor cortex: gyrus precentralis (Br. 4).4).

Supplementary motor area: gyrus frontalis superior Supplementary motor area: gyrus frontalis superior (Br. 6). Coordinates bimanual movements.(Br. 6). Coordinates bimanual movements.

Frontal eye field (Br. 8): superior and middle frontal Frontal eye field (Br. 8): superior and middle frontal gyri.gyri.

BrocaBroca--area (motor speech area): gyrus frontalis area (motor speech area): gyrus frontalis inferior, posterior part (Br. 44, 45). Motor language inferior, posterior part (Br. 44, 45). Motor language skills and mathematical abilities.skills and mathematical abilities.

Prefrontal cortex (Br. 9, 10, 11, 12, 46): human Prefrontal cortex (Br. 9, 10, 11, 12, 46): human personality personality personal remembering, recognition of personal remembering, recognition of our own personality, motivation and attention. The our own personality, motivation and attention. The prefrontal cortex is connected to the medial thalamic prefrontal cortex is connected to the medial thalamic nuclei (DM).nuclei (DM).

Brodmann areas (KorbinianBrodmann areas (KorbinianBrodmann, 1909)Brodmann, 1909)

Broca area (inferior frontal gyrus Broca area (inferior frontal gyrus -- operculum frontale) and Wernicke area operculum frontale) and Wernicke area (the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus). A small par(the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus). A small part of thet of the

auditory neocortex is also visible (dotted). Arrow: central sulauditory neocortex is also visible (dotted). Arrow: central sulcus.cus.

Gyrus postcentralis Gyrus precentralis

Larynx representation in the precentral gyrusLarynx representation in the precentral gyrus

Activation of structures in glottis Activation of structures in glottis adduction and phonation:adduction and phonation:1.1. Frontal lobe Frontal lobe

(suppl. motor area SMA)(suppl. motor area SMA)2. Frontal and temporal lobes 2. Frontal and temporal lobes

(STG: gyrus temporalis superior)(STG: gyrus temporalis superior)3.3. Putamen (striatum)Putamen (striatum)4.4. Cerebellum: neocerebellumCerebellum: neocerebellum

Brown et al, 2008.Brown et al, 2008.Cerebral Cortex 18: 837Cerebral Cortex 18: 837--845.845.

Parietal lobe (superolateral Parietal lobe (superolateral surface)surface)

Postcentral gyrusPostcentral gyrus

Postcentral sulcusPostcentral sulcus

Intraparietal sulcus Intraparietal sulcus superiorsuperior parietalparietallobule, inferior parietal lobulelobule, inferior parietal lobule

Supramarginal gyrusSupramarginal gyrus

Angular gyrusAngular gyrus

Angular and supramarginal gyri are Angular and supramarginal gyri are parts of the inferior parietal lobuleparts of the inferior parietal lobule

Parietal lobe functionsParietal lobe functions

Primary somatosensory area: gyrus Primary somatosensory area: gyrus postcentralis (Br. 3, 1, 2). Afferents come postcentralis (Br. 3, 1, 2). Afferents come from the VPL and VPM thalamic nuclei.from the VPL and VPM thalamic nuclei.

Secondary somatosensory area: lobulus Secondary somatosensory area: lobulus parietalis inferior (Br. 40). Localization of parietalis inferior (Br. 40). Localization of body scheme.body scheme.

Parietal association cortex (Br. 5, 7, 39, 40): Parietal association cortex (Br. 5, 7, 39, 40): recognizing our body parts and recognizing our body parts and surroundings through touching; surroundings through touching; coordinating touch and visual information coordinating touch and visual information ((astereognosiaastereognosia: patient is unable to : patient is unable to recognize objects with touch).recognize objects with touch).

Broca area (inferior frontal gyrus Broca area (inferior frontal gyrus -- operculum frontale) and Wernicke area operculum frontale) and Wernicke area (the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus). A small par(the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus). A small part of thet of the

auditory neocortex is also visible (dotted). Arrow: central sulauditory neocortex is also visible (dotted). Arrow: central sulcus.cus.

1,3: lateral sulcus,1,3: lateral sulcus,upper tip;upper tip;2: sulcus temporalis 2: sulcus temporalis sup. upper tip.sup. upper tip.

Hemispheria from aboveHemispheria from abovewith gyri, sulci and somewith gyri, sulci and some

BrodmannBrodmann--areasareas

Occipital lobeOccipital lobe

The parietooccipital sulcus separates it from the The parietooccipital sulcus separates it from the parietal lobe (the sulcus is seen on the medial parietal lobe (the sulcus is seen on the medial surface).surface).

The main structure is the calcarine sulcus (seen on The main structure is the calcarine sulcus (seen on the medial surface), which commences at the the medial surface), which commences at the occipital pole, and joins to the parietooccipital occipital pole, and joins to the parietooccipital sulcus. The two sulci surround a triangular area: the sulcus. The two sulci surround a triangular area: the cuneus. The cuneus is part of the occipital lobe.cuneus. The cuneus is part of the occipital lobe.

The gyrus beneath the calcarine sulcus is the lingual The gyrus beneath the calcarine sulcus is the lingual gyrus.gyrus.

On the superolateral surface of the hemisphere, the On the superolateral surface of the hemisphere, the occipital lobe is characterized by short gyri: the occipital lobe is characterized by short gyri: the occipital gyri.occipital gyri.

Occipital lobe functionsOccipital lobe functions

Area striata (Br. 17): primary visual cortex. Area striata (Br. 17): primary visual cortex. The representation of fovea centralis is 80% The representation of fovea centralis is 80% of this area.of this area.

Area parastriata (Br. 18): secondary visual Area parastriata (Br. 18): secondary visual area.area.

Regio peristriata (Br. 19): occipital Regio peristriata (Br. 19): occipital association cortex.association cortex.

Afferents come in optic radiation Afferents come in optic radiation (geniculocalcarine tract) from the lateral (geniculocalcarine tract) from the lateral geniculate body. geniculate body.

Injury: Injury: hemianopsiahemianopsia (half of the visual field is (half of the visual field is lost), lost), psychic blindnesspsychic blindness (not recognizing the (not recognizing the observed object), observed object), achromatopsy achromatopsy (colors are (colors are not recognized).not recognized).

1,3: lateral sulcus,1,3: lateral sulcus,upper tip;upper tip;2: sulcus temporalis 2: sulcus temporalis sup. upper tip.sup. upper tip.

Hemispheria from aboveHemispheria from abovewith gyri, sulci and somewith gyri, sulci and some

BrodmannBrodmann--areasareas

Occipital lobe was cut through the calcarine sulcus: Occipital lobe was cut through the calcarine sulcus: striate cortex and the optic radiation are visiblestriate cortex and the optic radiation are visible

Radiatio opticaRadiatio optica

medialmedial

posteriorposterior

Lateral ventricle Lateral ventricle

Cc Cc

1717

1818

Sulcus calcarinusSulcus calcarinus

IVIV

GennariGennari--stripestripe

1717

Temporal lobe I.Temporal lobe I.

This lobe is separated from the parietal and This lobe is separated from the parietal and frontal lobes by the lateral sulcus. This is the frontal lobes by the lateral sulcus. This is the longest sulcus, commences above the temporal longest sulcus, commences above the temporal pole and ends at the supramarginal gyrus.pole and ends at the supramarginal gyrus.

The superolateral surface displays three gyri: The superolateral surface displays three gyri: superiorsuperior--, middle, middle-- and inferior temporal gyrus.and inferior temporal gyrus.

On this surface, its border towards the occipital On this surface, its border towards the occipital lobe is not marked (the preoccipital notch is a lobe is not marked (the preoccipital notch is a slight curving on the lateral contour of the slight curving on the lateral contour of the hemisphere).hemisphere).

The superior temporal gyrus has a hidden The superior temporal gyrus has a hidden surface towards the lateral sulcus. This surface surface towards the lateral sulcus. This surface presents the transverse temporal gyri (Heschlpresents the transverse temporal gyri (Heschl--gyri).gyri).

Temporal lobe II.Temporal lobe II. The inferior surface of the temporal lobe has the The inferior surface of the temporal lobe has the

occipitotemporal gyri (lateral and medial) and occipitotemporal gyri (lateral and medial) and the parahippocampal gyrus.the parahippocampal gyrus.

The sulcus collateralis borders the The sulcus collateralis borders the parahippocampal gyrus on the lateral side.parahippocampal gyrus on the lateral side.

The anterior tip of the parahippocampal gyrus is The anterior tip of the parahippocampal gyrus is a hooka hook--like small convolution: the uncus.like small convolution: the uncus.

The parahippocampal gyrus is most medial The parahippocampal gyrus is most medial its its continuation is the hippocampus and dentate continuation is the hippocampus and dentate gyrus are not visible on a halfgyrus are not visible on a half--brain. The brain. The hippocampus can be dissected through hippocampus can be dissected through opening the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.opening the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.

Temporal neocortex function I.Temporal neocortex function I.

Primary auditory (Br. 41): HeschlPrimary auditory (Br. 41): Heschl--gyri on the gyri on the superior surface of the superior temporal gyrus.superior surface of the superior temporal gyrus.

Secondary auditory (Br. 42): horseshoeSecondary auditory (Br. 42): horseshoe--shaped area shaped area around the Heschlaround the Heschl--gyri.gyri.

Association auditory: Br. 22, middle part of the Association auditory: Br. 22, middle part of the superior temporal gyrus.superior temporal gyrus.

WernickeWernicke--area: posterior part of the superior area: posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus (Br. 22). Understanding of speech, temporal gyrus (Br. 22). Understanding of speech, sensory language center.sensory language center.

Afferents come from the medial geniculate body: Afferents come from the medial geniculate body: acustic radiation.acustic radiation.

Unilateral auditory cortex lesion rarely causes Unilateral auditory cortex lesion rarely causes symptoms, because the the two side are symptoms, because the the two side are overrepresented (multiple crossings). Large lesion: overrepresented (multiple crossings). Large lesion: deafnessdeafness..

Temporal neocortex functions II.Temporal neocortex functions II.

Br. 21, 20, 36, 37: gyrus temporalis medius, Br. 21, 20, 36, 37: gyrus temporalis medius, inferior, gyrus fusiformis are association inferior, gyrus fusiformis are association areas, which transform auditory and visual areas, which transform auditory and visual information into a personal memory. Such information into a personal memory. Such memories: recognizing faces, recognizing memories: recognizing faces, recognizing persons and objects. Not only recognizing persons and objects. Not only recognizing but also verbalbut also verbal--speech definition (saying speech definition (saying names).names).

Deficit: Deficit: prosopagnosia prosopagnosia (loss of face (loss of face recognition) occurs after lesions of the recognition) occurs after lesions of the fusiform gyrus. Similarly, problems can arise fusiform gyrus. Similarly, problems can arise with object recognition and naming.with object recognition and naming.

STRONG ACTIVATIONSTRONG ACTIVATIONOF MEDIAL, INFERIOROF MEDIAL, INFERIORTEMPORAL LOBE DURINGTEMPORAL LOBE DURINGVISUAL MEMORY TASK: VISUAL MEMORY TASK:

HIPPOCAMPUS, GYRUSHIPPOCAMPUS, GYRUSPARAHIPPOCAMPALIS,PARAHIPPOCAMPALIS,GYRUS FUSIFORMIS.GYRUS FUSIFORMIS.

(Brewer et al, Science,(Brewer et al, Science,Vol. 281, 1998.)Vol. 281, 1998.)

Gyrus rectusGyrus rectusGyri orbitalesGyri orbitales

Bulbus, tractusBulbus, tractusolfactoriusolfactorius

Polus temporalisPolus temporalis

Phi: gyrusPhi: gyrusparahippocampalisparahippocampalisSpl: spleniumSpl: spleniumcorporis callosicorporis callosi

Mesencephalon Mesencephalon

INFERIOR SURFACEINFERIOR SURFACE

List of the important Brodmann areas:List of the important Brodmann areas:(Brodmann, 1909)(Brodmann, 1909)

Br. 3, 1, 2: somatosensory areaBr. 3, 1, 2: somatosensory area(gyrus postcentralis)(gyrus postcentralis)

Br. 4: primary motor cortex (gyrusBr. 4: primary motor cortex (gyrusprecentralis)precentralis)

Br. 6: premotor area (gyrus frontalisBr. 6: premotor area (gyrus frontalissuperior, medius posterior parts)superior, medius posterior parts)

Br. 17, 18, 19: lobus occipitalis (visual)Br. 17, 18, 19: lobus occipitalis (visual)Br. 41, 42: auditory (gyrus temporalisBr. 41, 42: auditory (gyrus temporalis

superior and Heschlsuperior and Heschl--gyri)gyri)Br. 44, 45: Broca areaBr. 44, 45: Broca areaBr. 22 posterior part: Wernicke areaBr. 22 posterior part: Wernicke area

WHITE MATTER ANATOMY:WHITE MATTER ANATOMY:1.1. Fibrae arcuataeFibrae arcuatae2.2. Fasciculus long. sup.Fasciculus long. sup.3.3. Fasciculus long. inf.Fasciculus long. inf.4.4. Fasciculus uncinatusFasciculus uncinatus5.5. Fasciculus arcuatusFasciculus arcuatus6.6. Cingulum Cingulum

CORPUS CALLOSUM:CORPUS CALLOSUM:1.1. RostrumRostrum2.2. GenuGenu3.3. TruncusTruncus4.4. SpleniumSplenium5.5. Forceps major (posterior)Forceps major (posterior)6.6. Forceps minor (anterior)Forceps minor (anterior)

COMMISSURA ANTERIORCOMMISSURA ANTERIORCOMMISSURA POSTERIORCOMMISSURA POSTERIOR

35

ARCUATE FIBERS AND CINGULUM DEPICTED IN HUMAN BRAIN:ARCUATE FIBERS AND CINGULUM DEPICTED IN HUMAN BRAIN:BOTH ARE ASSICIATION FIBER TRACTS.BOTH ARE ASSICIATION FIBER TRACTS.

36

Two commissural tracts: the corpus callosum (1) and Two commissural tracts: the corpus callosum (1) and the anterior commissure (2).the anterior commissure (2).

22

11

Blood supply of the cerebral Blood supply of the cerebral cortexcortex

Anterior cerebral artery (ACA) supplies Anterior cerebral artery (ACA) supplies the medial surface.the medial surface.

Middle cerebral artery (MCA) supplies the Middle cerebral artery (MCA) supplies the superolateral surface (the branches come superolateral surface (the branches come from the lateral sulcus).from the lateral sulcus).

Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) supplies Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) supplies the occipital lobe and the inferior surface.the occipital lobe and the inferior surface.

The borders between the supply areas are The borders between the supply areas are distinct. These are enddistinct. These are end--arteries, therefore arteries, therefore the borders are sensitive to circulatory the borders are sensitive to circulatory decrease. decrease.

The superficial branches of the MCA The superficial branches of the MCA supplying the cerebral cortexsupplying the cerebral cortex

The branches of the MCAfollow in regular order.The precentral andpostcentral gyri have acommon branch (a. sulci centralis). The circulationin these branches maydecrease, therefore thesymptoms may reflectthe problem of one singlegyrus. On the other hand,the arteries overlap(source: Grays Anatomy).

The branches of the ACA on the medial surface. These branchesThe branches of the ACA on the medial surface. These branchesalso supply a medial strip of the superolateral surface.also supply a medial strip of the superolateral surface.

Branches of PCABranches of PCAon the inferioron the inferiorsurface. Thesesurface. Thesebranches alsobranches alsosupply a narrowsupply a narrowstrip of the temporalstrip of the temporalsuperolateralsuperolateralsurface (inferiorsurface (inferiortemporal gyrus).temporal gyrus).The occipital lobeThe occipital lobeis supplied, too.is supplied, too.

The veins of the cerebral cortexThe veins of the cerebral cortex

On superolateral surface: vv. superiores cerebri On superolateral surface: vv. superiores cerebri superior sagittal sinus; vv. inferiores cerebri superior sagittal sinus; vv. inferiores cerebri transverse sinus; spfc. middle cerebral vein transverse sinus; spfc. middle cerebral vein sphenoparietal sinus. Superior anastomotic sphenoparietal sinus. Superior anastomotic vein (Trolard); inferior anastomotic vein (Labbvein (Trolard); inferior anastomotic vein (Labb).).

Veins on the inferior and medial surfaces: Veins on the inferior and medial surfaces: discharge partly into superior sagittal sinus, discharge partly into superior sagittal sinus, partly into transverse and sigmoid sinuses. partly into transverse and sigmoid sinuses. Vena cerebri magna (great cerebral vein of Vena cerebri magna (great cerebral vein of Galen) into the straight sinus. Basal vein Galen) into the straight sinus. Basal vein (Rosenthal) a branch of the great cerebral vein (Rosenthal) a branch of the great cerebral vein (together with internal cerebral vein discharge (together with internal cerebral vein discharge into great cerebral vein).into great cerebral vein).

Superficial veins on the superolateral surfaceSuperficial veins on the superolateral surface

Superficial veins on the medial and inferior surfacesSuperficial veins on the medial and inferior surfaces

From: GreenfieldFrom: Greenfields neuropathologys neuropathology

Strong decrease of local circulation (hypoxia)Strong decrease of local circulation (hypoxia)causes neuronal damage and death in thecauses neuronal damage and death in the

cerebral cortex.cerebral cortex.

Consequence of hypoxia in neocortexConsequence of hypoxia in neocortex Normal neocortexNormal neocortex

Other than numberedstructures:Cingulate gyrusParacentral lobuleStraight gyrusParietooccipital sulcusCuneusCalcarine sulcus

Identify the structuresIdentify the structureson the MRI image !on the MRI image !

Histology of the cerebral cortexHistology of the cerebral cortex The neocortex is layered: six layers are generally distinguishedThe neocortex is layered: six layers are generally distinguished.. Between the layers myelinated axon bundles are running: the inneBetween the layers myelinated axon bundles are running: the innerr--

and outer stripe of Baillarger. The primary visual cortex has a and outer stripe of Baillarger. The primary visual cortex has a thick thick outer Baillargerouter Baillarger--band: known as the stripe of Gennari.band: known as the stripe of Gennari.

The first layer contains only few neurons: this layer is mainly The first layer contains only few neurons: this layer is mainly characterized by dendriticcharacterized by dendritic-- and axonal branches and synapses.and axonal branches and synapses.

Other layers are rich in nerve cells.Other layers are rich in nerve cells. Two main types of neurons are present: pyramidal cells and nonTwo main types of neurons are present: pyramidal cells and non--

pyramidal cells. The pyramidal cells are the projection neurons pyramidal cells. The pyramidal cells are the projection neurons of of the neocortex. Most of the nonthe neocortex. Most of the non--pyramidal cells are inhibitory pyramidal cells are inhibitory interneurons. The exact number of neuronal types in the human interneurons. The exact number of neuronal types in the human neocortex is not known: more than 10 and less than 50 are neocortex is not known: more than 10 and less than 50 are estimated.estimated.

The thickness of the single layers differs from area to area: thThe thickness of the single layers differs from area to area: the e thickness depends on the number of cells in the layer.thickness depends on the number of cells in the layer.

The size of the neurons is different, too. Pyramidal cells are The size of the neurons is different, too. Pyramidal cells are generally larger than interneurons.generally larger than interneurons.

These two features (amongst others) were used by Brodmann to These two features (amongst others) were used by Brodmann to map the neocortex and distinguish cytologically different areas.map the neocortex and distinguish cytologically different areas.

It turned out decades later, than the cytological differences reIt turned out decades later, than the cytological differences reflected flected the functional differences of the neocortical areas.the functional differences of the neocortical areas.

NEURONS IN LAYERS INEURONS IN LAYERS I--III OF THE NEOCORTEXIII OF THE NEOCORTEX

II

IIII

IIIIII

PYRAMIDAL CELLSPYRAMIDAL CELLSNONNON--PYRAMIDAL CELLSPYRAMIDAL CELLS

Sulcus calcarinus

White matter White matter

Human visual cortexHuman visual cortex

IIIIII

IIIIII

IVIV

VV

VIVI

Columnar organiColumnar organi--sation of thesation of the

cortex: columnscortex: columnsareare

1.1. embryological,embryological,2.2. physiological,physiological,

3.3. histologicalhistologicalunits.units.

The latter isThe latter isdefined by thedefined by thearborization ofarborization ofthalamocorticalthalamocorticalafferent fibers.afferent fibers.

Size: 200 Size: 200 mm--600 600 mm

PP

P

P

Cells in the cerebral cortexCells in the cerebral cortex. A: astrocyte; B: horizontal. A: astrocyte; B: horizontalneuron; C: pyramidal cells; D: Martinottineuron; C: pyramidal cells; D: Martinotti--cell; E: stellatecell; E: stellatecell; F: fusiform cell.cell; F: fusiform cell.The pyramidal cells in layer V are surrounded byThe pyramidal cells in layer V are surrounded byGABAergic axons (perisomatic synapses GABAergic axons (perisomatic synapses basket cells).basket cells).

The giant pyramidal cells of Betz The giant pyramidal cells of Betz (area gigantocellularis; Br. 4) in the human(area gigantocellularis; Br. 4) in the human

precentral gyrus. The number of Betzprecentral gyrus. The number of Betz--cells iscells isapprox. 80 000. The size is 100 approx. 80 000. The size is 100 m, or bigger. m, or bigger.

These are the upper motor neurons impinging onThese are the upper motor neurons impinging onspinal cord Deitersspinal cord Deiters--cells (lower motor neurons).cells (lower motor neurons).

Human pyramidal neurons in the hippocampusHuman pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus(Golgi(Golgi--silver stain)silver stain)

II

IIII

IIIIII

IVIV

VV

GABAergic neurons in the human precentral gyrusGABAergic neurons in the human precentral gyrus

Parvalbumin immunfestParvalbumin immunfestss

GABAergic neurons in the precentral gyrus (human)GABAergic neurons in the precentral gyrus (human)

HIGH CONCENTRATION OF IONOTROPIC GLUTAMATE RECEPTORSHIGH CONCENTRATION OF IONOTROPIC GLUTAMATE RECEPTORSIN THE HIPPOCAMPUSIN THE HIPPOCAMPUS

THE ENDTHE END

Documents

2014 3 06 Cortex Cerebri En