preface. - Forgotten Books

PREFACE .

IN the following pages have been epitomized the results of many

years of personal investigation into Tibetan mysteries . The unique

physical features, the geology, the botany, the zoology of the country,also the characteristics, occupations, religion, and literature of the inh abitants, are the subjects mainly treated of. Much of the matter

included here had been put in type before the conclusion of the recent

political Mission to Tibet. However, few new facts concerning Tibet

were revealed by this Mission . It is, moreover, a testimony to the

fulness of the inform ation brought back in previous years by the

secret native agents of the Transfrontier Survey, that our own de

scription of Lhasa in these pages (derived mainly from the private

reports of these agents) tallies in most particulars with the accounts of

the city as now described by the English visitors of 1904 . Only, the

native explorers in question seem on the whole to have been a little

m ore exact in their narratives than the English visitors.

GRAHAM SAND BERG.

LOND ON

January, 1 905 .

NOTE .

WHEN death overtook Mr. Sandberg, this book was almost, ready :

for publication. The bulk of the work—280 pages—had already been

revised in p roof by him and had he been spared for a few Weeks

longer, he would have seen his book go forth into the world as another

testimony to the ripe scholarship that he had strenuously gathered

through years of toil. Unhappily it was not to be. In March of

this year he was taken away, and his book was denied the finishingtouches of the master’s hand. At the request of Mrs. S andberg, I

have accordingly revised the remaining sheets and added a list of con

tents

The career that was thus cut short was one of singular devotion

to learning and religion. In 1 870 S amuel Louis Graham Sandberg

graduated at Trinity College, D ublin. Called to the Bar in 1 874, he

practised for some years on the N orthern Circuit, while at the same

time eagerly carrying on literary studies. His sympathies were extra

ordinarily wide,interesting him alike in science, natural history, litera

ture, and phil ology. In 1 879 he took orders, and in 1886 he entered

upon a chaplaincy in India. Here, as chaplain at D inapur, D acca,Jhansi, Cuttack, S ubathu, D arjeeling, Barrackpore, and S t. John’ s,Calcutta, he was able to give ful l scope to his manifold interests, and

speedily attained to acknowledged authority . In particular the as

sociations of D arjeeling inspired him to the study in which his life’s

work culm inated—the language, literature, and natural history of

Tibet . In the Nineteeutk Century of 1 889 appeared his first published

work on Tibet, soon followed by other articles in various magazines.

In 1 888 his linguistic studies bore fruit in a Manual of tke Sikkim

Bkutia Language, of which a. second edition appeared in 1 895 ; and

in 1894 he published a m ost useful Haua'kook qf Col loquial Tibetan.

An I tinerary of ike Route from Sikkim to Lkaaa appeared in

At that tim e he began his heaviest task, supervising the publication of

Sal -at Chandra D as’s Tibetan D ictionary ; but even this labour could

not exhaust his energies, for in 1904 appeared his Exp loration ofTibet, and he was busied with the preparation of the present work .

now his delicate, way In June

1 904 he was seized with tubercular laryngitis, and in March of

year, after sore suffering, the and came to an

Manibue date l ihiap lente.

BARNETT .

LOND ON

TABLE OF CONTENTS .

CHAPTER I .

AT THE THRESHOLD .

Frontier’ scenery,p . l—The Viewbeyond the barriers, p . 4—The way into

Tibet, p . 6 .

CHAPTER II .

TIBET IN ITS GENERAL AS PECTS .

General elevation, p . l l—The h ighest country on earth , p . 12— Four classesof territory, p . 13—T ’

ang dis tricts, p . 1 3—D ok districts p . l 5—Winteraspect of T ang and D ale, p . 1 7—Rong di stricts, p . 18—Gang districts,p 18 .

CHAPTER III .

CLIMATEAND METEOROLOGY .

C l imate in general , p . 21—The water - supply Of the great rivers, p . . 22—Theseasons in T ibet Spring conditions, p . Qa—Vast range of temperature,p . 25—The summ er season

, p . 26—Autumn and winter, p . 30—C limateof Lhasa, p . 32—The snow- line in Tibet, p . 33—The w ind, p . 35.

CHAPTER IV.

THE SALT AND FRESH -WATER LAKES .

Tibetan lakes in general , p . 38—Tiie h ighest lake in the world, p . 40— S ex of

lakes, p . 40—Th e salt lake district, p . 41—The N orth -Western B owerseries, p . AVA—The Manasarowar lakes, p . 48—Lang -

gak, p . 52—Ma- pang ,

p . 53—Yamdok Ts ’

o, p . 56—KokoN or, 59—Nam TS

’

O Chhyidm o, p . 65.

CHAPTER V .

HOT- S PRINGS or TIBET .

CHAPTER VI .

THE GREAT RIVER OF TIBET .

The river ’s nam e, p . 74—S ource Of the Tsangpo, p . 74—From the source toconjunction w ith the Chhorta Tsangpo, p . 75—From the Chhorta Tsangpo to Sh igatse, p . 79—From Shigatse to Tset

’

ang, p . 81—From Tset’angto Gyal la S eng - dong, p . 83—From Gyal la Sang - dong to Sadiya in A ssam ,

p . 86' —The D ihang and Eastern B rahmaputra

,p. 87—The Brahmaputra

Irawadi controversy, p . 90—Concluding rem arks, p . 94 .

CONTENTS .

CHAPTER VII .

MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES .

Their distribution, p . 95—Historic origins, p . 96—Arch itectur e and internal

arrangem ent, p . 98—Sources of revenue, p . l oo—Grades of rel igiou s

houses, p . 101—L ing, p . 101—Chhoide, p . 102—Tci’- ts

’

omg, p . 102—Gompa,

p. 103—Ani Gompa, Tsunp o, Jame - ling, p . IOA—P ’

uk, p. 1 04—M0d9 1'11

sects in Tibet, p . 105—S ur -mob, Cc- luk -

p u, p . 105—Nying-m a, p. 106

Calden or Granden Ling, p . l o7—Sera Ling, p . 108—D aipung Chhoide,

p . 109—The four Lings ofLhasa, p . 1 11—Tash ilhum p oMonastery, p . 1 12

Tho- ling Gompa,p. Il a—Sakya Ling, p . 1 15—Sam -

ye Ling, p . 116

S am - ding Monastery, p . 1 1 7 .

CHAPTER VIII .

INMATES OF MONASTERIES : THEIR GRAD ES, D ISCIPLINE, AND OCCUPATION .

Trapa, p. 121 .—Cc- nyen, p . 123—Cc- t

’

su l, p . 124—Ge- long, p . 124 Ge - she,

p . 126—D iscipl ine and m oral ity, p . 126—Lamas Of the h igh er ranks,p . 127—Incarnate lamas, p . 128.

CHAPTER IX .

THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL .

Residents in Central Tibet, p . 138—The D okpa or nomadic peopl e, p . 143

The tribes north and north - east of Lhasa,p . 148—The Horpa or north

ern robber tribes, p. 148—The Gya- de tribes or Khyung -

p o-

pa, p . 151

The people of Kong-

p o, p . 153— Kham s and the Khampas, p . l 54o—The

Abors or Abare, p . 158—The Miri tribes, p . 161—The Mishm is, p . 163

The natives of Ladak, p . 164 .

CHAPTER X .

LHAsA : THE CAPITAL OF TIBET .

S ituation and general aspect, p . 168—The inner and encl osed city, p . 1 71

The ChO-khang S quare, p . 172—Lhasa m erchants, p . 1 73— D well inghouses, p . 174—D enizens and visitors, p . 1 76—Buddh ist cathedral ofLhasa, p. 178—The D alai Lama

’

s hom e, p . 180 .—The city m onasteries,

p . 180—Ramochhe temple, p . 182—Wang- tO- shingkha m arket

,p . 183

The Ragya-

pa or scavenger beggars, p . 186—The corpse-

yards of Lhasa,p . 1 87—Water - supply and canal s, p . 188—Council Chamber and Palaceof Justice, p . 189—The prisons of Lhasa, p. 190.

CHAPTER X I .

THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN BUD DHISM.

General character,p . 195—Buddhas and Bodh isattwas, p . 197—The Maitreya

cult, p . 199—Bodhisattwas, p . 200—The D hyani Buddhas, p . 201—D ewachan, the heaven of WO-

pak-me

’

,p . 203—D hyani Sattwas, p . 204—The

CONTENTS . ix

D hyani Sattwa Chenraisi, protector of Tibet, p . 205—D eified S aints,p . 207—Gods and goddesses, p . 209—The Mother Goddess, p . 210—Paldan Lha-mo, p . 21 1—Tamdin : the god with the horse ’s neck, p . 212

D orje P’

agmo, the Sow Goddess, p . 212—Gods of the soil, p . 213 .

CHAPTER X II .

THE TANTBAs AND TANTRIK RITEs.

General features, p. 215—What the Tantras are, p . 216—The Kalachakra

cult, p. 218—Aspects and emanationl , p . 221—The S'akti forms, p . 224

Concomitants of Tantrik rites, p . 226—Mantras and D harani, p . 228

Specimen contents Of book of Tantrik treatises, p. 230 .

CHAPTERX III.

THE POET MILAaAsrA.

CHAPTER X IV.

THE PRACTICE or MAGIC AND SORCERY IN TIBET.

Buddhi st thaumaturgy, p . 273—Practical sorcerers, p . 274—Philosophicalascetics, p. 276—The scheme of m editation, p. 278 .

CHAPTER X V.

MAMMALIA or TIBET .

Profusion of mammal ia, p . 282—Possible Oxplanations, p . 284—Unique nature of species, p . 286—Varying elevations over which they are distr i

buted, p . 287—Especia1 characteristics Of E . and S E . Tibet, p . 289“Moupin

”Nang - chhen Sbring-wa), p . 290—Pashm or down of

m ost Tibetan mammals, p . 291—A suggested l ist Of Tibetan mammals,

p 291—Quadrumana, p . 292—Fel idae, Viverridae, Canidse, p . 293

Mustel idw, p . 294—Ursidae, Tupaiidae, Erinacidae, p . 295—Talpidae,S oricidae, Bovidae, Ovidae, p . 296—Capr idae, p . 297—Cervidae

, Camel idae

,p . 298—E quidae, Suidae, S ciur idae, p . 299—Lagomyidae, Leporidee,

p. 300—Muridae, Hystricidae, p . 301—Manidae, p . 302—1‘he Yak . nomenclature, geographical range, p. 302—Physical characteristics

,p . 303

Habits, p . 305—Uses of the dom estic Yak, p . 306 Wolves . nomenclature, p. 807—Geograph ical range, p . SOB- The Musk D eer physicalcharacteristics, p. SOS—Musk, p. 309 .

CHAPTER X V.

THE FLORA OP TIBET.

General distribution, p . 312—~ Flora of Northern Tibet,p . 316—S outhern

B elt of Tibet, p. 324- Agriculture, p . 327— Crops, p . 328—Khams and

Eastern Tibet, p. 330 .

CHAPTER I .

AT THE THRESHOLD .

Nature by her own arrangem ents seem s to have decreed that Tibetshould be the last country to be brought under the domain Of m oderncivilization, therein completely siding with the Opinion of those whoactually hold the land . Intruders have not only to reckon w ith thepolicy of the Tibetan authorities which prohibits entrance to all stran

gers but they have al so to get the better Of the physical defences whichbeset the portals Of the forbidden reg ions on every quarter . Monstrous

walls of m ountain,

'

stupendous glaciers and snow- fields, unbridged rivers,valleys Of surpassing sterility, aid the inhospitable inhabitants inshutting out the traveller .

Mountainous as the country is within its own confines,it is enclosed

on the borders by ranges as a rule m uch loftier and m ore bulky thanthose inside . Along the southern frontier, from long . 78

° to long .

stretch the m assive ranges, chain w ithin chain, Of the Indian Himalayas .Turning up to the northwe find onthe western side the ganglion of mountains which, as a continuation Of the Himalayas, spread them selves out inKashm ir, Ladak, and Nubra. H igher up and still form ing the westernboundary, there run in from the west the buttress- ends Of the m ighty

Karakorams with K Gusherbrum , Masherbrum , and the other giantsumm its wh ich have been made in recent years so fam iliar to us by the

graphic w riting and vivid pictures of S ir W .M . Conway . Barriersequally gigantic in size (save in a few places where the lowness of thebounding range does not m ean accessibility because of the terrible wild

erness of s and and ice behind) are disposed along the northern lim its.There, on the north, Tibet is shut in, as we pass from west to east

,by the

Kuen Liin, the Akka Tag, and Altan Tag ranges in succession. In the

Tsaidam and KOkON or region is placed a north - eastern series ofm ountains which have proved less impregnable .than the defences in other quarters. Through the easy defiles here andby way Of the Hoang HO

,many

adventurous spirits have penetrated . N evertheless, the various parallel

2 AT THE THRESHOLD .

lines of the Nan S han,the European names Of which bestowed by

Russian travellers read rather grotesquely, m ake a very substantial

boundary in this direction . C rossing the Hoang HO and turning due

south,we have in the mysterious Am country the num erous m inor

m ountain ranges which separate, very indefinitely, the various pettystateswhich own allegiance accordingto fancy, some to Tibet, and som e toChina . While, further south, the eastern confines have, to guard them ,

not m erely row behind row of rocky battlem ents, but al so the m ightyrivers running three and four abreast which pass from north to south

and out into the world beyond .

S uch are the boundaries Of Tibet on cursory View. They shall beexam ined in detai l later on .

As m ay be imagined, the trem endous portals Of this mystic realmform , at every point, vestibules worthy Of the marvels to be disclosedbeyond . Mountains

,individually Of colossal proportions, stand in

troops upon the threshold Of the Forbidden Land, guarding as it werethe Passes to be found at intervals all round , and which Passes Offer thesole m eans Of access within . Labyrinthine and dangerous are the pathways which lead to these strange entrances into the country . There is

great sim ilarity in the appearances about you on whichever side youapproach ; except perhaps com ing from the north by Charlik over theAkka Tag, as did Bonvalot and the Littledales .

But take one Of them ore ordinary routes, by way of S ikkim , to som ePass into Tibet from the south . F irst, you surm ount by zigzag pathup, over, and down, the lower outer ridges Of the H imalayas then

,

through deep valleys strewn with enorm ous boulders, gradually ascend -e

ing5 then, darkly penetrating along the bottom Of a profound gorge . S O

you go, ever striving to veer northwards ; for northwards lies your goal .Next, up and up and up again, keeping perhaps to a string - courseledge which rounds the shoulders Of the giant hills and creeps onwards

along the sheer face Of precipitous cliff and chasm rent asunder .The m ountains are everywhere about you . They tower above your

head and clusters Of peaks are revealed at the upper end Of the valley swh ich open in so many directions while the great brawny breasts

Of others lie far away w ith the m ists rolling upon them . As you takeyour course along the back of som e lower ridge, you notice that it isflanked with spurs which advance to m eet sim ilar projections from an

other ridge parallel to yours but loftier . They do not m eet ; but there

and in between the protruding piers, in the depths below you, the treesare seen packed close together, an ocean Of the darkest greens and

russets . About you and above you are the great pines , Abies Wetbianaand Pinus ercetsa but down there are the maples and rhododendrons

AT THE THRESHOLD . 3

and chestnuts and evergreen oaks peculiar to theH imalayas,w ithhereand

there a quaint tree - fern . The trees clothe completely the lower limbsOf the m ountains

,and then ascend in scried flonnces far up the skirts o f

the greater heights each different species Of pine visibly keeping to itsown proper zone of altitude . And you know that in the rem otest bottom—hidden by those weird throngs Of trunk and leafy - crown therew inds a secret stream brought direct from snow - field and glacier and

,

presently perhaps, an Opening in the deep - down forest allows you a

gleam and a flash from the tumbling waters .

As you near the frontier of Tibet, the ravines - ful Of trees graduallydisappear. The valleys soon becom e wider and very desolate, strewnw ith large stones and blocks Of rock ; whilst you procession of hugeboulders mark s the m oraine Of a glacier wh ich som e centuries ago tra

velled slowly downwards . The m ountains, m eanwhile, take a vasterscale, quite different from the View they presented at a distance

,forbid

ding and fearful to look upon . S uch shattered fantastic m onsters theyseem, holding them selves up to heaven in boundless defiance of harm onyin size .

Then, in the fissures channelled on their great faces are perceivedthe swollen glaciers bulging forth . S purs and protuberances of rockare connected by causeways Of pure ice and the causeways bank up

fields of lately- fallen snow . These ice - bridges, which Often span deep

gorges, allowing you to cross where otherwise it wou ld be impassable,

are styled by the Tibetan traveller Lint- i Samp a bridges Of the gods .

”

In these regions, m ists and storm s sweep up very sw iftly and sud

denly. As the com ing night lets fall its shadows about you the slee tand hail Slant down in blinding Showers and eye - sight is no longer Ofany guidance. Your only escapefrom utter bewilderm ent andthe deathlycold is to creep to the southern lea Of som e rock which has been absorbing the sun

’ s warm th through the day ; and to wedge your form in

there,embedded in blankets .D arkness dyes the twilight black . The storm increases and hark,

those sounds of falling rocky masses ! The m ountains are speaking toone another . These uncouth~

giants have a hoarse and m onstrous lan

guage Of their own .

In this way and am idst such scenes, the traveller can approach tothe confines of the Forbidden Land . S addles Of rock sunk betweenhigher summ its give access to the country beyond, and precarious pathslead up to al l such depressions in the guarding ranges . These are thefamous Passes which adm it you into Tibet. At the head or culm inating point Of the Pass is invariably to be seen a cairn Of stones artificially reared by native travellers . And there your Tibetan guides give

AT THE THRESHOLD .

vent to their feelings Of relief at the ascent surm ounted and Of awe at

the presence Of the mystic spirits which guard the left- hand side Of

every Pass - top . S cattering two or three handfuls Of their precious

trauma or parched barley - m eal, they cry

Lint sot/o, tkci solto Lhci gyal to, Matgya l to

Hail, hail, to the gods !

Victory, victory to the gods

THE VIEW BEYOND THE BARRIE RS .

But what is to be seen beyond those bounding ranges?’

The verge

Of the mysterious country gained, does anything new, do any Of its re

ported marvels, as yet greet the sight ? Naturally in a m ountainousjum ble such as that which fences in Tibet one would hardly expect much

View from a Pass - summ it, even though the summ it lies cradled in the line

along w hich the mountains reach their clim ax Of height . Nevertheless

the prospect from m any Of these gate - ways into the land beyond issomething Of a panorama—and from certain points a remarkablystriking and extensive one, too .

N OW, many European adventurers have actually travelled in the

country itself; whereas form erly few could do m ore than wistfully’

gaze into regions whence they were irrevocably shut out from penetrat

ing . However, whether he may be fortunate enough to go further ornot, no man Of the least degree Of sentim ental susceptibility can ever

put away from his m em ory the recollection of his first glimpse intothe Great Beyond . The features Of the view are always, m oreover,sufficiently distinctive to lie drawn upon the brain as an ineffaceablem ental landscape .

Let us listen to a few of those expl orers who have recorded theirimpressions Of their first view into Tibet .

S ir Joseph Hooker, in 1 849, having journeyed through S ikkimreached the summ it Of the D ongkhya La,

“ the frozen yak pass,”the

cairn on which stands at a height Of feet above the level Of the

sea ; and he thus describes the ViewThe m ost rem arkable features Of this landscape were its enorm ou s elevar

tion and its colours and contrast to the black, rugged, and s'

nowy Himalaya Of

S ikkim . Al l the m ountains between D onkia Pass and the Arun river were Of

a yel lowish - red colour, rising and fal l ing in long undu lations l ike dunes andperfectly bare of perpetual snow or glaciers. Rocks everywhere broke out ontheir flanks and often along their tops ; but the general contour of the whol eimm ense area was very open and undulating . Still fu rther northwards, themountains were rugged, Often rising into peaks which from the angles I tookcannot be below 24!,000 feet and are probably higher The must loftym ountains were on the range north of Nepal , not less than 120 m iles ‘

distant


Cholamoo lake lay in ab road scantily- grassed sandy and st ony val ley ;snow - beds, rocks and glaciers dipped abruptly towards its head, and on itswest bank a lofty brick - red spu r sloped upwards from it, conspicuou sly cut

into terraces for several hundred feet above its waters The

m onarch of m ountains (Kinchenjunga) looked qu ite sm al l and low from thispoint, and it was difficul t to believe it was m ore than feet m ore loftythan my present position . I repeatedly looked from it to the h igh Tibetanm ountains in the extrem e N W distance ; and I was m ore than ever stru ckw ith the apparently immense distance and consequent altitude of the latterI put, however, no rel iance on such estim ates. To the south the eye wandereddown the val ley of th e Lachoong S outh - east the stupendou ssnowy am ph itheatre of D onkia was a m agnificent spectacle .

I had been given to understand that from D onkia Pass the whole countryof Tibet sloped away in descending steppes to th e Y ar u r iver and was m oreor less of a plain ; and, could I have tru sted my eyes only, I

“

shou ld have con

fi rm ed th is assertion so far as the slope was concerned, when“

, ho'

wever ,'

the

level led theodolite was directed to the distance, the reverse was the case .

Unsnowed and thus, apparently, low m ountains touched the hor izon line of

the telescope ; wh ich proves that, if only 3 7 m iles off, they m u st, from the

dip of the h orizon, have been at least feet higher than the observer ’sposition .

General Macintyre, V .C . ,who was perm itted to cross the N iti

Pass from Gai hwal into Tibet early m June, cr ives a striking description of the appearance of the country ju st over the b0 1der at that tim eof year before the new vegetation has begun to show . This part ofT ibet is the southern portion of the Guge district of Ngari Khorsum ,

due north of the great glaciers in the N iti and Milam valleys of the

H imalayas . Hewrites

A strange weird- looking land, to al l appearance a desert, stretch ingfar and w ide before us towards distant ranges of barren undu lating m ountains,tinted with every shade of red,yel low, pu rple, andblue, rising tier beyond tier,and cu lm inating in snow - clad ridges and peaks— al l their features looking m ar

vel lously distinct through the clear rare atm osphere . B road table la ,nds aver

aging about feet above the sea-

,level bare, brown, and m onotonous,sloping gradual ly down from the foot of the great snowy chain of the H im a

layas beh ind u s, and intersected by huge i av ines growing deeper and w ideras they al l trend northwards

'

towards the river Sutlej flowing h idden am ongth eir m ighty labyrinth s far away below u s . The sol emn w aste diversifiedh ere and there by low ar id h il ls of a brick - red hu e . In the dark sapph ireblu e firmam ent, a blazing sun shedding a cheerless dazzl ing glare on al l

around u s . N ot a sound but the wailing of th e w ind to break the dead depressing sil ence, save perhaps the croak of a big raven or the snorting of a

troop of kiang (wild asses), as the startled anim al s stand for a few secondsto gaze at the intruders ere they wheel sim u ltaneously about and ga110 p

m adly away over the rol ling w indswept slopes of sh ingle and sun - bakedearth .

H ere l n smal l flocks, few and far between , roa'

m s the ponderou s - hornedOuts ever watchful and wary . A wolf may be occasionally detected slinking

6 AT THE THRESHOLD .

stealth ily off . S ometim es a shy hare starts from the cover of a scrubbytussock of the stunted herbage that is sparsely scattered over the stony soilor a grey m arm ot m ay be seen sitting erect on som e sandy knol l , disturb ingnature’s silent repose w ith its shril l ch irping wh istle ere it vanishes into itsbu rrow hard by. Even the Tibetan ham lets, wh ich very rarely occu r in thesedreary wilds, have a decayed and forlorn look that is quite in keeping w iththeir desolate dream - l ike surroundings. S uch were m y general impressionsof the country we were now in .

THE WAY INTO TIBET .

The country has been approached with a view to gain entrance

from every point of the compass . In some regions access is com para

tively speaking easy ; at other points the natural difficulties are so enhanced by accumulations of snow and ice that the way is open onlyduring a lim ited period of the year but in no quarter of the extensive

border- line of this great territory is commun ication from w ithout an

absolute im possibility . Although this secluded Tibetan world lies apparently so blockaded by physical barriers—so fastabound by m ountainand glacier and violent winds—it is, nevertheless, a fact that all roundthe frontier there is constant intercourse of som e kind going on with thecountries outside except perhaps in the depth of w inter .

W ith China this intercourse is inmany districts abundant and continuous . S o

,too

,is the traffic between Tibet andMongolia on the north

east. Comm unication from the north— from Yarkand, D zungaria, andfrom Central A sia generally, although not considerable

,is yet carried on

regu larly, at stated times, by caravans and small parties and does notappear to be restricted by either political or fiscal conditions .

The adm ission of traffic into Tibet from the west and south seem sto be governed by regulations m ore or less com pl icated. N ative traderscom ing into the country from Lad

—

ak and from the petty states in theWestern and S outh -Western H imalayas are only allowed entranceduring the period from April to October each year. A Tibetan officialhas to journey to m ost of the important Passes on the Ladak

,Lahoul

,

and Kumaon frontier early in the spring to inspect each one and to declare whether or not it shall be regarded as open that season . S omeyears smallpox or other severe sickness prevails in certain of the

valleys of theWestern H imalayas, such as the Byans, the Milam ,or the

Mana valley ; and then the particular Pass leading out of such valleyinto Tibet is said to be sealed or shut for that year by the official and no

traffic allowed to come over .Furthermore, even the nativedenizens of every state actually touch

ing Tibet are not all allowed general access during the period whenthe Passes are free . The inhabitants of certain bordering districts are


suffered to proceed to only one or two trading centres within the Forbidden Land . Thus the Lahulis and Kulu folk may carry m erchandisc to such centres in the west of Ngari Khorsum as Gart’ok and

Totling but no further into the interior . The dwellers of m ost of thevalleys of Garhwal and Kumaon are lim ited to Gya

- nyima, D ongpo,

and Tsa- parang . On the other hand the Bashahri andKunuwari people,

living adjacent to these last,have by prescription freedom to go any

where in Tibet and to penetrate even to Lhasa and Eastern Tibet .S o

,likewise, in the case of the frontier states further east . The

Assam ese may not trade direct with the Tibetan provinces; but all

traffi c must be carried on through the natives of the Tawang Raj whoreceive m erchandise either at Tawang itself or bring it up from Assamaid Odalguri . The Bhutan people appear to have secured unrestrictedintercourse between them selves and the north, but at the sam e tim eheavy custom s duties and personal bribes are extorted by certain officialsof Bhutan itself from every single packman or pilgrim of their ownland who passes into Tibet . The many rival jurisdictions in Bhutan ofi erfrequent opportunities for this kind of exaction . B etween N epal andTibet there is considerable liberty of com munication; but Kirong and

D ingri are thought critical points for trade rs to get through unm olestedor unm ulcted by the sem i- authorised levellers of black mail . Nepalisubjects are not perm itted openly to enter Tibet by Takla- khar on theKumaon border .

The Indian Governm ent has been at m uch trouble to secure a certain degree of m ercantile traffic between India and Tibet by way of

S ikkim . The natives of S ikkim have for many generations enjoyed

the fullest rights of entry beyond the frontier ; but H indu and Bengalitraders have usually fallen under the sam e ban which excludes Europeans . However

,now,

after considerable negotiation, a station nam ed

Yatung, situated within Tibetan territory in the Chhumbi valley, hasbeen opened as a centre of traffic and Hindus and even Englishm enmay proceed there for trading purposes without let or hindrance , eventhough the place is technically in the sacred land itself . The custom soffi cer placed there by the Chinese Governm ent happens to be an

Englishman, but even he may not pass the barrier wall Tibet- wards .

Many Tibetan pedlars undertake trips into India in the autumn

and winterm onths . A certain num ber m ay be observed in the Calcuttabazars every Christmas- tim e . S om e are from Bhutan only ; but a few

com e even from Lhasa.

But all which we have said, so far, concerns but little the actualpathways over the Tibetan border- line . Moreover, when we have detailed and pointed them out as we wish to do, that information will

.8 AT THE THRESHOLD .

hardly have made easier the passage thither for us Europeans who are

so rigidly prohibited from enhance .

Lonely the Pass may seem ; beset by cascades of stones and beds

of snow ; of unbreathable altitude ; far away on either side from villageor outpost ; nevertheless, when any English traveller has set his m ind

on making his way thither and quietly slipping over into som e unfre

quented corner of the territory, som ehow by magic the news of his intentions is wafted over the mounta ins and sure enough a party of dirty

faced Tibetans will reach the Pass before him . Then'

will follow the

usual result . First bluster and threats from the headman of the party ;next entreaties and m iserable appeal s as to the fate awaiting them all

if the traveller persists in pushing on into the country . Final ly thelatter becom ing moved to m agnanim ity and contenting him self w ith a

stroll on the northern face of th e Pass ju st to say he has been in T ibet,retraces his steps hardly knowing why he has so readily yielded. S om etim es, when eager determ ination over - rides the remonstrances of the

Tibetan official, and the young adventurer refuses to turn back, an

e’

mentc is raised among the nearest inhabitants and the traveller isseriously maltreated . That was the consequence when a young lieutenant, in 1 896, made his way beyond Takla- khar in Purang, regardless of official protestations . Three hundred natives assembled and

stoned him .

There are, however, several vulnerable bits in the cordon encirclingthese fascinating regions where peaceful entry into the land m ay be ac

complished and. where many days’ march into the heart of the territorycould be stolen before information of the intruder’ s presence becam eknown . The entire length of the northern frontierline of T ibet

, we

behave, remains practically unguarded . S o distant from any settleddistrict or even from any temporary pasturage of nomadic tribes are the

Passes over the (so- called .) Kuen Liin, Akka Tag, and Altan Tag ranges,that no watch is kept by the Tibetan Government anywhere near thatregion. Much the sam e m ight be said of the north- east boundary round

aboutKokoNor. There, however, as a Chinese Amban is specially sta

tionedat S ining in order to watch Chinese interests in the neighbourhood,there is som e risk of interference . Nevertheless, as the stream of tradersof all sorts and conditions is unceasing through S ining,

‘

Lanchou- fu,

Tankar, and other adjacent towns, the likel ihood of recognition orhindrance is small . Moreover, the Koko Nor districts and Tsaidam

,which

lie beyond S ining, are adm ittedly open to foreigners and are everyyear visited by Russian and other European travellers . To pass further to the south-west, across the Burhan Bota range and into the D iCbbu region, without ex citing suspicion, is . therefore com paratively.

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1 0 AT THE THRESHOLD .

information of approaching travellers ; and a messenger despatched fromNoh into Rudok at once arouses the Jongpon of that fortress and hisretainers.

Finally, one of the m ost feasible entrances to the south- westerndistricts is, after all, the old route from Alm ora by the valleys of theAlakananda and the D auli and so into the peak country eas t of theMilam glacier region ; whence one of the Purang Passes, preferably theLipu Lek La or the Mangshang La, gives ready access into the tractssouth of lakes Map’ang and Lang

-

gak . It is near here that the

defensive station of Takla—Khar in Purang is located, however ; andunless the out- look kept there is either eluded or beguiled, adm issionis not to be gained, the people of the place being hostile and turbulentto a degree greater than is comm on w ith Tibetan folk. Travellers ofnote have, in several instances, succeeded in entering the country bythis way for the past 1 00 years . Moorcroft was the first to try it, onhis journey to the lakes in 1 8 12 ; Henry S trachey following in histracks in 1 846, Richard S trachey in 1 848, and D r. Thom son a few

years later . This route was, furtherm ore, the path of access chosen byMr . Ryall in 1877, and by Mr . H . Savage Landor in 1896 .

CHAPTER II .

TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPECTS .

We m ust at once dispel from our m inds the usual idea that Tibetitself is one vast table - land

,rem arkable only for lofty altitude through

out. Great undulating plains are a feature in certain parts, as we

shall presently see ; but even these desolate expanses are, at short intervals, crossed by long ranges of m ountains, carrying peaks which oftenin height nearly equal the average of the summ its of the H imalayas .

D oubtless the imm ense elevation of the general level of the whole country detracts from the apparent height of T ibetan mountains ; but, withan actual attitude of 24 to 26 thousand feet above the level of the sea,

these ranges of peaks are thus frequently feet and m ore ab ovethe level even of such elevated plains and valleys as exist in Tibet . In

terlocking lines of lofty m ountains ; m ighty rivers ; extensive plains,som etim es undulating and fertile, som etim es rugged and of awe - striking sterility and desolation ; together with many districts broken up in

to networks of ravine and gorge—all these features are com prised in thephysical conformation of this uplifted land .

Unquestionably the leading characteristic is the great elevation of

the entire territory . However, this elevation varies m arkedly . The

average height of the surface varies with the latitude and not longitudi

nally . This seem s to be a general rule governing the altitude through

out, butm ore uniform ly so in that portion of Tibet lying westof longitudeThe rule is that there is substantially one level or superficial plane,

independent of the traversing m ountain ranges, running m ostly in zonesor belts which maintain an uniform altitude along the sam e latitude .

The greatest height of the general superficies of Tibet is found in a

broad band from west to east occupying the northern tracts, and againin a narrow belt from west to east running adjacent to the southernfrontier . Between these elevated areas, and also following in the mainthis latitude, there occurs a long depression which is in fact the valley or

basinof theYeru Tsangpo—the great arterialwater - way ofTibet . Along

1 2 TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPECTS .

the latitude of the main course of this river— in parts notm ore than 90

m iles north of the line of our Indian border— the plane of elevation sinksto an average of feet above sealevel and this depression of eleva

tion continues along the sam e latitude (29° to 29° even where

further east the river leaves this paralle l for its northward bend .

The northern tracts of this territory, which, from the steppe - likecharacter of the m ore western parts, are known as the Jang - t

’ang

(“ Plains of the N orth or simply as the C/lany or J/umg, attain the

loftiest general altitude . That portion skirting the base of the Kuen

Liin Mountains is uniform ly lower than the desolate plains stretchingfrom west to east, som e 50 m iles further south . Here, keeping to the

parallel of latitude of 35° N ., the Jang- t

’ang reaches its highest level,

one of over 1 -feet above the sea. In theLingzhi T’ang, in this lati

tude,near the Karakorums, the altitude is feet ; and 700 m iles

further east (longitude 89°E . ) we find the plains and a lake in exactly

the same latitude with a reported altitude of feet, said to have

been accurately m easured . Again, take another test case . Captain

B ower gives his altitude at “ Camp 30 ” as feet . We find his

latitude then was 32° 45’ N . and his longitude circa 85°1 5

’E . N ow

,

after three m onths’ tim e,he is again in that very sam e latitude but m uch

further to the east, nam ely, 88°

yet his altitude is practically thesame, nam ely, at

“ Cam p 7 1 , feet . Further south of this parallel

,the average elevation of the Jang

- t’ang decreases considerably ; andthe regions of Tibet lying between the 3 1st and 32

°30

' paral lels must beplaced at an approx imate altitude of feet. Further south again,as we have seen, the level is m uch lower.

East of the 92md m eridian,however, our rule of latitudinal zones of

elevation fails so far as the m ore northern districts are concerned . In orabout that m eridian

,a decided drop in height occurs, the average altitude

of the general plane of the country to the east being tofeet in all latitudes N . of 30

°and S . of Further to the north - east

the decrease in elevation is still m ore marked ; so that in the Tsaidamplains, west of c c

'

N or,and beyond the Tibetan confines, to

feet is the usual height. S o again, in those parts of Tibet far tothe south - east, there is likewise a fall, the descent being much greaterand the val ley - level between Zayul and Bat

’ang being ordinarily under

feet . Indeed, the deep valleys in Zayul itself, bordering on the

ranges which wall off Burmah, have m ostly an altitude under feet.

THE HIGHES T COUNTRY ON EARTH .

Taken generally, the claim of Tibet to be deem ed the loftiest country in the world cannot fail to be adm itted . The great northern tracts

TIBET IN ITS GENERAL AS PECTS . 13

for hundreds of m iles,as we have seen

,average an elevation of from

to feet. Its very valleys in the main territory scalefeet. Its people live and breathe and dance and sing and pray

in towns and villages which rarely stand lower than feet . The

m onasteries sheltering large comm unities of men or wom en are, by

choice, erected on picturesque ledges at an elevation as high as the sum

m it ofMont B lanc . S higatse, second city in Tibet and a great commer

cial mart, has been built feet above the sea ; and Lhasa, thecapital, is laid out on an alluvial plain feet above the sam e level .D erge, the Tibetan B irm ingham w ith a population of stands at

feet ; and Chhamdo, with inhabitants, scales feet .And al l this only concerns the general superficies of the country ; for, inthe regions where it has been flung up into peaks and m ountain ranges,

feet is reckoned in this land no extraordinary elevation ; whilstthe Passes daily surmounted by man and beast scale anything up to

feet . Yet, in contrast to these imm ensities, we have one townin the south - east corner of Tibet

,S hikha, capital of the Zayul val ley,

pitched at only feet .

FOUR CLAS S E S OF TERRITORY .

More or less,it is m ountainous everywhere in Tibet even the great

plains, of which so much has been w ritten, being traversed at intervalsby m ountain chains com plex though not lofty . N evertheless the territo ry is not of one character throughout . Both clim ate and configura

tion vary in the difi erent zones inc luded w ithin these regions . S peaking generally, T ibetans classify their country as divisible into foursorts . They discrim inate the T

’

any districts, the D ot districts, the Rang

districts,and the Gang districts ; and this classification will be found a

very convenient one .

T’ANG D ISTRICTS .

The 1 any cormtry is the region of the plateaus or steppes,those

parts already alluded to under the specific nam e of Jangt’ang, and re

stricted alm ost exclusively to the north, and m ore especially characteristic of the western half of the northern tracts . Rising to the sum .

m it of a low ridge, you suddenly look athwart an imm ense plain whichbegins perhaps a few hundred feet below you and stretches without a

break, generally a distance of 15 or 1 6 m iles to a bounding range of

hills, but som etim es uninterrupted to the horizon in a clear sweep of 30

or 40 m iles . And this m ust be taken as the real feature of the country .

We have not level desert plains as in Russia orMongolia; Tibetan plains

are . m ore in the nature of wide sl ml low val leys running up on either side

14 TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPE CTS .

to bounding ridges . Moreover, the run at right angles to that which wehave termed the sides is usually a slope up to some higher level wherelies a T ’

cmy of sim ilar configuration but at a greater general elevation .

Many of these plateaus are bare and desolate to a degree hardlyrealisable . Undulating slightly, the whole surface seems strewn withflaky fragments of brown calcareous biscuit—mud- hardened and splintered by frost and by burning sun. In places the ground may be brownand white in alternate patches

,according as the whitish clay, which in

western regions is the foundation soil of the whole, is exposed or isoverlaid with caked loam and stones . Whe re the T ang has any decidedslope, in the lower levels are generally found shallow lakes, usually intensely saline, and with sodas and salts lying, a dirty white frilling, alongthe margin. Certain plains, especially the great tracts extending fromwest to east to the north of latitude 33° and between longitude 82

°E .

and the mountainous country north of Lhasa, are distinctly salt deserts ,holding huge reservoirs of saline waters where the drainage of the landhas been massed into swamps and lakes . Large areas

,m oreover, dry

and waterless, are perfectly snow - white, being com pletely covered with

saltpetre . This is the case throughout vast tracts directly east of Ru

dok .

l Much of this elevated region in the N .-W . comprises sheer

arid flats nearly devoid of vegetation . A few scrubby bushes occur hereand there, but very little pasture, and that only in the dips where waterhas been lying .

However, south of latitude 33° N . and east of the 82nd m eridian,

the T ang country assumes a very different aspect . Although the broadopen valleys continue, they are now covered everywhere with verdure

,

and though the average altitude may be taken as feet, the coarse

thick-

growing grass affords sustenance to troops of wild asses and deer,

as well as to the tame flocks of the Khampas and C hangpas—the onlydenizens of the Jang - t’ang proper. This pasturage is m ost luxuriant ina broad belt, som e 40 m iles from north to south, which stretches to theeast, running between latitude 32° and Here

,also

,dandelion

,

hawkweeds, and wild rhubarb, are met with.

N orth of the lake - district of those parallels,the lands seem dry

and saline but yield much grass . In places the plains are covered with1 “

D uring the last three m arches to D ak - korkor no water of any kind wasmet w ith , and the par ty w ere forced to carry a supp ly in skins . In this arid par t ofthe country the soil was of a dazzl ing white, a peculiarity which extended as far as

the Pundit cou ld see . The Pund it was inform ed that fi ve days'

m arch to the norththere Was a large district cal led Juug Phaiyu - Pooyu, and that throughout its wholeextent the earth was of the same white kind as that theywere crossing over , so wh iteindeed as to cause peop le to suffer as if from snow - bl indness.

”Pund its

’

Rep orts for

TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPECTS . 1 5

congeal ed law , and slabs of pure salt stand in piles ; but, in certain districts m uch further to the north- east, extensive savannahs of herbageoccur . Beyond the abundant grass up there, little else seem s to grow ; nocrops will seed, anda few bushes of cam el’ s thorn,

” tamarisk, Campana

furze, and Enraiz

'

a are the only shrubs,and these are very rarely seen .

Herds of w ild animals o f large gram inivorous species, which feed herein the summer, supply m anure for each season’ s growth as well as dungfuel (amok) to nom ads and travellers . East of the m eridian ofNam ts

’o

Chhyidmo (al e. Tengri N or), the T ang country narrows up to the north,lying as a belt of som e 1 50 m iles along the base of the Akka Tagm ountains and reaching as far to the east as the 9 6th m eridian. Here

the grass - land is reported to be still m ore fertile, and the animal lifeeven m ore profuse than in the west . Frequent m ountain ranges (suchas the Koktjshili) and many river- feeders, however, bring these easternregions, in m ost respects, out from the T ang category into another

class . 1

D OK D ISTRICTS .

The great upland pasture -

grounds form the nex t feature in Tibetancosm ogony, and these are known as the D o/c lands. These lie chiefly inS outhern Tibet ; but not exclusively so . In som e respects they resemble the m oors and heaths of S cotland and Yorkshire but, perhaps, acloser analogy m ight be found in the Madras of S iberia. Bogs andswam ps and gullies, with m uch broken country running up into shaggyridges, also m oss - covered knolls with a soft black peatty soil, are characteristic qualities . Low -

growing barberry, IVIyricarz'

a, and furze, are in

p laces interm ingled with w iry herbage . But all these lands lie lifted up

on the backs of m ighty mountains , or are entrenched am id huge crad

ling hills which protrude spurs and forking buttresses into each basin of

m oor or fen . Very wild andweird are these dark m oors . But excellent

pastures indeed are all the D ok tracts— less frequented by large gam e,save Ovis Amman and wild asses, because given up to the herds of tam e

yak and sheep owned, patriarch - like, by the D ok-

pa or sem i - nomad inhabitants .

D oubtless, there is infinite variety under the general characteristicsof regions of this and other kinds in Tibet. In this D ok country youmay find yourself at one tim e hemm ed in by peak- crowned slopes as at

hom e in N orth Cornwall ; whence, com ing forth ,you have the narrow val

1 The T’ang country in a m easure re - ap pears in the S outh in a p ortion of

territory known as D ing - tsam abutting on the north of Easte rn Nep al and S ikkim .

These tracts have a m ean e levation of ove r feet, are shrubless, bu t w ith p lenty

of coarse fescue grass, and are character ised by the sam e b road flat val leys separated

by ridges of rounded h il ls which belong to the Jang- t’ang country of the north .

16 TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPE CTS .

leys merged into absolute plains, descending gently down to the bed of

som e great river which has cut deep below the general level , the plainsthere, on either side, being broken up into narrow spu rs separated byravines . Here

,again,

is another glim pse of D ok scenery south of Yam

dok lake,from the narrative of U .G . in the S urvey Report

The pass was diffi cult and the ascent was rough and trying, passing alongsnow - covered slopes, flanked by deep gorges ; but, after a descent on the

southern slopes of the pass of about feet, w e reached a beautifu l flatcountry wh ich gently sloped up to the foot of m ountains, carpeted w ith ex

q uisite verdure and lovely flowers, w ith bushes of different shrubs . At the

head of the lake is the m onastery of Tong - tso Padma - l ing , looking from wh ichto the south - east the View embraced the crystal surface of the thrice holy lakeflanked by a range of bil lowy m ountains overtopped in the distance by thelofty snows of Ku lba Kangri . The Ku lha Kangri, w ith their snow clad peaksstanding in m ost picturesque array, resem ble (to com pare great th ings withsmal l) th e Buddhist prayer offer ings cal led Torma . To the north is the domel ike peak cal ledKu lhai Cham ,

“the wife ofKu lha ; on h er sides stand exalted

the sublim e peaks of Chenresi, Chhiyagshi, Lonchhen Lhat’

oi Gar (“the hoary

headed prem ier Nam gyal and others . After visiting a celeb rated cave,consecrated to Guru Pem a, and su rrounded on th ree sides by glaciers, westarted to the sou th - east over this elevated plateau to find our way back intothe Lhobrak Val ley .

S o pleasing an aspect of nature as this plain presented at an elevation of nearly feet is no uncomm on sight in T ibet The tim eof U .G .

’s visit was early in S eptember, when, in these realm s of snow,

vegetation has attained the climax of m aturation.

It should not be supposed that thewhole D ok country is peopled bynomads . Small towns of stone- houses are to be found in most parts,especially inthe lower valleys where the al titude descends to feet .Here, too, on the valley - cl iffs junipers and small fir grow, w ith w illow sand poplars below near the river- side . In D ok- dc (to the far N .E . of

Lhasa, from 1 50 to 200 m iles’ distant) the country developes into reallyfine and pleasing scenery.

1 This part includes Tsog - de, through

1 After A . K’s expl oratibn, the whole of these tracts north - east of Lhasa w ere

,

by the unfounded theory of the gentlem an wh o m ade the details public, included as

parts of the Jang- t

’

ang . That Mr . Hennessey’

s View was erroneous is cer tain . The

only ground fo r classing th is portion of th e country with the great sal t p lains to

the west in the sam e latitude, seem s to have been the supposition that the l ofty ele

vation of the w est in this paral lel was continued here in the eastern regions . H ow

e ver , the many m ountain ranges, w hich are of great intr icacy, and the character o f

the pastures on the table - lands, as we ll as the lower al titude , suffi ciently distinguish

such districts from the T ang country west and due north of Nam ts’

o Chhyidm o .

Moreover , the very nam es given in a native geograp hical work , D zambuling Gyal

shes,”

of D ok -

yul and D ok - dc, identify the tracts as D ok (l it : abrog) or u pland

pastures ; wh ilst in the account of A . K . h im se lf th e denizens are designated D okpa

or herdsm en.

”


1 8 TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPECTS .

gealed and m otionless, and even a goodly number of the geysers of hot

water, so com mon near lakes in Tibet, have been frozen into tall whitecolum ns . As M . Bonvalot remarks, the power of ejection of these

fountains of boiling water is not sufficient to cope with the frost.

Upon the m osses and crags of the D 0 1: territory, the snow in Januarylies in m ighty sheets of many feet in th ickness ; while in the lava

strewn plains of the verge of the Jangt’ung, due north of Nam ts

’o

Chhyidmo, there seem s to be less of snow . There flats and rocks and

the recurrentm ountain ranges belonging to the T ibetan steppes are not

clothed in white,but are com pletely plated w ith pure ice, as though

rolled up in glossy armour which had som ehow been put on when liquid,and which thus holds them so tightly as to appear contorted and

quilted .

RONG D ISTRICT S .

Certain parts of the country are much out up with deep ravines

and rocky gorges, between the high cliffs of which rattle rapid aflluents

of the larger rivers . These narrow valleys m ostly contain considerableraised beds of alluvial soil, especially where any conjunction of stream soccurs . On the ledges of such ravines num erous ham lets and gom pas

are built everywhere ; and the denizens industriously cultivate the strips

of alluvial accumulation . Much artificial ground, derived from theriver

,is contrived, as well, on hollowed recesses in the cliff- sides . In

deed, these ravine or Rang districts are favourite spots for villages .

One recomm endation is the abundant water close at hand, another is

the richness and softness of such soil as exists and a third advantageseem s to be the general low altitude of the districts where this conformation is found . One of the chief Rang districts, that one which lies

between Shigatse and Lake Yamdok, is a perfect network of defiles, butliterally swarm s with villages and m onastic establishm ents .

GANG D ISTRICTS .

This conformation of country is peculiar to Kham s the great province of Eastern Tibet . Kham s holds both Rang and Gang districts

,

but the latter class is its speciality . In som e respects this style tallies

with the D ot lands further west, and indeed here it replaces them ; only

the m orose and desolate aspects of the other are here absent, andm oorland is replaced by downs . Moreover the whole elevation is muchlower, and consequently vegetation richer and m ore varied. S till weare in the uplands, the Tibetan word Gang having that bearing .

Captain Gill, who viewed Tibetan scenery from the east in S eptemher, just over the frontier of S zechuen, gives this glowing picture

Ou passing the crest of Chah - toh - shan, the great upland country is at

TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPECTS . 19

once entered. S tanding on the summ it of the pass, stretched below was afine val ley , closed in on both sides by gently- sloping round- topped hil ls, al l

covered wi th splendid grass. The richness of the pasture was som eth ing as

tonishing ; the ground was yel low with buttercups and the air laden with theperfum e ofwild- flowers of every description . Wild cur rents and gooseberries,barberries, a sort of yew, with many other sh rubs, grew in profu sion . Bythe side of a l ittle tent som e Tibetans were lying about ; their fierce dogs tiedup to pegs in the ground, and great herds of sheep and cattle grazing roundthem . The sheep are taken in vast flocks once ayear from Lit’ang to Ta- chienIn, and thence to Chheng- tu for sale .

Near Chhamdo, in the north of Khams, the landscape is of theGang character, this quality succeeding to the D ot features furtherN .

-W. and West. It i s of La-

gang, a little west of Chhamdo, thatCaptain B ower is speaking when we read this entry in his diary

Through the m ost lovely country over wh ich it has ever been m y lot totravel . The path ran through a forest one or two hundred feet above theriver, w ith here and there open grassy patches with trees scattered about.Each bend in the river disclosed to view a panorama of surpassing beauty.

Inno part of Kashm ir does the beauty of the scenary excel that of th is partof Tibet. Gam e is plentiful , but shooting is forbidden in al l the countryhaving any connection with the m onastery of B inchi .

S uch scenery is not of the description one would expect to m eetwith at an elevation of feet . But it is only so in Tibet.

S outh of Chhamdo, the country presently becomes rugged and

sterile, and it is only in the main river valley that the smiling aspectof nature is maintained . It i s so, too, in the important D erge kingdom of Khams, 150 m iles north- east of Chhamdo . At this height al l

i s forbidding and unproductive save in the great river- tracks . Mr .

Rockhill thus pictures the change from the Rang country of the Gyekiindo district to the Gang country further south, as D erge is enteredby way of the D engo valley. We preserve in our quotation the writer’s

orthography of names

The face of the country remained as we had seen it north of Jyékundobare and bleak ; in some rocky nooks a few stunted juniper trees, but noshrub or flower, no singing-b ird or anyth ing to rel ieve the awful stillness anddr eariness of the scene.

After a. m iserable night dur ing whi ch sl eet had fallen continually, wewere off again by dayl ight ; and entering the D ren - kou val ley, which leadsdown to the D ré Ch ’

u, the scenery changed as if bymagic . A brook floweddown the glen, its banks covered w ith soft green grass powdered over withl ittle wh ite and pink flowers. On the m ountain sides grew juniper and pinetrees, and by the roadside were wild plum , gooseberry, honey- suckle, and

other shrubs, the fragrance of their blossom s fil l ing the air . From cavitiesin the tufa rock pended creepers and ferns from which thewater fel l in crystal drops ; and we heard the cuckoo

’s cry echoing across the val ley

20 TIBET IN ITS GENERAL ASPECTS .

About two m iles below’

Lori we came once m ore on the D ré Ch’

u , and the

scenery grew even finer as we wound along the steep m ountains sides, som e500 feet above the blue river which went dash ing by in eddying and seethingm asses in its narrow bed. The m ountains rose several thousand feet on

either hand, those on the left bank reaching to above the snow - line and stretching as far as the eye could reach along the river

’ s sinuous course . Lam aseriesand vil lages, around wh ich were l ittl e patches of cultivation,were num erou s oneither side of the river ; and great droves of yak were grazing aroun d the whitetents of parties of tea traders, whose goods were piled up under White cottonawnings to protect them from the frequent showers of rain .

Of course,in discrim inating the characteristics of the different

classes of country, it is impossible to do m ore than generalise as to theleading features . Indeed, in Tibet, as in every land , we often find thequalities of each class blended, so that it would be hard to distinguish towhich class the district should be assigned . It is enough, however, toshew how various is the character of this territory

, and yet how tosom e extent it adm its of systematic apportionm ent . Moreover

, as we

have said, our classification is that of native Tibetan writers .

There are said to be six Gang districts in the topographical sense,nam ely ; Mabja Zabm o

, Ts’a- wa

,Pompo, Mar Kham s, Minyag, and

Yarmo . These are som etim es separated from the province of Kham s,and the whole is designated Gang.

CHAPTER III .

CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY .

One m ight reasonably look for eccentricities in the climatology of

Tibet . An extensive territory with a plane of elevation so exceptionallylofty andyet so near to the tropics necessarily presents conditions un

paralleled elsewhere on this globe . To put the matter m ore strikinglywe have there in fact som e square m iles of the earth’ s surfaceraised in general altitude from to feet above the level ofthe sea, traversed by numerous m ountain - ranges varying fromto feet

,yet situated only from to 14 degrees north of the

Tropic of Cancer. Accordingly, the m eteorology of such a countrymay well be unique . Moreover, the circum stances of the climate are

still further com plicated by the rim of lofty m ountains enclosing the

territory on three sides,those on the south cutting it off by their

cessive height alm ost com pletely from the m oist currents of the ocean .

Probably, also, the great spinal column of plateau and dislocated m ountain range, form ing the main watershed of so m any river basins,stretching from Aksai Chin to Zaynl, produces further eccentricities.

N ow , the altitude of this enorm ous country would lead us to expectterrific cold and its exclusion from the atm ospherical effects of the

ocean great dryness . And that is so in the larger half of the territory .

We have in fact in those parts an Arctic climate, deprived to a considerable extent of that accessory in the shape of constant freshly - fallingsnow wh ich in the Arctic regions does much to temper the severity of

the cold. D eficiency of m oisture causes the snowfall in m ost parts tobe exceedingly small . In the south - eastern districts adjoining Chineseterritory, certainly,where the southern barrier is much lower than elsewhere

,imm ense quantities of snow are deposited every year, m uch of ~ it

above the line of perpetual snow,m uch m ore below it, and which on

m elting adds materially to the volume of the three great rivers thatquit Tibet in the S .

- E . corner .

However, on the valleyed plateaus of the N .-W., S .

-W. andNorth

92 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY.

Central regions, heavy falls of either snow or rain, though indeed oc

casionally occurring, are rare . In those parts, extrem e dryness is theleading feature . Only the round- topped ridges of very high m ountain

ranges, such as the Aling Gang- ri and T ’

a- chhab Gang- ii , each scalingover feet in altitude, receive any regular annual increment totheir hoary load and that is generally not a considerable dole. Moreover, the height of the snow- line in Tibet causes the small lodgmentson the hillsides and open valleys to vanish with the return of summer.

N evertheless, the sweeping assertions often made concerning theutterly arid nature of the Tibetan climate need distinct qual ification.

Because at Leh in Ladak under 1 1} inches is the annual rainfall, it hasbeen too hastily assumed, on the theory of sim ilarity of hydrometricposition, that the greater portion of Tibet receives no m ore . Now,

though this may be the case in the extreme western tracts, there isactual proof that the deficiency in m ost other parts ofTibet is not in any

way so great. The concurrent testim ony of all traders who visit D arjeeling from S higatse is that in that part of Tsang the rain s of Julyand August are very heavy while, in w inter, at least 8 inches of snowfall five or six times every season. Again, even in the great salt- lakedistrict, so far north as between the 32nd and 34th parallels of lati tude,and so far west as between the 84th and 87th m eridians, we have thestrongest evidence of a considerable down- fall. Captain Bower and D r.

Thorold traversed this portion of their route (where the elevation averages feet) from July 25th to S eptember 4th, 1 891 when, out ofthe 42 days therein comprised they record heavy storm s with drenchingrain on 1 9 days and the implication from Captain Bower’s narrativeis that it was wet on other days also . It is interesting to note that thesestorms seem ed to come mainly from the S . and S .

-W. direction. Again,CaptainWellby, travelling in the districts due N . of Lhasa in 1896,

noted in August only 1 1 fine days, rain or snow falling on 18 out of

the 31 days with several severe storm s. Even in the far N .-W of

Tibet, supposed to be so arid, snow fel l on 4 days in the first week ofJune. In July 1 896 rain or snow fell on 10 days or nights in N .

-W.

Tibet. But we shall return to the subject later.Furtherm ore, in connection with this question, we may mention

the way in which native Tibetan authors constantly describe theircountry as the White Land ; while their speech is styled by thepoets Gangs- chhen- kyi S kad the language of the great snows .

THE WATER- SUPPLY OF THE GREAT RIVERS .

How com es it—it might be asked—that Tibet is the grand homeof so many m ighty rivers Their sources lie in the very heart of this

CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY. 23

land where the benison of the heavens is not lavishly showered down .

Whence, therefore, do the fountains draw the great supplies necesssaryto feed the early reaches of all the water - thoroughfares of India and

S outh - eastern Asia ?Well

,it is possible to make reasonable elucidation of the apparent

inconsistency . It is,after all

,no great mystery . The truth seem s to

be that the climate of Tibet has not always in the past been the sameas it is now and that the results and productions of that differentclimate are by no m eans yet dissipated in that country, but survive asstupendous legacies—dim inishing slowly it m ay be as tim e progress es,yet still effective in the present benefits they confer.

Let us extract a passage from S ir J . D . Hooker in one of the

notes to his Himalayan Journals :“Were the snow - level in D ingcliam

as low as it is in S ikkim , the whole of Tibet from D onkia alm ost to theYaru Tsanpu river would be everywhere intersected by glaciers and

other impassable barriers of snow and ice, for a breadth of 50 m iles ;and the country would have no parallel for amount of snow beyond thePolar circles . It i s impossible to conjecture what would have been theefi ects on the climate of N orthern India and Central Asia under theseconditions . When, however, we reflect upon the evidences of glacialphenom enon that abound in all the Himalayan valleys at and above

feet elevation, it is cl ifiz'

cnlt to avoid t/lc conclusion t/zat sac/z a

state of lfiinys once existed, and at a comp aratively very recentp eriod.

”

In addition, we find Captain (now Colonel) H . H . Godwin- Austenremark ing in 1868 of the evident decrease in size of the Pangkonglake in Western Tibet The only deduction to make from such com

paratively recent changes is, that the level of its waters has been alternating w ith m oist and dry periods of tim e, the slow process of whichmay be even now going on alm ost imperceptible to man the water ofthe Pangkong depending as it does mainly on the winter snow and the

country passing through a period of dim inishing falls - query : maynot the snowfall in this part of the Himalayas be m uch less now thanform erly

The explanation, then,takes this form . At the present day all the

loftier m ountain- ranges in Tibet are well stocked with enorm ous pro

trudent glaciers and in concavities in elevated summ its lie snow - fields,

m ay be, several hundred feet thick . Moreover, the m oraines in valleys

and the signs of glacial action in the basal ravines assure us that, large

as the glaciers still are, th eir bu lk has been form erly exceedingly larger .

The m odern snow - fall and rain - fall at their current annual rate could in

no wise bring about such accumulations . It i s most probable,there

fore, that the climate, so far as these discharges are concerned, has in


later centuries undergone radical change, and the present fall o f theseis infinitely less in quantity than in by-

gone times . H owever, so hugewere these glaciers and other reservoirs of congealed water that, longas they have been furnishing the m ain demands of the great outflowing rivers, they are still large enough to m aintain an adequate supplyto them for an indefinite period to come . N evertheless, the markeddim inution in the size of numerous lakes in Tibet

,as noticed by various

travellers, which lakes depend to a large extent on glacial feeding,afi ords evidence that the drainage into them is not so copious as

form erly . A certain falling - off in the supply is therefore betokened .

Although a theory such as the foregoing is worthy of al l credence, onepoint likew ise m ust have due weight. We would re- assert our beliefthat, while the falls of rain and snow in the west and north are insig

nificant,yet in Central Tibet the am ount of these has been greatly

under- estimated . And it is l l ronyli tne region wl ere af air quantity ofl ol l occur that the Yeru Tsangpo and at least two other of the greatout- flowing rivers pass in a great portion of their respective courses .

Again, everywhere in Tibet, the annual renewal of neoe’ to counter

balance in som e degree glacial waste on the higher m ountains, is an ap

preciable factor even now - a—days . S om e fresh snow— though only a

m oderate quantity— is still added yearly to snow - field and peak and

does not m elt . Comparatii'

rely scanty m oisture reaches Tibet in m oderntimes ; and if this were only rain, we allow that the contribution m ightbe hardly worth counting, as being nearly all lost by percolation intothe thirsty soil . But, as on the lofty ranges, it com es in the form of

snow and hail, on the contrary every atom is preserved and goes to increase those stores which replenish glaciers, and through glaciers— indue process—the resultant rivers .

In ways such as these we can readily account for the vast body of

water brought from Tibet by the rivers which greet us in the plains ofIndia and China and yet not be surprised to learn that the am ount ofsnow and rain falling in that hidden land is certainly, by itself, totallyinadequate to produce such an outflow .

THE SEASON S IN TIBET .

Let us follow the round of the seasons to gain som e idea of theTibetan climate in western and central districts .

S PRING COND ITIONS .

S tarting with spring, we shall find that season slow to showitself, especially in northern and western regions . The end of Aprilarrives before the snow fallen in the winter—little though it may be


26 CLIMATE AND ME TEOROLOGY.

h eights is often considerable . We observe it noted by Captain Wel lbythat on June 22nd at an altitude of feet the therm om eter inside

his tent rose toBut the sun

,which at 2 P .M . shone down with a force of 1 25

°in

t he open, once sunk to the horizon, the bitterest cold can follow in the

height of summ er . On July 1 0th in N orth Central T ibet the readingat night was 6

°Fahr. ; on August 1 8th in lat . 35

°1 0

’ long . 92°1 2

’ E . ,

the m inimum at night - tim e shewed 1 6° Fahr ., the altitude beingfeet above the sea. However, there are at night great variations of

temperature . Travelling at an average elevation of 00 feet, CaptainWellby records 33

°as the warmest night temperature in June and 40

°

as the max imum of the nigh ts of August. In Lhasa and even in

S higatse the evenings of summer up to 8 or 9 P .M ., are generally m ost

pleasantly warm . In travelling after sundown those pathways skirtingheat- absorbing rocks often yield the balm iest of atm ospheres far intothe night.

Just at daybreak seem s to be the time of greatest cold during the

24 hours . The difierence between the sizaole temperature at 3 P .M., and

that in a tent in the sam e place at 3 to 4 A .M., is often nearly if not

quite 60° degrees in the early part of May at ordinary elevations . On

July l oth 1 896 , in N orth Central Tibet, 54°was registered by day in

MeMade, but in the succeeding night the temperature sank to A

quotation from CaptainWellby’s diary must conclude our remarks upon

this point. He and Mr. Malcolm were cam ping in June in the lakedistrict of N . N .

-W. Tibet (lat. 35°1 2’ N . , long . 82

°E .) at an altitude

of some feet : “ Bathing in the lake itself, although the lakewas partly frozen over with ice, the water was quite enj oyab le, and wecould remain splashing about in it for half- an- hour

, and afterwardsbask naked in the sun A climate like this at such a heightstruck us as truly marvellous . After seventeen degrees of frost bynight, we found ourselves basking in the open in a temperature ofsh ewing a variation of ninety degrees in the 24 hours. At 7 P .M . ,

again, the thermom eter registered as much as 48°

FahrWe were off before 5 o’ clock, with a keen m orning air in our faces

, but

after a couple of hours the heat became so unbearable that we wouldfain have halted . Again, on July 1 8th, the sam e latitude, but a goodway further east : At 7 - 30 P .M., at a height of over feet

,the

temperature was 40°Fahr., and during the night there were nineteen

degrees of frost .”

THE SUMMER S EASON .

The temperature and hygrometric conditions are of great interestduring the months of June, July, and August. As to the first

,let a


few readings of the Fahrenheit therm om eter in shade be extracted fromvarious sources for each month

JUNE .

Average m inimum temperature, N W Tibet, at

feetLowest m inimum , N .

-W. Tibet, at ci rca feet(Captain Bower)

Lowest m inimum , N . N -W . Tibet, as m easured in1896 by Captain Wel lby

Lowest m inimum at Batang (at feet)Average m inimum at feet in N orth S ikkimAverage , temperature at noon in Eastern Tibet,

feetH ighest maxim um temperature, N .

-W. Tibet, at

circa. 16,000 feet (June 29th)Average maximum temperature at Lhasa (11 ,600feet)

H ighest maximum at Lhasa during JuneAverage m axim um in Tsaidam plains feet)Temperature in Tsaidam , June 4th 1880, at 6 A .M.

Temperature in Lhasa, June 8th 1879, at 6 AM .

Temperature in Tsaidam , June 4th 1880 , at 3 P .M .

Tem perature in Lhasa, June 5th 1879, at 3 P.M .

Temperature at Mariam La, Purang, June 1 l th1866, 8 P.M.

Temperature at baseMt . Kailas,Manasarowar , June17th , 6 A.M.

JULY .

Average m inimum , N -W. Tibet, at circa feetAverage m inim um , North Cental Tibet, in 1896 (alt

Lowest m inim um , N .-W. Tibet at feet (Ju ly

4th ) ”

Lowest m inimum , sam e district, registered by Captain Wel lby

Average m in imum at 12,000 feet in N orthS ikk imAverage maxim um at Lhasa (1 1 ,600 feet)H ighest m ax im um at Lhasa during JulyTemperature in Lhasa, Ju ly 12th 1879, at 6 A .M.

Temperature in Lhasa, July 12th 1879, at 3 PM .

In Ngari Khorsum at feet, July 3oth , 1884,

at noon

AUGUST.

Average m inimum , N orth - Central Tib et, at circa

16,000 feetAverage m inimum , North Central Tibet, in 1896(Captain Wellby)

2-8 CLIMATE AND METEORCLOCY

Lowest m inimum , North - Central Tibet, at

feet (August 18th )Lowest m inimum ,

sam e district, in 1896 (sam e dayof m onth )

H ighest m inimum ,ditto, at 16,000 feet (August

l oth )Average m aximum at Lhasa (11,600 feet)H ighest m aximum at Lhasa during AugustIn shelter on Pass t0 p , near Gart’0 k,West Tibet,

feet, in August at 9 A .M.

In shelter on Pass - top, near Gart’oh ,West Tibet,19,220 feet at 9 A .M.

In shelter on Pass - top, near Gart’

0k, West T 1het1 7,650 feet at 9 P.M.

In shelter on Pass - top, above Upper Indus,W. T .

18 ,750 feet at 3 P .M.

At Téling Gompa, Upper S utlej , feet, Auguststh , 4 P.M.

On h igh plateau, West Tibet, feet, Augu st1 l th , 5 PM

T’

0kJalung gold field, 16,330 feet , August 29th , 3 P .M.

A ugust 27th , 7 A .M.

As to the falls of rain and snow in summ er - time, it m ust be notedthat the m onsoon- season of India makes itself felt to a ~certain appreci

able extent throughout Tibet . In C entral districts rain - sh owers occuron very many days in July and August, the m onsoon effects not reaching the N orth-Western Central region until about July 2oth . From them iddle of June to the end of August, in the provinces of Tsang and

Ui,including Yarlung, Yam

'dok and Lhobrak, nearly every day the skyis cloudy and‘ frequently heavily overcast . In Western Tibet, rainfalls in small quantities throughout July and August,

"

but with a verym oderate agg regate for the two m onths, probably 4 to 5 inches . Thus,Captain Godwin-Austen noted that

,during the whole period of his wan

derings in the Pang- kong Lake country, from July 22nd 1 863 to them iddle of August, w ith a few solitary fine days,

“ the w eather wasm iserably cold—nothing but cloud

,sleet

, and rain .

” In the farnorth of West Tibet, as on Lingzhi T

’ang, it seem s, however, to

be m uch dryer and clearer with only three or four days rain in

August .

Andnow as to that phenomenon of Tibet, the not infrequent snow

storm s in the height of summer . On the higher passes snow falls everyyear in July and August— no large amount, but often 4 or 5 inches indepth . It seldom lies longer than two or three days except in hollow sand behind north- facing rocks, where, if the height be o verfeet—though that is feet below the perp etual line—it cont inues

CLIMATE AND METEOROLv’

O-G’Y. 29

on to the winter . Occasionally,however, heavy snow com es down in

Western Tibet in July, and remains for weeks upon regularly- usedtracks. Thus on the road down on the Tibetan side of the Jhang Laleading out of Ladak there is generally a considerable fall in the earlydays of July, and thus it l ies two or three weeks in the full glare of thesummer sun, a stretch of several m iles’ length . The Ts

’

om orang La

between the valley of the upper waters of the Indus and the Tibetan

gold- fields at T’ok Jalung is another locality for heavy falls in August

wh ich completely cover t he Ts’omarang range from the ridge to the

base, the latter part being under 16,000 feet, while the summ its do not

rise higher than feet.To us th is seem s so fascinating a subject—heavy snow falling in

localities only ten or eleven degrees north of the tropics, in a latitudem ore sou thern than that of Greece or S icily

,in the m onths of July and

August, that we would fain enlarge upon it. A few striking quotationsfrom actual exp erience, however, will be m ore to the point . For in

stance, let a graphic word - picture from the hand of Godwin- Austen beintroduced.

H ere it is. He was camping early in August in the Chang Chhenm o valley on the bed of the Kyamgo Trag - kar stream ; and he w rites .

“ I t now began .to snow hard, and we got under the lea of a low cliff

and .sat the re until the coolies cam e up, when we pitched our tents with

great difficulty, fo r the pegs would not hold in the gravelly bed of thes tream but by m eans of heavy boulder stones this was accomp lished .

It was a m iserable evening, snow falling until sunset and lying on the

top of the tents and in high dry spots . When the clouds broke at thathour, beautiful appeared the surrounding m ountains with their white

covering, and the fieecy clouds drifting up against their sides added

greatly to their apparent height ; the whole suffused w ith a lovelyr ose colour, and the sun shining upon the wet surface of the many

tinted rocks brought out their hues brighter than ever.”

Cap tain Bower is not so descriptive in style but he records terselya fsim ilar incident at an a ltitude circa feet in N orth - Central"

Tibet, dated“

August 1 6th Just as it became .too dark to go on any

further, a snow- squall struck us ; we soon had the tents pitched and

a kettle filled w ith snow was on the fire . D r . Thorold, however, had

gone after som e goa just before the snow set in, and had not rejoined

the caravan, so I fired several shots and, guided by these, he m anaged

to reach the camp .

” Moreover, Atma Ram , one of the Bower party,

mentions in his notes that from July 2 5th to August 3 td their

route in N -W . Tibet wa s continually interrup ted by repeated fall s

of snow.

30 CLIMATE AND JIIETEOROLOGY.

AUTUMN AN D WINTER .

A ll crops throughout the Central districts are got in before the

m iddle of S eptember ; the early grim or naked barley having to be cut

in July at least. By the m iddle of S eptem ber the frosts at night, even

as low down as feet,are too keen for the stability of anything

in the form of seed or flower yet remaining . Early in October the first

of the winter falls of snow occur, and these October descents seem

pretty general throughout Tibet.In order to exhibit conclusively the generality and w ide extension

of the snow - fall in the early days of October, a few examples willprove useful . A .K. ,

travelling in Yagra- tod, the valley just south of

the D angla range, som e 220 m iles N . N .

- E . of Lhasa, at an altitudeof feet, notes heavy snow on October 7th and 8th, 1 879 and,

when he had crossed the range, we read during the night 3 feet o f

snow fell .” Again on the 1 5th and 1 6th he was detained at one cam pby continuous falls ; and on the 1 7th he makes the entry Our day’ smarch was almost entirely over snow. S o

, too, Captain Bower camping with his party on the shores of Chargyut Ts

’o experienced sim ilar

weather from the m iddle of S eptember to the 4th October 1 891 Snow

off and on all day and night . What fell in the day- time m elted at once,but that at night lay till the sun rose and then quickly disappeared.

D uring October, in all localities that range above feet, wateroutside becom es strongly frozen every night, m elting in exposedsituations during the day in the early part of. the m onth but by theend of the m onth the lake - shores begin to grow their permanent winterfringe of ice, which in N ovember generally extends all over the surface .

Early in D ecember the surface of N amts’o Chhi

’m o or Tengri N or,

square m iles of water, has becom e one deeply- frozen solid blockof ice . In this m onth, also, the larger rivers are set fast, being con

gealed several feet deep in the upper portion of their courses west of

long . 96°E . East of that m eridian and and south of lat . 32

°N . , the

great southernly - fiowing rivers, though often partially surface - frozen inJanuary and blocked with ice, are rarely completely ice- bound . The

Yarlung, Penam - nyang, and Kyi Chhu which are situated for the m ost

part below an altitude of feet, however, seem to he usuallysolidified for two or three weeks during the winter, though they havewide and strong currents .

Mons . Bonvalot and his friends must have experienced the severesteffects of winter in the highest tracts of Tibet . They were travellingfrom D ecember to March across the northernm ost regions, from northto south, at an altitude generally over and nearly always above

feet . Icicles 1 0 inches long clattering on their beards and


frozen tears were regarded as sheer trivialities apparently by these

sturdy travellers and each day they record with the lightest of heartsreadings of the therm om eter anything from 12

° to 40° below zero ! And

this state of cold they com placently endure 2 m onths at least at onestretch . We have the piquant Frenchman repeatedly making entriesof this nature : The therm om eter m arked a m inimum of 35

°below

zero, and the m orning was a lovely one.

”That entry is dated January

5th, 1 890 . The sam e eveningMons . Bonvalotgoes a walk round a frozenlake The night is m agnificent, and as I walk along the shores of thislittle lake, i t sparkles alm ost as much as the m oon

,having, besides, a

white halo of salt upon its banks When I get back tothe tent the thermom eter mark s 29° below zero . Prince Henry re

m inds Father D edeken that they had com e upon the traces of a wolfbefore turning in, and they suggest that, as I am up, I should go insearch of it .

”N ext m orning , January 6th, he sim ply and cheerily

records The therm om eter m arks 40° below zero, the point at whichthe m ercury freezes

,and there is still the west wind . Once m ore we

read on January 30th Although we get a little lower down each day,the cold is still intense

, the m inimum of to - day being 31° below zero at

an altitude of'

14,200 feet .”1

We can only adm ire the verve of these charm ing Frenchm en, always

gay under circum stances so Arctic,while we envy their iron constitu

tions and presum e the recording instrum ents they used were in goodworking order. The m inimum temperatures observed on the Bowerexpedition were 1 5° below zero on October 31 st 1 891 , in lat . 32

°43

’N .

long . 89°1 7

’ E . at an altitude of feet and the sam e on the 2ndand 3td N ovember a little further east. However, as the cold isknown to be m ore intense in January than at these dates

,there

is no im probability in the m ore startling records of Mons . Bonvalot.We now proceed to give certain m iscellaneous thermom etric obser

vations, derived as before from many sources and taken in various dis

tricts of Tibet. Let itb e prem ised, m erely, that the figures represent

actual careful records and that the maximum and m inimum temperatures were taken in the shade and out of the wind

S EPTEMBER .

Lowest m inim um in N .- E . Tibet (lat . circa. 36

°N .)

5 (alt . 16,000 ft.)Average m inim um in North Central Tibet (circa. lat31

° 25’ long .

1 Our quotations are from the translation of Bonvalot’s narrative in wh ich the

Centigrade readings have beenconverted into Fahrenheit.

32 CLIMATE ENE METEOROLOGY.

Lowest. m inim um during m onth , same local ity (alt .

feet).Lowest m inim um during m onth , at Mom e Samdong,

N . S ikkim (alt.

Lowest m in im um during m onth in Tsaidam (alt .14

,000)Maxim um for m onth in Ngasi Khorsum (alt . circa.14 ,500)

Max imum at Lhasa (S eptember 4th, 1879)

OCTOBER .

Average m inimum in North - Central Tibet (circa.lat. 32

° 50' N . long . 89

°

Lowest m inimum during m onth, ditto, alt.

feet (October 3 l st)H ighest m inimum , ditto, ditto, al t . feet. (October l st),

Average m inim um 1 11 Guge, Ngasi Khorsum (alt .

circa. feet)Lowest m inim um , sam e local ity (October 9th )Temperature taken by Lt. H . S trachey near Mt .

Kailas, October 4th , 1846, 6 A .M.

Temperature taken by Lt . H . S trachey near Mt.Kailas, October 5th 1846, 3 P . .M

Temperature at Janglatse, Tsang, alt . 13 ,800 feet,October 25th , 1866, 6 P .M.

NOVEMBER .

Average m inimum , North Central Tibet (eff/rem lat.

32°N . , long . 90° 93° E .)

Lowest m in imum during m onth , ditto, alt .

feet (Novem ber 3rd)Highest m in imum during m onth , ditto, alt. 14,925

feet (Novem ber 18th )Lowest m inim um , at S higatse (indoors) alt.feet (N ovember 18th)

H ighest m inim um at Shigatse (indoors) ditto (Nov

Average m axim um at S h igatse (indoors) dittoH ighest m axim um during m onth , at Shigatse(Novem ber 14th )

Average m aximum at Golm o, N .- E Tibet (lat.

8,760 feet)

C LIMATE OF LHA’

S A

It was Father Evariste Huc who first noticed the general m ildness of the climate in Lhasa and its neighbourhood .

entered the Pempo or Pembu district just north of the capital, thatImmediately he



tion considerab ly higher than the summ it of Mont Blanc a This extra/

ordinary fact is . doubtless to be chiefly ascribed to the extrem e dryness

of the atmosphere, cut off as it is throughout the major portion of the

territory from the influence of the m oist currents driven up from the

Indian seas. The great wall of the H imalayas form s an imperviousscreen against the intrusion of m ore than the scantiest drifts , of the

m onsoon vapours from the south . Such excessive dryness of therarefied air causes the general evaporation to take effect with won

drous rapidity ; and that serves to dissipate large quantities of snow

without any process of ordinary melting. Another factor is certainlyto be found in the violence of the w inds which, except during the night,rage

'

almost ceaselessly with immeasurable force across the plains a ndm ountainsides of Tibet. Other aids to the disappearance of newlyfallen snow are the clearness and attenuation of the atm osphere, almostfree as it is from any rain- films, allowing, therefore, the sun

’ s rays topenetrate unrefraeted and unsoftened ; also the great radiation fromthe sterile rocks unclothed with vegetation .

Thus we have the apparent anomaly that the southern and Indiansides of the H imalayas are loaded with perpetual snowd own to a

m uch'

lower'

lim it than are the northern sides, exposed though they - hé

to the intense cold of the Tibetan climate. A ccordingly; in cent ral districts of S ikkim and Bhutan, say along the axis of

‘

lat. 27°1 5

’

we find the snow- line ranging between and feet; and

approaching the northern border of those countries we find it rise on thesouthern face of the m ountains to feet ; but cross the frontierintO

' Tibet, further north, and then, in the heights abutting on theArun valley or. in the range lying north of Chomolhari, the line of

'

per

petual snow is nowhere under feet.”

Of course, it must be understood that when the lowest limit ofperpetual snow is thus spoken of, the estimate concerns open m ountainsides and

'

p laces offer ing a fair exposure to the sun and winds . In

narrow gullies and in sheltered hollows facing north, the sam e deepbeds of ice and frozen snow continue year after year even in Tibet atelevations of only feet .

The t racts lying north of Eastern N epal, which are among thebleakest, coldest, and most elevated in Tibet, are said to have a

snow- line of feet . This was also found to be the case west,where, for example, D r. Thomson in lat. 35

°30’ estimated the

sndw the sam e height. At Lanak La,just a fewmi les N .

-

_

E .

of the Changch'

enmo valley, Captain Basevi, we believe, reckoned the,

line below Which al l snow inproperly exposed situations would m eltduring every save a few abnormal summers

,as averag ing feet.


S uch estimates contrast strangely with the fixture of the sam e line inthe European Alps which 1s only 8,500 feet .

East of the m eridian of long . 92°E . the lim it of perpetual snow

drops lower ; and the further east you pass the lower the line falls,especially in the southern regions, though in the tracts N . of lat. 3 1

°N .

the plane of this lim it does not sink so rapidly . Thus,in the ranges

about the sources of the Hoang H o we find it adjusted by the Russianauthorities at feet . The estimate for D erge and Chhamdo i sset at feet . But much further south

, as at Bat’ang (in lat . 30

°

2 ’ N . ) the level of perpetual snow is said to be under feet ;while in the ranges of the D zayul district we believe this line oughtnot to be set above feet .

The cause of the comparatively low level of perpetual snow inS outh - East T ibet is not an obscure one. S everal of the great riverso f Tibet mak e exit from the land just where the S .

- E . provinces andthe Chinese provinces of S zechuan and Yunnan m eet . The country inthese p arts, which i s exceedingly m ountainou s and broken up, therereceives continuously volum inous supplies of hum id air,whicharebroughtup straight from the ocean along the courses of the m ighty rivers.

S uch Southernly- fiowing water - ways as the S alwin and Mekhong,which

quit Tibet at this_

corner, form perm anent funnels of ingress for the

moist currents which rush up their valleys from the southern seas .

The result is not only an excessive snow - fall but also an atm osphere ofexceeding hum idity, and which during m any m onths of the year isladen with ram - films and directly retards evaporation .

THE WIND .

One of the greatest embarrassm ents of travel on the Tibetan highlands is the wind . It is incessant all the year round . It starts upperhapsbefore 9 A .M. , and at certain seasons earlier, and blows with greatviolence the whole day until after sundown. At the loftier altitudesin the winter m onths in exposed situations these winds are murderous

and, unless shelter beneath hill - side or boulders is found, death or frostbite is theresult. It is the

fisame in all parts of Tibet a terrific wind

which ch iefly blows from the west or north - west seem s ever present.

Travellers in Ngari“

Khorsum'

in the S .-W .

,in the northern plains of

West and Central Tibet, on the uplands and passes of Tsang, and

am id the mighty parallel mountain—ranges of N .- E . Tibet, all speak

of this wind with lam entable recollection. It is the sam e, although

with certain seasons of interm ission, in the m ore elevated tracts of

Mongolia. South- East Tibet seem s alone, of these central regions of

Asia, to enjoy comparative immunity for, the i c, the moister and less


continuous currents from the south and southe ast prevail, displacingthe awful winds from the west .

The picture on the covers of Mons . Bonvalot’s volum es of Tibet

an adventure— a picture repeated m ore clearly in the text of the book

gives one a m ost impressive sense of the life of the nomads of the w indswept plains . It represents a party of natives cowering round a

tiny fire am id stones and trying to snatch a m eal . A singular factconcerning the strength and velocity of the wind deserves special record .

At an altitude of over feet the currents of wind seem , curiouslyenough, to lose something of their force . On heights of feet,and at loftier elevations on passes and ranges, there is a m arked dim inu

tion of speed and strength . The currents of greatest power and violenceare experienced in open tracts ranging between and feet.In fact, at such elevations the westernly winds blow furiously from

about 8 A .M ., acquiring the greatest speed, that of 35 to 38 m iles perhour, at 2 P .M . or thereabouts . The temperature at that hour generallybegins to fall, but the force of the w ind does not abate for at least 2

hours further . As the sun lowers and the tem perature falls, the velocity dim inishes ; but frequently the wind does not totally subside untillong after dark, only to re -c omm ence its vigour soon after sunrise the

next m orning . The wind rush ing over m ost of the T ibetan and H ima

layan passes in the day- time is usually little short of a hurricane .

S trange to say, however, as already noted, in those passes which scalenearly feet there is only a sm ooth and fairly brisk current .

The late Mr . E . C . Ryall, who did m uch work for the Su rvey of

India on the Ngari Khorsum border,writes —“Whirl - winds som e

times occur ou the passes . I heard of a fatal accident on the Balchadhura pass . A Bhotia of Tola village in Johar, on arriving at the top

of the pass, was lifted off the ground, carried away som e 1 00 yards orso

, and then dropping was dashed to pieces . I had always in Hundesto take my observations in a very respectable kind of storm . The

only way to get on with the work was to shelter myself and my in

struments as much as possible, by putting up a protecting klzanat 6 feethigh, to keep which in position I had to get 1 0 or 1 2 men to leanagainst it and frequently 5 or 6 m ore .

”

These powerful and continuous winds must, also, exercise considerable efi ect in transform ing the physical surface of the country . S venHedin makes som e pertinent observations as to the process In thesehigh altitudes the abrasive power of the wind plays a very importantpart . The west wind

,which is said to be the prevailing wind, sweep s

away all the finer materials, leaving the gravel behind and exposed,until that in its turn becomes disintegrated and is swept away . The

CLIMATE AND Mar/90120 170 0 17 . 37

surface of the mountains was everywhere weathered and porous . It

was evident there was an enorm ous difi erence between the temperatureof the day and the temperature of the night ; and this is the m ost

destructive of all the disintegrating agencies . N ext after it ranks thewind, which carries away al l the fine particles of detritus.

”

CHAPTER IV

THE SALT AND FRESH -WATER LAKES .

The great sheets of water held in the hollows of this uplifted land

now claim notice . Although several of these are alm ost large enoughto be styled inland seas, the supply to nearly all of them is kept up

m erely by the ordinary glacial drainage from the m ountains inlwhicheach lies entrenched . Not one, as it appears, is fed by any consider

able river. Two or three m inor affluents m eander into the larger lakes,but they are hardly m ore than m ountain - stream s draining not verydistant uplands .

Tibetan lakes have several peculiarities. ~ First, the great altitude at

which they occur. S econdly, the excessively saline nature of their

waters . With few exceptions they are emphatically salt lakes potash,soda and borax being found in such extensive deposits encrusted round

the margin, and in the waters them selves, that m ost of the lakes north

of the central lateral chain are not denom inated ts’o or “ lake,

” but

ts’akiéa or salt- pi Thirdly, few of the lakes seem to have any

important outflowing river, and in this way, doubtless, their great sizeis maintained .

l Fourthly, in the closest proxim ity to every Tibetanlake rises up an extensive system of hot springs. These geysers inTibet

,as they occur near lakes alm ost exclusively and not in other situa

tions, suggest the theory of volcanic fires being near the surface andexercising by conduits, the gases of which are in spasm odic playthrough the heat, a syphonic action on the waters of the lake.

1 As far as my experience goes, no lake in the Himalayas has two exits, nor

do I think that it is common elsewhere, and indeed I know of but one case of the

kind where a small pool has two exits. It is obvious that, if there is any great flow

of water , one exit will probably be out quicker than the other, and eventual ly be

come the sole channel —(the late ) Colonel T . G. Montgomen‘

e, RE . The earliest

source of the S utlej is undoubtedly Ts’

o Lagran but the outflow is intermittent,

during some periods ceasing altogether, the main feeders of the river being stream s

from m ountains to the north and south of its ear ly course . The great D i C hhu of

East Tibet is also amrmed to start from Ch argyu t Ts'o in North Central Tibet .

iSAL’

T'

ANZ) FRESH WATER LAK'

E'S . 39

J “ S tupendousreservoirs . of water lie inevery quarter of the'

country.

From K6k6 ~N or on the Mongol border in the extrem e‘

N .- E . to Maria

sarowar or Ma-

p’ang in the S .

-W . and from the lakes noticed byMons . Bonvalot along the base of the Kuen Lun range to the Kyem a

Ts’0 on the Nepal frontier and TiguTs

’0 near Bhutan, suchmasses of

- iquid held in bond are constantly recurring . They -do not stand 1n the

course of the huge rivers of the land— if that were so they would probably have never existed—but always on the higher grounds apart.S om etimes in wide shallow s on the flat desolate plains sometim esengulfed am id amphitheatres of m ountains , and again in lengthy series,the links of a m ighty chain of many waters laid across ridges and m oorland for several hundredm iles together .

Imagi

ne, if we can, the height at/ which the lakes of Tibet areresting N o such elevated sheets of water are found throughout theWor ld . A few m inor sheets are met with in theneighbouring Afghanand Pam ir regions at altitudes equalling those of the lower waters of

Tibet , but none even t here at all approach ing the elevation of thehigher or the maj ority of the Tibetan lakes . In truth these last seem

unapprdachable,as to loftiness of situation, by’

any others in theworld.

A short comparative table will at once exhibit the fact of the greatsuperiority ln altitude of Tibetan lakes to all others elsewhere

Circqs erénce. Altitude above sea .

i

HorpaTs’o feet .

.Tsaro l - chh e Ts’o other feet.

w ise Ige Namur Nor

Yagmo Ts’o No rth - Gent . T ibet

B’

om oJangtf

ang Ts’

,o South Tibet

T igu Ts’o S outh T ibet

.T s'

agynd V

Ts’o,

(C hargut Ts’

o )Manasarowar Lakes S .

-W. Tibet

North Tibet 11 2mil es

Wakhan m Great

} 1 3 950 feet.Pam ir

Little Pam irs

Kargoshi Pam ir

C olom bia, S . Amer ica

Al ichur Pam ir

Nan - S han Range

Tsaidam , N'

.- E . T i

bet

Issyk,

Kai -

f, s e m i r j e chinak 247 m iles feet .

Russ. Asia

Lake Waterton Rocky Mo untain s , feet .

N. America.

40 SALT AND FRESH- WATER LAKES .

Name. S ituation. C ircumference. Altitude above sea.

Victoria Nyanza ( ia East - C entral Afr ica 860 m i le s feet .

eluding Lake Bahr

ingo )Lake Tanganyika East Central Africa 780 m il es

U lungur Nor D zungaria 80 m iles

S iber ia 928 m iles 1 feet.

Lac de Neufchatel S witzerland

Lac de Geneva Sw itzerland

Lake Chad Bornu, West- Cent

Africa

Lake Balkhash S em iryechinsk 680 m iles 9 10 feet .

Russ . Asia

Lake S uperior Canada 609 feet .

S ea of Aral Ru ssia in Asia 1 33 feet .

Caspian S ea Caucasus 84 ft . below sea .

D ead S ea Palestine ft . below sea .

Lakes Melghik, Kebir , Alger ian S ahara ft. below sea .

and Haj ilu

THE HIGHEST LAKE IN THE WORLD .

The lake in Tibet which may be accounted as the one situated at

the highest altitude above the level of the sea is apparently that whichBower marks in his map as Horpa Cho, and which in elevation nearlyapproaches 18

,000 feet . This i s consequently the loftiest lake any

where on the earth’ s surface. Bower describes it as of considerablelength, running roughly N . and S . at a height of feet abovesea- level with several islets on it. Its area is about 1 1 8 square m iles.One or two small pieces of water near and upon the Lingzh i T

’ang or

Lingzhi plains, hard by Horpa Cho, approach this altitude ; whilst about570 m iles further east, but in exactly the sam e latitude, is the Lac deMontcalm which Mons . Bonvalot estim ated as scaling 1 7,404 feetabove the level of the sea.

S EX OF LAKES .

To peaks standing; adjacent to lakes Tibetans assign masculine

appellations, affixing the male particle p’0 , or the honorific term for

father gl ad ; whils/t to the lakes them selves, titles of female im port

are always g iven, or else to som e other pai ticular nam e a fem inineaffix is annexed . Thus we have the D angra Yum lake in the D okthol

district,‘ that is “ the Mother Casket of Purity ” lake ; and beside it

shoots up the Targot Yab m ountain summ it which is thought by intercourse w ith the lake to have bred many m inor peaks . S o, we havelikewise theTs’om oTel - t’ung,

near the N epalese frontier, i .e.,

“ the femalelake where the mules drink and Ts’om o Mabang is the vulgardesignation of the eastern Manasarowar lake. Although yum, the


42 THE SAL T AND FRESH - WATER LAKES .

systematic grouping of them in latitudinal zones . However, whetherthe theory of southernly- trending chains of lakes linked across countryfrom W. to E . be true or not, on the whole it may be assum ed thatnorth of lat . 3 1

°and west of long . 9 1

°30

’the whole of Tibet, even to the

very base of the Kuen Liin Mountains,is thickly strewn w ith lakes .

The whole of this northern region seem s also to be salt- country .

In the unexplored tracts north and north - west of N am ts’o Chhyidmo

the vast natural store of saline matter is positively phenom enal . Nativecollectors of these salts relate curious accounts of their abundance orrather redundance . In som e places pure chloride of sodium is foundpiled in stacks of apparently artificial form ation . H owever, the pilesare the work

, not of m an,but of nature . It mu st be supposed that

floods from rivers,and the torrents of m elted snow from the surrounding

hills, draw great quantities of salt from the soil, which they subsequently deposit in thick beds . The succeeding terrible winds of these plainssweep the layers up into huge m ounds, which the intense frost of the

winter splits and separates into blocks and slabs resting one upon

another . S trangely symmetrical seem s to be the power of cleavageexercised in those bitter regions by cold upon the solid salt .

All the lakes hold the saline m ineral s in strong solution, and yetsom e of these sheets of water, in the m ore northern latitudes

,are of

large area Ts’a-

gyud Ts’

o being reported to be 80 m iles by 30 m iles,and M . Bonvalot assigning to his Lac da Montcalm ,

” 1 80 m ilesfurther north, dim ensions of 45 m iles by 1 2 . When the sm aller lakesdry up , as seem s comm only to happen, they leave pits and sheet- likedeposits several feet in depth .

1 Indeed,it appears to be the general

tendency of Tibetan lakes in m odern times to dw indle . Al l show signsof having been once considerably larger thanthey are now . CaptainGodwin- Austen when he surveyed the Pang

- kong Lake 30 years agofound unm istakeable traces that its old level was m uch above its levelthen

,and pointed out the probability of the two lakes of this nam e having

once formed a continuous sheet of water together with the Nyok Ts’o .

Captain Bower noted the sam e signs of rapid shrinkage in his series and

the thick far- reaching margins of saline crust encircling all these lakesis evidence of an evaporation which in the present day, for som e un

1 Most of the comm on salt found encrusted round lagoons abutting on Tibetan

lakes contains som e adm ixture of a salt of m agnesia 5 but, though sl ightly bitter , it is

consum ed al l over Ladak and Tibet. D r . Frankland once m ade an analysis of the

water of th e Pang- kong Lake, and h is exam ination shewed it to contain about 13 per

cent. o f sal ts . Nearly half of these was ch loride of sodium ; and the remainder com

p rised su lphate of m agnesia, chloride of potassium , and sulphate o f soda. Ordinary

sea-water is about tw ice as salt as the Pang - kong waters, wh ich at th e western end

are probably a good fair samp le of the qual ity of m ost of the salt - lakes of T ibet .

THE SALT AND FRESH - WATER LAKES . 43

explained reason, does not seem to'

be counterbalanced by any replenisling supply .

As we have stated, Tibetans discrim inate the saltiest lakes as ts’ciMa (the clad/ca of the m aps), the others as ts

’

o while som e even in the

salt- country appear to be nearly free from saline m atter, as are the greatD angra Yum and Captain Bower’ s sweet- water lake abutting on the

southern shore of Naksung S atu . N ear certain ts’ciJz/ia,m oreover

,in

the m ost nitrous plains, springs of beautifully fresh water are found

gushing forth and flowing into these brine - pits . Writing of the Pangkong Lake, C olonel Godwin - Austen speaks of springs bubbling up for

som e distance out in the lake rendering the water around quite fresh .

Explorers state how large is the trade in the salt products of thesewaters, which is carried on by the D okpa tribes inhabiting the D ok

regions south of the series . Here the salt (is’

af) soda (MZ25) and borax

(ts’

d—Ze) are principally collected from the thick deposits fringing suchlakes and, being filled into 201b . bags, the bags are placed in couples onthe backs of sheep . Flocks of seven hundred sheep thu s loaded are tobe encountered patiently bearing these products either west into Ladak,or south to the m arkets of N epal . Borax seem s to occur m ost profuse;

y on the plains of Majin, a district N .- E . of Ngari Khorsum near the

gold - fields. It lies there near the surface in vast tracts,and any am ount

may behad for the digging .

l S om e lakes yield likewise an impurenitrate of potash which,

'

under the nam e of at om , fetches a fair price,being conveyed to Gyangtse and Lhasa for use in the manufacture of

gunpowder.Hot springs, as we have said

,abound near salt lakes as well as

near fresh waters . S om etim es they also are strongly impregnated withsalts, chiefly the Chlorides and sulphates of potash and m agnesia som e

,

too, contain iron . Often,however

,they eject water quite pure and

sweet, which, in winter on the desolate plains, is of ineffable value totravellers

,who find even the ice not sufficiently freed by the freezing

operation from its saline flavour . Tibetans attach considerable faith to

the curative virtues of these geysers, the only bath of their lives beingfrequently a single week

’ s course in the hot waters . In severe weather,nevertheless, natives have been known to take refuge from the cold bysquatting in the rock - hewn basins whence the warm fountain issues . 2

1 As to borax , the Tibetan Governm ent exacts from the diggers a tax of onl y two

khaghang or 2k annas per m aund . Borax sufficient to supply th e p otteries of D res

den,S taffordshire and al l Europe is h ere lying unused ,

if the yie ld from Tu scany

should ever run short. In the T ibetan fields, h owever , great slackness of demand

now prevails never th eless, in one borax fie ld in the p lains bordering on the eastern

m ost sources of the Indus, one survey exp lorer no ted 100 m en at work .

2 S ee S ir J. D . Hooker’s Himalayan Journals .

44 THE SALT AND FRESH - WATER LAKES .

But in the rigorous regions of N . Tibet even the hot springs freeze .

Says M . Bonvalot : It is surprising to see in the m idst of this plain

of hot springs, cones of ice, twenty feet or m ore in diam eter, about the

height of a man, and speckled over on their surface—which is justl ike crystal— with grit and stones from the plain . These blocks,m oreover

,have split perpendicularly like certain kinds of over—ripe

fruit . We have before us frozen geysers, which have becom e covered

with this solid head - dress when their power of ejection grew insufficientto cope with the frost .”

The fertility in places of the salt- tracts has also to be referred to,though it form s part of the general phenom enon of the com parativefertility of a table - land so lofty and ice - bound as Tibet. N ot only dopasturage and such shrubs as Eurotia, tam arisk, H ippophae, and cam e]thorn rarely fail in these regions, but on the margin of certain lakes,such as D angra Yum at feet

,barley is extensively cultivated.

Captain Bower found grass particularly plentiful ” in shallow nul lahsnear some of the loftiest lakes . He writes of large grassy plains at

feet, and notes, on the shores above his big Aru Cho”

at

1 7,276 feet, how he made his way“ over a plain lying between the water

and the m ountains covered with,

grass and flowers .” Mons .Bonvalot

,who traversed the salt - country m uch further to the north,

remarks only on its fearful desolation and barrenness ; but his partyjourneyed in the Winter, Captain Bower

’ s in July . We now proceed torefer to particular lakes in som e considerable detail under separateheadings .

THE NORTH -WESTERN BOWER SERIES .

Probably the most remarkable chain of lakes is that which wasbrought to our know ledge by Messrs . Bower and Thorold as existingin the extrem e N .

-W . corner of the country . The m ost westernly of

the chain was already entered in our maps ; and one or two of the othersappeared

,though by no m eans in accurate position, under their Mongol

names as transm itted from the maps of the Chinese S urvey of the 1 8thcentury. But Captain Bower introduced us to a 'regular series .

The m ost notable characteristic of this lacustrine chain was themarvellous altitude at which it lay, between 1 7 and 1 8 thousand feetabove the level of the sea while the very large dim ensions of certainm embers of the series rendered their occurrence at such an elevation stillm ore extraordinary . S tarting from the Lingzhi T

’ang (the great

saline plain abutting the easternmost roots of the Karakoram Himalayas) , the series extends in alm ost regularly re- current links in an

E . S .- E . direction through several degrees of longitude . The most

THE SALT AN D FRESH - WATER LAKES . 45

westernly of these lakes are comparatively small in size ; but as the travel

lers p roceeded eastwards they found the sheets of water in this direction

grow larger and larger the further to the east they'

lay. S om e of theeastern- placed m embers of the chain were found - as we shall presentlyparticularly indicate— to be even many m iles in circumference. Anotherremarkable feature of the series was the unanticipated fertility of the

lands surrounding the majority of the lakes,notwithstanding the tre

m endons general altitude . N ot only grass of luxuriant growth occurred,but the grass was variegated with gay- looking assemblages of flowerssmall—stalked it may be, yet brightly coloured .

Taking the chain seriatim, we find the m ost western m embers in

the two fast- dwindling lakes of the Lingzhi Tang . These were notvisited by Captain Bower’ s party but they are of a certain degree ofimportance in that they form the reservoirs which receive the entiredrainage— such as it is—of this extensive but sterile plain. N o

grass or flowers would have been met with, here at least, if these lakeshad lain in the travellers’ line of march . Tso - T

’ANG Ts

’

o,the western

m ost of the pair of l akes, has been passed by m ost of the Europeanexplorers who have journeyed from Leh to Yarkand. It lies at an altitude of feet, in lat. 34

°54

’

N long . 79°26

’ E . as to its central

axes . The other lake, the southern end of which is barely 1 0 m ilesN . of Lanak La, is twice the size of the first- nam ed, and is fed by a

river from the Log- zhung range to the north . This sheet of watermay be term ed the S HUM- T

’

ANG Ts’o .

Thirty - eight m iles due east is the next considerable lake, one withsaline waters, the MANGTSA Ts

’o . It lies in a district where for a space

a temporary drop in the general elevation occurs,its altitude being

only feet. The circumference is about 24 m iles . The border

ing grounds are noted in the neighbourhood for their fertility, or such asis estimated fertility in regions so inhospitable : hence the nam e whichsignifies Much -

grass Lake .

”Captain Bower describes it as a fine

sheet of water of a deep indigo - blue,and he notes the profusion of

grass . Carey and D algleish visited the lake en route to the Kuen Liins.

It has been since visited and surveyed by Major D easy and Mr. Pike.Two or three smaller lakes lie in the vicinity.

Passing som e 25 m iles further east, m aintaining the sam e latitude,we find in long. 8 1

° to 8 1 ° 6’ E . one of the most remarkable lakes of

the series . The lofty plane of elevation has been not merely re-

gained

here, but is carried to a point positively higher, so far as general plane

goes apart from intruding m ountain ranges, than anywhere else in Tibet .

C onsequently this lake is veritably the highest - placed of all in thecountry ; and not only that, but also the h ighest

- lying lake in the whole

46 THE SALT AND FRESII WATER LAKES .

world. The nam e of this sheet of water, thus to be regarded as uniquefrom its situation, is set down by Captain Bower as the HORPA Ts

’o .

On Major D easy’s map it has a difierent nam e— Gurmen Ts

’o . It

is located at the amazing altitude of feet,and in its dimen

sion seem s to be a really m agnificent lake . To this lake, however, wehave already alluded on a previous page .

We now turn m ore decidedly to the S .

- E . and, dropping S . S .- E .

from lat. 34°

30 ’ to 34° N .,we com e into the region of two large

lakes which under other nam es and in positions far from accurate hadbeen often set forth in the larger m aps of Central Asia. These lakesappeared under the designations of BAKHA N AMUR NOR and IKE N AMUR

N OR . It was strange that we should have had only theMongol nam esof such extensive pieces of water, and that the Tibetan nam es shou ldhave been unknown . TheMongol appel lations signify

“ Little HarvestLake and Big Harvest Lake and doubtless the Jesu it mappistsof the Chinese S urvey denoted them by those nam es because their

assistants who did the survey work in Tibet were Mongols of Peking .

Their Tibetan titles we shall m ention presently.

In the m aps published previously to Captain Bower’ s journey,the

location of these lakes was woefully out of place, both actually and re

latively to each other . The Bakha N amur was marked half- a- degree

further to the W . than it really is while the Ike N amur was placed

half- a- degree further to the E . than it ought to have been . Thus

the distance between the two lakes was increased by a whole degree

above that which is actually correct . The given latitudes, though not

so far out,were by no m eans accurate .

Captain Bower furnished us w ith only an approximately - correctlocation as shown in the accompanying m ap . He was al so able toexhibit in som e m easure their general size and shape w ith the run of

their shore- line . From his observations we see that the two lak es arenot m ore than 35 m iles apart, and that they lie in substantially

the sam e latitude . The size of them has not so great a disparity as

was supposed ; though the m ore western, the Bakha N amur,is the

smaller of the two as its nam e indicates . We m ay venture to adjust

approximately the circumference of the Bakha N am ur at 80 m iles andthat of the Ike Nam ur at 1 08 m iles . However, the m ost rem arkablepoint of difi erence is that of the respective elevations at which they lie .

Though so near to one another, one is full a thousand feet higher insituation than the other . The Bakha Namur has been form ed in a

very distinctive depression of large extent in the surrounding country,

its altitude being only feet . A lofty range runs betwixt theHorpa Ts

’

o and this lake, and on the southern slope a rapid descent in

THE SALT AND FRESH - WATER LAKES . 47

elevation occurs, the valley dipping feet in 1 8 m iles to the shoresof the Bakha N amur . East of the lake the elevation again ascends andrapidly ; for we find the Ike Nam ur, large though it is, perched on a

m ountain- flanked plateau feet above sealevel .Captain Bower gives the nam es of the district in which the lakes

occur as Aru ; and assigns the nam e Aru Cho to the larger, the IkeN amur N or . Our own inquiries yield Tsarul or Tsarol as the correctdesignation, a nam e which the traveller could readily have interpretedas Am

,the final l in T ibetan being always nearly inaudible . N ow

Tsarol is in Tibetan the exact equivalent of the Mongol Namur ; andthence we get at the m ost probable reading of the Tibetan appellationsof the lakes, of which the Mongol term s are doubtless only synonym snam ely, TSAROL - CHHUNG Ts

’

o , i .e., Little Harvest Lake ” for the

w estern water, and TSAROL - CHHE Ts’

o, i .e.,Big Harvest Lake ” for

that to the east. It is noteworthy that many of the lakes in thisregion of Tibet have nam es bearing reference to the am ount of verdurein their vicinity—a most natural style of nom enclature when one re

m embers the importance and scarcity of good pasturage in these windswept and lofty wastes .

The neighbourhoods of both sheets of water seem to abound inanimal life . When in camp near Bakha Namur N or or Tsarol - chhungTs

’

o, Captain Bower wrote : This is a great country for gam e ; in thebroken ground close to the river hares swarm ed, antelopes were to beseen in every direction, and Ovis Amman skulls lying about denotedthat the living animals were to be found in the neighbouring hills.Again, he gives us this inviting picture of the Ike Namur N or orTsarol - chhe Ts’o Over a pass feet

,and then down a long,

narrow valley which suddenly debouches on Lake Aru Chofeet) , a fine sheet of water running north and south

,salt like nearly al l

the T ibetan lakes,and of a deep blue colour . To the S .

-W . and N .-W .

som e fine snowy m ountains rise up into the blue sky; while on the eastlow undulating barren - looking hills are seen . In every direction antelope and yak in incredible num bers were seen— som e grazing, som e lyingdown. N o trees

,no signs of m an

,and this peaceful - looking lake, never

before seen by a European eye, seem ingly given over as a happy grazing ground to the w ild animals . A Sportsm an

’ s paradise .

We m ay add that it was in proxim ity to these lakes,notwithstand

ing the elevated altitude, that D r . Thorold m ade som e of his bestbotanical finds . Am ongst these were Adonis caeru lea (at feet),Ranuncu lus p ulc/zel lus (at feet), EMS

/imam f zmz

f

culosum (at

feet), D m éa canescens, Em da, alp ina, C/trisfolea crassgf ol ia,Astragalus Hendersoni, Mic/roamBent/l anai , and Nep eta Zongebm cteata.

THE SALT AND FRESH WATER LAKES .

THE MANASAROWAR LAKES !

(Altitude adove sealevel 15,200f eet.)

There is a fascination about the sheets of water comprised underthe above name, not only because of the sanctity which so long has

been attached to them ,but also because of the fact that, notwithstand

ing their proxim ity to our Indian frontier, we are politically shut outfrom visiting or even seeing them .

In Tibet the name Manasarowar is quite unknown ; the two lakesembraced in our maps under that title being popularly styled, theeastern one Ts

’o- mo Mai - pang, and the w estern one Ts

’o Lang- gak.

In Tibetan literature, however, where we find them occasionally intro

duced, the lakes seem to be known as T8’

0 Ma-p’am and

345'

5Qflfi'

Ts’oLa-

yran respectively ; while together theyare designated

Madrosjm,“ that which does not grow warm . The name

Laiycm is also heard in comm on talk . As to the ordinary colloquial appelletions they probably signify : Md-

pcmgz the Peacock’s Breast

,

”

and Lang-

gale“ the Bull’ s Throat .” In Sanskrit works the name

Menasera-wam seem s to he applied to Ma - pang only, the Lang -

gal:

lake being termed Ra’wana- bmd. Finally

,at the present day, the Hindus

of the Himalayas call the latter lake Rakas T’al . 3

These twin waters, which lie almost imm ediately on the northernface of the Kumaon Himalayas, a few m iles N . from the base of the

descent into Tibet, are well- known to have been of mythological importance in both the Brahman and the Buddhist pantheons of India. In

sacred literature they were held to be the sources of the Ganges, theIndus, and other large rivers ; al though in reality the S utlej al one hasany connection with the lakes . A l ion, a peacock, an elephant, a bull,and a gigantic horse- like creature vom ited the sources of these riversfrom their mouths laid open som ewhere in these holy waters . Moreover, the lakes were reputed of enorm ous size, some 500 m iles acrossa sea where S ite. and the gods bathed and sported ; whereas the

l Mentioned by Pl iny and C tesias, the latter stating that a l iquid matter likeoil found on the surface was valued and col lected by the inhabitants. Marco Polorefers to one of the lakes but not by nam e

, m entioning that pearls were to be foundin it. Purang- gir notes a sugar- loaf hill nam ed Khyem - lung as rising at the baseof Cantaish .

”

9 However, the Revd . A. W. Heyde, form erly Moravian m issionary in Lahoul ,informs me that the real name of the lake is Map

’am not Mapang, and that the

local tradition is that it was so cal led because Milaraspa contended with a Bon priest

in m iracle -working on its shores and was NWIN ma -

p ham unconquered .

3 It is al so popularly styled Woma. Ts'o

“m ilk lake .

”


50 STHE ALT AND FRESH WATER LAKES .

The Himalayan hill- station nearest to the lakes, and from which

w ith care and rapid m ovem ents they m ight prove accessible, is Alm ora.

The route therefrom passes vz'

ci’

Pitoragarh and the valley of the Kaliriver

,which is followed up to Kangwa, just above Garbyang, by the

right bank . Here the river separates into its two main feeders, the

northern one of which is taken,and thence the Lipu - lek Pass into Tibet

(altitude feet) may be gained. It was by this route that

C olonel H . B . Tanner went in 1 885, when by quick marching he was

able to get as far as Takla Khar on the Karnali river before theauthori ties were apprised of his m ovem ents . He reached, thus, w ith insom e 23 m iles of the fam ous sheets of water. S trachey

,however, does

not recomm end this way, as it lies through country comparatively wellpeopled . He approves of the route via? the Mang

- shang La, which,though a Pass m uch higher then Lipu - lek and heavily - snowed, leads inTibet through an uninhabited yet not difficult region, and is the shortestroad to the lakes . S trachey himself took a Pass near the Mangshang

but further north—the Lang- byang (or Lankpya) La, feet inheight ; but that caused a considerable detour when Tibetan groundwas reached . This, m oreover, was the Pass by which Mr . Landorentered Tibet. The route to both these last- named Passes strikes offfrom the Kali 8 m iles above Garbyang, turning N .

-W. up the KuntiYangti valley.

Let us now try and realise the scenery around the lakes them selves .It is worthy the fam e of old attaching to the locality. Lang

-

gak Ts’o

,

it m ust be rem embered, lies to the left or west, and the m ore sacredMa- pang to the right or cast. The two are separated from each otherby a low rocky isthmus nam ed Tung - kang which varies from 5 to 2m iles in breadth ; and together they are encradled am idst m assivem ountains except to the S .

-W .

The great Kailas, or Gang T ise as the Tibetans style it,stands

directly to the north of Lang-

gak . It rears itself up rather to thesouth of the m ain Gang- ri range from which it is partially detached,and its buttress - like spurs protrude to within two or three m iles of the

northern shore of the lake, the intervening valleys giving off considerable feeding stream s. Mr . Ryall viewing it from a distance comparedits blunt peak , which rises to a height of only feet above sea

level, to a Hindu mam or Pandu tem ple w ith the top of the steeplebroken off. 1 S trachey, who beheld it close at hand from the verymar

l The heretical Bonpo p riest says to Milaraspa w ith som e truth Snowy Tise

and this Mapang Lake are like yoursel f. Only at a. distance their fam e is great

but near at hand they are noth ing remarkable .

”In th ose pages, however, it it im

pl ied that the waters of Mapang were really extensive and hence the miraculous

THE SALT ANI) FRESH- WATER LAKES . 51

gin of the Lang-

gak lake lying there at its feet, gives a striking and

enthusiastic description of its appearance thereThe m ost remarkable object here was Kailas, now re vealed in full

proportion to its very base, and rising opposite (northward) straight outof the plain only two or three m iles distant. The south - west front ofKailas is in a line with the adjacent range, but separated on either sideby a deep ravine the base of the m ass thus isolated is two or three m ilesin w idth . The general height of this I estimate to be feet abovethe plain but from the west end the peak rises som e feet higherin a cone, or dom e rather, of paraboloidal shape—the general figurenot unlike Nanda D evi as seen from Alm ora. The peak and the upperpart of the eastern ridge were well covered with snow, which contrastedbeautifully with the deep purple colour of the mass of m ountain below .

The stratification of the rock is strongly marked in successive ridgesthat catch the snow falling from above

,form ing irregular bands of al

ternate white and purple ; one of these bands m ore m arked than the

rest encircles the base of the peak, and this, according to H indu tradition, is the mark of the cable with which the rakshasas attem pted todrag the throne of S iva from its place .

”

To the south of the basin of the lakes, but m ore imm ediately to thesouth of Ma- pang and away to the S .

- E . of Lang—gak , rises the huge

m ountain matrix known som etim es as Garlha and som etim es as NyimoNamgyal , the highest peak of which touches feet, i .e.

,

higher than Kailas. 1 M ighty glaciers fi l l the upper hollows of thesesumm its which contribute to the m aintenance of the waters of Ma- pangto the N . and the Karnali river to the S . The rocky isthm us separa

ting the lakes is in part a long spur from Gur- lha. A long ridge from

the sam e m atrix running first east and then E . S .- E . form s eventual ly

the boundary between Tibetan and N epalese territory .

We m ust now take the lakes seriatz'

m for detailed description

nature of feats such as these. The heretic p riest straddles across the lake, one foo t

on either sh ore . Then Milarasp a sits down up on th e waters and, though h is body

does no t becom e l arger and Lake Mapangdoes not grow smal ler, he covers the who le

surface of the lake . Again, Mi laraspa holds Lake Mapang on the tip of his thumb ,

and this he does without injuring the living creatures which dwel t in the

waters . B ut see Milaraspa Garham ; folios 79 to 84 . (Nart’

ang block -

print

edition) .1 There is som e doubt as to the real designation of th is clu ster of peaks . Pro

bably the whol e mass bears the nam e of Nyima (or Nyinm o) Namgyal while Gu r

Lha Mandhata is app lied to the main summ it . S trachey styl es th e m ountainMom o

nangli , which is p ossibly the denom ination of a subordinate p eak . Mr . E . J. Peyton ,

the tal ented del ineator of the intricate m ountain systems of Kum aon and Garhwal ,

was the fi rst to ascertain a near version of the true nam e Nyima Namgyal . C olone l

Tanner’s Nim o Nam ling is another approx imation .

52 THE SALT AND FRESH- WATER LAKES .

and first Ts’o Lang-

gak or La—gran which, though the less sacred, is

the larger of the pair .The greatest length of Lang

-

gak is from N -W. to S .- E .

, and such

diameter m ay be reckoned at 21 m iles . From W . to E . where in placesthere is a tendency of the two Opposite shores to approach one anotherthe diam eter is barely 8 m iles . The whole outline of the lake exceptto the N . and N .

-W . is comp lexedly indented, form ing m any creeks, in

lets,and bays, which are fantastically term ed ts

’o- Jalé or the “ lake’ s

hands.” We find especially the south- easternm ost corner recessed intoa deep bay while the waters are drawn far inland into a fine point on

the west side . Moreover, the coast- line is not only broken, but also in

places extrem ely precipitous . S everal islets are seen cif the western and

southern shores,and on one of these to the west is a small m onastery .

In contrast to the rugged margin of the south, the northern shore lieslow and flat with large stretches of heavy sand . It is in this quarter,also

,where the chief feeders enter the lake . A considerable number of

stream s descend from the gorges of Kailas these form one sm all riverknown as the S ersho Gbhu . B ut the two largest feeding stream s com efrom the ravines separating the western and eastern flanks respectivelyof Kailas from the adjacent heights. These

,the Khé- lap Chhu and

Jom Chhu, are each som e 1 50 feet broad where they enter the lakeand much wider when abnormally swelled by the m elting of the snowsin May and June .

‘

Another small river discharges into the Lang -

gak about the m iddle of the western coast ; while, according to the S trachey brothers,there is yet another affluent in a stream of large volum e which flowsfrom the N .

-W . corner of Ma- pang and enters Lang -

gak at the N .- E . ,

thus connecting the two lakes . But this quest-ion of communication

between the lakes m ust be taken later in the present article .

As to any outflow from Ts’

o Lang-

gak ,that point is of partien

lar interest because in this lake the S utlej is comm only believed to haveits earliest place of origin . A reference to the map show s the lakenarrow ing to a horn in the extrem e

,

N .-W.

,and it is thence that any

effluence into the bed of the S utlej could only occur . Nain S ingh ,

who crossed the valley in which this bed would lie som e two or threem iles from the north - western point of the horn

,noted in his route - sur

vey a stream there, proceeding from the direction of the lake . He

designated it as the S utlej . D oes this fam ous river,then

,make exit

from the lake,and so there take the first start on its course H enry

S trachey exam ined, in passing, the reputed outlet . He found a swampwith large puddles of standing water, and the inference from his

1 H . S trachey designates these rivers" La Chhu and B arka Chhu .

THE SALT AND FRESH- WATER LAKES . 53

description is that the drainage from this m orass presently masses intoa stream which, when joined by other feeders, both from the south andfrom the western Kailas spurs, developes into the S utlej . Probably, ifS trachey had visited the spot 44 or 5 m onths earlier in the year, hewould have observed the undoubted efflux in m ore river - like form . At

any rate, here, in this lengthened - out point at the N .-W .

, the lake endsand through a m arshy channel in continuation, a drainage, which soonbecom es a stream , exudes into the bed of the combined feeders

,and to

gether with these fo rm s the river in question . Moreover, the natives of

the locality designate this point as the data -

go or river - door whilethe Himalayan traders style it the Al i/eds or outlet of the lake .

The intricate outl ine of Ts’o Lang-

gak, w ith the abutting m ountains, imparts a picturesque appearance to this lake, which is absent inthe case of the m ore sacred waters of Ma—pang . We must

, however,quote H . S trachey

’

s description forthwith as he is the only Europeanwho has referred to it

The western shore of the lake was undulating ground over whichwe had been travelling this m orning at the foot of steep and lofty hillsthere and here streaked w ith snow . The water was of the clearestbrightest blue, reflecting with double intensity the colour of the sky

above ; while the northern horn of the water,overshadowed by the wall

of m ountain rising above it, was darkened into a deeper hue, partakingof the fine purple colour that distinguishes the rocks of Gang

—riB right sunshine spread a warm glow over the whole landscape,

entirely divesting it of the cold barren aspect that m ight be supposedinseparable from these intemperate regions The lake was

beautiful ; quite a little sea . Long rolling waves broke upon the shoreclose under our feet, and as far as could be seen the whole face of the

water was freshened into the aVflpLG/AOV yekao ua of old ocean .

Turning to the eastern one of the pair of lakes,namely to Ts’o - mo

Ma- pang, it is noticeable that the imm ediate shore all round (exceptperhaps along the southern banks) lies in flat sandy reaches . There arefew cl iffs and few indentations , which facts m ake the circumambulationof the lake a com paratively easy performance to the hundreds of pilgrim s

who journey hither for the purpose. The shape of Ma- pang is almost

artificially regular to look at,the general configuration being oblo id or

an oblong with the corners rounded ofi , rendering it nearly el liptic, them aj or axis running east and west . Along the flattened litoral are theremains of many disused gold - workings . These are said to have beenabandoned not becau se of the exhaustion of the precious m etal

,but on

account of the remonstrances of certain prom inent lamas who declaredthat the skit - dag or god of the soil was m ortally offended by the ex

54. THE SALT ANE EEES -WATER,LAKES .

tracting of so m any large nuggets from his property. The m ore sensible persons affirm that the head - lama of the Gyang - t’ang Gom pa, at

D archan, was anim ated by a dog- in - the- manger kind of feeling that

the ground around the lake was being rendered som ehow less valuable bythe gold- digging operations—which we suppose in one sense was true

and by his influence the work was finally prohibited .

The task of making the circu it ofMa- pang on foot is denom inated

parkor, and including the requisite stoppages the journey is held to take5,or 6 days according to the length of such stoppages . To go

round both Gang Tise Mt . Kailas) and the lake at one stretch isstyled p

’i - lcor c/c/zemp o, the great outer circle,

”and is reckoned as a

week’ s business . To emphasize the sanctity of Ma- pang and the im

portance of the work of circumambulation,no fewer than eight gomp as

or m onasteries have been erected at various points round the lake .These in the order in which they occur, passing as devotees do roundthe lake from W. to E . to S . to N ., are

Jho - o Gompo The Lord’ s m onastery .

Jang- kyah G . N orthern refuge m .

Langpo - naGr. E lephant’ s trunk m .

Band- dhe G . Ch inese m onks m .

S erlung Gr. Golden valley m .

Pang-

go Gr. Beggars’m .

T’o - kar G . White head m .

Go- ts’

ul G . TheWay—outof- the - door m .

All these are establishm ents belonging to the Lho D ukpa sect ofBuddhists and

, curiously enough, are under the jurisdiction of theD harma Raja of Bhutan, who also governs the m onasteries standinground Mt. Kailas . The head- lama of each is always a man who has

been at one tim e an inmate of Tashi - chhodzong, the chief lamassery of

Bhutan ; and such of the m embers who desire to take priestly degrees

invariably proceed all the way to Bhutan for the purpose, a longer andm ore difficult journey than it is to Lhasa. They are,

however,all

very small monasteries ; and several are said to be now ruined and

deserted .

Every pilgrim making thep arkor of Ts’

o - mo Ma- pang has to stopat, and present offerings at, each one of the eight gom pas built roundthe lake . No one perform s p arkor round Ts

’o Lang-

gak, and only onem onastery stands on the shores of that lake .

Although there is a belt of plain encircling the margin ofMa—pang,lofty mountains practically surround this lake also, except on the westernshore where lies the isthmus separating the two sheets of water . There

THE SALT AND ERESII WATER LAKES . 55

i s a protuberant ridge from Gang- ri Gur-

gyah which runs down from

the N . N .- E . alm ost to within 3 m iles of the northern bank and which

carries peaks up to feet . The m ain post - road between Gar - t’okand Lhasa passes over the flat space lying between the lake - shore and

the foot of these peaks . B ut Gur Lha and its series of subsidiary peaksabutting the southern shore are the dom inant m ountains of the

sacred lake . The two nearest summ its are and feet respectively, the m ain peak rising up to the rear of these lesser heights .

S everal river - like feeders supply Lake Ma- pang w ith its fluid contents. The two principal of th ese com e from the Gang

- ri Gur-

gyab

range which form s the eastern continuation of Kailas . The S ome Chhuis the larger of the two and is fed by the Pem po - Kyi Chhu (River of Profit and Happiness) from the latter range, and by another branch streamfrom the heights surrounding the head - waters of the Yeru Tsangpo .

S trachey believes that four affluents discharge into the lake . He,how

ever,takes no account of the undoubted large supply of water which is

em itted from the glaciers and spurs of Gur Lha. In fact four or five

glaciers are said to lie on the northern or lake side of this m ountainmass . The stream s draining therefrom into Ma- pang are nam ed fantastical ly akin, that is urine and so we have Langpo - chhempo Chinthe m ighty elephant

’ s urine,

”S eng-

ge Chin the lion’ s urine,

” etc . ,

as denom inations of the various glacial feeders pouring into the sacredlake from the flanks of Gur Lha

,or rather Nyin- mo Namgyal Ri

“ the

m ountain that com pletely vanquishes the sun.

”It should be added

that no water com es to Ma - pang from Kailas .With so large an affluence

,it m ight be well - expected that there

would exist som e effl uent stream s from Lake Ma - pang . The lakes of

Tibet do not as a rule seem to require m uch tapping in the shape of outflowing rivers to restrict them to a normal level . In fact

,not any large

lake in the land possesses a single considerable stream of exit from its

waters, yet shrinkage is the usual presentday process observable in theselakes . The truth is that the loss through sub - soil filtration in m ost

Tibetan lakes is phenom enal, sand and porous gravels being the basal

setting of nearly all .

Moorcroft declared that there was no effluent river attached toMa

pang . But Henry S trachey brings forward his own ocular testim onyto the contrary . Moreover

,his assertion is rendered of greater conse

quence when he states that the out - flow ing river directly connects

the waters of the two lakes . D espite Moorcroft (whose observations

were not m inute) we cannot refuse to credit S trachey when he saw with“his own eyes a large stream 1 00 feet wide and 3 deep running rapid

ly from E . to W . through a well- defined channel , He goes on to say

56 THE SALT AND EEESH. WATER LAKES .

This was the outlet of Manasarowar . It leaves that lake from the

northern quarter of its western shore, and winding through the isthm us

of low undulating ground, for 4« m iles perhaps, falls into Rakas Tal .”

The native surveyor who made the circuit of the lake in 1 868 - 69 agreesrather w ith Moorcroft than S trachey ; but as his attention was not

called to the point before he made his traverse, but on his return hom e

afterwards, his opinion is not of much weight as against the plain aver

m ent of S trachey . Indeed, the latter traveller gives a cogent reason

why the outflow from Ma- pang m ight be easily overlooked by a superficial observer. The entrance of the effluent channel

,which leaves

Ma- pang lake just south of the Jho - o Gompa, has a large bar of sand

and gravel continuous with either shore of the lake, the out -

going waterrunning in sm all stream s which pierce the bar in many places . Pil

grim s, making p ar/cor, traverse this broad sandy bank, and the point

where the streams combine to form a river is hidden behind a bluff upon

wh ich Jho - o Gompa stands . Mr. Savage Landor, it m ay be added,

denies the existence of any connecting river but his authority cannotbe accepted because he did not reach the northern part of the isthmusbetween the lakes .

On the whole,adm itting the definite evidence of the S trachey

brothers,it m ay be said that a sm all river quits the eastern lake at its

N .-W . angle, and after a 4 m iles’ course enters the eastern side of the

western lake, but only interm ittently ; so uniting, though in scantym easure, the waters of Ma - pang and. Lang

-

gak . As Ma- pang is sowel l supplied with feeding stream s, such overflow has been probablyrendered necessary notwithstanding the counter - operating processes offiltration and evaporation ever actively at work . That the two lakesat any previous period form ed one, seem s im probable in face of the

height (averaging 250 feet) and constituent material of the dividingisthmus . However, the present connecting river runs through a valleywhich at one time may have been a channel of communication

,not as a

river but as a neck between the lakes .Finally, it should be stated that the waters of both lakes are

free from saline ingredients and perfectly drinkable . Certain deposits of soda at two or three parts of the litoral are probably

,therefore

,

derived from the under - lying ground, not from the adjacent waters .

YAMD OK TS’

O.

(Elevation 1 3,800 f eet above til e sea .)

Perhaps the m ost remarkable sheet of water is that one which, forquite 1 60 years, was figured as a perfect ring of water surroundinga large island, the nam e given being Lake Palte . This name in


58 SALT AND FRESH WATER LAKES .

m ountains which Tibetans poetically compare to the corolla of a

lotos .It is separated on the north from the deep broad bed of the Yeru

river by a very narrow space of ground but what this barrier lacksin breadth it makes up in height, ruggedness, and solidity . \Thesenorthern ramparts which keep back the waters of the lake from draining off into the great Tsangpo form the lofty Khamba La range, which

is the southern wall of the river - flats for many m iles just here . The

m ountains of the range bank up the lake so high that, although inplaces the distance between it and the river is only 8 m iles, yet thelevel of the waters of the lake is feet above that of the watersof the river .

The southern shores of Yamdok are not m ountainous, but low and

flat with extensive grassy savannahs of the D ok or dark - soil character.These form luxurious grazing for the flock s of D okpa nom ads and in

deed the nam e Yamdok Ts’o or “ lake of the upper pastures

founded on these fam ous feeding grounds . Here also dwell num erousdolp a or fishermen, who make a livelihood out of the fresh - water fishwhich throng the shallows of the southern reaches .

1 To the east of thelake, also, but separated therefrom by m ountains, is another broad plainutilised, as it seem s

,for pony -

grazing, and denom inated Yamdok

Karmaling the Yamdok plain of stars .”

Besides the sem i - island of Tonang, a large m ountainous islandnam ed Yambu occurs off the southern coasts . On this another branchhouse of the Samding monastery has been erected ; and the island isnoted, further, for a remarkable series of caverns . N ot far from thisquarter a long lake adjoins Yamdok, but is walled off from the mainwaters by a loop of rocky - cliffs m ost curiously disposed . It bears thequaint appellation of Roméu - dza Ts

’o or the Bottle of Corpse - worm s

Lake —a nam e said to have been bestowed because of the num erousbodies of m onks devoted as food to the fish of its waters . By thisobservance the Lu spirits inhabiting the lesser lake are propitiated

,

and restrain its waters from being overflowed into by those of Yamdokand so inundating valuable pastures . In truth the whole regions round

1 Fish in Tib etan lakes are mostly of the genus S hizop ygop sis differentiated byS teindachner as of the fo l lowing species .

S . S tol iczkae Pangkong and western lakes

S . Przhevalskm Koko Nor

S . lep tocephalu s

S . gracilis

Other genera are Asp iorrhynchus Ptychobarbus and D ip tychus (S teindachner) .A ll four genera are pecul iar to Tibet .

SALT AND FRESH - WATER LAKES . 59

these shores are deem ed by Tibet-ans enchanted ground, and the fantastic

style of scenery attunes itself naturally to the eeriest superstitions .

While the great snow capped peaks near at hand stand there, as it were,to yield assent to the w ildest play of the imagination .

One river, the Rong N ag Chhu, has its upperm ost source in Yam

dok Ts’o, departing from the N .-W . corner and reaching eventually the

Yeru a few m iles below S higatse . However the outflow this way isinconsiderable and by no m eans constant . 1 Three small rivers enter thelake from the south andwith the glacial drainage on the N .

- E . maintainit at its level .

KOKO NOR.

(E levation atove sealevel 10,320f eet.)2

In the written Mongol language the spelling of the nam e of thisextensive inland sea runs Kai / wNam”,

m eaning Blue Lake,

”but the

ordinary pronunciation is as above . Am ong the Chinese the appellation is l iving Hat w ith the sam e signification as the Mongol . T ibetan

traders, also,bestow a sim ilar title

,styling it q l l

'

fl fi'

gfi'

Soicp o

Ts’

o Ngon the Mongol B lue Lake, or m ore tersely Ts’o Ngo'

mbo .

These waters are rolled out in the lap of a long elliptic plain —sandybut verdant— form ed in a wide open loop in the southern ranges of the

Nan S han and east of the deserts and hilly swamps of Tsaidam . The

run of the plain is from N .-W . to S .

- E . and so extensive is it that

l Colonel H . B . Tanner ( in the S urvey Report 1883 - 84) attaches credence to the

statem ent of Lam a U . G. that th e Rong Nag Chhu sometim es flows into the Yeru

Tsangpo and som etim es into the Yam dok lake, according to which happ ens to have its

waters the higher . If C olonel Tanner had reco llected that the m ean level of the

lake is a t least feet, while th at of the Y eru Tsangpo below S h igatse is in

every p lace always under feet,he would hardly have expressed such an opinion .

The Yeru would be a wonderful river indeed if its waters 0 0 uld ever r ise or

feet above their normal l evel !2 The h eight above sealevel of Koko Nor is hardly yet determ ined accurately ,

consider ing th e rem arkable differences in the estimates of various travel lers wh o

profess to have m easured it . The ch ief assignm ents are feet.

G. E . Groom -Grzh imaylo

C ount S zechenyi ( 1879)W. W. Rockhil l ( 1889 )N . Przhevalsky ( 1 884s)G . N . Potanin ( 1886 )C ap tain Wel lby ( 1896)D r . S ven Hedin (1 897 )

No doubt in different years the water stands not always at the sam e level , but

such l evel can never vary so m uch as even 50 feet . D r . Hedin’s ob servation

,taken in

1 897 , is unquestionably below the m ark . The m ost p robable al titude of these waters

may be p ut at- 10 ,4OO feet above sealevel .

60 SALT AND FRESH WATER LAKES .

from the N .-W . apex to the point in the S .

- E . where the embracingm ountains again com e together can hardly be estimated at less than

1 50 m iles, whilst the greatest width (N .- E . to S .

-W . ) to which the

valley Opens is about 80 m iles across. We do not m ean to assert that

the whole Koko N or valley displays onelflat surface . Indeed a m edialrange of hills skirts the southern banks of the Pouhain G0 1 for som e40 m iles

,but the altitude being much lower than that of the bounding

ranges of the Nan S han the idea of a vast m ountain- locked enclosureor plateau is hardly interfered with . The whole plain is by far the

largest of the m any great valleys which lie between the various linesof the Nan S han and num erous rivers all drain into the fam ous lakein the S .

- E . portion of the plain .

The separated branches of the m ountains circling the Koko N or

valley and which run m ainly parallel from N .-W. to S .

- E . are usuallydistinguished as the N orthern and the S outhern Koko Nor Ranges . As

the N orthern Range is less continuous than the S outhern, and at

certain points changes its direction,different nam es have been assigned

to the difierent lengths which make up the former . Thus the western

m ost portion of the N orthern Range bears the Mongol nam e of Khorbana Ger “ the dwelling- placeof Khorbana.

”To the next stretch the

Russian explorers have given the title Zussa Range and round to theeast, where a decided dip S . S .

- E . occurs in order to m eet the S cuthernRange, we have the Potanin portion . With the exception of the lastnam ed portion (which is detached from and does not properly belong tothe main N orthern Range) the better nam e for the whole series is theChinese one of Su- lei Nan- Shan. ThisN orthern Range is considerablyloftier than the S outhern Koko N or Range throughout; while the latteraverages to 1 5,000 feet, the form er in m ost parts reachesand carries peaks up to feet

,as m easured by Obroochev . More

over, the S u - lei Nan S han stands in perpetual snow wherever it exceedsthe line of feet. S uch, then, are the m ountainous surroundingsof the Kokh

'

Nor , a notable feature of the plain thus enclosed is its

great elevation above the general level of the country just outside theencompassing m ountains, especially above that to the E . and S .

- E .

The lake itself lies towards the S .- E . term ination of the plain ;

the bounding ranges approx im ating but not quite m eeting som e 20m iles or less S .

- E . from the eastern head of the lake . In size this largesheet of water has been variously estimated to have a circumference of

from 1 66 to 1 80 m iles, the shores being in no part deeply or much indented . The general flow of the waters goes from N . N .

-W . to S .- E .,

and the greatest length along this the major axis does not exceed 68

miles 5while the width between the N .- E . and S .

—W , shores varies from

SALT AND ERESH WATER LAKES . 61

40 m iles towards the western end to 22 m iles in the eastern section .

As to the geographical position of the lake, recent investigations have

placed both it and the adjcent localities further to the east than theyare m ade to appear in the maps . In fact the m eridional situation isnow said to be 22’ further E . than was till lately supposed . Accordingly the actual posit-ion of the centre of the lake, or the point of intersection of the major and m inor axes, may be adjusted at lat. 30

°56'N .

,

long. 1 00°32' E .

Mr. Rockhill thus describes the approach to the lake“ As we went on , the val ley grew w ider and the adjacent h ill s lower .

The ground was wel l - covered with grass, and the water from num erou ssprings trickled down the h il l - sides or form ed b its of hog through wh ich wepicked our way . The few camps we saw were som e of them Mongol , othersT ibetan, but the form er seem ed to predom inate . They are a very poorpeople, th eir flocks rarely exceeding 100 for each tent. They l ive in constantdread of their Tibetan neighbours wh o r ob and bu l ly them sham eful ly . On

th e th ird day from Tankar we reached the watershed between the Elsi - ho andthe Koko- nor , and from the t0 p of a low pass of feet we got our fi rstview of the great lake . It lay a gl istering sheet of ice stretch ing to thewestas far as the eye cou ld reach and bounded to the south by a range of highblack m ountains w ith snow - tipped peak s .”

A long the northern shores of the lake are imm ense stretches of

undulating grassy savannahs afifording luxuriant pasturage . In fact

the greater portion of the Koko N or lands com prises a series of finem eadows passing over h illocks and hollows to the roots of the spurs of

the distant m ountains . 1 S and form s a considerable constituent of thesoil but w ith sufficient loam to produce a soft and nutrient herbage.The shore line is clayey slate interpenetrated with gravel .

On the sou thern margin of the lake the tracts of pasture are very

narrow and the banks are steep and clifi - like . The mountain rangethere runs within a very few m iles of the shore, giving off spurs withrounded glens between and hardly any rocky ravines . A scanty drain

I “ The vast p lains wh ich adjoin the Blue S ea are of very great fertil ity and of

a m ost agreeabl e aspect, though entirely destitu te of trees . The grass is of prodi

gions heigh t, and the num erous stream s which fertilise the soil afford ample m eans

to the herds of the desert for satiating their th irst . The Mongo ls accordingly are

very fond of setting up their tents in these magnificent pastures.

” —Huc . II . p . 99 ,

(Hazl itt’

s Edition ) .

Przhevalsky descr ibed th e lake as very beau tiful .” He wr ites of it, also , thus

In the m iddle of March we reached the p lateau of Koko Nor— the absolute height,

of which is feet. The forests of the Nan S han had disapp eared and had been

replaced by m eadow - l ike steppes, affording excel lent pasture for dom estic cattle,alongside of wh ich roam ed large herds of antelopes and wild asses. The ground was

honeycom bed with the innum erable burrows of marmots which both here and in

Tibet often lay waste large tracts through devouring the roots of the grass .

”

62 SALT AND ERESH WATER LAKES .

age into the lake is contributed in the early summ er m onth s ; but only

one stream deserving the nam e of river enters the lake from the south ;the Ara Go] in the extrem e S .

- E . corner having hardly any access to

the lake . The southern shore is asserted to be the main stronghold of

the shepherd brigands but Gn . Obroochev is the only European whohas traversed the southern margin, and be encountered none . It isnoteworthy that, while the northern coast has been so well explored, the

way along the south side has been always neglected .

The waters of the Koko N or are not very deep,and those parts

adjoining the shore form shallows 45 or 5 feet in depth and in places evenless . The water itself is described as salt and undrinkable, and isinhabited in som e plenty by three species of fish belonging to one

genus, that distinctively Tibetan genus Shieoyaygop sz’

s, none of whichexceed 9 inches in length . Obroochev, however, noted off the southernshore large numbers of fish of another genus and of m uch larger size,1 & to 2 feet long. It m ust be these fish which are spoken of w ithcomm endation by the Chinese of S ining . The Amban of S ining issaid, when on tour

,to be in the habit of halting his party for several

days on the verge of the lake for the fishing.

A beautiful deep blue colour which characterises the waters isstated to be the resul t of excessive saltness and to be so distinctive as to

have suggested the nam e of the lake . S torm s are comm on only in thesouthern reaches but such a thing as a boat appears to be an unknownsight on the lake . There are a few islets along the southern coast

where the water lies deeper than elsewhere. H owever there is one

rather large island almost in the m iddle of the lake in the westernquarter , som e 20 m iles S .

- E . of the m outh of the Pouhain G0 1 and 1 4«

m iles from the south bank of the lake . Thi s island is known as Ts’o

Nying the heart of the lake the Chinese designating it dragon’ s

colt island in acceptance of a legend that certain mares placed on the

rocks bred with a he or serpent -

god of the adjacent waters . On theselonely crags so far from the shore has been long established a small

gom pa harbouring about a dozen gelongs . The inm ates have no com

m unication with the distant coast except during the winter m onths

when the intervening Space is hard frozen .

1 It is then the custom forpilgrim s from Kumbum to cross the ice to the islet and present ofieringsof butter and cloth to the holy anchorites . Tradition accounts for theisland as having been originally a huge rock dropped into the rising

1 When D r. Sven Hedin visited the lake in the m iddle of November 1 896, he

reports“there was no ice on the surface, and, though the tem p erature of the air was

the tem perature of the water was 44°Fah r .

”According to Przhevalsk y the

ice breaks up in April .

SALT AND FRESH WATER LAKES . 63

flood by a Khyzmg bird to aflord'

a refuge to fugitives from the waters

then fast filling the plain .

In the N .- E . corner of the lake a portion has been cut off from the

main body by a bar of sand now of great width ; and thus has been

form ed a small detached piece of water known to Mongols as Norma

Ha'

item son of the lake .

”Again, in the extrem e S .

- E . corner, are

three lakelets in a chain which receive the waters of the Ara river and

discharge them eventually by an outlet into K0ko N or.

The rivers feeding the lake are comm only reckoned to be eight in

number ; the m aj ority com ing in along the northern coast . S om e of

these as they approach the lake display very broad beds abounding in

boulders and sandy flats . Perhaps the widest - m outhed feeder is theZikhe Ulang H oshang Muren entering about the centre of the northern

shore . But the m ost important and certainly the longest affluent is the

one flowing in on the w est,m entioned by fi ne and called by him Pou

hain Gol— really Bukha GO1 or Bull Yak River .The Pouhain or Bukba river is so decided a feature of the Koko

N or plain as to deserve som e further remarks . It rises in two largesized branches

, one having its origin in the southern Koko N or rangesom ewhere about 37° 1 8’ N .,

long . 98°1 2

’ E . and named Oring G0 1.

The other, the m ore important branch, the Pouhain G0 1 proper, rises

either in the Khorbana Ger range or perhaps penetrates through a gap

in the latter from the long valley which separates the Ritter and Hum

boldt ranges . N 0 traveller—not even the Russian Obroochev— had

followed its course down from the m ountains to the point of entry intothe Kiiko N or, until in 1 893 Mr. and Mrs . S t . George Littledale madetheir famous journey from Lob N or to the latter lake . They seem tohave first seen the river after crossing the Khaltan Kiitul or Katin La

,

and ' passing down the valley of the river they noted no deep ravinebut a broad bed bounded by low grassy hills . Its size is apparent fromthe fact that when 6 days’ j ourney (som e 1 20 m iles) from the m outh inthe lake, the river was too broad to ford . They also Speak of a consi

derable stream from the north joining the Pouhain G0 1 not m any m ilesbelow the Katin La. We find in the narrative no observations as to thedirection from which the river was seen flowing when they first sightedit and comparing Mr . Littledale

’

s map w ith that of Obroochev there

are radical discrepancies which weaken reliance on either . Thus, how

1 “We stil l continued to travel due east at about a m ile or a m ile- and - a- half

from the lake shore, which glittered a dazzl ing brigh t l ine on the south . A ll day

we had the rocky island in view, rising above the surface of the water like a drome

dary’s back , and thrown up in dark relief against the scarce perceptible m ountains

o n the south .

”—Sven Hedin .

64 SALT AND FRESH - WATER LAKES .

far to the west the source of the Pouhain lies is hardly yet determ inable .

Its great size, which Huc had averred and which Przhevalsky had ridi

ouled, is confirm ed by Messrs . Rockhill, S ven Hedin, and Littledale .

Mr. Rockhill’s observations shew anumber of small aifluents in the lower

portion of the river and the names of which he ascertained . At thepoint of discharge into the lake the whole bed of the river which is tra

versed by several separated stream s m easures two m iles across .1

Other incom ing rivers are the Aling G0 1 and Balamat Gol entering from the north . Then the Tsaidza is a considerable affluent drain

ing in from the S .- E . However, the only stream entering really direct

from the south is the Ta- nyingma Chhu unless we reckon the fitful in

flow from the Ara G0 1 at the S .- E . corner which reaches the K0k0 N or

by way of the lakelets already referred to . The Rhirmo - Jong of Mr.

Rockhill’s second journey does not, as we believe, ever arrive at the

lake.There exists no outlet from Koko N or at the present day ; and,

unlike the maj ority of T ibetan and Mongolian lakes,its size seem s

rather on the increase . The Russian explorer Obroochev who skirted

the southern shores in 1 893 detected below the present surface of the

water two continuous terraces one beneath the other, which at differentprevious periods had evidently form ed the m argin of the lake . The

upper terrace lay about 1 6 feet under the present level, and the lowerterrace lay som e 20 feet deeper still ; while the run of both terraces

was traceable for at least 1 2 m iles. As already m entioned, the southern

waters shew considerable depth . Possibly in earlier times there was an

outflow from the lake. If that was the case, the effluence took place

in the southe astern apex oici’

the Ara G0 1 which even now makes noconstant flow towards the lake . This idea is rendered al l the m ore probable because at the extreme S .

- E . point of the Kokti N or valley,wherethe Potanin range from the N .

-W . approaches close to the southernKok0 N or range to form the termination of the valley, there is a w idepassage between the two ranges . This passage gives an exit out from

the Koko'

Nor valley into the basin of the Hoang Ho which lies muchlower than the basin of the Kokii N or. Across this same passage is alow and very flat ridge, from the N .

-W . side of which flows the AraG0 1 towards the lake, and from the S .

- E . side of which rises a feeder

1 D r . S ven Hedin notes of this river The stream was 250 feet wide and had

a volum e of 60 0 cub ic feet in the second . Beautiful ly clear and bright, and gl iding

along without a sound, like a river of oil ; the current trave l l ed at the rate of 8 feet

in the second . Beyond the p rincipal stream came six other arm s, but th ey contained

nothing excep t frozen pools and fragments of ice . Beyond was yet another arm w ith

3 . Volume of 1 40 cubic fee t per second .

”


66 SALT AND FRESH - WATER LAKES .

brought to our knowledge by N ain S ingh, it has long had adis ?

tinctive interest to geographers from its large size and from its prox

imity to Lhasa, which city lies only som e 80m iles distant to the S .S .- E .

Moreover, its whereabouts was substantially known previous to the dis

covery by Nain S ingh of the chain of wh ich it form s the easternm ost1ink. It is marked in d’

Anville’s map which was compiled by the

“ lama mathematicians ” in 1 71 7 .

Most of the particulars ascertained concerning the lake and its

surroundings have been derived from the explorations of Pundit D .

(afterwards known as A. K.) and Nain S ingh. The surveys of these

two were made in 1 872 and 1 874 respectively. However, since theirtime, the lake has been reached by three sets of European travel lers. In

1890 Mons. Bonvalot and his party traversed the N .- E . litoral of these

waters. N otwith standing their good fortune, this is all the description

the sight called forth“Although we are the first E uropeans actually to behold it, it is

marked on the maps, thanks to the researches of the PunditNain S ingh.

As we go southwards, the lake seem s to open out in a S .-W.

direction ; and so long as the m ist prevents us from seeing the end

of it, we might take it to be a boundless sea. The evening sun,strik

ing the ice, makes it sparkle like jewels ; and we can well appreciate

the origin of its nam e the lake of the heavens .”

With such poor platitudes do these travellers allude to the fam ousTengri Nor, notable since the days of Marco Polo—they the first

Europeans actually to behold it. In August, 1 895, the region of thelake was reached byMr. andMrs. Littledale andMr.W . A. L . Fletcher.Although this party had an excellent view of the lake from the surround

ing heights, none of them descended to its shore : consequently the dil i

gent and accurate observations ofMr . Littledale only indirectly touchthe lake itself and reveal little previously unknown.

l

Accordingly, taking our details from Pandit D ., whose notes were

much ful ler than Nain S ingh’ s, we learn that Nam - te

’o Chhyidmo has

an area of about square m iles,and is hemmed in on the northern

and the southern sides by. lofty m ountain ranges . The southern- bounding range, however, which runs parallel to the shore - line in an E .N .

-E .

direction, is much the loftier and m ore striking . It is said to display

as many as 360 peaks, supposed to represent Chhakna D orje, the kingof the mountain gods and his retinue . Both Pandit D . andMr. Littledale name the range N inchen T

’angla, which we suspect ought to read

Noi- Jm T’angla—the Noi- Jm being the Tibetan mountain deities .

1 Messrs. D utreuil de Rhine and Grenard in 1 894 also reached the lake but havel ittle to say of its appearance,

SALT AND FRESH WATER LAKES . 67

The general height of these m ountains over - passes feet and thepeaks run up to feet. The range along the northern litoralmust also be of considerable altitude, the Pass across it beingfeet.

The waters of Nam Ts’o are intensely salt, but plentifully supplied

with fish, and from N ovember to May they are thickly frozen over. A

number of small islands lie close to the shore in different parts, and on

al l of these m onasteries seem to have been established, one of which, asat Yamdok, is a j oint community of gelong and am) sacred to D orjeP

’agmo . As there are no boats on the lake, these lamaseries are only

accessible during the ice season . It seem s a singular fact that all theshrines and gompas set up on the lake - shore and the island, shou ld havebeen endowed with nam es of wh ich the word do “

a stone form s part.Even the various islets are denom inated (l o - dong or

“ round cairn .

S om e extraordinary cones of hardened m ud, of great height, each allegedto be 500 feet in circumference, are situated near the Chhyak

- dor

Gom pa on the northern shore . There are num erous hot- springs in the

neighbourhood of the lake, and from som e of these the hot water is

spouted up with force to a height of 35 feet . S ulphur is present in thesprings, and the heat of several of them touches boil ing point, which at

that altitude is reached at aboutGlacial drainage m ust furnish the bulk of the water - supply of this

lake ; for all travellers concur in noting the size and number of glaciersalong the northern slopes of the N oijin T

’angla. However

,several

affluent rivers have been observed. The Gya- kha or Chhoi - kha Chhu is

received from the S .-W . and both this and the N gag Lobzang Chhu,

which runs in on the eastern coast, are large rivers . One stream is reported to issue f orth from the N .

-W . corner of the lake—the Nag

Chhu . It p robably communicates with the series of small lakes lyingW.N .

-W . of Nam Ts’o .

On the western and eastern sides the shores are rather flatter thanel sewhere ; and on the east we have low- lying plains between the lakeand the m ountains. The western hills, as observed by Mr . Littledale,

do not seem to rise m ore than 600 feet above the lake - level . Of coursethe scenery varies much ; not, however, being so grandly mysteriousand gloomy in character as others of the large Tibetan lakes . From thenorthern and western sides, the panorama of the great southern rangeis said to exhibit a magnificent spectacle .

CHAPTER V

HOT S PRINGS OF TIBET .

Am ong the natural phenom ena characteristic of Tibet the springs of

hot water, so numerous and so rem arkable, must certainly be included .

Curiously enough those portions of the territory which have their generalplane at the greatest altitude above the sea

,and which are subjected to

the intensest form s of cold, are possessed of the m ost and the hottest,springs . Thus in the regions east of longitude 92

°E .

,where the eleva

tion of plains and valleys is commonly under feet, these heatedwaters are known to occur in only two or three localities and the tem

perature of them seem s to be rather low. On the other hand, in the upl ifted tracts stretching west of that sam e longitude and the lofty altitude of which is carried as far to the west as the Lingzhi T

’ang and the

Karakorum s,such springs are found at frequent intervals . N ow the

general level of those regions ranges from to feetexcepting in the S .

-W ., and there no hot springs are m et with, a.o.,in

Ngari Khorsum .

Furtherm ore,there appears to be a northern lim it of occurrence

also . This may be adjusted as just beyond the 34th parallel of latitude,north of wh ich these Springs have not been observed, although there isonly a slight decrease in the average elevation . Accordingly, we may

fix the boundaries of the region wherein waters of abnormally - raisedtemperature occur as edged by long . 78

°30

'and 92

°

E . ,and by the

Himalayan southern range and lat. 34°30

’N . a hiatus existing within

these lim its, however (as we have said), in the S .-W . quarter .

N evertheless, having given the bounds just laid down, it m ust now

be pointed out that there is a certain portion of Tibetan territory which

deserves to be specially demarcated as pre ~ em inently the Hot S pringRegion . It lies immediately to the W . of long . 92

°E . and to the N .

of the Yeru Tsangpo . The northern lim it seem s to be still lat . 34°and

the western limit is probably long . 88°E . Within these lines the num

ber of boiling springs is truly ex traordinary while the h igh tempera

HOT SPRIN GS OF TIBET. 69

ture and the force with which the water is expelled into the air are

equally notable . We shall enter into particulars presently but we

must first call attention to the fact that the part of the Tibetan plateauwhich we have thus selected is that district where the maj ority of thelarge salt - lakes are congregated. S o the S alt Lake district is substantially one wi th the Region of Hot S prings 5 and that in itself is a circumstance which leads to the point to be noticed.

The point in question is that in Tibet hot springs are found onlyin the closest proxim ity to lakes or, though less commonly, near to somelarge river. N early every im portant lake has m ore than one series of

jets d’eau cl mmle bordering its banks . Many of the smaller lakes,

only a few acres in superficies, have attendant geysers as well ; and,within the lim its of the region indicated above the adjacent hot springsare almost always present . In that district, al so, several of the riversare similarly furnished and in these cases it frequently happens thatthe heated waters are thrown up not from openings on the banks butthrough valves situated in the m idst of the river. In such instancesthe power of ejection is so strong as to cau se a continuous column torise above the surface of the river . Thus the phenom enon resemblesthe play of a hot water fountain in the m idst of the stream , or perhaps

the spouting forth of som e amphibious m onster.Within the region of thermal springs above -m entioned, there seem s

to be an area where they are m ore specially concentrated and that partlies to the S .

-W. of the Nam ts’o Chhyidm o or Tengri Nor, between the

lake and the P’unte’o- ling district of the Yeru Tsangpo. Here som e of

the hottest and most im portant examples occur.Many of the springs simply bubble up quietly into basins natural

ly worn in the rock or soil . Others, however, are expelled into the airw ith considerable force and in these cases they have generally the intermittent character of the Icelandic geysers . The height to which thewaters are ejected, in the instances as yet reported upon, does not ap

pear to equal that of the greatest of the geysers of Iceland whichi s said to ascend to a height of 1 46 feet from the ground . Between50 and 60 feet seem s to be the extrem e al titude to which these naturalfountains in Tibet spurt up their contents into the air. At PetingChhuts

’en on the banks of the Lahu Chhu (an affluent of the Shang

Chhu of Tsang province) within a space under 80 yards in length elevencolumns of hot water are cast up . These all rise to a height of between40 and 50 feet

, and produce so m uch steam that the sky is generally

q uite darkened with it, the noise being so deafening, moreover, as toprevent anyone speaking when near them . Hard by, in the m iddle of

the Lahu river, are many sim ilar jets which are shot up to the same

70 HOT SPRINGS OE TIBET.

height of 40 or 50 feet, as conjectured by the native explorer who

observed them .

With regard to the temperature of the water, it has been provedto approach boiling point on i ssuing from the ground, in the case

'

of

several in the central region where experiments have been made . At

certain. springs on the Lahu river, where from the extreme elevation

the boiling point of water stands at Fahr., the heat of the

ejected stream was found to be At Chhu - t’ang Ts’aka, about 50

m iles N . of Shigatse, on the river Shang, there occur 1 5 hot Springs,and the average temperature of these was ascertained to be the

boiling temperature of water therebeing At PetingGbhu - ts’

en,referred to just now

,the temperature reaches All these examples

are only apparently m uch lower than the recorded heat of the GreatGeyser of Iceland, which is given at 247 the enorm ous altitude abovesea—level of the Tibetan Springs reducing the reading of the thermom e

ter, while the elevation of the springs in Iceland being little, boilingpoint shews nearly 60

°higher than is the case in the Hot S pring Re

gion of Tibet .

However, in other districts of the country, we find that the watersare of considerably lower tem perature than they are in the central region.

A few instances will shew this . At the Kyam therm al springs in theChangchenmo valley, Godwin- Austen took the temperature of threeof them and found them and respectively . In S ikkimon theTibetan border are many springs : that of the Yum t

'

ang Chhuts’en

is (at feet) , that of the spring at the base of the Jhangokang glacier 1 1 6

°

(at feet) . H owever, the explorer R .N . Whovisited the fam ous hot waters of Lhagpa Ts

’

é- chhu in S outh Tibet nearthe Bhutan frontier, and which are found at an altitude of feet,m entions 50 hot springs at that spot, stating their temperature to rangefrom tepid to boiling heat .

One remarkable characteristic of Tibetan geysers has yet to be referred to . As we have seen, the majority occur at an extrem ely loftyelevation where frost and ice reign suprem e for nearly 8 m onths of eachyear . In the coldest m onths at altitudes over feet above sealevel the atmospheric temperature sinks frequently 30° below zero,sometimes even touching 40

°below zero . On many of these frozen

plains at the lake - side at these stupendous altitudes do the geysersthrow up their heated fountains . N evertheless

,although the waters on

issuing forth are boiling, in the course of their lofty summ ersaultthrough the air

,so terrible is the cold that the falling stream congeals

into me before returning to the ground . This rapid reduction of tem

perature in boiling water in the space of half- a- m inute is wonderful

HOT SPRINGS OE TIBET. 71

enough but still m ore astounding is the practical effect. The freezingof the geyser in the act of falling produces, it S eem s, an enorm ous cylindrical column of ice enclosing as in a funne l the spouting hot fountain .

On the banks of a river to the north of the S hang district are thefam ous N aisum Chhu - ts

’a, two remarkable springs which throw up jets

of bo iling water over 60 feet in height. In the three coldest m onths thewater in dropping down again freezes and form s pillars of ice which are

nearly up to the full height of the jets . These twin pillars gradually

grow from 30 to 40 feet in circumference each, and are pierced in a

pecu liar manner with holes like loop - holes,so that the general appearance

is that of a couple of artificial ice towers . Inside the towers the wateris thrown up with great violence and noise and the temperature touchesthe boiling point at that elevation. Mons . Bonvalot noticed sim ilarresults near his “ Armand D avid Lake in the region just north of

Ts’a-

gyud Ts’

o (Chargut Ts’o) . He writes

It is surprising to see, in the m idst of th is plain of hot springs,cones of ice, 20 feet or m ore in diam eter, about the height of a man,

and speckled over on their surface—which is just like crystals—with

grit and stones from the plain these blocks have split perpendicularlylike certain kinds of over- ripe fruit. We have before us frozen geyserswhich have becom e covered with this solid head- dress when their powerof ejection was not sufficient to cope w ith the frost.”

Again, further south, about 60 m iles N .-W . of Namts

’o Chhyid

mo, he records a frozen geyser about 33 feet in diam eter.”

In these cases, where the ejecting spring becom es gradually cappedwith a heavier and heavier cowl of ice

,mud, and stones, it is possible that,

in tim e and especially when it may chance that the summ er season isprolonged sufficiently to m elt the covering, the accum ulation may even

tually block up the spring permanently . Should that be the result, the

geyser probably is diverted and breaks forth in som e new place not al a

ways close at'

hand . A curious formation reported from the shoresof the great S ky Lake (Nam ts

’o Chhyidm o) suggests this idea. N ear

the Jador gompa there occur three lofty cones of apparently sun- driedmud each (so it is asserted) about 500 feet in circumference . The

m ounds are partially hollow and one of them has an opening like aglassfurnace through the apex above. Probably these strange and giganticcones of solidified m ire represent noth ing m ore or less than extinct

geysers especially as they occur in such a realm of hot springs .A marked constituent of these waters seem s to be sulphur ; and

where the heat is excessive large quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen

are evolved . There is likewise a considerable adm ixture of salts of

sodium and potassium and certain lithates .

72 HOT SPRINGS OE TIBET.

Averse though Tibetans as a nation are to bathing, there prevailsthroughout the country a general belief in the m edicinal virtues of theoutward application of these waters . Where any extensive series of

thermal springs exists in the m ore populated districts, baths are usuallyconstructed in connection threwith. Thus at D am Chhuts

’en, about

60 m iles N . of Lhasa, a large bathing establishm ent is attached to the

Springs and m ost of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood are said torepair twice a year to the place for a bath . There are three tanks 21

feet square,lined with sun- dried bricks and cem ented, which are alwavs

kept full of the sulphuretted waters . In these the bathers continuesometim es the whole day immersed to the neck . One of the m ain pur

poses of the bath is said to be the efficacy of the sulphur in the destruotion of verm in w ith which all Tibetans are grievously affected and in

this way a clearance can be accomplished without any overt act of

slaughter.


74 THE GREAT RIVER OE TIBET.

1 00 m iles of points a personal inspection of which could at once haveended controversy yet they were and are physically shut out from suchvisits . Indeed, the question as to which southern river receives the

Sanpo,”has to this day been determ ined rather by accum ulative in

ference than by actual observation. S till (1 904) do a few savage tribeskeep back E uropeans from settling the problem with their own eyes.

And yet now a railway station actually stands only fifteen m iles from

where the Tibetan river m eets the Eastern Brahmaputra !

Q uiteapart from this discussion, the great river deserved specialinvestigation . It is unique, as we shall see, in so many ways . To

m ention, in passing, but one such singularity : When flowing at theheight of feet above the level of the sea, it is a river habituallynavigated by boats and made use of for the transit of m erchandize .

This can be alleged of no other water at such an altitude in the world .

1

THE RIVER’S NAME .

First, as to the correct designation. This,of course, is not

Sanpo .

”That name came to be used only because the word tsavgp o

is the general Tibetan term for any large river c/Mv,another word in

comm on use, m eaning m erely water,”and being generally applied to

smaller rivers, though loosely also to the larger. In the different districts through which this the Tsangpo p ar excel lence passes, it bearsdifferent appellations . D uring the first 200 m iles it still carries itsancient title, TcimoMo/c Klzcil al , the downflowing m outh of the

best horse — the Tome/Mole being a fabulous steed petrified in LakeMai - pang from the rocky m outh of which creature the river is

‘

supposed

to gush forth . Lower down in its course we hear the nam e NgariTsangpo. Below Shigatse it acquires the style m ost comm only em ployed in the civilised districts, that of Yeru Tsangpo (really Gyas - rv Gluing

po) the river of the right- hand banner3”and that denom ination seem s

to be maintained throughout Central and East Tibet and until, in theMiri and Abor hills, it is yet again changed into that of Uihang orD ihong .

SOURCE OF THE TSANGPO.’z

D espite the legend which has suggested the name for the early“ourse of the river, it certainly does not rise, as alleged, in Lake Ma

1 A smal l - steam launch is stated to ply on the waters of Lake Titicaca, on thedividing l ine between Bolivia and Peru , h igh up in the Cordil leras. But the al titude

of this lake is feet above sea level , a thousand feet lower than the Tsangpo in

Ngari Khorsum and D okt’ol where there is a boat service for a length of 80 m iles.

2 For convenience this term can be employed, and in T ibet it is often loosely so

THE GREAT RIVER OF TIBET. 75

pang. The real place of origin is situated some 20 m iles S . E . of thatlake - approximately in longitude 82

°1 0

’E . In fact the Yeru Tsang

po has its sources in a long narrow valley cradled in a remarkablemanner between three separate ranges of mountains, each of which isliterally loaded with glaciers .

Into this womb of the Ice Mothers which, conjointly, breed them ighty Brahmaputra, even Tibetans them selves have scarcely ventured.

The only entrance seem s to be at the S . E . extrem ity of this m ountain

locked valley, at the end where the river issues forth . N o tracks passup the valley for the m ountains at the head of it, which separate thevalley from the lakes at the base of Mount Tisé Kailas, have no wayover them, and the whole term inates in a stupendous cal - de- sac. The

actual place where the river first form s is said to be a large gravellymarsh, fed from the adjacent glaciers, and styled Cl ema Yungclmmg

The Sands of the Mystic Wheel .” This lies at an altitude of aboutfeet above the level of those plains of India whither the waters

are destined eventually to descend .

Lonely, impenetrable, unknown, it seem s m eet that the weird andfam ous stream should thus be born in utter secrecy in this rem ote valleyso far to the west .

But the solitude must be one not of barrenness, but of grandeur .On three sides

,let us rem ember—N .

-W ., N .- E ., S .

-W.—the birth

place is girt about by m onster sentinels crowned with helmets of neverm elting snow and s tanding shoulder to shoulder with glaciers for each

epaulette .

SECTION : NO. 1 .

(FROM m s Souacn TO CONJUNCTION wrrn ran Cnnonu TSANGPO.)

The Sands of the Mystic Wheel,”whence the river takes ri se,

are closely hemmed in by parallel ranges trending south - eastwardly .

The northern range, Gang- ri Gur-

gyab, shuts Off the sources of the

Indus . The southern wall is a massive ridge developed from Gur Lha,itself a stupendous m ountain -matrix flung up to the south of Ts

’o Ma

pang the Lake of the Peacock’ s This ridge, bearingthe nam e of Nyimo Namgyal , that which completely vanquishes the

sun,” eventually makes to the S . S . E . to form the watershed lower

down between the Tsangpo and the rivers of N epal . The parallelranges accompany the river for 25 m iles, throwing up peaks from 1 8 to

22 thousand feet altitude and supplying it assiduously with glacialdrainage . About 1 8 m iles from the start

,the valley Opens out into a

designated. The Capuchin Missionaries, who were resident 150 years ago at Lhasa,

writing“

circa 1740, styled it, variously, Tzhangp o, Tsong- cw

, and Tsanga.


broad vale som e 8 m iles across ; and there the river is found, with a

swift current and deep waters, flowing in a rock - bound channel east by

south . At this point it is said to be 70 feet in breadth . The southern

bounding range here falls away south, though the glaciers and snowypeaks upon it continue and have still to contribute two or three feed

ing stream s . And now, when the cradling valley expands and the

northern m ountains drop lower, we find the first fixed geographicalpoint. For

,into the river basin, from within an elevated ravine, there

creeps down along this northern wall a well- beaten pathway from themuch - usedMariam ,

or Mar Yum La. This, the

“Mother of the Low

lands Pass, has two main approaches or ascents from outer regionswhich converge at its climax

,or lap tse, into this the descent on the

eastern side into the Tam chhok valley . One approach is from“

the

west, the direct official route from Gardok (Gart’ok) to Lhasa; the

other road is from the north and north - west, and ascends from thevalley of the Indus . The latter is the route from Leh ve

'

d Rudok, and

is a well - used line of transit from Ladak both to N epal and to Lhasa.

It is stated that m erchandise can be brought up by the Indus to w ith

in ten miles of the foot of the northern ascending road to Mariam La.

Thence the goods are transported over the Pass into the Tsangpo valley ;and, it is said, are often again launched in hide boats som e fifty m ileslower down the stream , and so conveyed to Shigatse, which stands nearthe Tsangpo over 500 m iles from Mariam La.

The descent w e are now traversing from the Mariam La does notyet touch the great water - way. The combined route (com prising thetwo highways from Ladak to Lhasa) at first keeps laterally along thenorthern side of the valley and is accompanied by a small river form edby stream s from the heights abutting the Mariam Pass . This path hasto be traversed som e thirty m iles further before the m erchants, packm en,and pilgrim s com e in sight of the m ighty Tamchhok (or Tam chhen)Khabab travelling grandly eastwards . However

,the banks are not

actual ly gained until the post- stage named Tém chhen Tazam has beenreached ; and there, too, the branch - stream just m entioned falls intothe main river, which by this has travelled som e fifty m iles from itssource.

A word may here be interposed concerning these halting stages onthe post- track which form s such a feature along a great part of the

course of the Tsangpo . They are termed tcizam or horse- bridges,”

not because any bridge exists at them, but because the post- carriers toLhasa there change their horses,and so the long and difficult route tothat city is thus m etaphorically “ bridged

”from Tazam to Tazam .

At each of these stages is a large rest - house, where coolies and

THE GREAT RIVER OF TIBET. 77

beasts of burden are always held in readiness, but only for officialuse .

l

From Tamchhen Tazam down to the j unction w ith the Chhortariver, a distance of 1 80 m iles, the post - track follows the course of the

Tsangpo ,and thus it was that the native surveyor

,Nain S ingh, was

able to report fully on this portion . At first during that part the greatriver has the southern snowy range only from twelve to twenty m ilesdistant, and it runs along the base of som e low - lying hills which formthe northern bank . Beginning w ith dark shaly - slate

,these hills soon

pass into brown argillaceous clay, and eventually into actual red sandstone ; they give off several small feeders into the main river. The firstlarge tributary falls in forty m iles S . E . of Tém chhen it com es infrom the north, being styled the Chhu Nag - ku .

All this district is known as Purang ; and the Tsangpo flows nearthe chief town Yé- tse D zong, w ith its great gom pa of Shingp

’el Ling .

After the influx of the Chhu Nag - ku, the river continues S . E . untilwhere, about fifty m iles further on, it is augm ented by another tributary, much larger than the first, arriving also from the north . Thisaffluent, the Ts

’a- chhu Tsangpo, seem s to be almost as large as the

Tamchhen Khabc’ib itself, being 500 feet wide, and only to be crossed

by means of ferry - boats .On the transit being made, you approach the Tadum rest- houses,

the largest set in that part of the country .

2

Tadum is a considerable vortex for trade, a fact to which the eightor nine post- houses surrounding the gompa bear w itness ; routes to thePanjab and N epal being brought in here . And now the river deploysa peculiar loop, first due south, then curving north a little

, but eventually making cif once again direct to the S . E . Having absorbed

another small tributary, the Mingchu Tsangpo, or River of Ten

1 Between Gart’ok (near th e Ladak border) and Lhasa, a distance of 790 m i les,

there are 22 tcizam, and the special m essengers of the Tibetan Governm ent are ex

pected to traverse the whole space in 22 days. Although th e horses are changed at

each stage, the m essenger is not : he goes the entire distance, travel ling night and

day . These m en are said to have their clothes stamped at the fastenings with offi cial

seals to ensure their not undressing while en route . When their garm ents are fi rst

taken off, after the 800 m iles’ride, the rider is always in a terr ible state of exhaus

tion . There are similar despatch serv ices between Lhasa and Eu- tang, Lhasa and

Peking and Lhasa and Phari Jong (near the S ikkim border) .2 Ordinary travel lers u se the stage

- houses at a tavam on paym ent, but cannot

claim ponies and yaks . Governm ent offi cials travel ling are p rovidedwith free transit

of them selves and their efi eots, and invariably engage in extensive m ercantile opera

tions wh ich have also to be given conveyance. Such conveyance becomes a h eavy

charge on the inhabitants of each district, who have to keep the tdzam gratuitouslysuppl ied with beasts of burden.


N ames, it takes a great bend som e thirty - three m iles below Tadum ,

flowing southwards for nearly twenty- seven m iles, and afterwards turn

ing up N . E . At the southernm ost elbow there com es in the first im

portant affluent received from the south . This is quaintly styledS hurtaTsangpo, the R iver of the Horse that S its S till,

”while again,

after a twenty- five m iles runN . E ., there joins the now m ajestic stream

a duplex tributary from the north, said to be the largest received duringthe whole course of the Brahmaputra through Tibet . In opposition to

the former contribution, this branch is known as the ChhortaTsangpo,or the River of the Horse that Runs Away and in size it fullyequals the main water-way.

S o ends what we shall term the first section of the big river’ s

course and it w ill be convenient to realise the position reached . By

this tim e the number of m iles traversed from the source m ay bereckoned with fair precision at 250 . The progress throughout, w ith

the exception of the loop just taken, has been S . E .,and the longitudi

nal m eridian arrived at is approximately 85° E . but the latitude has

dropped from 30°40

’

(at the source) to 29°26

’E . Although so many

affluents have been absorbed, the apparent size is hardly comm ensurateto the quantity of water brought in by these . As in the parallel caseof the Indus, it is depth and rolling force which have been gained ;and below Tamchhen Tazam the river is never fordable, even where itspreads m ost w idely . N ot counting the early feeders from the glaciersof the southern range, important as they are to the prim eval formation,all the tributary stream s save one have com e in from the N orth . The

Shurta, just received, is of course noteworthy as being the first considerable southern tributary. It rises in a wonderful realm of glacierson the N epalese frontier at the roots of the Ngo La or B lue Pass,

”

which leads over the southern bounding range so often alluded to . On

the other side of the Pass we are am id the early fountains of one of theGandak rivers of N epal .

This southern bounding range (the Nyinm o Namgyal) is really of

great consequence . Lying far to the back of the m ain line of m onsterH imalayan peaks, which line we have learnt long ago is not the actualwatershed of Indo -H imalayan stream s, it form s the true water- partingbetween the Indian and Tibetan river - basins . And the fact, that,during a course of 1 90 m iles or so—from where its drainage suppliesthe nucleus of the Tém chhok Khabab down - to the Ngo La where theShurté rises—no Tibetan river is given ofl from a range well - stockedas this is known to be with snow - peak and glacier, is of great interest .

It shows how considerable must be the supply to the Indian rivers of

the North -West, especially the Kosi and Gandaks for, after the Tim

THE GREAT RIVER OE TIBET. 79

chhok Khabab has left its flanks, the down - dow from the TibetoIndian watershed is almost exclusively Indian.

SECTION NO. 2 .

(FROM THE Cnnonrn TSANGPO TO Sm enrss .)

The rivers which debouch into the Tamchhok from the north are

all of such considerable volum e that they m ust have had a lengthy run

before reaching the point of junction . Accordingly we ought to setback the northern watershed of the Tam chhok many m iles furthernorth than the actual valley line wherein the channel runs . The in

com ing northern rivers cut through the low lines of bills bounding thisvalley on the northern banks : whence

,then

,do they hail ? One

would imagine that, in all probability,the m assive mountain range,

practically a continuation of Mount Kailas, known to geographers as

the Gang- dis - ri range (really Gang Tise Ri) stretching east across

Tibet, gave birth to these feeders . This range passes eastward from

forty to seventy m iles north of the general line of our river, and in themain form s the southern watershed of the great lake plateau . How

ever, recent exploration shows that, ih the case of several of the greatnorthern feeders of the Tamchhok, in the first and second sections, theyrise further north still than the Gang

- dis - ri range, and even on the

lake - plateau itself. They pass through gorges between lofty peaks inthis range, much as do the Indian rivers in their course through theS outhern Himalayas . We interpolate these remarks here, because theChhorta Tsangpo, which bounds our S econd S ection, is one of the greatfeeders, whose early course has been traced back north beyond theGangdis- ri range ; its prim ary sources being found in certain lakes tothe S . W. and S . of D angra Yum Ts

’o .

East of the Chhorta tributary, the exact course of the Yeru Tsangpo (or Tam chhok) has been traced for about thirty m iles . Then fora length of, say, 1 50 m iles, its line of progress is only conjectural .At that point the explorer, Nain S ingh , left the river side, proceedingE . by N ., while the river itself, as he observed, proceeded E . by S . Its

course evidently takes the form of a shallow bow - like dip, first E . by S .

then slowly slanting up again E . by N . for it was near the importanttown of Jang Lhatse, 2% degrees further east from where he had leftit,and almost in the sam e latitude as at the point of his leaving it,

that Nain S ingh again encountered the wonderful water- way . Of this

unknown portion Of the river, we have personally ascertained that it first

passes over an extensive plain nam ed La- wa Mon- t’ang . H ere thechannel cuts deep down, evidently through soft alluvial “ soil . It

then enters the mountainous district of Jong- nga, where glacier- charged

80 THE GREAT R IVER OI?’ TI BE T.

stream s again feed it, as in its very early flow. D uring the whole of

this course, the river seem s to bear the nam e of Me’- tsang Gbhu, or

Lower Tsang waters by which nam e it is still known at JangLha- tse .

The exact point at which Nain S ingh beheld the river next again

was atNupsi, fifteenm iles above Jang Lha- tse. This is classical groundto Tibetan Buddhists . Here

,north of the river, are num erous large

m onasteries, notably Ngam - ring, a fam ous place of pilgrimage . Justbefore Jang Lha- tse is reached, the river makes a sharp bend up north

wards and then keeps N . N . E . for twenty - five m iles . Jang Lha- tseis an ancient place with a number of m onasteries within and around itswalls. Here

,too

,is one Of the great ironchain bridges erected across

the Brahmaputra by T’ang

- tong Gyalpo, 230 years ago . Just wherethe Raka or Bakpa Tsangpo, a m ighty tributary from due west,coal esces with it the river resumes its old S . E . direction . In this

neighbourhood stands the lofty chhorten built by the engineer- saintTfang

- tong, or T’anang ; and just below the apex of the river bend

is the town of P’iints

’o - ling ,with its fort and the large m onastery of the

heretical Jonangpa S chool built by the founder of the sect in the daysof Kublai Khan. Here, and again a little lower down, are other ironchain bridges . Four m assive chains, w ith links a foot in diam eter

,

run from pier to pier of masonry, thus spanning the Wide deep bed of

the river . A precarious footway of wood and rope is supported betweenthe chains but al l these bridges are now very little used .

From P’unte’o - ling Jong, and

, indeed, from Jang Lha- tse,there

is a regular system of boat - traffic down to S higatse, utilised for passen

gers as well as for goods and live - stock. H ide boats are the chiefnavigable craft. Midway between P

’iints

’O- ling and Shigatse, the

second great tributary from the south— the Re or S hre Chhu—flows in.

It is a considerable river . The port of call for S higatse and Tashilhumpo is Tungsum , about three m iles from the form er place which lies

away from the main river . Two m iles or so below Tung - sum is the

m outh of the well- known Penam ~ nyang Chhu on the southern bank .

This is the river upon which S higatse actually stands ; and its size maybe estimated by the fact that at Shigatse it is spanned by a bridge saidto be 380 feet in length . The Penam - nyang river drains the whole ofthese parts of the southern Tibet that border on S ikkim and WestBhutan, and its own tributaries ram ify through much Of the mountainous district south of Lake Yamdok. But the Penam - nyang is itselfonly a tributary of the Yeru Tsangpo, which therefore embraces withinits southern scope the whole Of those border regions . Taking the territory abutting N epal drained by the Re Chhu, we may estimate with


82 THE GREAT RI VER OE TIBET.

tributary the road leaves the Brahmaputra and makes for the sh ores of

Yamdok Ts’

o wherein the Rong Nag Gbhu rises .

Beyond the junction of the tributary from the south - east, the main

river for the space of eighty,miles, as far as the famous Chaksam Chhu

wori (the bridge near the mouth of the Lhasa river), is at present nu

reported upon. It enters a hilly country, and, it is said, falls over many

rapids . But where it has next been touched by Our explorers is one of

the best known spots in its Whole course . For there the great routefromthe west

,vlci Shigatse, Gyangtse and Palte Jong, climbs up from

Lake Yamdok over the Khamba La range, and descends from the southinto the Yeru Tsangpo valley, the nam e under which the B rahmaputra

now travels. This route is the m ain one to Lhasa it passes over theChaksam Chhuwori ferry (as the great iron- bridge is now unusable),and up the vall ey of the Kyi Chhu to the sacred city .

S arat Chandra D és, in his exploration report, thus describes thescene which breaks upon you as you descend from the Khambala Passinto this part of the Yeru valley

The height we had reached was about a thousand feet above the level ofthe lake, though much h igher than that above the level of the great riverabout to be seen . Passing the summ it wh ich faces the lake, we proceededtowards the lep tac, the culm inating point of the Pass . Here two large cairnsstood on either side of the road, where my companions, taking off their hats ,uttered m antras to invoke the -m ountain deities. Advancing a few

paces beyond the sacred cairns, I cam e to a point whence I saw one of the

grandest views in Tibet. It was that of the valley of the far fam ed TsangpoWhose subl ime scenery, the l ike of which I had never beheld befor ,e quiteravi shed my h eart. My enchanted m ind was made ful l with impressions ofthe scenery, and I l iked to enjoy it to satiety. The great Tsangpo flowed atthe base of a gigantic yawning chasm , which extended for m iles between two

ranges of lofty dark m ountains, whose flanks, overhanging the river from the

north , were covered with dark forests of fir - l ike trees. At th e foot of theselofty mountains, but stil l in uplands above the river - brink, there were prettylooking vil lages with castle- like wh ite -washed houses, m ost of the largerhouses being surrounded with tal l trees . A village on the oth er side Of theTsangpo was conspicuous for the amazing depth in the val ley at wh ich it wasseen from the la/p tse of Khamba La, being surrounded by rugged and sombremountains .

The road to Lhasa from the Khamba La strikes the river someseven m iles north - west of the foot Of the Pass, the point of contactbeing a little to the west of the m outh of the Kyi Chhu, and this is

where the chain- bridge and ferry already alluded to are located. Greatreaches of sand lie there

,but the waters are so broad that the violent

Wind, very p revalent in the Tsangpo valley, raises frequent storm s

which make the passage across dangerous . Across the river, on the

THE GREAT RIVER OI" TIBET. 83

western jaw of the open- m outhed Kyi, is the port of Chhu - shul, witha gompa and 108 chhortens on a hill hard by, all said to have been

erected by the sam e engineer - saint who constructed the various chainbridges Spanning the Yeru Tsangpo. From Chhu - shul there is a

system atic service of large hide - boats down the m ain river towardsTse- t’ang, the first stage or half- way port being the notable wool andcloth m art of Kyi- desho Jong, som e forty m iles below Chhu- shul . In

this course of the river the current is very sluggish, the bed in places

very w ide, great expanses of sand intersecting the waters . The plain

bordering the north bank in these parts is from two to five m iles inwidth, full of villages and small convents

,and bounded on the north by

a range of low hills which eventually culm inate in“

a fine peakfeet above the river - surface . This peak is nearly opposite Kyi- desho,and on its crags, an imposing Spectacle

, has been placed the great and

ancient m onastery of D orj e - t’ag

4 - an establishment still belonging tothe old Nyingma school of Buddhism w ith a staff expert in Tantrikjugglery . At this point the river is described as flowing in one stream800 yards broad, excessively deep from the contracted passage, and as

teem ing with fish . East of the T’ib Chhu

,the southern affluent on

which the cloth mart and port is built, the Yeru flows directly E .

Here the enclosing valley is said to be grand and enchanting . In

places it narrows into wild rock - walled gorges ; elsewhere, and m ostfrequently

,it flattens out into great sandy reaches . Where wide and

open, the lower spurs thrust out from the bounding hills are coveredwith verdure and scaling trees grain crops and even fruit- trees, suchas apricot, pear, and walnut, are made to flourish in every availablespot. Large white - washed m onasteries shine gleam ingly in fantasticsituations on the heights of _

the inner spurs whilst many importantham lets and m arket- centres lie w ithin easy access from this usefulivater highway . Twenty- four m iles east of Kyi- desho, where thenorthern bank has flattened out into an extensive sandy plain slopingup inland, the m ighty m onastery of S amys is reached . Its temples

,

w ith golden and copper canopies within a great walled enclosure,areprom inent objects from the river.

Tse- t’

ang, otherwise Che lies‘

forty- tw‘

o m iles further east,and here the Yarlu‘

ng river disembogues its waters drawn from thesouthren glaciers into the m ain stream . And thus term inates our thirddivision of the great Tsangpq

’

s course, after a stretch of 240 m ilesfrom S higatse .

SECTION ; NO 4 .

(FROM Tss - r’ANO

'r o GYALLA S ENe - D ONG. )

The large town of Tse- t’ang stands in long . 9 1°43

'

E ., and

84 THE GREAT RIVER OF TIBET.

from thence the river is seen trending away to the horizon in a wideval ley in a direction about E . N . E . A great snow - capped range com

ing up from the south seem s to m eet the river in the far distance, and

out o& further view . At Tse- t’ang low hills com e close down both tothe southern and the northern banks, and across the former the roadcontinues along the right side of the river but any passage that wayis said to become presently very dangerous, being beset by thieves, and

later on by the w ild truculent tribes of the Tsari district . The best

m ethod of advance appears to be to cross by a ferry named Nya- ko

drukha, three miles below the town, and proceed along the northern

bank, through what is described as a“wealthy district,

”ful l of Opulent

m onasteries and richly- cultivated l pes, with woods, gardens and good

roads. The chief m onasteries on this side, Within a few m iles of Tse

t’ang,are Ngari Tatsang, S ang- ri Khangmar and D ansa T

’

il . Thence

the river, after its slight northern inclination, flows nearly due east ;but, just before the 93rd m eridian is crossed, it drops som ewhat to the

south . Between Tse - t’ang and this m eridian, it receives several fine

branch- rivers from the north, the chief being the Mik Chhu, or Zingchi

Chhu . The districts on the left bank areWo - kha,Nang

-

po, and even

tual ly Kong-

po, which latter district occupies both sides of the river.In Kong -

po, in long . 93°1 2’ or thereabouts, the Yeru Tsangpo

makes a sudden and extraordinary bend to the N . N . E . the direction

being about 23° east of N . The bend occurs just where the KhyimdongChhu from the south flows in. This run continues about seventym iles

,when it becomes rather m ore easternly , pursuing a N .

- E . coursefor som e fifty m iles further

,until

,in lat. 29

°56

’ N .

‘

and long . 94°44' E .,

its northernmost apex is gained.

This point in the river’ s course is the chief landmark in the wholerun through Tibet ; for now it starts on that great and sudden dive tothe south, which is destined to carry it out of the country . At the

northernmost point, therefore, we have the Yeru bending sharply on

itself, with an inner angle of and proceeding first S . E"

. by S . thenS . S . E . A lofty mountain range from the S . runs up to the apexwithin the bend, and, aided by another range above, or to the north of,

the bend, running N . N . W . to S . S . E . , seems to be the mechanicalcause of this sudden southernly deflection. Passing now down thestream , we soon reach Gyalla S engdong, With the fort on one side andthe m onastery on the other side of the river, at a distance of sixteenm iles from the northern climax above mentioned . From Tse—’ tang tothis stage, it is diffi cult to estimate closely the length, including windsand loops, but 295 m iles may be considered a fair approximation to thetruth .


This section, from a few m il es east of Tse- t’ang to Gyalla S engdong, has not been subjected to very careful exploration . It has been

traversed by two native agents of the S urvey of India, nam ely, byG . M. N . in 1 878 and by K. P . in 1 886- 87 ; but their surveying capabilities were only rudimentary . In our m ap we have placed several

localities derived from other native sources, and have corrected thespelling of nam es given by G . M . N . and K . P .

From Tse- t’ang eastwards, the Yeru is bordered on the south by acountry viewed with m ixed horror and veneration by Tibetans of theC entral Provinces . Here

,between the 92nd and 93rd m eridians to the

south, lie the districts known asA -

yul and Jya-

yul, and then the mysticTakpo country (spelt E very

-

p a) is entered .

l In Takpo is the fam ousplace of pilgrimage named Tsari T

’ugka, and nearly forty m iles S .

- E .

of this Tsari is the great snowy peak of Pal Tsari, which is the ul tima

Tfiu le of Tibetan pilgrimage, involving a fortnight of hard travel fromthe banks of the Yeru Tsangpo . Tsari peak is said to be covered withthick pine forests at its base . The chief risk of j ourneys in Takpo andTsari arises from the savage tribes dwelling across the ranges to thesouth of these districts

, who appear occasionally to make raids on pil

grim bands . It is significant that the rest- houses,provided by the

Tibetan Government in the country just here as well as in those tractswithin the northern loop of the great river, are designated Jib /twp orfear escapes .”

Long ranges of bills radiate from thp peak of Pal Tsari ; thosebranching S . E . form ing the water - partings between the head- stream sof the Kam la and the Subansiri, which eventually combine to make theriver known in Assam by the latter name . A lofty branch from Tsari,however, runs up N . E . within the loop of the Yeru Tsangpo, and thatrange makes the southern watershed of the river, effectually shuttingits waters out from any conjunction w ith the feeders of ths S ubansiri .Another range running N . N . W . from the S . E . form s w ith the Tsarirange an inverted V - shaped angle right up within the northern apex

of the Yeru, and again keeps the waters from j oining the S ubansiristream during their great southern flight to the Abor country .

When, however, the river has turned the sharp northern angle,just before Gyalla S engdong is reached, one unaccountable characteris

tic concerning it seem s to be this—the comparative want of breadth of

the waters as reported by the two surveyors . In places, indeed, fromso far back as the T51p (D vag -

po) district—before the northern bend

begins—the river is spoken of as being very narrow . AtGyalla S eng1 It was at a p lace nam ed D rong - uge in Takpo that the Cap uchin friars once

had a. branch hosp ice .

86 THE GREAT RIVER OF TIBET.

dong, where the level above the sea has sunk to 00 feet, it is statedto be only 1 50 paces or about 11 0 yards in Width .

S ECTION : NO. 5.

(FROM GYALLA S ENG - D ONG TO S AD l YA i n Assam.)

At Gyalla S eng - dong the river seem s to prepare for its drop into

much lower regions than theTibetan table - land . It here runs in deep

gorges, probably m ore than one abreast— the explorer refers to twoother stream s besides “ the Tsangpo

” —and a cascade of feet in

depth o ccurs at this point . Politically and commercially the place is

an important centre . Trade routes from the Lhasa- China high - roadthrough Kongpo, from Tsari, Tawang, Bhutan and the S .

- W., from

the P ’oba country and Yunnan,and from Assam, appear to culm inate

here . Moreover, the barbarousborder tribes to the south are not allowed to advance further than this in the traffic they carry on as m iddle

men in the commercial relations between Tibet and A ssam . The

numerous Jongs or forts presided over by representatives of the Central

Government, which closely dot the country round,attest that vigilantsupervision is deemed essential in these parts . From Gyalla S eng—dongsouthwards, however, there is only one Jong in the space to the frontierline 1 00 m iles distant, the territory being of debateable ownership and

being practically under the dom ination of Lho-

pa tribes, who are probably identical with those known in Assam as Miri

,Migi, and Abar or

Abor .The river from lat. 29

°35’ seem s substantially to take a southern

direction, making every now and then a slight advance to the cast ; buti t does not assume a really eastern course until another degree to thesouth has been traversed. Indeed, the longitude at Paging

-

in lat . 28°

35’ is apparently almost identical with that of Gyalla S eng - dong . The

general level of the stream'

still continues to drop and waterfalls arefrequent. S om e thirty -m iles beyond the last- named place, it passesover a cliff said -to be 1 50 feet in height. Villages line the banksclosely

,and the further south one proceeds the larger and m ore pcpu

lous are these communities. As we progress further south, the characteristics and custom s of the inhabitants undergo a radical change . No

m onasteries are met with below lat. and the Tibetan language is

no longer the ver .nacular At Shobang, in lat . 28° that dom estic

system so distinctive of the ab0 1 iginal tribes of India—the provision ineach village of a detached common sleeping place for the elder boysand of another forthe unmarried girls—is first found. In the placeslower down on the Tsangpo, this usage everywhei e prevails.

THE GREAT RI I'

ER OE TIBET. 87

At S him ong, in lat. 28° the great river comm ences a deter

‘

m ined course to the east by" south

,and after the confluence of the

Nyagrong Chhu from D za-

yul in long . 94°34

’the course becomes

almost due east. Below the latter point of junction, no agent of our

S urvey D epartment has penetrated . K. P., who reached this point‘

from

the north, mentions the nam e of the next place, about four m iles lowerdown, as Miri Padam ,

and thence to the m ountain gorges whence theD ibang embrochurc opens is all term incogni la.

‘ But at the outside

the distance from Miri Padam to the highest point reached on the

D ihang" from the south cannot exceed sixty - five m iles . H owever, the

main run in that hiaths i s evidently easternly, because, while the con

junction with the Nyagrong occurs in long . 94° the D ihang is first

seen issuing from the lower broken ranges in long. 95°

From theobserved run of the valley and the lie of the m ist- clouds above theconjectured bed of the river

,doubtless the turn of the river’ s course

from east to south, in order to cut through the last ranges of theHimalayas, is very abrupt . Moreover, at Miri Padam it has alreadyreached too far south to al low room for any gradual bend. In a direct

line due south, Miri Padam (as m ay be seen from the m ap) is barelytwenty - fivem iles from our own territory . The river there, however,curves due east, and traverses a distance of some seventy m iles to reachthe known point

'

where,turning abruptly it issues forth as the

D ihang.

THE D IB ANG AND EASTERN BRAHMAPUTRA.

But let our river now be considered in relation to the point where,

as the D ibang, or D ihong, it joins the main stream of the Brahmaputra,which it m eets sweeping in a broad channel from east to west. N ow

letitbeborne in m ind that the Brahmaputra is already fairly in ex istence

as a distinct river long before the Yeru Tsangpo (as the D ibang) joins it

and therefore it is inexact to speak of it— as is the custom—as

being a continuation of the Tibetan river . Indeed,prior to the con

junction, it has already been flowing in a noble expanse from the Brahma»

kuhd pool, the place where it freed itself, a turbulent m ountain river,from theMishm i hills . Further up in those hills, m oreover, it has hada lengthy progress. The primary sources of the Eastern B rahmaputraare in fact in

‘

Tibet’

itself, although m uch further east than the upper

waters of the D ihang . Those sources are the two rivers known as the

D zayul Gbhu and the Rong T’od Chhu, which drain and flow from N .

1 Mr . Needham expresses his doubts as to whether K. P. ever reached so far S .

as he claim ed and says Miri Padam is a fictitious name . S till , as it is the name of

a tribe, it m ight be so hpp lied.

88 THE GREAT RIVER OE TIB ET.

to S .through the twin valleys of D zéyul - med in S E . T ibet . Coalesc

ing before escaping from that m ountain- locked district, the unitedrivers cut through the southern range separating D zayul

- med from theMishm i country and thence

,as the turbulent m ountain river above

mentioned,pass across the latter tract W .S .W. into A ssam . Below

Brahmakund, the waters, having developed into a considerable river,

proceed from long . 96°23

’due west. Thence, during a course of 80

m iles, to the first union w ith the D ibang, the B rahm aputra—heresometim es styled the Taluka and som etim es the Lobit— receives no

fewer than ten affluents of large draught, the chief being the D igaru,the Frenga, the D huli, the D ip

’

u, the Khundil, the Tenga- pani, the N oa

B ibing and the D ikrang . N ear S adiya - fifteen m iles above the firstinflux of the D ihang

— the river has grown so broad as to include several

1arge islands. Then the D ihang and the D ibang (which has just beenaugmented by the S esiri) coalesce to m eet the B rahmaputra in one

combined stream , com ing from the north at right angles to the Indian

river . The D ibang - cum - S esiri from the east unites w ith the D ibangabout two m iles previous to their general union w ith the B rahmaputra.

This form s the principal m outh of the D ibang .

Another and smaller branch of the great Tibetan river makesentry about five m iles lower down the Brahm aputra, the space betweenthe two months of the D ibang being really the base line of a tall delta,the top angle of which lies far up the latter river . Its formationevidently has been brought about by the vast volum e of water and thevelocity with which that volume descends the steep gradients from thehills . An enorm ous mass of silt in solution

,borne down thu s violently,

is suddenly checked, first by the D ibang stream m eeting it with its out

put of cubic feet of water per second,and next

,still m ore deter

m inedly, by the cubic feet per second of the Upper or EasternBrahmaputra, cutting it at right angles . The silt so checked has beendeposited and in the lapse of centuries built up the pear - shaped delta .

This second branch of the D ihang is m uch narrower than the main orfirst branch, the discharge being usually under cubic feet. The

bifurcation form ing the delta occurs som e fourteen m iles up the stream ;and, while the m ain limb retains the name of D ibang, the smaller isknown as the Lali - pani . Above the point of bifurcation

,the m easure

of the discharge of the undivided river m ust be estimated at about

cubic feet per second for we do not think the late CaptainHarman included the Lali discharge in his m easurem ent of cubicfeet made in 1 878 for the D ibang near its junction with the D ibang .

2

2 Admeasurement of the respective discharge of these rivers has been careful ly


90 THE GREAT RIVER OE TIBE T.

steep but water is plentiful am ong lateral gorges above the banks on

each side . Looking across the valley to the slopes on the other side,

you descry waterfalls rushing down in every little ravine ; and if you

travel along the circuitous path - way which, at varying height, leadsround each spur, torrents must be crossed at frequent intervals . The

route to be traversed commonly follows upward the course of som estream , and that w ithout evading the boisterous cascades, through thespray of which the traveller ascends with only such footing as is afforded by the wet moss - coated rocks, where the slightest slip would ensureimm ersion in the water .

No traveller of European birth (save, perhaps, Wilcox) had beforethe year 1 885 ascended the D ibang river - side higher than w ithin thefirst lower ridge of hills . The Abors, with their poisoned arrows and

their murderous propensities, are the wholesome deterrent to al l suchenterprise . S uch em issaries of the Abors as visited S adiya to receivethe annual payment bestowed on the tribes as a bribe to refrain fromlooting the cowardly Assam ese spoke in big term s of their own prowess and their numbers . Nevertheless

,Colonel Woodthorpe

,who had

good views from neighbouring heights of their principal villages,thinksthat the size of the villages, and therefore their numerical strength,have been greatly over- estimated.

l

Probably the furthest penetration in modern tim es into the Aborcountry has beenmade byMr . J. F . N eedham , political officer at S adiya.

He went first with som e friends in 1 885. They ascended the D ibangquite 24 m iles, their craft being drawn by ropes up several rapids, andthen landed on the eastern bank . Thence they pushed their way N .

- E .

through difficult country, and by dint of pluck succeeded in reachingthe Abor village of Memba, or Mebor, quite within the m ountains .S ince then Mr . N eedham ascended still further and in 1 902 he despatched two Gurkha sepoys who had received special training. The

latter men met with much hostility and could not penetrate far but

reported seeing the Tsang -

po flowing from the west due E . and as be

ing one with the D ibang .

THE BRAHMAPUTRA IRAWAD I CONTROVERSY .

The D ibang, by reason of its noble size,is worthy to be the con

tinuation of the great river of Tibet ; and that it is, in fact, one and

1 However, Colonel Woodthorpe’s deductions cannot be accep ted conclusively .

For exam ple, one of the places he v iewed was Mebor, which was subsequently, in

1885, visited by Mr . Needham’

s party, who brought word that it contained about

300 dwel lings, with a population wh ich they estimated at each dweil lng h ar

bouring a fam ily of two or three generations.


the sam e is now deem ed a certainty . This wasWilcox’ s theory even80 years’ ago . An em issary of the S urvey of India has traced theTibetan river almost down to the southern line of demarcation betwixtTibet and Assam—roughly, it is true , but his narrative is circum stan

tial enough to enable our experts to assign the point he reached withtolerable exactitude . From the south, m oreover, the valley of theD ibang has been followed up to the low hill ranges to a point 65 m ilesE . S .

- E . of the other point laid down on the Tibetan river . The question was— does the great river connect these two points thus broughtso close together ? The Gurkhas of Mr. N eedham report—Yes .

Captain Harm an reasonably thought that the m ost conclusive wayto prove the identity of the rivers without actual survey would be tothrow in the water a certain number of marked logs at any place lowdown on the Yeru Tsangpo accessible to som e one of the survey exploring agents . If, then, these logs em erged below in the D ibang, theproblem was solved . In fulfilm ent of this idea, the em issary m entionedabove

, K . P . , was sent into T ibet in 1 880 , with the injunction to makehis way to Gyalla S engdong, and there cast 500 logs of a defined shapeinto the river . At the sam e tim e Captain Harman had arranged thatwatchers should be stationed at the junction of the D ibang and B rahmaputra to ascertain if any of the logs passed that way. Ow ing to the

bad faith of a Chinese lam a accom panying K . P .,who when in Tibet

sold him into slavery, the project for the time was not put into execu

tion. E ventually,however

,K . P . escaped, and after many vicissitudes,

he, w ith comm endable trustiness, succeeded in perform ing his portion

of the schem e . He secretly cut his wooden floats and launched thewhole 500 in a better place than that pre - arranged, namely at Bepung,

about 35 m iles lower down the stream , and nearer the frontier thanGyalla S eng - dong . H owever

,th is was done in 1 883, three years after

the tim e settled by Captain Harm an,and when the watchers on the

D ibang had ceased to expect the logs . Thus, whether the logs camedown or not, the plan failed but, even if the watchers had been on the

alert, it m ust be rem embered that the stretch of the river, w ith its currents and rapids, which the wooden m essengers had to traverse fromBepung, was over 1 60 m iles in length .

The attempt at ocular dem onstration having m i scarried, we may

now state the inferential proofs1 . The first position is this . If the Yeru Tsangpo, brought down

to a point 65 m iles distant from that part of the D ibangdaily visible in British territory, does not connect with thatriver

,whither then does it flow ? The southernmost place

to which it has been fairly traced lies approximately in lat.

THE GREAT RIVER OE TIBET.

28°1 8

’N ., long. 94

°36

’E . D oes it then suddenly turn

S .-W . and flow into the S ubansiri ? But three great feed

ing branches of the S ubansiri, each draining vast m ountain

locked valleys to the west, have been already scientificallyobserved . If to their sources were superadded the watersof the m ighty Tibetan river, could the discharge of theS ubansiri in Assam by any possibility dwindle tocubic feet per second, as m easured by Captain Harman ?

No, indeed, avers the French S chool, the Yeru T sangpo

cannot flow S .- W. into the S ubansiri no, on the contrary,

it turns and flows due east for some 1 00 m iles or so, and

then, when the northern verge of the Mishm i country has

been reached just beyond the 96th m eridian ,it i s diverted in

a S .- E . direction to skirt the southern side of the m ountains

walling in the Upper Zayul valley to the north, whence itenters the recognised basin of the Irawadi about lat 27

°40

'

N . and long . 97°

25’E . However, a few glances at the

revised map of these districts will dem olish any such theoryas the foregoing one. The Yeru Tsangpo has been followed south to lat. 28

°1 8

’

N . , and if we then carry it, as proposed, due east from there

, where are we to work in thehead- waters of the D ibang— the D ibang with its lowestsumm er discharge of cubic feet per second The

course of this river,presumably from the west, would have

to be pressed down, som e m iles at least, south of the parallel 28° 1 8 ’ N . , that it m ight not coalesce with the courseof the Yeru . N ext, when we had traced it back west, itmust som ehow find its enormous water- supply amidst thefeeders of the Subansiri .

was lately argued that the northernm ost of the valleys form edby the ranges radiating from Tsari—that valley high upwithin the loop of the Yeru Tsangpo in the Gipmochentract,m ight prove the feeding -

ground of the D ihang i .e. ,

one small valley to make the mighty D ibang, while three ofthe same pattern further south are required for the S ubansiri, which discharges one quarter the water of the D ibang

Worse difficulties would occur from the east. The conjecturedcourse of the Yeru into the Irawadi valleys must bemanoeuvred so as to avoid contact with the early course ofthe D ibang and Sesiri rivers, which rise at least as far northas lat. 28

°

35’ N so the Yeru ought to sweep up furthernorth than that latitude before turning again S outh -East .


94 THE GR EAT RIVER OE TIBE T.

CONCLUD ING REMARKS .

As to length , our river may have assigned to it an extent of

m iles up to its union With the Eastern, or Upper, B rahm aputra . Then,adding the course onwards to the m outh of the Megna, in the Bay of

Bengal, we may put the full lineal m easurem ent at English

m iles from source to sea.

Again, the catchment- area of the river should be estimated . It

rises,as we have seen in the morass

,fed by glaciers, of the Nyim o

Namgyal range, hard - by the Manasarowar lakes ; and it drains the

whole of S outhern Tibet substantially from long . 82°E . to long . 93

°

30’

E .,its northern influence so far being l im ited to the south of lat.

3 1°N . However, furth er east its basin becom es m ore restricted, not

extending so far to the south as is the ease in the western parts . Hav

ing next abruptly curved up to the north as far as the 30th parallel of

latitude, it there receives a drainage from about a degree of territoryfurther north than that parallel . Then

,as suddenly running down

S . S .- E . for about 1 70 m iles, near but beyond the 94th m eridian, the

river absorbs the waters from the country lying to the east of thissouthern course, even as far as to the 96th m eridian . Thus, before theYeru Tsangpo enters A ssam ,

its basin has extended through 14 degreesfrom west to east with an average breadth, north and south, of 25degrees throughout ; with a drainage covering som e squarem iles. S uch is a rough estimate of the dim ensions of the stupendoussuperficial area over which the great water—artery of T ibet cau ses its

absorbent effects to be felt .

When the river rises in the Chyema Yungdrung springs, its bedlies feet above the level of the sea. After a course of 540 m ilesto the neighbourhood of S higatse, its elevation has fallen onlyfeet

, giving a gradient of descent of nearly 4% feet to the m ile, or 1in 1 187 . East to Tse- t’ang the rate of descent continues almostprecisely the sam e, the fall being feet in 242 m iles . In the next250 m iles of the river’s course, however, the downward gradient increases amazingly ; the descent in that space being feet or 1 3feet per m ile . S outh of Gyalla S eng - dong, where the altitude isfeet, we have no certain record ; but the drop is believed to be veryrapid, as the general level north of the Assam H imalayas

,tak ing the

height of the abutting peaks, can hardly exceed feet. Then,when

,as the D ihang, it has fairly cleared these m ountains, the wonder

ful river, once a water- way 00 feet above sealevel,is found flow

ing at an elevation of less than 800 feet. Finally, at the tri - junctionwith the D ihang and Brahmaputra, the level is 420 feet .

CHAPTER VII .

MONASTERIE S AND NUNNERIES .

One of the strangest features of this fascinating country is thereligion of the inhabitants, and one of the curious circum stances of thatreligion is the apparatus it possesses of religious communities greatlyakin to the m onastic institutions of Europe . Indeed the conventualidea is carried out to an extrem e in Tibet . Everywhere throughout thelength and breadth of the land are to he found establishments harbour

ing small bodies of men or women living under religious rules m ore orless rigorous . As the Buddhist institution is in many respects not dissim ilar to the Christian m onastery, we may for convenience apply thenam e to these establishm ents, and say that we m eet with Buddhist

m onasteries and nunneries in Tibet in every conceivable situation and

in extraordinary numbers . We find them in the city and in the desert;

we espy them perched on each available ledge am ong the stupendous

m ountains and seated on the shores of the ice - bound lakes . There is noconfluence of rivers Without its guardian monastic fortress placed at the

junction no fertile val ley w ithout its six or eight such communities

no rocky islet on the large inland seas uncrowned by a herm itage hold

ing a dozen inmates ; no village void of its S ingers or small templeflanked with huts for three or four religious . Generally, lofty and pieturesque situations are chosen , and the buildings, sometimes massiveand castellated, som etim es square houses purely lime - washed and stripedwith broad bands of red and blue or quaintly picked out with ambercoloured borders, and having protruding balconies painted bright chocolate, form a striking feature in T ibetan scenery . The rocky gorge ;the open valley with its silvery river parting the m eadow s along thedividing line in the deep bottom , the dark m ountains, red or yellow or

grey - black in body and outstretched limbs,but stainless dazzling white

upon head and shoulders— are all frequently relieved of the aspect ofdesolation by the range of huts, the central temple, the inevitable appendants of c/Mb

'

rlefl s, poles, and flags .

96 MONAS TERIES ANI) NUNNERIES .

But when were these little social parties of religious folk livingeach in their own isolation established in Tibet ? We do not ask when

were they introduced into Buddhist countries generally ; because m onas

teries in the ordinary sense of the term are not found everywhere as an

intrinsic concom itant of Buddhism .

Monasteries as they exist and have long existed in Tibet,Mongolia,and the Chinese borderland, are real ly unique in constitution and

character so far as the East is concerned. In Burmah, Ceylon, S iam ,

Kambodia, and Japan— the other countries where Buddhism prevails

establishm ents of this peculiar character are never found . Attached to

the larger temples in the lastnam ed countries are indeed communitiesof priests and m endicants who perform the services and live on the offerings of the devotees. But nothing analogous to the m onastic systemas found in Europe andWest Asia is found there. In Tibet bodies ofmen or wom en—large and small—are housed in isolated societies oftenfar apart from their fel low - creatures, m uch as in Christian convents .They dwell and work and worship together, and often form a commu

nity of 500, or even in a few cases of and persons .There is in general outline a strong sim ilitude between the C hristianreligious houses of prim itive and m ediaeval tim es and these Tibetanlamaseries . And from eastern Christian countries (such as Arm enia)do we venture to suspect was the institution in its Tibetan form im

ported into C entral A sia.

Orientalists are in the habit of speaking of the old San skri tViharaof the days of Indian Buddhism as som ething like unto the m ediaevalm onastery . General Cunningham in his elaborate re- construction of

the ruins at Budh Gaye. expands the famous shrine into a m ightymonastic establishm ent . But

, so far as the actual evidence of the te

mains and foundations go, this was not so . Whatwas Budh Gaya and

what was the Buddhist Vihara of India ? It was a school or collegewith a few cells for professors and ascetics and with verandahs or corridors where pupils were instructed . The general herd of Buddhisthearers,

” such as they are made to appear in the Lal ita Vistara,the

Abhinishkramana and other later Buddhist compilations, were not

housed together but lived more as the denizens of a modern Indian vil

lage . Moreover, with regard to the number of those who subm itted tolive by rules and attended the monthly confessions,

” there is much tocause one to believe that these are instanced by the authors gm? exemp laras to what mag/l l be, supposing their religious theories to be properlycarried into eifect. Those acquainted with the fantasies of Indianauthorship know well with what an air of verisim ilitude

, as if they wererelating actual facts, such writers can record their speculations . The


98 MONA/STERIES AND N UNNERIE S .

S erkhang Gompa, Labrang Tashi - kyil, Gonlung Gompa, Tsoni Parkhang, and the great Kumbum m onastery 1 8 m iles S .

-W. of Sining,exist in the remoter wilds of Am do . Moreover

, in later times, themore noted Buddhist authors have hailed from those parts, as well as a

recent D alai Lama of Lhasa.

With regard to the number of lamaseries in Kham s in the districtsadjoining the Chinese border, the statem ent of Mr . Rockhill may bem entioned

,that in travelling from Gye- kiindo to D archendo, a dis

tance of 600 m iles,he passed forty, in the smal lest of which there were

1 00 m onks and in five of them from to S o also in Rudokand Ngari Khorsum inWestern Tibet, desolate regions though they are

,

and occupied alm ost exclusively by a sem i - nomadic laity, there are saidto be 1 04 of these establishm ents, large and small . In S piti

,now under

British rule,w ith a population of only inclusive of m onks, there are1 1 gompas, five of which are on a big scale . As a contrast, in the cityof Lhasa iteslf there are only 1 0 m onasteries, w ith four others within a

radius of four m iles but the inm ates of the 14 reach a gross total of

As to the power and influence of these m ighty establishm ents all

over the country, such can hardly be exaggerated . Moreover, the factthat the clerical fraternity draws recruits from all ranks and that everyfam ily in the land contributes its quota, cem ents the union of m onasterice and people . S o it is natural to find the central governm ent atLhasa mainly in the hands of ecclesiastics . In Tsang, the southernprovince, the head of Tashi - lhiimpo is rlef acto the tem poral sovereign .

In the eastern province, Kham s, although the ostensible rule rests inthe hands of hereditary chieft-ains, the presiding lam as of al l the greatmonasteries, suchas Chhamdo, Riwochhe, and, D erge, are to am an eitherappointed from Lhasa or, being born locally as

“ incarnate lamas,” have

been educated at the capital . These,then

,exercise authority not only

over the inmates but also over the householders dwelling on the extensive landed estates attached to each one of them . In fact, in m ost districts of Kham s the head lama of the principal m onastery is the realruler of the district .

ARCHITECTURE AND INTE RNAL ARRANGEMENT .

As m ight be expected the architecture of the T ibetan m onasteryvaries with the different districts . In Ladak we find fortress- like buildings with massive walls and protruding bastions, portions being erectedon different levels and seem ing to climb one above the other ; on one

side the foundations may rise up from the edge of a sheer precipice of twoor three thousand feet, of which the very walls of the monastery seem to

MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES . 99

be a part. In these the interiors are a curious labyrinth of passages,steps, cells, and halls, practically under one roof. Further east in TibetProper, where the sites though m ountainous can generally command someportion of level ground, the buildings are not so crowded and heapedup . In such cases the plan of the sm aller colleges at Cambridge would

give the reader som e idea of the Tibetan establishment . There is an

open courtyard surrounded by blocks of houses two or three storeys inheight and often with arcaded passages or cloisters running in frontunder the second storey . There are several ascents from beneath the

arcades som etimes stone - steps,very often inclined planes of wood, or

only ladders . Upstairs are many small room s opening on to anotherpassage or frequently on to a gallery . Each cell belongs to a gelong orfully fledged monk who has generally a lap a or boy - learner as attendanton him and occupying the sam e chamber .

1 In these cel ls are to be seenlittle furniture a long padded cushion covered w ith dirty red materialfor sleeping and sitting on (elm- ten or lc

'

l len), amat for visitors (similar),a large wallet (l lama) and a box (dom) as receptacles for utensils and otherproperty

,and a shelf (p ang/el m) for a long book or writing materials .

In the centre of the courtyard the temple god

house is usually placed and adjoining it, as an ante - room or sidechamber, is the congregational hallor assembly- place where the readingof the sacred books in general concert by the gelongs is daily conducted .

This hall is called the (la- Hearty it varies in size and in the largestm onasteries is a separate building apart from the temple . In certainother places, the assembly - hall is below the temple where the images are .

At the larger gompa there are often m ore Mel -Many than one. Abovethe chief temple and (l a-Many are second floors where other shrines may

be and where, if there be enough to form a real library, the books are

kept ; and leading out of the library is frequently the suite of littleroom s (not m ore than two or three) occupied by the head lama of themonastery. Another erection in the courtyard is a long shed with pentroof where a row of big prayer- cylinders is ranged .

There is, moreover, always a long barn- like edifice usually built ofsun- dried bricks . This is the public kitchen, with the store room s attached but it seems to be only brought into use on festival days, onordinary occasions all the denizens doing their own cooking in their res

pective room s . While festivals are being celebrated and also during theharvest season when the inmates have, m ost of them , to work in thefields, the general kitchen is set going. All the m onks m ess together,eating their full of meat, tsampa, butter, curds, and tea ; not to men

1 Trcip a or tap e in also used as a general term for the al l inmates of m onas

terias .

1 00 MONASTERIES ANI) IVUNNERIES .

tion a p lentiful supply of ell /tang wh ich is drunk warm , causing greathilarity . These “ many

-

ya” or general teas take place in the flu

SOURCES OF REVENUE .

The wealth of the greater number of regular establishm ents, as

distinguished from the many small out- lying gompas, is derived mainlyfrom landed property . Upon these estates are usually num erous smallfarm ers and householders (mi - ser) who cultivate theland as hereditarytenants . The occupiers pay no direct rent for their farms but are

bound to yield up a third of the p1 oduce or one- third of its value everyyear to the over- lord which 1n these cases is the m onastery . S uch proportion is collected annually ; som etim es by an agent who travels for

the purpose som etim es, where the m onastery is the sole proprietor of

the district and appoints the governor or fort- master of the Jong, by

the Jong-

pon (fort- master) him self. These am ounts are paid in

butter, wool, or m oney ; and the collector m ust be supported‘

lavish ly

during his visits. Moreover,as a rule, a certain num ber of bricks of

tea and other commodities which he brings round m ust be purchasedby tenants, the profits on which are shared between the agent personal ly and the m onastery or other owner . If the agent is the Jongpon he has unlimited facilities and powers for enforcing com pulsorypurchases.

Again, the occupants of m onastic lands must provide w ithoutcharge sheep, cattle, and ponies to carry borax, salt, or wool, through

their territory, if the m onastery authorities trade as they often do in

such m erchandize .Individual gelongs are frequently money - lenders to both house

holders and their brother m onks, charging large interest .As to the general revenue of a gompa, it is not doled round to the

inmates . S ome of the higher offi cials secure their pickings and perquisites therefrom but it is legally supposedt o bedevoted to three objects

(1 ) Repairing and embellishing the fabric and purchasing new imple

ments for the temple use ; (2) S upplying butter for the sacrificial lightsbefore images , (3) P1oviding meat, tea, and bee1 consum ed by the

'

in

mates on festival days,which days are num erous .

Let it then'

be understood that in general the dwellers in a m onastery are not clothed

'

and fed from monastic funds but have to supportthem selves by their own earnings or

'

from any other private source .

The principal m eans of his being able to subsist, if the man be anordinary m ember of the fraternity

,is the produce which his fam ily at

hom e transm it him from a field which they set apart and cal l lama- i

z/ la'

y the lama’

sfield .

”Again, if he be a full gelong who has been


1 02 MONASTERIE’S AND N UNNERIE’

S .

be called Lings, and in those early days they were indeed as islands in

the desert- ocean of Tibet . Am ong the chief-

m onasteries of this class are

the four Lings at Lhasa also S z’tkyaLing, the heads of which form erly

governed the whole of Tibet ; S era Ling, with inmates, nearLhasa ; P

’nu - ts ’o Ling on the Yeru Tsang -

po where the great Jonang

pa school of Buddhism originated and Mindol Ling, the ruling abbeyof the Nyingma section . Many Lings, like our abbeys with their appendant priories, have smaller m onasteries attached to them and whi ch

pay to them a proportion of revenue . These branch houses may beeither in the sam e district or in som e distant locality . Thus T’

o- lingon the River S utlej

,the oldest establishm ent in Ngari Khorsum , has

m inor appendencies .

The next grade is the CHHOID E supposed to be an

institution Where special provision is made for study of doctrinal

works and Tantrik subtilties . These are in fact the theological collegesof Tibetan Buddhism and have the privilege of granting various degreesand diplomas which qualify the holders for offices of position in otherm onasteries . In strictness no one can becom e a full gelong unless hehas resided a certain period at a Chhoide and passed there the requisiteexam inations . Two or three of these establishm ents have acquiredspecial fam e and dignity . The principal of all is Tashi—lhumpo inTsang which m ight perhaps be designated an University, granting as itdoes its own peculiar degrees for special studies, and conferring also, itis said, certain sim ilar distinctions on lay

- students of good fam ily .

Other Chhoide of prestige are Tsi Nam -

gyal on Potal‘a H ill at Lhasawhere the Grand Lam a is the resident head , D aipung with in

m ates, an establishm ent particularly affected by Mongol and Kalmukstudents who com e there even from Urga in S iberia to take their diplom as as gelong S era Ling the P

’alkhor Chhoide of Gyangtse ; Tash i

Gomang in Am do ; and Ngam- ring on the Yeru Tsangpo west of

Jang- lhatse. Certain others such as D ongtse Chhoide near Gyangtseand Shel - kar Chhoide have no reputation and are barely recognised as

capable of granting lamaic rights .

A few of the larger Lings and al l Chhoide have within their con

fines guilds or subordinate colleges known as TA- TS’ANG (fl i t where

fully-

qualified lamas enter as students in order to devote exclusive attention to particular branches of doctrinal ph ilosophy such as Tsannyid, D ii

- kyi Khorlo,Madhyam ika,andTantrik lore . There are special

edifices belonging to the college and the m embers dwell together inroom s apart from the other m onastic residents . Endowed chairs with

MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES . 1 03

professors, or learned experts, are attached to each,TrZ- ts

’mzy, m uch in

the manner of our own University professorships . However,the pro

fessor is usually of the Khempo rank , sometim es even an incarnation of

som e by-

gone saint, and he manages his comm unity in sem i - independence of the main m onastery . Thus in S era Ling we find three of theseestablishm ents D aipung has four, one of them Gomang Ta - ts’ang beingthe Mongol college while atTashi - lhumpo there are four of great note,which seem to have the sam e relationship to the m other m onastery thatour individual colleges bear to the University . Chham do Chhoidein Eastern Tibet and Radeng possess well- known guilds for Tsan- nyid

philosophy while at Tse - chen Chhoide in Tsang are several schools forthe study of Prasanga and D ukyi Khorlo mysticism . But at Gyangtse exists the largest number of Ta- ts’ang ; for there we find no fewerthan eighteen, each of which respectively is supposed to teach a separatedoctrinal syllabus, nam ely, one of those peculiar to the eighteen ancient

schools of Buddhism . Occasionally the fraternity is apart from anym onastery, as the Waidurya Ta

- ts ’ang at Lhasa.

The m embers of a Ta- ts’ang generally bear the nam e of Kai-mm

because, prior to adm ission, each m ust have taken a sort of doctrinaldegree at a Chhoide, either that of [iii- chem (

“ possessed of the precepts”)or that of B /l imy- mmp a . In summ er the Kai -mm often go for out- doorcam p - m eetings where under their Khempo they practise disputationsand magical cerem onial exercises, reciting many folios of mysticsyllables .

Fourthly m ust be enum erated the general m ass of m onastic estab

l ishments known as GOMPA flq fiq a desolate or unfrequented place ”)These seem to be upon every conceivable scale, from the edifice harbour

ing 8 or 1 0 up to the communi ty of or Many of the

large settlem ents in N . Tibet, and over the Chinese frontier, with terrace above terrace of residences and often m ore than regulardenizens are known m erely as Gompas . The term is likewise employed loosely to designate m onasteries of any rank ; so that we hear of

D aipung Gom pa, To- ling Gompa,Tashi - lhiimpo Gompa, etc . As to the

smal l temples to be seen in villages with a few huts adjacent for the three

or four ecclesiastics in charge, perhaps a single gelong with two or threea

.

gets’ul, these alsomay be styled Gom pa, though S higon (

Illafiafi)is the correct and m ore usual appellation . Most of the big establish

m ents bearing the general designation are of recent origin, compara

tively.

In Tibet are to be found, furthermore, communities of women,

Il l -I. MONASTE’RIES AND N UNNERIES .

vowed to religion and celibacy, and living in association. S uch are

commonly known as ANI GOMPA or as TsUNPO, but in Ladak andWesternTibet JOMO - LING is the proper term . H owever, the dwelling - place fornuns can hardly be dignified with the nam e of convent or nunnery . It

is rather a small collection of huts form ing a kind of settlement with

out any temple . Where the community belongs to the Gelukpa order,it is pitched m ore or less in isolation from all other dwellings or m onasteries. S uch is the D za- lung Nye-

gen, som e few m iles from KhambaJong, where is a settlem ent of 1 5 huts and only one Ani Gom pa isperm itted within great towns like Lhasa on Shigatse .

1 In these lonelyestablishments the nuns or tszmmo, as they are styled, usually own

many sheep and goats which they pasture them selves and keep in pensbuilt on to each dwelling . But with other sects, there are nuns

’ quartersplaced just outside the m onastery of males

,and they often have a room

within the latter place where they may sit if they desire . They are in

such cases m ostly the concubines, m ore or less openly, of the m onks .A nun

’ s hut is called tat- 87m]: and som etim es two or three occupy one

hut.2

Lastly, must be mentioned the P H}: or caverns tenanted by herm itsor contemplative lamas . S om etim es the F air is a single cave with one

ascetic living far apart from his fellow- creatures in a situation almostinaccessible to intruders . An excavation high up on a ledge in the

mountains is a favourite site . Comm only, however, the term indicates

a whole colony of such anchorites, who live in extensive ranges of cavernssuch as are frequent in the m ountain formations of Tibet. T hesedwellers in caves are then styled Ré- t

’oi -p a and

, while supposed to passlives of sanctity and deep m editation

,they are not forbidden consider

able intercommunion with one another. However the solitary R i - t’oi

p a or Ri - p’ukp a are most highly venerated . S om e have lived many

years without any intercourse with their fellow- creatures, and are really

absorbed in that concentrated m editation which Buddhism enjoins. At

S halu near Painam Jong in Tsang, a herm it lives in an undergroundcave and shuts him self out from communication with the upper world

1 In Lhasa the one am’

gompa. is situated in the extrem e S .- E . quarter of the city

near the cem etery and the Kashm iri m osque . It is nam ed the Tshang- kung Gom pa .

2 It is related in the Tibetan D ulwa that S hakya - t’ubpa at fi rst declined to al low

wom en to be adm i tted to m em bership of the religious orders . His aunt and 500

other wom en, however, persisted in fol lowing the Buddha about beseeching h im to

receive them ; so at length , at the request of h is disciple Kungéw o, he perm itted

them to take the re ligious vows as Gelongma. Tibetan nuns at the p resent daynever bear that nam e

, but are styled var iously tsaam o,am

’

, or jomo. Women are

bel ieved to be el igible to become both Bodhisattwas and Buddhas, and some are said

to have become so already.


MONZS‘

I'ERYES AND LN UNNERIES I

All'

-the. other.- sects,

“

and even the followers of the B en . cult

profeSs direct antagonism tdB uddhism ), are tolerated:m ore dr leést;s‘

the

ch ief practical restriction upon them being the'

prohibition against s et;tling in Lhasa. In other parts of the counti y they possess both largeconvents and well fitted temples. TheNYINGMA sects have innum er

able,

supporte1 s ; and their establishmentsmayfrequently be recognisedbythe . broad blue and red stripes

"

w ith which of - the

buildings are painted . TheG overnm ent thus enjoins‘

executive - cfiiceré

on this subject In doctrine and principles, theGelukpa school being

the pu1est, you should fol low it. But although the Nyingma school has

some alloyin it, yet, as it i s useful 1 1 religious services for removing oer”

tain diseases and injuries,its followers should not be treated with

harshness —L S o also with the “

S akya'

-

pa school which i s of thesame source.with the' Gelukpa. People should be freely allowed to observetheir

funeral obsequies, and their services for the protection of the living, ac

cording to old cu‘

stom . But although it is unfair to treat unfavourablythe adherents of diifering sects, yet the Karmapa and D uk- paschool

'

s

bav ing opposed with violencetheorthodox faith, and being heretical and

making many converts, i twill be your duty to put them down whenever

you have the power .”

The religious orders of S ikkim belong to theD zokchen school ofthe Nyingma division while those of Bhutan are of the D uklpa p

i

er

s uasion ; and the - fam ous m onastery of Samding, on the penirisula in

Lake Yamdok, is aKarmapaestablishm ent . The'

Sakya-

pa school hasm any

.

ancient m onasteries, the great S akya Ling, 50 milesdue north of

Mount Everest, being the leading establishment others of that school

being the Gong kar,Nalendra, J£1- yai and Kyisho Rawanam onasteries .Mindolling 1s the chief Nyingma institution and the hom e of the m i neintricate and mystic cerem onies belonging toBuddhist so1 cery

Reserving a desc1 iption of the inmates of m onasteries, their various

grades ando ccupations, until the next chapter, w’

e /

proceed to a lengthy

appendix . In effect, we m ean now to select a fewof the leading lamaicestablishments in Tibet ; and to set forth all details concerning each that

we have been able to col lect. From the archaeological andgeographicalpoint of view such particulars w ill have a value of their own .

[More'

over, thesegreat convents, being centres of the political as well as of thereligious life of the country, will assuredly assum e an important part

in any internal ope1ations which may take our forces in the near futureinto Tibet . The value of such information 1s consequently proportionedto its exactness . The first th1 ee of thefollowing m e

‘

so pre - em inent

.that m public docum ents they a1e generally m entioned in abbreviated

form thus : fiq fim

fiflflz

flfi’i Gd- D ai - Ser .

MONASTERIES“

AND NUNIVERIES . 1

GALD EN OR GAND EN LING.

The Ling of Com pletely Vic

torious Joyfulness . (Lat . 29°38

’

N . long . 91°30

’

E . circa . )This famous m onastery which is the headquarters of the Gelukpa

sect—the established church of Buddhists in Tibet— stands enthroned

upon the Wang- khor hill

,about 25 m iles E .N .

- E . of Lhasa,from

which city it can be_

1 eached by _ p1 oceeding along the banks of theeastern feeder of the Kyi Cbbu or Lhasa 1 ive

_

r .It was founded

,about 475 years ago, by the reforme1 Tsong- khapa,

who raised the place to a high p itch of fam e and filled the shrines withcostly images . The chief object of veneration is the grand tomb of

Tsong- khapa, which has been set up in the"

tau/cM k/zafly 0 1 principalworship - hall . It assum es the form of a lofty canopied mausoleum con

structed of marble and malachite with a gilded roof . Inside this outerstructure is to be observed a beautiful chhorten consisting of cube

,

h em isphere, -and surmounting cone, al l stated to be of the purest gold,though 5 feet in height . Within that golden casket, wrapped in cm

broidered clothing inscribed with sacred cl /zamm'

syllables, are the em

balmed remains‘

of the great reform er him self, disposed in sittingattitude; N o one i s perm itted ocularly to View the actual mummy of

Tsong - khapa’s body

,save

‘

the re1gn1ng Panchhen Lama of Tashilhiimpo

‘

who is believed to hold in his Spirit the psychic essence of thesaint and Who must “

proceed once during lifetim e to Galden for this

purpose .

Other notable objects he 1e are a magnificent representation ofJhampa, the Buddha to come, seated in European pose on a throne .

B eside him stands m eet a life sized effigy of Tsong- khapa in the chaia‘

o

ter of Jampal Nying-

po, which is supposed to be his name in the Galdenheavens .

"

A rock- hewn cell is also shewn as Tsong - khapa’

s, containinga self—sprung image o f the saint with impressions of hands and feet onthe ground averred to “be his. A very old statue of S hinje

'

, the lord of

death, with a circle of attendants, is greatly reverenced, as it is said“to

have been designed by the sam e hero. The floor of the large centralnave of the worship - hall has been paved w ith brilliant enam elled tiles ;whilst a side chapel holds yet another great image of the ubiquitousTsong- khapa

‘

. with“ other figures representing his chief disciples, Kha

dub Chhoi- je,’

- Sherab S'

eng-

ge, 8m; In the library are to be seen the

Lam - rim Chhen‘

po and other works era s founder of Galden in ‘

theii

original .MS . form as written by the author, also his rosary, dorje, andother relics .

The Khempo of this monastery i san imp0 1 tant personage in Tibet;

108 MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES .

ranking third highest in the kingdom and above the Gye- ts’ab or Re

gent of Lhasa. He difi ers from other heads of the larger Lings inthat

he is not a pal /cu or incarnate lama, being chosen by a conclave from

among the m ost scholarly of the m onks of S era and D aipung, generallyunder Chinese auspices. S o he is never a mere child as elsewhere is the

case . The late Khempo of Gaiden, Khuro Gyalgo, held the offi ce of

Regent in addition.

The number of inmates here is reckoned at There are two

Tats’ang or schools of philosophy, the Shar- tse and Jang

- tse .

S ERA LING.

The Ling of the Mighty Heart enclosed

in (Lat. 29°40

’50

”N . long . 91

°5’30

”E . Alt. feet.)One of the three largest Gelukpa foundations in the province of Ui and

establ ished in 141 7 by Jam - chhen Chhoi - je. It is placed 2 m iles due

north of Lhasa and is backed by some black barren hills, the nearest of

which is D o - de-

p’

u,fam ous for its extensive deposits of silver ; and indeed

the m onastery buildings run up the skirts of this h ill .

Only two of the Survey agents seem to have penetrated the precincts

of S era .

1 One was “ K . P. who went there in 1 866 . This was Nain

S ingh, whose report m erely refers to the idols in the temples and com

p rises one terse sentence : The images here differ in size and hideous

ness, som e having horns but the lower parts of the figures are generallythose of men.

”

Father Hue gives a fuller description The temples and houses

of S era stand on a slope of the m ountain- spur, planted with hollies

and cypresses. At a distance these buildings, ranged in the form of

an amphitheatre, one above the other, and standing out upon the greenbase of the hill, present an attractive and picturesque sight. Here andthere

, in the breaks of the mountain above this religious city, you see a

great number of cells inhabited by contem plative lamas, which you can

reach only with diffi culty . The m onastery of S era is remarkable forthree large tem ples of several storeys in height, all the room s of which

are gilded throughout . Hence the nam e ; from ter, the Thibetan for

gold .

” In the chief of these three temples is preserved the famous

tortcl w’

which, having flown through the air from India, is the m odel

from which all others, large or portable, are copied . The tortc/ie’

of S era

1 The London Morning Post lately (September 15th, 1903) publ ished a highly

romantic descrip tion by a Japanese priest of a journey to Lhasa and his residence

at The University of S ena,"which he erroneously places 5 miles S W. of Lhasa.

"


1 1 0 .MONASTERIES AND . .NUNNERIES .

paddock of it near the main road is always kept a fine specim en of the

Tibetan Skau - m - ci m stag (Cervus Thoro ldi), which spec1es - is believed tohave a propitiatory influence over the S igrid/Jag or god of the soil . On

the eastern flank of the grove are the temple and prem ises belonging tothe Naichhung Chhoikyong, the chief oracle of Lhasa on the westernflank and just beneath the western buildings of D aipung is seated thepopulous village of D aru, the tie- seal or sadder bazaar ” of the monastery.

The whole range of edifices presents a striking appearance from a

little distance, the mass of them lying together on a terrace but fwithout- lying portions lodged on various ledges of the hill and in someplacesoverhung by higher porches

"

of rock.1 In the m ain p art of the buildings

rises up a sort of citadel known as the Galdan P’odang crowned with a

fantastic gye-

p z'

or square concave - sided dom e . This head - piece is seen

tobe decorated on the sides with vividly - painted deities and Zn.

Inside the walls in the great central worship hall are ranged an un

usually larger collection of images, the chief being a m onster figure ofJhampa, the Buddha to com e, and . one of Chenraisi . There were

form erly seven ta - ts’

ang or colleges inD aipung, but these have been re

duced to four, styled respectively . Gomang, D e- yang, Loksal, and

Ngakpa, the lastnam ed b eing devoted to the study of Tsan- nyidphilosophy, i s , Tantrik cerem onial and m iracles . The heads of these

are each styled Khempo . . A lthough Urgyen Gya- ts’o and others of .our

native explorers have inspected the interior of this vast establishm entthey allude to few details . One explorer, G - m - n. ,

seem s to have beenchiefly impressed with the enorm ous copper cauldrons in which on festi

val days the hutte1ed tea, soup, and c/Leang are prepared for the m onks .

These cauldrons m easure 20 feet ac1 oss and me 6 feet in depth, beingbuilt up with massive masonry and having long planks laid over,

themfor the cooks to walk on, the more readily to stir up the contents and ladle

them out.

Mongol students resort in large numbers to Prai - bung, as theycall it, with a view to qualifying there for full ordination and indeedthis huge and powerful m onastery is held in high repute throughoutCentral and N orthern Asia. However, the gelong of D aipung are in

ill - odour in and around Lhasa,where they are continually engaging in

uproars and, outside the city, indulging in amateur highway robbery .

D aipung was so called after / a fam ous v ihara of Indian fable whichbore the nam e of S ri D hanya Kataka, the Sanskrit rendering of

Glorious Heap of Rice. It was founded in 1414'

A .D . by Jam -yangChhoi - jey but did not attain to any status until 1 530 when GedunGya

- ts’o was transferred hither fromTashi- lhumpo where he had - been

MONAS TE'RIES AND NUNNERIES . 1 1 1

Panchhen Lama. He it was that e1 ected the cent1a1 palace of GaldanP

’odang wherein the G1 and Lamas always dwelt up to the period whenthe fifth of the dynasty having built Pota

'la rem oved there inHuc avers that the D alai Lama still 1 epairs to D aipung once a yea1 inorder to expound to the inmates certain portions of the sacred writings,residing when

,

there in the old p alace of the place .‘

It m ay be of interest to m ention that the Mongol lam a so prom inent in the secret negotiations w ith the Russian Governm ent in the

years 1 900 - 01 , and whose nam e was given as D ozyzefi ,is the Tsan- nyid

or Ngag-

pa professor here . l l is real nam e is Ngag- wang D o‘

rjeRampa ,

THE FOUR LINGS OF LHASA.

’

This quartette of m onastic e stablishm ents belonging to the metroi

polis'

have a Special standing in that the head of each is considered tohave a claim in the ordinary course to be elected to the oflice of Gyal.

‘

ts’ab or Gyalpo, that is to act as Regent of the kingdom during them inority of the D alai Lama and in any case to rank next to that sacred

personage . However, the choice once‘or twice in recent tim es seem s to

have fallen outside the chief lamas of the four Lhasa Lings, the last

Gyalp'

o having been the headof Badeng m onastery while at present theoffice i s said to be in abeyance owing to the unusual activity of the nowreigning D alai Lama who will not brook a so - called king in his ownsovereignty .

Of the four m onasteries in question, two, nam ely, Tengyai Ling

Qfifii

gfl fllfi ) and Ts’omo Ling (vulgarly Chhomo Ling), are situa

ted in the etown itself the other two, Kundu Ling and Ts’

e- chhog Ling,stand outside the bounds, the form er near the western entrance

,the

latter-

across the Kyi Cbbu to the south of the river. All are antique.in

‘

appearance and have not accomm odation for m ore than 250 inmates

apiece . N evertheless they are handsomely endowed With . lands and

feudal tenants in different parts of Tibet, the majo r portion by far . of

each"

endowm ent belonging to the Incarnate Lama at the head of each

e stablishm ent . The head of Tengyai Ling i s the richest, having con

siderable'

e'

states inKongp‘

o district it was the just - lately'deceased holder

of this office who for m any years got up villanous conspiracies againstthe . present .D alai Lama. He was eventual ly detected and for p unish;

merit imprisoned for a period in a small brick hut with only an openinginthe roof. This incarceration is said to have induced his death which

took place inJanuary 1 901 . The head of Tengyai Ling is supposed to

b e always a re- incarnationfof S ron- tsan Gampo’s f amous minister Gar

171 2 MONASTERIES -AND NUNNERIES .

V V

5 the head Of Ts’om o Ling personates Ts’atur Noman

khan, a Mongol saint ; and he of Kundu Ling the Tats’ag Lama.

TASHILHUMPO MONAS TERY .

( qm'

sfizxrgq'

kr “ the Mound of Good Fortune . (Lat. 295

15’40” N .

, long . 88°54’ 410 E . Alt. averaging feet . )

This celebrated establi shm ent, long known to E uropean geographersas

“Teeshoo Loumbo,” is the best- conducted m onastery in Tibet, and is

also the seat of Government of the sem i- autonomous Province of)

To

samgg .

It has been built partly at the foot, and partly on the lower declivitiesof a rocky hill nam ed D olma- i Ri— the hill of the goddess D olma. The

walls surrounding the extensive series of buildings are continued fromthe sloping ground at the base up to the southern face of the hill, m eeting in apsidal form about one- third of the way up . From the base theland shelves easily down eastwards to the left bank of the River Nyange

at a point about four m iles from the confluence of that stream with theYeru Tsang-

po . On the opposite bank of the Nyang rise lofty cliffs, soclosely adjacent as to seem to overshadow the m onastery, though the

river flows between, and is here 120 feet in width . Across the river has

been thrown a substantial tim ber bridge on four stone piers . Tashilhiimpo may therefore be described as situated at the southern base of abill which protects it from the bitter north winds, and as shut in tothe east and north - east by the lofty cliffs towering up across the river,which serve to shield it from the east winds also . On the top of

D olmai- Ki is a Mai -Hui, or stone cairn, where banners are always fluttering, and where, on high

‘

festivals, huge bonfires are set ablaze . The lay

gap ital of ‘

the province, S higatse, lies on the upper ridges to theN .-E . of

this bill, hardfy a m ile from this,the ecclesiastical capital . Shigatse,

large town though it is, is deem ed but an appurtenance to the great

monastery, and is technically the ale or sudder bazaar of Tashi

lhumpo .

The lofty circuit walls, enclosing the town - like col lection of buildings composing

“

the m onastery , are pierced by five gateways ."

Over theeastern gate has been placed, in large carved letters, a prohibitionagainst sm oking within the m onastic precincts . The western gateways eem s to be regarded as the main entrance . S o, entering the m onastic

p rem ises there,i

you find yourself in a sort of town with lanes lined by!lofty houses, cpen squares and temples . In the centre of .

the place is«the grand court -

‘

yard of the.Tsug

- lag- khang of Tashi - lhiimpo .

‘

Thiso pen - space, which is used by the m onks for religious dances and other


1 14 MONASTERIES AND NUNNE’RIES .

lol mmls’au. Thus, outside the eastern walls, are the Lhopa Kham

- ts’an,

the D ongtse Kham - ts’an, & c.

The head of the Whole m onastic establishment i s the PANCHHEN

RIMPooHHE,who 1s likewise titular King of the Province of Tsang:

Forme1 ly

‘

his rule was independent of all contl ol from Lhasa. D uringthe last and the early part of the present esuta1y all B i itish negotia

tions with Tibet were carried on w ith the ruler ofTsang . Now, thoughtaxes are levied in, and pass - ports issued in. the name of the Panchhen

Lama, yet in m ilitary and imperial afiairs the authorities at Lhasa are

param ount. Lately, however, the inhabitants of Tsang have severaltimes shown them selves impatient not m erely of Tibetan, but also of

Chinese dom ination ; and any day, under an ambitious Panchhen, the

ancient autonomy of Tsang may be re- asserted .

The present ruler of Tsang and head of Tashi - lhumpo duringchildhood resided with his parents and a retinue of 300 ge- longsat a m onastery on the Bhutanese frontier . Towards the close of

1 889 he was installed with considerab le pomp at Tashi - lhumpo, and

has already begun to hold his Court and Council at La- brang Gyalts’an T’onpo

,the consistory - hall of the m onastery. He resides now in

his private monastic palace, styled Kiiu - khyab Ling, just w ithout theeastern walls of Tashi - lhiimpo . His parents are comfortably h ousedin a palace imm ersed in a plantation of trees, dignified with the nam eof Grove,

”and called Kiki Naga, not half- a- m ile distant from the

dom icile of their holy son from whom they are now parted . The Pan

chhenLamas do not seem to have been subjected to the forced m ortalitywhich has beset their brothers of Lhasa during the present century . In

1 882 the late Panchhen, nam ed Paldan Chhos- kyi Gragspa, died of

smallpox, aged 28 . He was the immediate successor of the little Lama

whom Turner saw in 1 789,an infant prodigy of 1 8 m onths, who proved

an able governor . The present head of the m onastery is named GelegNamgyal and has now (1 904) reached his 2zud year of age .

Each successive Panchhen Rimpochhe is held to be an incarnationof the fourth D hyani BuddhaNang

- wa T’

a- Yai (Sansk . Amitab/za) otherwise called Yo- pok- me and includes therewith the psychic essence ofGedundub

, the sage who, in 144 6, founded Tashi- lhiimpo . Each fresh

incarnation is traced to som e unknown infant, as in the case of the D alaiLamas of Lhasa but the Panchhen is by no m eans so great a sanctityas is his brother of Lhasa.

THO-LING GOMPA.

”7 “ v v

(NflE: “IN; 3 %1FE TheGoldenTempleS oaringonHigh”)

(Lat. 31°28

'

30”N .,

long. 79°52

’E . Altitude feet above sea.)

MONASTERIE'S AND NUNNERIES . 1 15

This, which is one of the oldest and m ost celebrated of the monasticestablishments of Tibet, is situated in Ngari Khorsum in the Mar or

circle of Gu-

ge. It stands on a slight em inence on the left bank of

the River Sutlej, about 88 m iles above Shipkyi where that river entersBritish territory.

The buildings of T’o- ling—or Totling Math as it is styled by the

hillmen who visit it on pilgrimage or trade from the Himalayas—are

very ancient and very dilapidated and have been patched up from timeto time in a manner very discreditable to the TibetanGovernment, considering the histo rical fam e of the place. The whole is enclosed by a

wall about 300 yards in circumference wh ich pilgrims have to makecircuit of crawling on hands and knees .

At present this once popular institution is peopled by not more than60 inmates ; but it is still ruled by a Khempo who is also a S kushok orincarnate lama, being deem ed a re- embodim ent of one Rinchhen Zangpoa celebrated translator of Sansk rit treatises of the eleventh century,A .D .

TheKhempo of T’o - ling has jurisdiction over 25 subordinate gompas .

The monastery was founded 1 025, A .D . , by aKing ofNgari known

to Tibetan history as Lhé Lama Ye- shes - cd. He was a great enthusiast in Buddhist literature, and it was on his invitation that the em inentBengal pandit Atisba, or P

’ul Jung as he is called, came on a m ission to

Tibet. Atisba, however, did not arrive until LbaLama was dead but

took up his residence with his successor Lha- Tsuupa who seem s to havehad a palace at T’

o - ling . It was here in T ’

o - ling Gompa that Atisba

resided some years (circa 1 045, A .D . ) and composed there several of hisbest known writings, including the B odhi Patha Pradipa. S ubsequentlynumerous authors dwelt here and m any treatise s in the Tengyur andKa-

gyur bear the superscription at T’o—ling Lhakhang .

”

SAKYA LING (S i - skya Gling) .“ The Yellow Earth Ling,

”(Lat.

28°

53’ N ., long. 86

°54

’a m onastery of the sem i - heretical Sa- kya

school of Buddhists—their headquarters now and for the past eightcenturies—and an establishm ent which has played an important part inthe history of Tibet . E ight of the abbots,

"known as the Sa- kya

hierarchs, were de f acto kings of Tibet, their dynasty continuing from1 270 to 1 3410 A .D . KungaNyingpo, born 1 090 A.D ., and Sa—kya Pan.

di ta, born 1 1 80, were famous lamas occupying the Sa- kya chair . The

foundation of the monastery and its future fame are related to have beenforetold by the Indian sage, Atisba, he, on his way into Tibet, havingpassed a rock, on the present site of the m onastery, on which he saw theBuddhist symbol 0m inscribed in Rangjnng or self- sprung characters.Afterwards this establishm ent became the seat of much learning .

SakyaMonastery stands som e 50 m iles N .N .-E . ofMount Everest.

1 16 MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES .

It contains a large temple and a spacious assembly - hall known as

the White Hall ofWorship .

”It is still famous for its magnificent

library, containing numerous unique treasures of Sanskrit and Tibetan

literature unobtainable elsewhere . S ome of these have enormous pages

embossed throughout in letters of gold and silver. The m onastery,though visited in 1 872 by our exploring Pandit No . 9

, and in 1 882 by

Babu Sarat Chandra D as, remains undescribed at present. Its in

mates do not dress in dull- red, but in bright deep - red robes. The S a

kya Lama is still held to be an incarnation of the D hyani Bodhisattwa

Jamyang (Sansk : and to carry law or kar ma derivable from

Sa- kya Pandita.

SAM- YE LING (E sam -

yas Mi—agyur Lhun-

gyis Grub-

pai Teug- lag

khang : The Academy where unchanging Wisdom from above forms

itself into a mass ”) (Lat. 29°20

’N ., long. 91

°26

'

E .) (Alt.

feet) . N otable as being the m ost ancient of all monasterie s existing at

the present day in Tibet, and as the first Vihara or academ ical schoolever founded in this land. It was erected, as we read in native Tibetan

accounts, byKingT’i- srong D eu - tsan, circa 770 A.D ., at the instigation

of Padma Jungne and Santa Rakshita. These Indian sages drew up

plans for Sam -

ye, after the m odel of the Vihara of Uddandapuri at

Magadha. Part of the original edifice remains in perfec t preservation.

The monastery is well situated on a gentle incline, 85 m iles from Lhasa,and some two miles from the north bank of theYaru Tsangpo. The ap

proaches to the place are deep in sand, which lies around in flats and

hillocks, clothed with wiry herbage . A lofty circular wall, yardsin circumference, surrounds the place, with gates facing to the four car

dinal points, Along the top of this wall there have been erected a largenumber of small chhortens and votive piles, built of burnt yellow bricks.Theexploring pandit, Nain S ingh, counte d of these ; and t heyseem to be covered with ancient inscriptions in old Lan- ts

’a characters,

sim ilar to those found near Gaya in India. In the centre of the enclosure stands the large Tsnk- la- Icfiang, w ith radiating cl oisters, leadingto four chapels, facing, at equal distances, the four sides of the largertemple . The explorer found “ the idols and images contained in thesetemples of pure gold, richly ornam ented with valuable cloths and jewels .

The candlesticks and vessels are nearly all made of gold and silver.”

Another survey agent mentions a famous image of Shakyamuni in 00p

per and gold 10 feet high . Round the temple walls are Chinese and

Lan - ts’a inscriptions in enorm ous characters .

Samyé is used by the Tibetan Governm ent as a bank, where reserve treasure in bullion is stored . Considerable sum s are said to bek ept there.


1 18 MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES .

Ts’om o, a follower of the philosophy of Po- dong P’

yog Legs Nam -

gyal,whose writings, to the amazing extent of 1 18 volum es, are treasured up

in the m onastic library.

Yamdok Lake is remarkable for the grotesque shaped sem i - island

anchored to the main shore by two necks of land . Samding is itself

placed on the main shore at the juncture of the northern neck . Beingbuilt on a conical hill, it appears to be guarding the sacred island fromintrusion . The m onastery stands like a fortress on the summ it of thebarren hill, som e 300 feet above the level of the surrounding country .

Huge flags of stone are piled in ascending steps up this hill, and a longlow wall m ounts beside them like a balustrade . At the top of the steps,a narrow pathway conducts to the foot of the m onastery, which is

‘ circled by a high wall . S amding Chhoide is finely placed . To the N .

- E

it fronts the dark and precipitous m ountain spurs which radiate fromthe lofty central peak of the islands . To the S .

- E . it looks over the landtowards the illim itable waters of the weird and m ighty Yamdok herself.

To the S . it frowns down on the D um o Ts’o, the“inner lake betwixt the

connecting necks of land above - m entioned, into which are cast the bodies

of the defunct nuns and m onks as food for fishes .

On entering the gates of the monastery, you find yourself in an

extensive courtyard, flanked on three sides by the conventual buildings .

Part of the fourth side of the parallelogram is occupied by a kind of

grand- stand supported on pilasters of wood . Ladders with broad steps,cased in brass, give adm ission to the first floor of the main bu ilding .

Here, in a long room ,are ranged the t mbs of celebrities connected in

past times with Samding, including that of the founder, T’inle Ts’omo .

The latter tomb is a richly ornam ented piece of workmanship,platedwith gold and studded with jewels . At the base

,on a stone slab is

marked the reputed foot- print of the saint. In a private strongly - bar

red chamber, hard - by, to which no one may be adm itted, are laid thedried mortal remains of al l the form er incarnations of D orje P’

akmo .

Here, in this m elancholy apartment, w ill be one day placed the°

body of

the present lady- abbess, after undergoing som e embalm ing process . To

the grim charnel - house, it is considered the imperative duty of each ihcarnate abbess to repair once, while living, to gaze her fill on her pre_

decessors, and to make formal obeisance to their mouldering form s . S he

must enter once, but only once, during her lifetim e.Another hall in this m onastery is the ( l i t-Many, on the wall s of

which are frescoes illustrative of the career of the original D orje P’

akmo .

There , also, have been put up inscriptions recording how the goddessm iraculously defended S amding, when, in the year 1 71 6, i t was beset byaMongol warrior, one Jung Gar. Sarat Chandra D as relates the cir

MONASTERIES AND NUNNERIES . 1 1 9

cumstances som ewhat thus When the Mongol arrived in the vicinityof Yamdok hearing that the lady abbess had a pig

’s head as an exorescence behind her ear, he mocked at her in public, sending word to herto com e to him that he m ight see the pig

’s head for him self. D orj eP

’

akmo returned no angry reply, only beseeching him to abandon hisdesigns on the m onastery . Burning with wrath, the warrior invaded

the place and destroyed the walls but entering, he found the interiorutterly deserted . He only observed eighty pigs and eighty sows grunting in the da - ic/zang under the lead of a bigger sow . He was startledby this singular frustration of his project for he couldhardly

'

plunder a

place guarded only by hogs . When it was evident that theMongol wasbent no longer on rapine, the pigs and sows were suddenly transformedinto venerable - looking m onks and nuns

,headed by the m ost reverend

D orje P’akmo ! As a consequence, Jung Gar, instead of plundering,

enriched the place with costly presents.

A certain am ount of association is perm itted between the male andfemale inmates of this convent, who together number less than 200 .

D orje P’akmo retains one side of the m onastic prem ises as her private

residence . It is asserted by the inmates that the good woman neversuffers herself to sleep in a reclining attitude . D uring the day she maydoze in a chair ; during the night she must sit

,hour after hour, wrapt in

profound meditation. Occasionally this lady makes a royal progress toLhasa, where she is received with the deepest veneration .

1 Up in Nor

thern Tibet is another sanctuary dedicated to D orje P’akmo . This

convent also stands on an islet situated off the west shore of the greatlake, 70 m iles N .

-W . of Lhasa, the Nam Ts’o Chhyidmo, and is much

akin to S amding, comprising a few m onks and nuns under an abbess .AtMarkula, in Lahul, is a third shrine of the goddess .With Samding our descriptions may be brought to a close . Many

1 Georgi, writing in 1762, m entions this monastery and its lady - abbess thus

In Austral i eorum latere Monasterium et S edes est Magnae Renatae Lham issa) Turee

p am b. Earn Indi quoque Nekpal lenses, tanquam ipsissimam D eam Bavani veneranturet colunt. Tibetani vero Ciangciubium ,

hoo est, S p iritum q uendam sanctum atquediv inum in hac deform i faem ina hand aliter quam in S uprem o Lhama, renatum putant .

Nec domo , nec lacu egreditur, neque vero iter facit unqnam in Urbem Lhassa nisi

pom pa praeeat totaque via thuribula duo sem per insensa atque fumantiapraaferentur .

Tum venit D ea sub umbel la advecta throno ; illins lateri adhaaret Asceta omnium

senior tanquem spiritual is vitae Rector et Institutor. S equitur postrem o ordo rel i

q uus Rel igiosorum hom inum ferme triginta, q ui com itatum et eulam com ponunt .

Ubi cohors Lhassam pervenerit, D ivam adeunt veneraturi cum Trabae ipsi, tum Laici

p raesertim , q ui ter hum i prostrati earn adorant, cumulantq ue muneribus . At illa

nescio quod sigil l i genus bonis adoratoribus osculandum praebet, cosque divinitatis suaeparticipes facit. Eadem porro Lhamissa est, quae regit Caenobia omnia tum Virorum

tum Faeminarum in ejue lacus insulis collocata.

”A lphabetum Tibetanum p . 451 .

1 20 MONASTERIES ANJ) NUNNERIES .

other establishments m ight yet be referred to—KUMBUM, with itsinmates, near S ining on the Chinese border, and RAD ENG, to the N . E .

of Ilhasa. Then, too, Gyang- tse Chhoide and D ongtse Chhoide on the

R iver Nyang ; Sam - tanzing, in Upper Tsang and Hem is and Hanlé

in Western Tibet, where several of the old classical treatises were writ

ten 800 years ago, and still of fame in our own days . Again, in the fareast, RIWOCHHE on the Ngul Gbhu, governed by two incarnate abbotsjointly and the grim great CHHAB - D O or CHHAMD O GOMPA, a fam ousprinting establishment, with m onks. All of these deserve m orethan m ere mention. In conclusion, let us add that the total number ofm onasteries in Tibet is computed to exceed


1 22 INMATES OF MONASTERIE‘S .

to be his resolve. Moreover, we may remark that it is the eldest husband of the m other of the child, and not his younger brother orbrothers who are co - husbands with him , who makes the decision in such

matters . Well, suppose the determ ination com e to the lad is usuallyentered in som e m onastery at the age of mne to twelve . In many districts the house- holder will have som e fam ily connection with a partienlar establishment and probably the boy’ s uncle will be a m ember there .

In that case he is sent to his uncle who takes him in hand as a sort ofpupil

, generally taking care to make use of him in a hundred waysin the domestic econom ies of his abode , Should there be no relative inany community of the neighbourhood, the lad is attached to som e oldmonlf'

who teaches him and employs him in his room or room s . It isconsidered. an advantage to despatch the l ittle fellow to a distant,thoughnot too distant, locality, in order that his training may not

“be frequentlyinterrupted by visits from his parents and friends . In the jurisdictionof the Tashi - lhumpo m onastery, indeed, such arrangement is compulsory ;and no communityof the Gelukpa order in the

"

province of T sang w illreceive a boy or adult novice whose native home is w ithin forty m iles ;In S piti,

‘

on the contrary, the lad often divides his tim e between them onastery and his parents’ dwelling . There, in S piti, every fam ily ap

pears’

to have its particular sci- stair or set of two apartm ents or m ore inthe gom pa to which it is by heredity attached ; and in this al l themonastic m embers of the'

family—uncles, nephews, and brothers—may

be found living together .On

“being informally'

entered on the establishm ent in this way, the

youth'

und'

ergoes a certain initiation. He is taken before the head lama,a K/remp e if there be one, who receives from him a small offering and a

scarf sent by his parents . The lama then seizes him by the hair andcuts OE a small tuft which he hangs up in a certain place in the daMany, and which.

is styled in Central Tibet,tra - p

’fii. and in Kham s at tra

p’

ut or hair first- fruits .” He is now nam ed indeed a trapa, but is notperm itted to sit with the other inmates at services in the worship - hall .In fact he is generally

“either running m essages for his tutor or else‘

in

the ch ic- ta or school of the monastery learning to read, write, and recite .

And here it will be convenient to m ention that in all establishm entsof any s1ze there is an apartm ent reserved for the instruction of lads whoare intending to become m onks . Boys and girls som etimes attend herefrom the village if their parents have signified their intention to makethem afterwards ecclesiastics male and female . But in Tibet thesemonastic schools are never, as in Burmah, open to general attendance.The teacher is styled Geman .

In great monasteries such as Tashi- lhumpo, there are many Gef'gan

INMATBS OF 123

of considerable attainm ents who can bring their charges on rapidly in

their studies . But in the smaller p rovincial places, there is one man soentitled,and

_

he hears the novices recite their pages of the sacred bookswhich it is their main duty to get by heart. N evertheless, nom inally,it is also the chief business of the m onk to whom he has been apprenticedto coach the novice in such mnemonic feats. But in m ost religioushouses save the larger ones, the master is nearly as ignorant as his pupil,and either the Khemp o or the Gary/m must take the lad in hand—which

they will do if he exhibits prom ise and com es of a well- to - do fam ily,but not otherm se .

The next stage to be attained above imp el p oise or boy -monk is the

rank of GE - NYEN Q l To be ranted this ste does not involveg P

any degree of scholarship . In m ost m onasteries, and at least in theseo f the Red—cap

'

or Nyingma sects, an ordinary Khempo can confer the

grade . Attended by a circle of the inmates he hears the students recitea few pages of the sacred tex t and great accuracy is not indispensableprovided fluency and the orthodox cadence characterise the recitation .

The novice is then shaved completely as to his head save for one tuft inthe Centre of the crown after which he kneels and makes oifering of

one sea a golden coin worth perhaps 15a , to the Khempo, his Gerga'

n

standing by as if presenting him . He next receives from the head lama

anew nam e Which is his abbot- many or doctrinal nam e and which he

generally uses as his personal appellation.

To proceed so far as this grade is deem ed in the provinces considerable advance. Many remain simple trap s all their lives som e attaina

further step when 25 or 30 years’ old, and a few before they are 20 .

B ut for such as begin their course in the great m onasteries of the“

CentralProvinces, they appear for this

“

upper degree about 3 years after adm ission. At Tashi - lhumpo the previous textual recitation is quite thelittle - go of the curriculum . The number of pages to be said byheart is fixed at 1 25 and should he fail or the Ge- koi of the place inwhose presence he m ust recite them is in any waydissatisfied, the ladmay

be turned out of the m onastery . His tutor, moreover, at once receivesten strokes from the C c- koi’ s staff and pays a fine of four 60 of butter,

80 lbs . But at _Tashi- lhumpo, it must be rem embered, the tutor isalways well - paid for his services by the parents of the youth, or if the

novice be an adult (as frequently is the case) he himself has been boundto heavy

_

_tutorial fees wh ich are made heavier still if he successfullypasses the ordeal .1

1 Particulars of the usage at Tash i - l hum po wil l be found in an interesting

paper by S arat C handra 0 5s in Journal of the Buddhist Text S ociety, part iv of 1893 .

124 INMATES OF MONASTFRIFS .

Should any further advance be desired, the neophyte may‘

now be

com e GE - Ts’uL (finléal This is usually a m ere matter of form re

quiring no exam ination . It seem s to be a sine quit non, however, thatthe adm ission be performed by an incarnate lama. For at this stage the

man takes upon him self the vows of a religious life and of celibacy and

he obtains, as it were, deacons’ orders (if we may use that as a compara

tive term ), being thereafter allowed to read the sacred writings in choruswith the other m onks .

At prescribed periods the Kusho Tulku or incarnate lama,of which

order there is at least one in every district of Tibet, makes a tonr'

of visitatien to different m onasteries round he him self being the head of ens

establishment . Then may the candidate or candidates be presented tohim for the ordination

-

rite . Generally it takes place at one centre and

the o pportunity is seized to turn the occasion into a feast or fair for

the surrounding district. Each candidate appears in a sort of doubletwithout sleeves or large waistcoat known as lie-

yak which ought to be

yellow but is nearly always red and is richly embroidered ; also a manypleated petticoat red in colour known as a sfiamt

’ap and,over his left arm

and shoulders, a yellow or red cloak so folded round his body as to leavehis right arm and shoulder bare . Kneeling before the Tulku, the latterfunctionary

,calling him by his old ordinary personal nam e, puts a ques

tion asking if he is ready to be deprived of the one remaining tuft of hairon his head . To this the candidate answers in the affirmative. Whereupon the Tulku snips off closely the large button of hair and

, sprinklinghis head with water out of a silver teapot- like vessel

,he pronounces his

new nam e or cit/aoi - wr'

ay which he henceforth finally assumes .However, the individual thus far advanced is not really a fully

fledged lama yet . One further stage has to be passed ; and, thoughconsiderable numbers in rem ote districts and in the petty states of theH imalayas proceed no higher, w ithout this additional step themonkfalls short of reaping the chief spiritual and temporal advantages of

his profession. If he look for promotion or to be considered of conse

quence in his circle or to be sent for in the afi airs of life by the laity

he m ust yet be ordained a GE - LONG (Rau

gl —the equival entof the

Bhikshu or “ beggar of virtue”of Indian Buddhism .

N evertheless, this is not a rank which with propriety can be won

in the m onasteries of districts remote from the C entral Provinces . To

have any title to respect the C c- ts’ul must in som e way contrive to leavehis own part of the country and proceed for further study and ordina

tion either to one of the three great.

suburban lamaseries of Lhasa

S era,D aipung, or Galden, or else to that puissant establishm ent the


126 INMATES OF MONASTE’RIE'S .

spring of nuns or m onks this question is not put . The candidate then

takes the vows of celibacy and to keep the disciplinary rules as set forth

in the S utra of Gradual Emancipation .

” Then a silk - scarf as sung

rlti.’ or knot of preservation having been tied round his neck and his

offering of ten silver tangta accepted, the adm i ssion rite is complete .

Above the rank of gelong there is indeed a higher grade open to

R

aspirants ; it is that of GE - SHE fiq QN (lye- 681133 . It is reserved,

however, to such as acquire a real knowledge of Buddhist literatureand philosophy .

D ISCIPLINE AN D MORALITY .

According to the code alleged to have been promulgated by ShakyaT

’ub -

pa, but in re ality conceived and compiled at‘

a considerably laterdate than his era, every gelong is bound to observe the 253 laws or t

’z

’

m

(55451 ) laid down in the above - m entioned S utra . This S utra is styled

in Tibetan Se - sor Tarpai D o and is none other than the fam ousPratz

'

mo/csna Sutra of Pali Buddhism . It com prises in Tibetan bookssom e 30 leaves containing 700 slates, and may be found in the 5thvolum e of the Bulwa section of the Kangyur. The succeeding pages ofthis volume do not belong properly to the S utra itself but— togetherwith the three following volumes, comprising with them leaves oftwo sides each—are occupied w ith a vast series of explanations of therules

,illustrated by innumerable stories ofm onks and nuns who ventured

to disregard them .

Am ong the 253 laws thus made binding on every gelong, theprimary ones are against m arriage, immorality, destruction of animal life,stealing andmurder. Then follow rules as to general behaviour, manner

of walking, m aterial of garm ents, mode of eating and drinking and

kinds of food perm itted . Washing of clothes by boiling, t he waterof which is afterwards to be deemed sacred, is enjoined; and the scratching of the body with tiles, bricks, or fish - scales is specially forbidden !Garlic may not be used w ith food, and umbrellas are not to have ornam ented handles .Weunderstand from inquiries that,in reality, little provision is made

for the rules being carefully attended to and no exam ination on the sub

jcet or any public confession, as ordered in the books, is now practised inthe monasteries . Many gelong observe the m inor ceremonial rules but aless number are particular as to such primary p rohibitions as thoseagainst concubinage and theft.

However in the larger Gelukpa establishment a considerable maintenance of d iscipline prevails . D uring prescribed seasons regular at

INMATES OF MONASTERIES . 127

tendance in the da- icliong at readings is exacted ; early rising occasionally required ; all outward violation of by

- laws severely punished ; and

the sum ptuary regulations of Buddhism enforced . In such m onasteriesimm orality cannot be openly indulged in ; and even in the smallerGelukpa

'

institutions a scandal of this sort—though naturally bv no

m eans rare— isalways made the subject of som e punishm ent. S ometimes the offender is scourged ; and expulsion is

,in the graver cases,

m eted out. Any inferior Gelukpa nun found with child would be m ostcertainly discharged from her order ; besides receiving 1 00 stripes onher back and having to pay a fine equal to 1 20 rupees . A nun thus

expelled is styled a jolok. .But in the village convents belongingto the Nyingma sects, such as those of S ikkim and East Tibet, evenpublic concubinage is passed over .

In all the great gom pas there seem s to be a special officer named

Ge- koi (fiq l'

wfl ) who exercises disciplinary functions . He is on the

watch for ofi enders, suppresses turbulence, keeps order at public cerem onials, and administers castigations both casual and prescribed . Whenany great festival is in progress, and the head lama makes solemn procession

,theGe- koi

,with his assistant beadles, marches first clearing the

way with a huge bamboo to which thongs are attached ; and no scrupleis shewn in applying this f orm idable whip over the persons of spectatorsboth lay and clerical .

Both monks and nuns keep their heads always closely shorn if of

the orthodox sect . Nuns of the Nyingm a and D zokchen sects retain

their hair . A Gelukpa nun on occasions of ceremony wears eu bersm ooth - shaven head a large wig with rough curls of long brown sheep

’ swool. The party of nuns that visited the British Comm ission at

Kamba Jong in S eptember 1 903 were their brown woolly wigs .

ALAMAS OF THE HIGHER RANKS .

The term which has crept into general use in Europe to designate allT ibetan ecclesiastics is that of lama. Travel lers in the country and visitors to the villages of Ladak and S ikkim persist in stylingevery m emberof the religious orders and every doorkeeper and underling of the templesby that nam e . New this practice is utterly incorrect . In Tibet theappellation is lim ited in its application, and indeed comparatively fewcan lay claim to the title . The general title for all is always trop e;

In truth the word lama ble - ma) signifies the.

upper or the

superior one” ; and seldom are any monks in a monastery given thename excepting the head of the house and in some of the. largerinstitutions those occupying special ly honourable positions . Thus

1 28 INMATES OF MONASTERIE’S .

when we hear of the T’up

-

gen Lama,” the D i- chhung Lama,

the Badeng Lama, those indicate the S uperiors or rulers of the

var ious establishm ents named . Monks of special learning often

receive this honorific style and in books the title occasionally occurs as

a general term . However, it is an absurd m istake to denom inate theordinary gelong of monasteries, large or small, lamas.” In any case

no one under the grade of gelong may hear the appellation.

We use the designation at the head of this section because we

are about to describe these gelongs who succeed in advancing above the

main multitude of their order .

Birth, particular abilities,and learning, each of these can be a

special factor in such progress . Of course good fortune, earnest deter

m ination, unscrupulousness, and friends in power, have inTibet as else

where, their share also in bringing about distinction and promotion. But

in Tibet, it must be granted in comm on fairness, t hat learning of the

peculiar style there cultivated and the principle of birth applied after a

novel fashion, are the two leading paths to ecclesiastical position . B y

learning am onk may attain the grade of Ge—s/ie already m entioned, orby magical studies a lucrative practice as a Ngagpa sorcerer but

the greatest elevation depends on the system about to be explained .

INCARNATE LAMAS .

.The application of the birth principle in singling out individuals

from am ong their fellows does not rest on any vulgar notion of physical or fleshly descent. That would ill assert with Buddhist idealism .

It is the spiritual pedigree which is concerned and that is regulated bythe lofty. speculations of metempyschosis or ratherm etasomato sis . And

this theory accounts for the veneration inwhich certain ecclesiasticalpersonages are held in Tibet who have not acquired their position byzeal, learning or purchase, but who were born to it.

Thus it comes to pass that in visiting Tibetan m onasteries one isevery now and then confronted with individuals of transcendent pre - natalantecedents forwhom is claim ed extraordinary rank and sanctity . Thesebeings are known as SKUSHOK in Ladak andNgari Khorsum , as Kanra

in Amdo, and as TUL - KU in the C entral provinces . They are in factINCARN ATE LAMAS ; or, in other words, a personage of this kind ' is hélieved to be the bodily form in which some great saint or here of pasthistory is continuing his earthly existence . Every S kushok or r

l‘

ul - ku

is the re- embodiment of the subtle pychic essence known as the icarmaof such by-

gone person who persists in returning to earth, of his own

good will to mankind, in a successive series of re- births . Thus theBeing before you is great indeed— either he is the present shape of a


1 30 INMATES OF JVIONASTERIES .

D olma —and these took shape in the two wives of king S rong - ts an

Gam po . S ubsequently,this primary bifurcated psychic essence of the

goddess was still further subdivided as above in order to enlarge hersphere of influence over m ortals

,but several of these branch emanations

no longer manifest them selves in earthly guise . There is probably a scarcity of women of position as vehicles of such re - embodim ents . This ism ade evident from the fact that the present incarnation of the Green

D olma is a l mbz'

lgaa or male incarnate lama in Mongolia, and that the

White D olma who in the i 8th century was proclaimed by the Buria

lamas to be incarnate first in the Empress E lizabeth of Russia and afterwards in Catherine II, is currently believed (at least in Mongolia) tohave gone on being em bodied not in any woman but in the successiveTsars of Russia even to the present m onarch .

One developm ent of these quaint speculations deserves particularmention . In recent tim es they were brought to bear even upon Q ueenVictoria of England who, though of course no Buddhist

, was as soleruler of the vast em pire of India regarded throughout Tibet w ith awe

and adm iration . Many years ago several prints representing her lateMajesty as, review ing tr0 0ps while seated on horseback found their wayinto the snowy land and those pictures set afloat the theory that shem ust be an incarnation of the goddess Balden Lham o . Balden Lham o,

otherwise Panden Makjorma, is the m ost blood - thirsty and warlike

female deity in the Buddhist pantheon ; and one of her characteristicposes in Tantrik cerem onial is when represented riding on a chesnutm ule which was the offspring of a red ass and a w inged mare . Thusarose the idea current am ong Tibetans, which resulted in the installationof Q ueen Victoria as a potent incarnation outside their country.

Innumerable curious instances of the re- embodim ent theory, as it

touches great personages in Tibet, m ight be specified . And it is necessary that a few expansions of the system as engrafted into the originalnotion should be just m entioned . Occasionally the principle of physicaldescent has been coupled with the general rules afiecting spiritual pedi

gree ; and the incarnation in these cases is allowed to be controlledby fleshly generation . At the great Red Cap m onastery of Mindol Lingon the Yeru Tsangpo there are always two incarnate lam as

, one styledthe T

’i (or throne Lama

,the other the D ongpa Lama. The latter

ecclesiastic is bound to break the celibate rule and to marry in orderto keep up the succession to the headship of the m onastery which both

lamas rule conjointly . If at least two sons are born to the D ongpaLama

, the elder succeeds to the celibate chair on the death of the uncle,

while the younger becomes D ongpa Lama and marries to carry on the

succession. However, should the married brother prove childless or have

INMATES OF MONASTERIES . 131

only one heir, then it is compulsory upon the celibate lama to marrysom e woman in order to raise up the requisite issue who shall be able tom aintain the orthodox descent. Moreover the original (a lum, bearingthe lac or karma

,invariably transm igrates in accordance with thi s

arrangem ent . In one or two generations both lamas have died withoutchildren and then the twin incarnations have to be looked for from a

new stock,but such an eventuality leads to widespread woes—war,

fam ine, and general di saster. At the fam ous Riwochhe lamasery on the

Gyama Ngul Chhu in Eastern Tibet a sim ilar schem e prevails . Therewe find three Tulku w ith co - ordinate j urisdiction, two of them celibatesand one a lay lama. The lay lama takes a wife but if he have not

sufficient issue, the others, one after the other, m arry the widow but

the m ain object in this instance appears to be to keep up the successionof the lay incarnation, the two ecclesiastical lamas being always re - em

bodied in the ordinary way outside the fam ily . S o, too, the son of the

S ikkim Raja,though a ful/cu, marries if necessary to keep up the royal

succession . Again at Chhamdo Chhoide two incarnate ones presidejointly over the inmates and are known as P

’akpa Lha the father

and S hi—wa Lha the son . They are not, however, connected by earthlyrelationship

,the only condition being that the one shall ordain the other

into the priesthood and thus constitute him his spiritual offspring .

When the two visit Lhasa in com pany,they seem to be highly honoured .

At D erge in Kham are no fewer than 4: taZ/ m lamas,one of whom must

be by birth a Kham pa.

All Tulku, let it be here noted, do not rank alike . There are saidto be three grades , the highest of which is confined to those only who

are incarnationsof D hyani Buddhas and Bodhisattwas . This class isnamed Jang - c/z/ mbKusho; the lower ranks being term ed Ala/c- ts

’aa and

Sew- ayeJany p a respectively .

From the Buddhist point of view the self- denial of the original saintin thus voluntarily undertaking these repeated appearances upon earthi s of a sublim e character . He was a being who m ight have gainedN irvana at once then but, out of philanthropic m otives, he put aside

that boon when w ithin his reach and offered to be re- born in order tohelp on the general welfare of the world and its inhabitants . And the

self- sacrifice of such a decision is, we should fancy,enhanced by the

possibility that som e of the bodies in whom it may be his lot to belodged m ay hereafter lapse from his own high standard, and causing a

decline in the virtue of the transm itted karma disqualify it from the

attainm ent of N irvana for ages to com e .

The responsibility of the successive incarnation of any saint or

Buddha,one would accordingly imagine to be tremendous and som e

l 32 INMATES OF MONASTE'RIES’.

consciousness of that ought to have considerable influence in causinghim to lead a life of strict m orality and sanctity . Many Buddh ist

authorities, however, contend that whenever an incarnate lama notori

ously misbehaves, it is in som e unexplained way the present individual’

s

own evil disposition annihilating the spirit of the saint whose manifes

tation he is and that the saintly karma does not deteriorate . The

punishment of such m isconduct is that in the next re- birth the avatar

of the holy one is disintegrated from the spirit of the recent holder of

the office which henceforth alone takes re—embodim ent,assum ing som e

degraded form suitable to his deserts while the astral spirit separatesitself for ever from the office on earth which it form erly patronised . As

any such explanation stultifies the whole theory of Buddhist m etem

pyschosis based on the inexorable rule that present actions must shapefuture karma for better or worse, it is evidently only a shuffling deviceto preserve intact the m oral standing and m em ory of a departed saintor hero. More consistent rather are those who preserve his dignity byboldly asserting that it is our lack of m oral merit at the present daywhich causes us to be unable to see the really grand m otives which are

underlying the apparent ignoble behaviour of the current representativeof the astral spirit now in D ewachen.

For, it must be always borne in m ind that such Bodhisattvas andsaintly kings and holy lamas as consent to repeated incarnations uponearth have obtained by virtue of sam - tea or the highest form of m editatien a dual existence . S o it com es about that, in Galdan, B ewachen,or any other of the Buddhist paradi ses in heaven, the astral or ineffable spirit is ever continuing , whil st its copy or counterpart under

goes earthly re- birth in indefinite succession .

We must next explain the process wh ereby, on the death of an in

carnate lama, discovery is made of the particular person in whom hispsychic essence has or will presently take refuge . And first it mustbe understood that no true Buddhist ever speaks of the (l eatk of theholy man . He has m igrated hence, they say

—he has airing- la p’ep

gone to the field while, of the ordinary man, they would affirmski song re

’ “ he has died .

”

After a period not less than 4- 9 days, during which period theSpirit (as the comm onality aver) or spiritual essence (as the philosophicw riters, Whom our British authors quote from ,

prefer to put it) remainsin the Bardo—the Buddhist region of disembodied ghosts—the saintlykarma may take shape at any tim e and in any place . As he will thenbe absolutely re- borrz, he can only animate a human being at the mo

m ent of birth ; and therefore the new incarnate lama must be som einfant . Occasionally the Tu lku him self, if conscious that death was


134 INMATES OF MONASTFRIES .

make frequent visits,occasionally being accomm odated hard by, though

not suifered actually to dwell beneath the sam e roof as that which shelters the young prodigy . The parents of a D alai Lam a are housed in a

palace and acquire large estates , however poor they may have been .

Cassiano Beligatti m entions in his j ournal the high position of the man

who in 1 741 was father of the D alai Lama .

At the age of 12 or 14 the b oy is sent oif either to Lhasa or to

Tashi - lhiimpofor education,general training,andthe all - important adm is

sion to the yearlrm or priesthood . His travelling expenses and sojourn

in Lhasa are no burden to his parents, everything being defrayed out of

m onastic funds . U sually the youth continues away from his domain

for many years, up to the age of 23 or 24 . He is retained by the

authorities of the capital or of Tash i - lhiim po until he has becom ethoroughly imbued with a sense of the omnipotence of the central lam aic

powers~ that- be and has been quite weaned from provincial leanings

or any adm iration for his local hom e . Then,when at length he returns

to his sphere of duty, he com es as a new m an and another order of

being his old attendants and com panions have forgotten the fam il iaties of past days and his education and experience im part a bearingof superiority which is at once deferred to and even recognized as ia ~

dicative of supernatural endowm ents . At Lhasa he has been trainedin worldly - w isdom and business attainments as w ell as in the m ysticside of his spiritual character ; and thus he frequently a ssum es thefullest control and disposal of the m onastic revenues .

The Lhasa Governm ent surely exhibits great sagacity in enforcingthe condition of so many years residence in the capital in the case offuture rulers of the powerful establishm ents found in al l corners of thekingdom . In the case of the m ighty m onasteries in Kham s, Am do ,Palri, and along the Chinese border - line the S tate has in this waypartisan agents, with all the prestige of supernatural rights and temporal experience, placed in positions of authority in localities the distance

of which from the centre of Governm ent would otherw ise cau sethe inhabitants to grow disaffected or a prey to outside powers . Againin Ladak, which is no longer under the temporal rule of Tibet, the LhasaExecutive has practically a considerable share in the ordering of affairs,because the heads of the four or five chief m onasteries are incarnatelamas specially trained in the Tibetan m etropolis . In furtheranceprobably of some such policy, it has been managed during the last 50or 60 years that the Tu lku of the principal foundation in Ladak

,the

wealthy and potent lamasery of Hemis, shall not even return to his

native country after he has com e to Lhasa for training but continue inthat city the rest of his days . Accordingly the general control of the

INMATES OF MONASTFRIFS . 1 35

great Hem is Monastery with its extensive property in Ladak is largely

in the hands of the authorities at Lhasa. There is indeed a residentLop on or head at Hem is but, though endowed with m uch personalpower

,he is deem ed subordinate to the genuine incarnate lama living

in Lhasa.

The great lam as of Lhasa and Tashi - lhumpo are not of course sent

away during their m inority . They dwell in their own monastery,

being provided w ith a special tutor who bears the title of Yongdzin.

1

Of course there are occasions when the Tulku exhibits independence of character and action 5 and it has been observed that when suchindividuality has proved obnoxious to the central power at Lhasa, deaththrough poisoning has been frequently the secret agent of his rem oval .In like m anner where Chinese interests seem likely to snfi er in EasternTibet or Mongolia, the Imperial Governm ent appears always able tofind, am ong the lamaic comm unity surrounding a Tu lku, unscrupuloustools ready to fulfil any underhand m ission of t his sort. In fact

,so

far as China is concerned, it is said she has found the incarnate systemnot so am enable to her w ill as is agreeable, the stupendous influence ofthese ghostly personages over a superstitious people being the strongestcounteragent . It is believed to be due to Imperial dictation that at

two such important political centres as Kumbum and Galdan m onasteries the head lama is not a Kusho Tu lku, but a m ere Khempo,

Z placedthere by the Governm ent as a m an of reliability and not chosen

, as

would be the case otherwise,in infancy .

It should be remarked that several sects nominally of the Red Capor Skamcir division of Buddhism have their head lamas, incarnate ornon- incarnate, educated in institutions of theYellow Cap order . N ever

theless that is not the practice of the sects m ore strongly 0pposed to this the S tate communion. S o, the Urgyen sect, known as

D zokchhenpa, regard Mindol Ling as their head station for trainingand ordination, and have no dealings with the Gelukpa centres of Lhasa ;the D ukpa or Lhon - dukpa resort to Tashi - chhoi - dzong, the chief m onas

tery of Bhutan where dwells the D harma Gye’

po while the Nyingmapa

establishm ents own allegiance to D orje - tag Gom pa on the YeroTsangpo wh ich is their seat of learning?

V C\

1 The tutor or Yong- dzin of the p resent D alai Lama was the

head of the Ts’e - chhog Ling m onastery in Lhasa . The full designation seem s to b e

a V

2 This title Khem po o r Khanpo is not necessarily indicative of rank ; it is

equivalent to our D .D .

1 36 INMATES OF MONASTERIES .

The class distinguished as Tulku or Incarnate Lamas extends into

Mongolia and China.

1 At Peking outside the walls, in the m onastery

attached to the Hwang S sii or Yellow Temple,

” there is a celebrated

H iro a F0 or “ living Buddha wel l - known as the Chang- kya Hutuktu,

who is the incarnation of S o, likewise, w ithin the

walls of Peking are two others, one at the Chan- t’an S su S andal - wood

Temple the other at the Yungho - kung S su—“ the Tem ple of Unend

ing Peace . One of the m ost attractive of these mystics in

China, however, is probably the hubilgan located at Wu - t’ai - sh'

an in

the Shansi province— the D zasak Lam a enthroned in P’u - sa- t’ ing

temple .

2

In Mongolia from Koko N or to Lake Baikal in S iberia, bothMongols and Buriats venerate imm ensely a large band of this supernatural order to whom they give the general title of Khubilgan (sounds

Hubz'

lgan) As in Tibet there are three grades or classes recognized, thesteps of rank from highest to lowest being Khutuktu, Shaberon, Gegen,and the Gegen are naturally the m ost plentiful . The principal individual of the kind, to whom , in som e sort, all other Khubilgan dwellingnorth of Tsaidam are subordinate, is the incarnate lama of U rga thecapital of N orth Mongolia on the river Tesla on the S iberian border .He bears rank as a Khutuktu and is held to be the current embodim entof Taranatha

,the author of a Tibetan history of Indian Buddhism

,who

died in 1 61 0 aged 70 . In Urga he seem s to he usually styled Kkare’n i

Bogota the Holy Chief of the Enclosure but in Tibet he is spokenof as Taranath Lama, or Je- tsun Tampa Taranatha or even m erely “ Ta

Lama.

”The Taranath incarnations have not been seated at Urga for

any length of tim e . They were indeed form erly attached to the TabunTura m onastery at Khuei - hua- chheng in the Gobi desert . However

,

about 1 60 years ago, one of the incarnations wasm urdered by a Chinaman on the occasion of a visit of the great Emperor Khang- hi

, when theLama refused to rise in the imperial presence because he was m ore

1 Nyingma is both a general app el lation for al l the unreform ed sects of Tibetan

Buddhism , and a particular designation for one of th e unreform ed bodies w ith its

headquar ters at D orje - tag .

2 In Peking sind vierzehn lebende Buddhas al s feste Posten vorgesehen ;davon weilt jetzt nur einer in der S tadt, denn die ubrigen, welche al le in Tibet

wiedergeboren werden mussen,erhal ten zur Reise nach Peking wedel die Erlaubnis,

noch das erforderliche Geld . D er wichtigste unter ihnen, der IChar'

i skya Khutukn,

der einen etwa dem Grossal -m osenier entsprechenden Posten versehen soil , ist vor

etwa zw‘

o’

lf Jahren zur weitern Ausbildung nach Tibet gesandt worden nnd dor t

gestorben—Griinwedel in his Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet and der Mongolei ,

pp . 92—3.


C HAPTER IX .


As onem ight expect to find, the whole territory under considerationis peopled by men of varying race and custom s . In family

,doubtless

,

there is a generic unity throughout ; though certain Tibetan tribes exbibit a facial contour strikingly unrelated to that belonging to the great

Mongolian stock under which the bulk of the inhabitants m ay be classified. Indeed the Grand Lama of Tibet at present reigning at Lhasais said to possess a distinctly Caucasian cast of countenance and Aryanfeatures . Mons. Bonvalot, also, gives a picture of a Tibetan with theAmerican Indian type of face. But if the stock of the Tibetan races be

,

as it undoubtedly is, of Mongol origin, the language, on the other hand,is singularly free from any Mongolian afiinities. S pok en as it isthroughout the entire territory in slightly—varying dialects, and evenextending beyond the legitimate confines into parts of Western and

N orth -Western China,neither in vocabulary nor in construction is the

Tibetan language related to Chinese, Mongolian or Manchu Tartar .In m ost of the provinces of Tibet are to be found two distinct

classes of inhabitants, with instincts, dom estic habits, and m ode of

livelihood as much apart as if they represented different nationalities .The denizens of the villages and towns, together with the inmates ofthe gompas or lamaseries, form apparently one race ; while the pastoraltribes

,occupying the D ok uplands, and leading lives either sem i - noma

dic or nomadic according to the region where they dwell, are quite as

much a separate people .

RES ID ENTS IN CENTRAL TIBET .

In the towns of the Central Provinces of Ui and Tsang, we find a

quiet, orderly people, of dom estic habits and warm ly 1 eligious feelings .With the exception of such large places as Lhasa, Shigatse, Tse- t

’ang,

Gyangtse, and Phari Jon , the towns are m ostly communities gathered

THE INH/IBITANTS IN GENERAL . 139

round som e m onastery, with the duties or interests of which all the residents are m ore or less connected . But there are hundreds of ham letsand villages all over the country occupied wholly by agriculturalistsand although a small gom pa with a few lamas may be located hard by,still the maj ority of the residents would be laymen. But first a fewwords concerning the dwellers in towns . Tibetans them selves are not

specially adepts at commerce,however much they may love its rewards .

Accordingly, although in certain centres the smaller tradesmen are of

Tibetan race, their transactions are paltry indeed com pared with the

enterprise of dealers and m erchants who , belonging to other races,have entered the country to trade, and now m onopolise all the m ore

profitable departments . In Lhasa and Tse - t’ang are large communi

ties of N epalese who carry on the goldsm ith’ s and the jeweller’ s occu

pations, being also the chief m etal - workers,chem ists, and cloth - dyers .

Kashm iri m erchants are the cloth - dealers, woollen- yarn importers and

m oney- changers ; and other lower class Kashm iris engage largely inthe

' business of butchers—for, Buddhist though Tibetans may be, theyare diligent consum ers of beef, m utton

,and even pork . As to the

Chinese who infest the country, they devote them selves to multifariouspursuits, a great number of course being professional soldiers . Mostof the eating - houses and pastry- cook shops are in Chinese hands ; and,

as the custom of dining at restaurants is alm ost universal am ongst pil i

grim s and m erchants visiting the larger towns, the Celestial does astupendous business . A . K. m entioned places in Lhasa where 200

'

can

dine together, m en and women sitting down at the sam e tables . A

man from Lhasa, m oreover, informed us of a huge restaurant near theChokhang temple styled satirically the Ani Sakhang or nuns’ eatinghouse,

”full all day.

The present expedition of armed forces into Tibet has revealed to

us m any surprises concerning the character and capabilities of the

Tibetan people . One of these revelations has been the skill inm echanical arts and m etal work of the inhabitants of Lhasa, as

evidenced in the small arm s which they have managed under pressureof circum stances to turn out . Having procured patterns from Russia

(as it is to be supposed) of certain m odern rifles, such as the Martini

Henry, they have succeeded in manufacturing them themselves in.

large quantities. Hitherto the Tibetans had been accustomed onlyto the old - fashioned muzzle - loading musket ; but now som e thousands:

of breech- loaders of the latest patterns have been produced by artilicers in Lhasa—r - probably under the supervision and direction of theN epalese m etal ~workers . S uch of these rifles as have fallen into our

hands are described , as _ _being, t hough rough in finish , creditable

140 THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

imitations of the European article and put together skillfully enoughto be of efiective service in a fight.

Though the Tibetan is not by nature a shop -keeper, he does notdespise traflic when he has donned the ecclesiastical garb, and m any of

the immates of the larger m onasteries do a profitable business throughbeing granted by the chief lama concessions for the' supply of. tobacco,butter and tea to their brothers in residence . By far the m aj or portion

of better class folk in Tibet belong to the religious Orders dwelling in

the num erous gom pas which abound in town and desert. C ertain laymen of the towns have private estates bringing in rents, and othersare employed in the civil service as Jongp on, or governors of forts and

district revenue collectors, and as D zmgt/zor or Governm ent clerksin Lhasa. A number of the latter class are said to reside in the villasbuilt in the suburbs of the capital. The Jongpon in a provincialcentre is a great personage with unlim ited powers of extortion and

oppression. On the whole taking the denizens of the towns in the

bulk they belong to only two classes—eccle siastics and tradesmen.

The inmates of the m onasteries of Central Tibet hail from all

parts of Mongolia and Tibet. Though of heavy build, they are

athletic and healthy, m ost of them being not of sedentary habits butengaging in active exercise and sometimes in field labour. A leadingcharacteristic is a love of broils and fighting ; som e to indulge thispredilection making up small predatory parties in im itation of the

m ore warlike bandits of the North and N orth -East . These men of

the church are truly m ilitant and they are often brave and patriotic toa degree when banded against a comm on outside enemy . In recentyears moreover they have been regularly drill ed.

It is asserted on the best authority that the maj ority of the most

ardent fighters who have been engaged against the British in thepresent campaign in Tibet (1 904) have belonged to the m onkishclasses ; and in general the captains and leaders of assaulting and

defending parties have been ecclesiastics . Indeed these Tibetanbraves or p ct - o, as they characteristically call them selves, are admitted

,

by General Macdonald, Captain Peterson, Colonel Brander, and othersof our officers who have done battle with them ,

to have,shown them selves

real heroes albeit of a reckless type of the sam e . When fighting as soldierssuch m onks are said to be designated officially as ser -malcmi goldensoldiers .” An instance of the deliberate heroism and patriotism of

these men came to light after the storming of the Kharu—La by theS ikh Mounted Infantry,May 5th, 1 90

th A document was found afterthe . fight of a peculiar and even touching character. - It purported to


142

transporting for other persons who have paid“ them to do so, hasbecome a grinding tyranny .

The village peasantry have little patriotism or love for the rulersof their country . They look upon all the authorities - that - be naturallyas only so many Oppressors . Their ready subm ission to our advancebf late into their land

, when not forced to fight by the monks and theLhasa officials, shews how little they care for politics and how eagerlythey woul d accept any regime which prom ised a yoke a little lighterthan that which at present prevails .

Their whole interest is in the yield of their fields and their cattle .

And in the well- cultivated and fertile valleys of the Nyang, Yarlung,Mikchhu and other rivers their labours as husbandm en are, to theirlim ited ambitions

,profitable . A Tibetan poet has dep icted, with a

certain dry humour,the interests and ambitions of the farm ers and

small- holders of,

these parts . In the specim en we shall here introducewe are almost taken back to the Bucolics or Georgics of Virgil

At the tim e when Spring,

com es, it is then you observeThe power of the ocean ’s warm currents increasing.

Those foot - drinkers, the trees, ful l of branches ,Wax arrogant with youthWhile their necks, towards the summ it, gleam as with em eralds .Such flowers as bear anthers seem about to vom it azureAs. to those with pistils, they are fu l l of laughter .

Moreover, each one— each with its OWn proper colourWhen it wishes to satisfy thirst, draws forthNectar, pure as the soul , from its eyes .Then, too, does the Great Earth appear overflowing with sap ;

And the bluey - green of the dresma rush m atches with malach ite .

A ll rivers and stream s, com ing down, pour forth their chatter ;Whilst the m ighty wind, though loud is the voice it utters,S oothes the pains which the cold has engendered .

At a tim e such as this is husbandry prepared for .

The elders possessed of sense stand in groupsThey taste the nectar of gossiping speechE stim ating the sun, the cold, and the warm th , which the season wil l

bring .

The tool s required for spring must now , say they, be coll ectedUp there, what was planted in the upland is breaking forth into nam e ;D own below, on slopes above the great river, it grows very warm ;

In between, where cool and shade make things equal, one receivesWhatsoever one wishes .Of those three P ’

u, D d, Bar l do they ever make chatter .Then, too, in longtail , the seasons of flood in years both form er and later ;

1 These are special Tibetan terms signifying the upper pa rts of 8. Valley, the

lower portion, and the central or m edial tracts.


‘

1 43

In the Spring could be done in o ld days theg reater part of one's farming

And because it was in those days conspicuously fine,It was splendid for al l men .

After that, indeed, came the tim e when things were reversed ;The seed got frozen ; and, m elting, its virtue had van ished forever .Next, m inutely must be discussed the condition of you lower valley,D own there it l ies just where the damage last year had occurredFor there the leaves and the corn rem ain unswel led with the m oisture .

S o, thence, would they start an inquiry into all varieties of soil ;And as to the water three things— its distance, its qual ity, and how it

was to be carried .

Lastly indeed is set forth the features of each vil lage in order ;While, beloved of al l is this - a comparison of diff erent manures.

l

The houses in which the peasantry and farmers of Central Tibetand Tsang dwell are built of huge blocks of stone laid on each other

with little if any m ortar. The walls, as we have said, are of vastthickness, even 6 to 8 feet ; and the buil dings generally two or threestoreys high . .All room s are small w ith loop - holes as windows . You

mount to the different floors by rude ladders composed of one polewith irregular pegs for steps . T he se dwellings are dark inside and are

easily defended .

THE D OKPA OR NOMAD IC PEOPLE .

Besides the dwellers in settled homes in towns and villages, thereexists, in all parts of Tibet, a people of nomadic proclivities living on

the elevated m oorlands or river- side uplands and devoting their attention almost exclusively to sheep and cattle . In Western Tibet, thatis in the provinces of Rudok, Ngari Khorsum and D ok - t’ol

,the whole

population—with the exception of the gelongs in the monasteries andthe few governm ent officials—may be fai rly classed as herdsmen.

In Central Tibet, that is in the provinces of Ui and Tsang, they are

found only on certain tracts where they wander around towns and

villages, pitching their encampments where pasturage offers . Heretheir principal grounds lie to the south of Yamdok and along the loftyterritory adjacent to Bhutan and in D ingtsam which borders on

Eastern N epal .2 Again, in extensive districts to the north and north

1 We have made our translation from a Tibetan text which we have found in

eluded in a collection of extracts put together by S arat Chandra D ata for use in theBhutia Boarding School , D arjeel ing .

9 The D okpa inhabiting the shores of the P’o -m o Jhang - t

’ang lake, not a great

distance from the frontier of B hutan,are reputed to be imm igrants of another day

from Mongol ia, and are therefore styled S ok D okpa and Hor D okpa. So also are .

the h erdsmen of the D am val ley N .N .E . of Lhasa, who are descended from ,the

Koshot Mongols who were stationed there 250 years ago for the protection of the

D alai Lama of that time.

144 THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL .

east of Lhasa, beginning som e 1 50 m iles from that city, we once m ore

m eet with the nomad shepherds as sole tenants of the land .

These pastoral folk,named D okpa in Western and Central Tibet,

(after the word adroy which is sounded dok and which m eans an

upland pasture wherever they wander seem governed by sim ilar rules

and traditions . They are divided into num erous tribes and each tribeconfines itself to a

“

separate do? or district, never intruding on the

grounds belonging to neighbouring tribes . Every tribe is made up of

so many “ tents ” or gar, one tent to every fam ily,and the m embers

of the tribe do not usually roam about in a body but divide them selvesinto several camps or dots as they are often loosely term ed . The

camps separate for the summ er, occupying distinct pastures within the

tribal confines, but re- unite in winter when they generally entrench

them selves and their flocks in some natural stronghold . Each locom o

tive farm stays three or four m onths in one place, making about three

m oves, including the retreat to w inter quarters, in the course of the year .

In Rudolz and Ngari Khorsum the D okpa are of m ore stationery

habits than the tribes living in D ok -

yul and D ok- dc, the districts

N .E . of Lhasa. S om e of them have a regular village of stone hutsbuilt round the fort of the Jaw-

p an or at the base of a large m onas

tery, whither they retireduring the five'

winter months . Others setup a sort of winter village of their own, excavating the ground deeply

and building stone defences and walls wherein they pitch their tentsto save them from the biting winds . Others again at this season have

a series of galleries or com partm ents which have been cut in the sides

of a cliff or below a plateau. At Takla Khar in Purang,near the

head- waters of the Karnali river, in the m ound of the fort which is

800 feet high is quite a beehive of these subterranean dw ellings . The

slope is very abrupt, and one above the other are excavated as it wereseparate houses of one to three storeys. All the entrances into thesecurious dens are low and narrow, but the compartments inside are lofty

and neatly cut, w ith steps excavated within leading to all room s belonging to each separate dwelling . The winter residence is styled

gansa, and the chief summ er camping-

ground yarsa.

Throughout the length and breadth of Tibet,however, the typical

residence of the D okpa is his black tent of coarse canvas spun fromyak’ s hair. The tent which, with its tentacle - like ropes

, was com paredby Huc to a huge black spider, is constructed of two pieces whichwhen pitched are put together so as to leave an opening of 6 inchesall along the top as a sm oke - vent. Outside, little flags flutter fromthe six corners, and the poles are decorated with yaks

’ tails. Inside,there is room for 25 or even 30 people to sleep, so wide is the z

span.


146 THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL .

dress of both sexes consists of a long robe of sheep - skin with the

wool on, the skins not being tanned but rendered pliable by continualrubbing between the hands . This robe is bound at the waist by a

girdle of yak- hair rope and the outside of the robe is often covered with

stout cotton- cloth or broad - cloth from Gyangtse sewn on to cover theinside of the raw skin which lies on the outer side . Wom en wear, besides the tunic, woollen petticoats also a curious piebald - looking shawl

m ade up of various - coloured strips of blanket and pinned to the tunicover the breast with large brass skewers . Their head - dress varies w ith

the province inhabited, but is usually decorated with turquoise and

coral .As to food, the nomadic people live fairly wel l excepting when on

journeys . Yak - beef andm utton are freely used,but are always boiled,

as they assert that roasted m eat impedes the breathing . They dislikefresh m ilk as a rule turning all first into curds

,which are dried, or in

to butter, and drinking the butter- m ilk . Parched barley m eal (tsamp a)made into soft balls with water or tea is the staple food as everywhere in Tibet. As m eat in winter keeps frozen for m onths, several

yak and sheep are always killed in November and are preserved wholefor winter consumption, thus saving fodder when hard to procure.

D okpas generally pride them selves on being superior to th

ordinary Tibetan of the towns and villages and indeed their possessions entitle them to the higher position . The flock s and herds belonging to a single tent are frequently from to head ;while the poorest may own perhaps 25 sheep with a few jomo (yakcows) and goats and a couple of bulls . Taxation is levied on theD okpa both in the shape of cattle and ponies as draught beasts forhigh functionaries travelling, also a m oney or butter levy on theirflocks, a charge som etim es repudiated by the m ore turbulent tribes.In Horde, north of Lhasa

,are four D okpa tribes that despise sheep

keeping and devote their time to the breeding of yak, tending m ightyherds said to reach as a total In Yamdok

,in D am , and in the

Tengri N or district, the pastoral people devote many of their grazinggrounds to the rearing of ponies which are taken for sale to the mar

k ets of S higatse and Gyangtse and even to D arjeeling and BeharThese are highly prized , fetching often 600 and 700 rupees in India.

1

However, the wealth of both nomads and sem i nomads mainlyconsists of sheep and goats which are valuable to the owners in a

1 The Yamdok herdsm en also breed asses which fi nd a ready sal e at S h igatse

as beasts of burden for travel lers . Good animals can be bough t there at 25 rupees

and inferior ones cost only 18 or 20 rupees .

THE INHABZTANTS IN GENERAL. 147

double way. First,there is the yield of wool . That of the sheep is of

very long fleece, but is rarely exported beyond the hill districts of the

Himalayas and is much used in native manufactures in T ibet . But

with the inner wool of the longhaired goat it is very difierent; for thatis all exported . This goat wool is the celebrated shawl -wool styled

pas/am inKashm ir and India, but known to Tibetans as Zena. It is a

peculiar soft downof exquisite thread, which grows at the root of thehair or coarseWool of every animal in Tibet, save the horse and the tam esheep, but chiefly, and in the best quality, beneath the outer covering of

goats . In Tibet there are kept four kinds of sheep, none ofwhich yieldthe fine mossy wool, but they w ill thrive at any height up tofeet, feeding on the poorest herbage . The yak grows Zena, and even

the ibex and teen antelope, when killed, supply quantities of the down,that of the teen being in special demand under the nam e of teen H wt.S o universal in winte r is this valuable undergrowth, that the very dogscontribute their share .

The second use the D okpa m akes of his flocks is as beastsof burden. The sheep carry the Zena imm ense distances, chiefly toLe, Shigatse, and Lhti sa the tall species called j /iangluk, travelling1 2 m iles of m ountainous pathway per diem ,

loaded with 401bs. of

wool . As we have already noticed, the owners of herds do not re

strict their trade to realising the produce of their flocks . S ome engagelargely in the salt and borax traffic ; whi lst m any D okpa have resortedto gold washing, and in recent years colonies of the nomads have settled in the western lake district where the chief gold deposits havebeen found . Their sheep and yak still come in useful as carryinganimals ; the form er carrying the borax over the Himalayas and the

gold to,

Lhasa.

Again in the D ok districts N .E . of Lhasa, the nomadic peopleassume yet another and less comm endable role, that of robbers andbrigands . Not forsaking their bucolic pursuits, the m embers of thesame tribe add to their gains by organising themselves into mountedpredatory bands, which make annual excur sions into distant parts andreturn laden with spoil . But these tribes are to be described later

under a separate heading .

D wellers in black tents are not only to be met with in the regularD ok regions of Western and Central Tibet, but exist also in the dis

tricts of KokoNor, especially to the east of that lake, the valleys around

S ining and Kumbum m onastery afiording luxuriant feeding grounds

for cattle. There the D okpa, or Kara Tangutans, as Przhevalskyclumsily styles them , devote them selves solely to peaceful pastoral

148 THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL

pursuits only their proxim ity to the dreaded Amdo robbers, whosedescent is both swift and sudden, causes them to lead lives of anxietyto which the Yamdok and other tribes are generally strangers.

The D okpa in the great districts of Kham s, who form a largepart of the population there, fall under another section.

THE TRIBES NORTH AND NORTHE AST OF LHA’

SA.

Any large and good map of Tibet will indicate to those whoexam ine it that north and east of Lhasa are extensive districts of

country where no places with the appendix word Jong are to be

found . In fact the major portion of Eastern Tibet has no Jongtowns, and this lack at once shews that the large tracts concern

ed are not under the ordinary regular governm ent of Lhasa, asare the western provinces and the central parts of Tibet. We shall notyet speak of the Kongpo and Nangpo provinces east of Lhasa wherethe Jong system prevails, nor of the great principalities of Kham swhere the system is replaced by other form s of adm inistration . The

districts and people now to be described lie to the N . and N .E . of the

capital, at a considerable though not very great distance from it, andare yet under a different system of governm ent from that prevailingelsewhere in Central T ibet . The inhabitants them selves are likewisedistinctive in many respects.

1 . THE Hours on NORTHERN ROBBER Tamas — A number of dis

tricts will be observed in the map lying N . and N .N .E . of Lhasa

along the southern base of the D angla m ountains bearing such nam esas Namru

,Atak, Amdo, Jamar or D zamar, Yagra, etc . These nam es

really indicate separate tribes inhabiting those districts, who are in

dependent one of the other and often inimi cal to each other . They

are collectively known as the Hor D e . They are not dwellers invillages but live in tents like the ordinary D okpa of western and

southern regions, and form distinct tribes or clans each ruled by an

hereditary chief styled a D eba (El l i) These tribes are, neverthe

less, mostly subordinate to Lhasa, though without Jongs or Jongpons ; and the distance of the capital is from 8 to 1 5 days’ march .

Taxes on pastoral products are collected periodically by em issaries fromthe D ewa Zhung or Tibetan Government who hold the D eba respon

sible for his tribesmen’s deficits .

The Horpa are a bold fairly - athletic lot of people . Their ostensible and perhaps m ost productive m eans of living is the breeding and

tending of yak- cattle and horses . Large quantities of butter and


1 50 THE INHAB ITANTS IN GENERAL.

and they even wear petticoats or skirts, which on horseback are pulled

well up through the belt to give freedom to the legs . Their arm s and

horse harness are silver m ounted . When they cam p they heap up walls ofdried dung inside the tents to keep out wind and rain . If away from

their tents, they bivouac in the open round a fire,wrapped in their big

saddle blankets . On these expeditions they carry plenty of food orelse plunder it they indulge at times in dried mutton (starl et ) wheatcakes, clotted m ilk (p ima) and other Tibetan delicacies

,but can also

content them selves w ith tea and tsaméa m eal only .

Mr. W . W. Rockhill gives an account of a short journey m ade

in the com pany of m embers of the N am ru tribe : To add to our discom fort, there were violent storm s of rain and hai l daily

,drenching

us and our belongings and m aking it m ost diflicult to find a little fuelwith which to boil our tea. The escort was worse off than we, for we

had a tent while they had nothing bu t their big blankets in whichthey wrapped themselves on the approach of a storm

,and supperless

went to sleep . When the weather was fine they fared sumptuously .

On reaching cam p five or six went foraging for fuel, two others fil ledthe kettles, and others started the fires w ith big goatskin bellows.The little troop was divided into two m esses

,each with its kettle and

bel lows while every man carried his supply of tsamba,dried m utton,

tea, butter, clotted cream , and wheat - cakes ; also a little earthenwarepot in which to boil his tea. While the tea was boiling they drank a

cup or two of clotted cream then,having wel l licked their wooden

bowls, they fell - to ; tea and tsamba as first course,tsamba and tea as

second course, and buttered tea as dessert . When they had finishedeating, they sat till bed- tim e talking, twirling their prayer - wheels, andtwisting yarn— their only amusem ents

, for gam es, w ith the exceptionof knuckle - bones, are, I believe, unknown among them .

As evidencing the large bands in which the Horpa go maraudingand the am ount of their booty

,we read in the narrative of A .K. th is

entry We reached the direct road from Mane Khorcheu . H erewe heard that a gang of m ounted robbers from the Jama district

,

about 300 in number, was returning by this road laden with bootyobtained from the Tengri Nur district. It consisted of 1 00 hill ponies,300 yaks, and goats and sheep . To escape an attack we diver

ged again towards the north - west On the 9th we left the halting

- place and proceeding 6 m iles we met 5 m ounted robbers. On

being questioned they said they were residents of the Yagra district.They followed us for two marches intending to carry off our beasts ofburden, but were unsuccessful, as we gave them no opportunity.

”

THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL . 1 51

Polyandry does not prevail am ong the Horpa, yet the women

seem as influential and respected as in the village districts where it isso prevalent . Brides before marriage go through a form of abduction

or forcible capture which in certain cases is said to have been a re

gu larly planned carrying off of an unw illing beauty . A large fine is

given to the parents of the girl on m arriage . Parents when aged are

often abandoned to starve, and in many instances a son murders hisfather without incurring punishm ent . It is considered a naturalaction when the parent becom es old and a burden to maintain.

The Horpa are estimated to number tents or rather more .

The Jamar D e (tribe) is said to be the largest of the robber clans andto comprise tents . N ot m ore than 3 persons

,som etimes only 2

,

and rarely as m any as 4, are reck oned to each tent . If the people of

Nagchhukha are reckoned as Horpa,the estim ate w ould be much

larger ; but it is questionable if the tent - dwellers of that district can

be deem ed nomads or robbers . There are said to be blacktents in Nagchhukha : these tents hold mostly a pacific and industrions population of herdsm en .

2 . THE GYA- D E TRIBES on KHYUNG- PO - PA.— Our knowledge

of the inhabitants of this portion of East or East Central Tibetis m ainly derived from Mr . Rockhill ; and he com putes their number

at quite He calls the region occupied Gri m- D E (gal él )

styled from the fact that its people are placed under the m ore directrule of the Chinese Amban at Lhasa . The lim its of this country are

given as a broad band 60 m iles from north to south, stretching eastwards from East Nagchhukha in long. to the western confinesof the principality of Chhamdo, circa long . E . By far the majorproportion of the people within the region profess the Bon or Pombocreed

,a branch of S ham anism said to be the prim itive religion of

Tibet . It is deliberately antagonistic to Buddhism 5 and in thesepoints m ust be post - Buddhistic ; for it has incorporated in itspractice cerem onies and deities im itative in their express contrariety of Buddhist analogues. The Pombo, accordingly, circumambulatesacred objects, passing first to the right of the object and keepingthe object always on their left hand—the converse of the Buddhistcustom they eat fish and pork they have female priests they havebooks expressly the counterpart of the chief Buddhist ritual books

with each direction rever .sed As a leading deity of the Bon faith is

a lffiyzmg bi1d flying w ith w ings inverted the people of the Gyadee1 1 itory are often known as Khyung

-

po pa 0 1 Khyung - mi and three

1 52 THE INHAB I TANTS IN GENERAL .

of their tribes call them selves K/zyzmy- lcar the white Khyung, Kfiyungmay the black ditto, and K/rymrgv ser

' the yellow ditto, respectively .

N otwithstanding the pre - em inent status given to the votaries

of the Bon religion throughout these N orth Central districts, thereare al so orthodox Gelukpa m onasteries in the Khyung or Gya- deregion, a fact to which Mr. Rockhill does not allude .

‘

There are eightGelukpa lamaseries in these parts, the chief of which is the greatS ok S ung

- dong Gom pa on the S ok Chhu . The chief Pombo establishm ent is the Ting- chhen Gompa.

Gya- de appears to be apportioned into 36 de or districts with a

chief nom inated by the Amban over each district . N early the wholeof the country

,at least so much as the m ountains and ravines perm it

to be utilised,is occupied by pasture - lands, and there is l ittle corn or

barley grown . In the western part the people live in tents these are

generally permanent camps, each tent being surrounded by a fence orlow wall. In the east we find regular villages with houses built ofhewn stone . There are vast flocks of sheep and herds of ijomo orm ilch -

yak everywhere, but very few horses are reared .

Polygamy prevails in these districts, not polyandry . A noticeablefeature in the villages is the number of children playing about, sodifferent from what is observable in West Tibet, Tsang, andU1, wherepolyandry is rife and a scanty ofispring the result . Little value,however, is here attached to a girl

’ s continence either before or aftermarriage . Guests and even travelling lamas are sometim es pressedby a host or landlord, as a mark of good-will, to take the company of

his wife for the night . In the villages travellers putting up for

only a week have various offers of temporary unions from respectable

girls who are said not to lose social caste or esteem by the transaction .

Rockhill describes the wom en as good - looking when young, butdisfigured by the application of a black juice (tug/ a) smeared on the face,as indeed is the custom everywhere in Tibet.

The Khyung-

po people wear the full heavy robe covering thewhole frame which is common throughout Tibet . It is belted up soas to make the breast part very full and capacious and useable as a

receptacle for the eating - bowl, tinder- pouch, prayer- wheel and otherportable articles . In colour this robe is distinctive in these districts

,

in that it is violet for the m en and blue for the wom en. There is ahigh collar, often made of wolf or other skin ; and the cufi s of thesleeves are turned back either with the sam e skin or with white, red,or brown cloth . This style of cufi is seen in Tsang and the Lhasadistrict as well as here ; also in S ikkim . Over this robe is worn as


1 54 THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL .

closely and exam iningit well, this apparent uniformity is here foundto be qualified by considerable variety. We are even astonished to

find a resemblance in these Tibetans to certain other nations,and

even to our friends and acquaintances at home . For instance,here is

one with a perfect Greek profile as shewn on the best cam eos. His

neighbour, on the other hand, is of the American red- skin type, withreceding brow and arched nose like an eagle

’ s beak ; while he walks

with head slightly thrown back . By his side is a young lad singingas he prepares some meat for sausages, cutting it on the pommel of hissaddle—with his dark eyes and regular features and hair falling overhis forehead, he might be an Italian.

What we can afii rm as a fact is that we are in the presence of awhite race—one which has nothing in common with those of a yellowcomplexion but the absence of a beard . This deficiency is, however,amply compensated by the quantity of hair they have on their headsin fact, it is not unusual to see even old men with plaits as thick as a

cable.”

KHAMS AND THE KHAMPAS .

The whole of East Tibet, or that huge region stretching east oflong. 92

° to the Chinese border, is loosely designated in Tibet-an

geography as Khams or Khamdo and to Tibetans inhabiting other

parts of Tibet the people of the whole of this region are classifiedtogether as Khampa. Khams, however, in reality comprises 1 3 principalities or sub- provinces and is inhabited by tribes of very diversecharacteristics and under varying form s of governm ent. In religionall the Khampa tribes own fealty in a general way to the D alai Lama.of Lhasa; but, politically, certain of the sub- provinces accept Chinaas suzerain others acknowledge in a measure the jurisdiction of theD ewa-Mung or Lhasa government.

The inhabitants of East Tibet are, however, an independent andlawless set of folk, and are very loth to admit any jurisdiction savethat of their local rulers . S om e of these states or principalities are

governed by lay chieftains who claim the title of yyalp o or“ king

others have ecclesicatical princes w ith debas or deputy governorsfor the districts into which they are subdivided . The two leadingprincipalities of Khams are those of Chhamdo and D erge . Chhamdo

comprises a large territory lying along the northern banks of the

great river Gyama Ngul Chhu (the upper course of the Salwin) andsouth of the D angla range. Acknowledging Lhésa as its suzerain,it is practically an independent state ruled jointly by two ecclesiastics, the cc- lamas of Chhamdo Gompa who are known as Phagpa

THE INIIABITANTS IN GENERAL . 1 55

Lha Yab and Phagpa Lha S hras, his lordship Phagpa the fatherand “ his lordship Phagpa the son. Chhamdo, the capital of the

state, occupies an important strategic position on massive rocks

forming the tongue of land above the confluence of two great rivers,the D za Cbbu and the Ngom Chhu, which, after coalescence, form the

upper wate rs of the Mekhong river. This town has been passed on

their respective journeys, but not entered, by Capt. Bower, by Mons .Bonvalot and by Mr. Rockhill . These gentlemen were each begged

by the authorities to avoid entering the place itself, as its denizenswere described as a turbulent set very hostile to foreigners . Father

Hue, nevertheless, stayed three days in peace in Chhamdo, and has

left an uninviting description of the place . Tsiamdo,

” he says,“ presents the appearence of an ancient town in decay ; its largehouses constructed with frightful irregularity, are scattered confusedlyover a large tract, leaving on all sides unoccupied ground or heaps of

rubbish The numerous population you see in the town are dirty,uncombed, and wallow in profound idleness . We could not divinewhat were the m eans of existence of the inhabitants of Tsiamdo ;

they are Without arts, industry, and we may add almost Without

'

agriculture . The environs of the town present, generallyspeaking, nothing but sand, unfavourable to the cultivation of

corn .

”

Mr. Rockhill, however, inform s us that the Chhamdo countryfurther afield from the town is much less inhospitable than Mons .Hue thought. After leaving Chhamdo, his route lay, he says, at firstover steep and high

'mountains, but then passed down a valley coveredwith the most beautiful pine trees, their branches draped in long cobweblike m oss of light yellow and bright orange There were many silverpheasants in the thick underwood ; and the yak drivers told me thatbears, leopards and wolves were frequently found here . Leaving thisbehind we pas sed into another valley of great beauty in which Ifound nearly every variety of tree and wild fruit known to Tibetcedars, junipers, cypress, pines and maples

, p lum and apple trees,cherry and apricot, raspberries, both the orange and red varieties,strawberries, and currants.

”

The Khampas of the principality of Chhamdo are, as elsewherein Tibet, properly divisable into two widely- diiferent kinds of people .

The townsfolk, lay or clerical, are a. m ixed race, descendant from thelocal tribe and from the herd of m iscellaneous lamas hailing fromMongolia, Tibet and China. These are stalwart in build, but incharacter a blackguardly, low, dissipated and idle set . They are everready for a broil, in which stone - throwing is a leading feature and

1 56 THE INE /1 731mNTS IN GENERAL .

when fighting at close quarters do not scruple to use their finger~ nails

and to hang on with their teeth .

The country- folk, some of whom are pastoral dwelh'

ng in tentsand others agriculturalists living in villages, are of purer descentthey are not so tall as the natives of Kongpo, but are strong and wellbuilt. Mons . Bonvalot in his narrative has gi ven us som e graphic

pictures of the rural Kham pas of the Chhamdo province. We may

quote his account of a visit to a local (Zeta or chief of a district, thatof S eresumdo .

We had no sooner .reached the platform , which borders a river of con

siderable width , than we saw a number of natives who seem ed to be expecting us . S everal of them cam e forward, and, pol itely taking our horses bythe bridles, conducted us to th is great ch ief, who was one of th e verystoutest of Thibetans that we had ever seen—quite a Vitell ius. In Spite of,or perhaps because of, h is rotundity, he was very am iable, shaking our

hands m ost cordially and begging u s to h onour him by taking a seat on hisrug On each side of h im was a lam a, one with a head l ike an '

actor, theother with that of a faun. He h im self carried on his bul l -neck a spl endidwell - shaped head—the head of a savage m onarch with hair hanging doWnhi s back . This specimen of a thick - set Goliath insisted on our tasting thecontents of three iron bottles cased in tin, of Chinese make, judging by

their shape ; on the l iquid lumps of butter were floating, having been addedto the decoction out of compl im ent to u s When we rose to leave, thefat chief and al l h is followers insisted on conducting us ; so they broughth im a splendid mule which , in spite of hi s weight, he mounted unaided ; andso we started. Having crossed the r iver, the crowd on foot tucking up th eirskirts and displaying the sturdy though somewhat l ong l egs of m ountaineers, we climbed a narrow path on the edge of the chasm , pitch ing our

tent near a clump of houses built on the m ountain- side. A crowd of idler sof both sexes soon surrounded u s ; the wom en being very ugly, wh il e a fewof the young m en had rather

‘

nice faces .

Here is . another graphic sketch from the Chhamdo country whichhas the advantage of referring to the style of abode in the ruraldistricts . We have again a corpulent B eta

We saw the ambitious ch ief to - day. We had, however, towait a verylong tim e for him in the val ley, his village

‘

being perched h igh up l ike an

eagle’s nest and he h im self being qu ite tipsy . As soon as he had recovered

the use of his legs he descended from hi s eyrie . He proved to be an enormous fellowWith grey eyes ; butwas pl easant in his cups, g iving his Orderswith great decision and setting everybody to work . He spent hi s l eisurem oments sitting astride a bal e and continu ing his carouse, look ing as he

drank l ike a clumsy S ilenus. Every now and then there cam e forth fromh is ponderous bosom shouts with wh ich the whole valley rang, the outletof h is great animal spirits We left him with mutual expressions of goodwill , after having bought from him a sheep for t o sh ill ings.

Ham lets and farm s abound hereabouts Theyare built of rough stones


1 58 THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

known town of Ba- t’ang as capital, a great grazing country with rich

forests on the hills ; Mili, south - west of Bah ; Kham Lhari, thewesternmost subdivision of Kham s, lying west even of Chham do.

Hor - chhyok or Nyagrong comprises five petty sub - states, supposed tobe governed direct from Lhasa by an official known as the Chikyab of

Nyagrong. There is also Mcnyag or Lower Nyagrong ; and furthersouth

,Zaynl , which district, however, does not form part of Khamyul .

The Zayuli folk are slave - owners,procuring slaves from Assam through

the intermediary of the Mishm is .

Taking the Khampa generally, we may follow Rockhill in dividing them into D okpa (his D ru -

p a) or pastoral tribes and town orvillage dwellers . The noble and chivalrous qualities which FatherHue observed in these Tibetans is alm ost confined to the form er. All

Khampas indeed are strong and brave but the dwellers in the Tibetantowns near the Chinese borderland have the worst elements of the. 3uropean rough and blackguard in combination, it is true, with mu chanimal courage . The officials which the Chinese have placed as no

m inal representatives in al l the towns and larger villages, from therank of Liang

- taz'

downwards, are on the whole a civilising influence ;

but the control they exercise depends mainly on the power each happens to have acquired over the fears and avarice of the head of theleading local lamasery.

THE ABORS OR ABARS .

The foremost of the tribes inhabiting the extrem e S E . of Tibetm ay be said to be the Abors. These people, who speak a languagecontaining very little adm ixture of Tibetan words, occupy the lowm ountain fastnesses situated from 30 to 4-0 m iles north of the townof Sadiya in East Assam . Their villages stand in difficult positionson the hill - sides between the debouchm ents from the H imalayas of

the R ivers D ihang and S essiri respectively, and also on the right orwestern bank of the D ihang . The gorges of the D ihang and theS essiri are only 8 to 1 1 m iles apart as the crow flies

,so that including

a breadth of about 4 m iles on the west bank of the D ibang, theirwidth of country from west to east is a restricted one . The Mishm isnow occupy a large slice of land east of the S essiri which form erlybelonged to the Abors, and have even in recent years crossed theS essiri and taken possession of much Abor land on the west of thelatter river in and about the Abor settlements of S iluk and D ambuk .

N orthwards they do not live further than lat. N .

The political constitution of the Abors is peculiar . Each villageseem s to be independent of the others in its governm ent and internallaws, the latter being enacted by all male adults in Open m eeting held

THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL . 1 59

at noon in the wasap or assembly barrack . S om e few of the villagersare elected as yam or elders to see that these enactments are obeyed,and though these have great influence in the masap , the inhabitantsare alert in preserving their democraticrights . At the m eetings thereis much speechifying and fine oratory is applauded . In certainmatters affecting the whole Abor community, deputies from differentvillages assemble at Membu which m av be regarded as the unacknow

ledged capital of the country.

In the placing of their villages much care has been taken to

make them strongholds . The village is perched either on a shelf in a

m ountain- side or on the top of some moderate ly—high table - peak.

The approaches are rugged and stony, and various gullies are artifi

cially made in the way and have to be crosse d by single planks easilyremovable . Mr. J . F . N eedham, the chief and alm ost sole authority

on the subject, has described the situation of Membu . He writes“From the S iku up to Membu the distance isabout two m iles, and Icalculated that we ascended about 800 or feet in that distance .The village site has been marvellously well chosen. On its southernandwestern sides the hills rise perpendicularly from the bed of the S ikuto a height of about 800 feet, and they are quite bare, while to thenorth and westward the hillsides are cut up by deep rav ines, and they

are likewise so perpendicular that it would be impossible to ascend them .

As far as I could see the only possible way of getting into the village

would be by the path we were taking, via , from the southward, andthere are numerous deep, though narrow, artificially- made ravines tobe crossed, as well as several steep ascents to be made ere the village isreached, each of which m ight, if necessary, be so defended in turn by

a resolute body of men as to make it an exceedingly difficult matter

for any enemy to enter the village .

”

In the centre of each settlement stands the wasap or debatinghouse which is also especially the barrack and sleeping apartm ent of all

unmarried men above 1 4 years of age belonging to the place . The

building affords accommodation for from 200 to 300 residents and

is constructed with many fire- places along each side . Guests and

travellers are located in the wasap . As to the dwelling - houses,they

are described as massive dignified buildings of barn- like contour from60 to 80 feet long by 15 to 20 feet broad . In front is a longverandah covered by the overhanging roof, which roof slopes downto within two feet of the outside ground. Inside, the houses are verydark and having 4 or 5 open fire- hearths are also very warm . The

population of each village is always over and Membu has about

2000 souls.

1 60 THE INHAB ITANTS IN GENERAL .

The Abor men are savage and easily- provoked the use of poison

ed spears andarrows m aking them form idable foes . ButMr . N eedhamconsiders them both exceedingly brave and always truthful, also readily conciliated by kind and soothing words . The m en hunt but do not

work in the fields which are often situated 6 or 8 m iles distant f romthe village. Women and girls perform all the agricultural operationsbut are escorted to and from the fields by bands of armed men who

remain on guard while they are labouring . These men bring hom ethe heads of many wild animals they kill and the

'

houses are ornamented both inside and outside with these trophies of the chase .

The girls are described a s decidedly plain in looks but with jollylaughing faces, the unmarried ones being allowed any am ount of

m oral latitude . All women seem to wear their hair cropped and“

havethe breasts bare ; they are clad only in

'

a short petticoat reaching not

quite to the knee . Their big heavy limbs are much exposed w ithou tany delicacy and are tatooed under the bend of the knee . Of the

unmarried girls Mr . N eedham remarks that they'

wear over the juncture

'

of their legs, for decency’s sake, five or six flat circular plates of

brass, -

one'

slightly overlapping the other, called boiop ,fixed to a platted

band of thin cane under their petticoats, and while working . in theirfields , or in the village on a hot day, it is the only article theyhave to

cover their nakedness ; they also wear little gaiters of platted cane,coloured, about six inches w ide, on each ankle, called 6880 729

“

in Abor .They are excessively fond of necklaces, earrings, and bracelets, in fact,of finery of all sorts . Their teeth are as black as a coal from continuallychew ing salt, tobacco, and ch m (the latter the Abors make them selvesout of a shell which they find in their river beds) , and m any of themalso sm oke p ipes like the m en . They are very - fond of singing and

dancing .

The Abor religion is a lower cult of the S haman series . D em onsinhabit caves, the under- soil, lakes, and trees, causing diseases and

untoward events . These spirits, termed qr/u ,can be propitiated and

rendered subservient by enchantments which vary with the species at

issue . The Shaman priest is styled mm and exorcises the oyu muchin the sam e way as the Ngakpa sorcerers of Tibet proceed in suchrites ; as the latter m enace and m etaphorically transfix dem ons withthep fiuréu dagger, so does the Abor mimi vanquish them w ith his

yo/cfiséa or magic knife . There seem s no Buddhist colouring in the

Abor religion. According to Mr. N eedham, the two m ost powerfuldeities or dem ons are nam ed Apcm and Nyi- pong, and dwell in indiarubber trees which are therefore considered sacred . On certain dayswhen a gene or festive celebration is observed no m en may pass


1 62 THE‘

INHABITANTS IN GENERAL.

As to dress, the,

Ghasi tribes are much better and more decentlyclothed than those of the N .W . districts . The males both

“

old and

young invariably wear a p'eculiar head -

gear of wicker- work, a sort ofhelmet with a peak curving downwards behind on to the t0p of

’

thesp ine ; feathers and grasses decorating it above the forehead

"

. A coarsecloth is tied crosswise over the shoulders

"

hanging down behind, whilea smal l waist- cloth passes between the thighs . Rude skin jackets arealso worn in very cold weather or when fighting. Cane rings arealways part of the body- attire, being placed one upon the .other in

loose order “

about the waist.The female attire is only a tight petticoat fastened round the

waist with, sometimes, a cloth worn cross - wise over the bosom . Theyhave, also, a series of loose ca

'

ne rings supported only by the buttocks,and alWays ornamentally coloured . The late Colonel Woodthorpe,

who as C aptain Woodthorpe visited the Miri country in 1 877 - 78,

alluding in his Rep ort to the women’s dress, remarks Am ong these

canes,is a curious belt of leather, a couple of inches broad, studded

with large and strong metal points, a m ost effectual safeguard against

the too tender pressure of the lover’ s arm . When working in the

fields the petticoat is frequently discarded for a thick and long fringe

of grass, and in some places the men also wear a small grass apron inlieu of the waist- cloth, enabling us fully to realise the appearance of

Adam and E ve when they first became al ive to decency .

”

The Miri tribe to the N .W . in the valley of the upper S ubansiri

go completely naked, save that the wom enwear the cane - rings already

mentioned about their loins.

Messrs . Woodthorpe and Robert found the Miri villages verysmall, containing rarely m ore than 9 or 1 0 houses ; but large fam iliesdwell in each house, one visited giving shelter to 41 0 souls . T he bar;

rack system wherein the youths of the village live in a separate build

ing does n ot prevail save in one or two of the larger villages of the

Ghasi Miris N .E . of the Subansiri . The houses are built onthe slope

of a hill w ithout any attempt to level a shelf on which to pitch them .

They are erected on a platform supported by posts with bamboo matting for walls . There is attached to every residence a p lggery alsobuilt on posts and in each vi llage are several l arge granaries with

sleping floors.

The Kam la Miris are great trappers of both small animals andfish, setting snares near every path . Each man has his own huntingground into which others may not intrude . Moreover, a curious pointis this- the various m ountain- peaks take their names from those ofthe different owners of the hunting-

ground in which each happens to )

THE INHABITANTS'

IN GENERAL . 1 63

stand . The Ghasi Miris and the tribes N .E. of the Shbansiri, on the

contrary, never set snares for animals, only for fish but they are ex-2

pert trackers of big game such as Budm'

cas, leopards, and rhinoceros,which they will follow - for days through the most difficult jungle.

THE MISHMIS .

Tribes bearing the general designation of Mishm i occupy the;

mountainous tracts N .E . of S adiya in Assam ,from

'

the left bank of

the S essiri river eastwards above the Brahmakund district over theRong T

’od chain into the valley of Lower Zayul. Mr . T. T . Cooper.

was the first traveller to have fam iliar dealings with them and found

them less murderous than they had been described .

‘

However‘

thein

bad reputaton was not w ithout foundation, seeing that a few yearspreviously they had barbarously ‘ slain two Jesuit m issionaries (FathersKrick and B oury) who had penetrated from Zayul . In recent years

Mr. Needham has held m uch intercourse with the Mishm is of different districts and specially studied the dialects of theTaru and MJII

'

tribes.In 1 899— 1 900 a B ritish punitary expedition was despatched into

the Mishm i country, and advantage was taken of this expedition by

the S urvey of India to make a reconnaissance of a portion of th e

territory they inhabit . As a result,a report drawn up by

'

Lieut.G . L . S . Ward

, field- intelligence officer, gives a fullr

if tentativeaccount of the western districts of these people . It seems that the.

tractswest of the Rong T’od Chhu comprise the mainMishm i country

The westernm ost lands are drained by the Ithun, a big river which“

joins the D ibang from the east . B etween th e D ibang and the Ithun,north of the .junction, lie the large villages belonging to the tribeknown as the Mdu Mishm i . East of the Mdus are the tribe of

Mthun Mishm i occupying lands east of the Ithun and north of lat.

N . Further east and north still of this latitude are the spursfrom the Atak Gangri range where stand the v illages of the Taru orD igaru M ishm i . S till m ore to

,

the east com e the Meju or MjuMishm i and quite on the borders of Zayul dwells the N éhong tribewhose lands reach even up to S ama and Rima.

Each of the fiveMishm i tribes m entioned is subdivided into clans,none of the

'

members of each clan being allowed to marry save withthe m embers of another clan. However a man must marry within

his - tribe a Mda, for exam ple, not being perm itted to marry a

Mthun. The Mdu Mishmis are now in a m easure civilised ; while

theMthun or outcast Mishm i,reputed ferocious cannibals, seemto be arrant cowards and untruly accused of man- eating .

164 THE INHABITAN TS IN GENERAL .

The dwellings vary in length from 40 to 200 feet, and each isboarded ofi into compartments. There are no houses for bachelors or .

debating - halls . The Mdu and Mthun tribes build stockades for

defensive purposes round and below the villages . This is not the case

in villages of the Mju tribe . Here each village, even each house, isquite independent of all others ; and no settled form of government

is in existence.Mishm is belong to the Mongolian type, having flat noses and

almond- shaped eyes. They are small in stature, very active and

quick ; also very dirty . Their dress com prises a woollen tunic devoidof al l sleeve

,having holes for the arm s, with a sort of kilt or apron

below . The wom en are fully and neatly covered both in body and

limbs ; the married women wearing a band of thin silver round thehead . As is often the case among barbarous tribes, the men are muchvainer than the women ; both sexes, however, distend the lobes of

their ears w ith enormous silver earring s. The men are arm ed with a

short sword, and either a bow or a spear ; a few have flint- lock muskets.

A pouch of the skin of som e wild animal - is generally carried overthe shoulders, and contains a pipe

,tobacco, flint and steel, also som e

poison (aconite), to put on their arrow heads . The Mishm is exchangepoison and musk - deer pods with the Tibetans (whose neighbours theyare) for clothing, salt, and swords ; and they barter indiarubber, ivory,beeswax, and ginger, for salt, opium , and clothing, with the inhabi

tants of Assam . Until very recently there was a regular slave trafficcarried on by the Mishm is with the Tibetans of Zaynl . They kidnap

ped young people, chiefly boys and youths up to 20 years of age, in

Assam and brought them into Zayul where they fetched a fair p rice.This traffic, though curtailed by B ritish vigilance in Assam , is not altogether extinct.

THE NATIVES OF LAD AK.

As an appendix to this chapter, we venture to print som e extractsfrom an anonym ous article on the Ladaki Tibetan race, living outs idethe confines of Tibet Proper . This article written as a letter fromLeh, the capital of Ladak, appeared in the columns of a well - knownIndian newspaper, Ti e Statesman, of N ovember 26th, 1 895

The Ladakhis are good- tempered and cheerful , friendly and grateful ,hardworking and plodding. To hear them singing and laugh ing over th eirlabour, and to see them perform ing it with energy and good-wil l , is a realtreat to the traveller from lower lands,where existence is so much less stern.

As to their mental endowments, a. short acquaintance does not qual ify


1 66 THE INHAB ITANTS IN GENERAL.

This is coverd with turquoises in longitudinal rows - one, two, three, four,five, or even six—the number and value of the turqu oises being .dependenton, and indicative of, the wealth of the wearer, and the handsom esttu rquoise form ing a centre - piece over the

'

forehead. The value of a peraksom etimes amounts to several hundred rupees, or on the other hand it maybe very trifling . Under th is head- dress the hair is worn in a number ofsmal l plaits on either side, beneath which are fastened som e circular ear

pieces of black lambskin, com ing forward on either side of the face . The

plaits are col lected into one central one, wh ich hangs down the back, andisterm inated by a large wool len tassel that nearly reaches the ground and

is banged about by the heel s as the owner walks .

a)? it

The lamas m et in Leh and its neighbourhood are of the sect call ed theRed Lam as . They wear along, loose gown, reach ing nearly to the ground,and leaving the arm s bare, of dark - red cloth , and a girdle of the

'

sam e

colour ; a shudder or shawl of a l ighter shade of red ; and a cap'

of red or

yel low, of the sam e shape as that worn by ordinary m en, except that thecrown instead of being flat is pointed. The chief lamas rem ain for the

most part in their gompas ; but lamas of lower degree are seen about freely,

som etim es engaged in ordinary pursu its, som etim es apparently idl ing aboutand sustaining their reputationfor sanctity by twirl ing their prayer m il l s.”

These are smal l‘

cyl inders of copper or silver m ounted on a handle and

enclosing rol ls of paper inscribed with num erous repetitions of the Bud

dhi'

st prayer formu la,“ Om m ani pa'dm a hum ,

”which being Swung round

and round in the hand, as many prayers are reckoned to the credit of the

bearer as the sum of the repetition of the formula multipl ied by the num berof rotations perform ed by the m ill .

The large m ajority of the Ladakhis are Buddhists, but there is also aMahom edan m inority, who, contrary to the

‘

state of th ings prevailing inCashm ere, constitute the m ore educated and intel l igent portion of th e coma

m unity . The offi cial class wear a m odification of the national costum e, . con

sisting of a long coat of black or dark - coloured cloth reach ing near ly. to theankles, with the usual cloth girdle wound round the waist, and a wh iteturban . Am ong the Buddh ists prevails the custom of

l p olyandry, and the

offspring of these unions speak of their great father . and“ l ittle father .

There is besides a smal l Christian comm unity of between twenty and . th irtypers0ns, including ch ildren ; but Ladakh i law is stringent against Christianity, and no Christian, native or European, is al lowed to

'

p ossess land orhouse property.

But Ladakhis are not the'

only peoplewho attract our interested attentionin Leh nor even their congeners, the Lahoul is, Baltis, and others, from upand down the river, and over the neighbouring passes . For Leh is a greattrade centre, and in its serai and bazaar representatives of m any races m eet,and

'

drive their bargains, and part again . The comm issioner who has thisyear represented British authority there, Captain Trench, establ ished a

weekly informal durbar for strangers under the shade of the Residencytrees, with tea and chupatties and friendly talk by way of entertainmentfer the denizens of these parts of the world have no bigoted antipathy to

sharing the social board with Christians or Europeans—and his guests cam e

THE INHABITANTS IN GENERAL. 67

together from far and wide . Russian subjects from al l parts of CentralAsia, Ch inese sub jects from as far away as Hongkong, subjects of the Shah of

Persia, and sub jects of the Am eer of Afghanistan, m et in fr iendlywise to

pay th eir respects to the British representative, and to share h is hospital ityIn Leh during the busy m onth s of August and S eptember may be seenY arkandis, Chinese, Th ibetans from Lhasa, Persians, Afghans, Pathans,Hindoostanees, Pun jabis, and Cashm eris,—al l busy and orderly and wel lbehaved. Y ou see them in the serai solemnly transacting their business ;in the bazar m aking sm al l bargains with the shop - keepers, or driving theirladen animals into or out of the city ; in the stableyards tending their patientponies, or shoeing them in preparation for the next march northward orsouthward ; beside the stream s watering them , or applying hydrOpathic

treatm ent to grievou sly sore backs, in the vain hOpe that they may soon befit again to bear th eir burdens. And not only m erchants, but Hadj is orMahomedan pilgrim s bound for Mecca from Central Asia pass through Lehin hundreds during the travel l ing season .

The Y arkandis are the m ost num erous and perhaps also the m ost picturesque figures w ith their round fur - bordered caps, their h igh brownleather boots, and th eir long coats shaped som eth ing l ike a European dressing gown, either l ined with fur or thick ly wadded and covered w ith som edark or bright - coloured cotton stuff outside, and l ined w ith som e otherbright and contrasting colour inside, and opening in front to show an innershort coat of a third colour, and this again , som etim es displaying a wh iteundergarm ent. S om etim es they are accompanied by their lady- folk , who

m ay be seen riding astride through the bazaar behind their lords and

m asters, dressed l ike them , high boots and al l , except for the l ittle wh itecotton veil before their faces with transparent spaces in front of the eyes toallow of their seeing th e world that m ay not see them .

But I must not be tempted into too elaborate a description of the interesting figures to be seen in the Leh bazaar, but ,

m ust close for th is tim e, inthe hope

'

of another day concluding this series of letters with some accountof Leh in its comm ercial and political aspects .

CHAPTER X .

LHASA ; THE CAPITAL OF TIBET.

S ITUATION AND GENERAL ASPECT.

Lhasa, or the place of the gods,” stands in latitude 29° 39’ 12”

N .,and in longitude 91

°5’ 30”E . and although in actual situation

it is a degree- and- a - half f ua'tfier rout/z than Lahore in India, it has

in the summer m onths an average temperature just half that usually

measured in the Punjab city .

1 In large m easure this is due to its

height above the level of the sea the altitude varying from ft.

in the general plane of the streets to ft. for the Grand Lama’ s

palace on the summit of Potala. At such an elevation as that dothe denizens of the place digest their food, dance, and sing, and pray,and transact commercial affairs ; so that indeed they are unable tolive at lower heights .

The world- renowned capital of Tibet, the Rome of the northern

cults of Buddhism , is seated on a broad marshy fertile plain on the

northern bank of the Kyi Chhu or “waters of happiness

,

”a river

which at this part m easures some 600 yards in width . Around it lie

gardens and meadows with curious walled enclosures closely packedwith stunted - looking trees, the latter chiefly in the southernsuburbs. There is much marsh - land on the W . and N .W . sides

of the city, the great track which approaches the city from the westbeing beset by drain channels, dykes, and water - courses

, many of

which run across the road . The marsh on this western side istermed D am- take and on the N .W. Kyamg

- tfiang Nags . In theenvirons to the S ., lying between the city and the river is also

1 Thus on July 22nd, 1879, the thermometer in Lhésa at 6 A .M. registeredexposed in shade, rising to 64

°by nodn. In winter, however, the cold is not so

severe as m ight be expected. When one of our secret explorers visited the p lace

in 1 866, he took frequent readings of the therm ometer th roughout every day in

February, and only once during that month does the temperature between 10 a n .

in a room without fire seem to have sunk below freezing point. The lowest tempera

ature he registered was 26°at 7 A .M. on February 14th , the h ighest 45

°at 6 P .M. on

February 2sth .


1 70 I/ IIA'

SA ; THE CAPITAL OF TIBET.

Chenraisi, in other words the D alai Lama or priest- emperor of Tibet .

Far ahead in the m idst of ' the city before you, start up many turrets

and towers m ostly with glittering head - pieces . The m ost prom inent

of these, rising above all the rest, are the gilt- plated cupolas1 of theJho - khang which is as it were the cathedral or metropolitan temple

of Lhasa.

To reach from the western road the outer or suburban city where

in are located Potala, Pama Bi and Chakpo Ri, We must first traverse a

lengthy bridge which spans a big canal or afi luent river (crossing the

road from the north, skirting the N orbu Linga and then joining the

Kyi Chhu) . This bridge, the Chara S ampa, lands us on the Lingkor

Boad,a thoroughfare here running from north to south but -which reallycompletely girdles the m etropolis, enclosing both the inner and the

outer cities . The main purpose of this thoroughfare is to enable the

religious to perform that essential act of Buddhistic worship—therite of circumambulation and to be given facilities for circling roundthe whole of sacred Lhasa in one morning and again, perhaps, at

sundown is an advantage greatly prized and largely utilised ;Passing under Pargo Kaling, the western gateway just men

tioned, and skirting a gigantic and grotesque c/ dzortrm,2 built on four

buttresses as if it were som e four- legged m onster, you soon find

yourself in a broad street lined on each side with aged walnut andwillow trees, m ostly m ere stumps, the venerableness of which ischerished .

Here at once begin rows of lofty houses, apparently exceedinglysolid though built of only sun- dried bricks . They are lime- washedbeautifully white and are roofed in fantastic curves covered withhighly-

glazed blue tiles . Every house here has windows curiouslytall and narrow and deeply- recessed, the window - ledges fringed belowwith strips of cherry - red and amber - yellow cloth and each house,

1 The Tibetan name for the huge gold- plated cubes,which crown temples and

other sacred buildings much as dom es and lanthorns surm ount cathedrals in Europe,

is gm'fifl l' sounded gye Neither cube nor any single word properly ex

p resses the shape . It is a large hol low structure . The t0 p is square and raised inthe centre where a gold boss a foot in height protrudes. From th e edges of the

square top depend the sides bulging inwards in graceful crescent or concave form

and reaching outwards to the edges of the bottom of the structure which is squarein shape like the top but in size th ree tim es as large . The whole shape

—top , sidesand bottom—is constructed of copper sheathing thickly overlaid with gold Various

figures of dragons, l ions and tigers cast in metal ornam ent the lower corners also

bal ls and coloured silk streamers.

2 A m asonry structure of p eculiar shape holding the ashes of a lam a or other

rel ics, equivalent to the S anskrit chaitya.

LHA'

SA; THE CAPITAL OF TIBET. 1 71

m oreover, has a turret, and across the street from turret to turret are

stretched ropes strung with bits of coloured cloth inscribed with in

vocations . In the present thoroughfare are a number of shops ; but

you are not held to be in Lhasa proper until an inner gateway further

east in this same roadway has been passed . As you proceed eastwardsapproaching the inner city, or Lhasa Thil as the citizens term it, you

still have Potala towering up on your left, but between you and thosesacred heights lies a quarter of the outercity known as PotalaShol,or “ the S ho,

”which is technical ly the lay- town ior sudder bazaar

appendant to Potala.

Arrived at the gate adm itting to Lhasa Thil,you find it a covered postern built upon a stone—bridge which spans one of the largestof the natural or deep rivulets which thread their way through thecity and discharge into the River of Happiness . This canal bearsthe nam e of Nyimo Cfifiu the stream of female fish,

”while the

postern is known as the Turquoise- roofed Bridge (Yu - to’k Samp a) and

is regarded as a critical rubicon by travellers ; for, here is the customs

station where all that enter or quit the citadel of Lhasa.are scrutinizedby the korck/ia/cp aZor police guard.

The outer parts of the capital which we have been traversing isnot enclosed by walls, even though it contains the Grand Lama

’ s residence ; but the Inner city is walled in portions, the space it coversbeing somewhat under 2% m iles in circumference and ii of a m ileacross .

THE INNER OB. ENCLOS ED CITYJ

The Turquoise Bridge having been passed, you now behold, awayto your left, the massive buildings of the two chief m onasteries ofLhasa, the Ts

’omo Ling and Tengyai Ling, and as you turn to pro

gress along the street of shops before you , which closes the view, you

notice far to your right the pent - roofed towers of the Chinese Residency

— the palace where are lodged the ambans, the two puissantrepresentatives of the m ighty emperor of China whose duty it is towatch Tibet so keenly .

Then, entering the busy but rather narrow street before you, youcan see at the end of it the great glittering yye four in number,on the chief temple of the place now in full sight. Here in thisstreet one notices the shops closely packed together, although theyare frequently interrupted by the long front of some private dwelling .

The shops comprise Chinese pastry - cooks, rug and carpet stores, second

hand clothes’ dealers, cup and bowl shops,magazines of European goods

1 Only in p laces does the remnant of the old walls exist.

172 LHA’

SA,

‘ TIIE CAP ITAL OE TIBET.

and trifles (chiefly of Russian brand) and even small emporium s for thesale of kerosine oil, which comm odity has at length reached Lhasa,brought from Caspian p orts by Yarkandi traders, yet too expensive tobe comm only used .

In front of each store, excepting the few which belong to theKhachbe Musalmans, stands in the gutter a pedestal of dried clay.

Upon this . little altar are burnt, after dinner and at night- fall, obla

tions in the shape of remains of the food eaten. These are offered to

propitiate the D risa,aerial sprites which feed upon odours, including,it is said, the perfume of lilies, the smell of roast beef, and the stenches of the privy .

The thoroughfare we have now entered inclines from the gateway slightly to the south until it is term inated in a wide open spaceformed by another road which, running due north and south, cuts italm ost at right angles . Here, on the opposite side of the space, risethe outer walls of the great CHO- KHANG, the principal temple of

Lhasa, which shall be described in detail later on. In a lane hard- by

is the famous D O- RING. This is an obelisk, said to be years’

old, upon which are inscribed, in the Chinese and Tibetan languages,records of certain victories of aTibetan general . Copies of the inscriptions, as found in an old Chinese work by D r . Bushell, have been

already“

published by him with a translation in the Journal of the

Royal Asiatic S ociety .

THE cuox nnue SQUARE .

We are now in the very heart of the Tibetan metropolis ; andthis central axis takes the shape of a great wheel or circle of fairlybroad roadway surrounding the Cho- khang (Jo- khang) temple and

other oflicial buildings which stand together in a block in the m iddle .

It is in fact a sort of central square known as Par- khor- nang . Roundthe sides are the chief sh0ps, whilst other shops stand clustered 1n the

centre built up against the official edifices and against the walls of theternple itself.

On a pavement in the extrem e west of this space stands a curious

old tree ‘known as Jo- o U- lra (337

5551) reputed to have sprungfrom a hair belonging to the head of Shakya- thubpa himself. An

abutment of this temple built on at the N .W. corner of the centralblock of buildings is styled Kyap -

giin Sim- c/l /mng and it is so calledbecause here during the Monlam season the D alai Lama comes toreside for meditation and to take part in the various public functions.

Inthe N .W. quarter of the great wheel or square may be seen a

quaint- shaped‘

tower or chhr‘

irten with a passage or tho roughfare


1 74 LHA'

SA ; THE CAPITAL OF TIBET:

Lhasa. There are, besides, a few Musalmans belonging to Patna in

India who have opened stores in the Tibetan capital . Many of theselast are birds of passage, arriving in D ecember and leaving in March

every year . Their m ovements, however, are strictly watched, and on

returning from India each year the frontier officials seem to exactfrom them considerable blackmail . Both N epalese and Kashm iriresidents are allowed a local ruler in Lhasa

,each dwelling in an official

mansion near the Chinese Ampan’s embassy- heuse . They seem to

exercise judicial as well as diplomatic jurisdiction .

1

Here, then, in the circular space surrounding the Cho - khang, as

well as in Wangdu - Shingkha market further east, are the chief shepsand stores . They are, however, m ostly in the cellarage of the tallhouses in those areas . S teps descend to each dark work shop or goodsdep6t ; and

,if the owner be a faithful Buddhist, there will be placed

the nyi- da mark of the sun and m oon over his doorway . Wom en are

the chief servers in the shops .

DWELLING '

B OUS ES .

Before referring to the notable edifices of the city, m ention shouldbe made of the houses in general . They are, for the m ost part, verylarge and rambling in construction, and even the mansions of the

upper classes are situated with no sort of frontage in the by—lanes and

narrower streets . Those occupied by the poor and by travellingecclesiastics and transitory m erchants, accomm odate m any fam ilies

,

sometimes containing 410 or 50 room s . An arched- way gives access tothe residence, and there is generally a courtyard of circular shape beyond—the ts’om- lcor, round which area the storeys of the house riseup . A ll the room s on the ground - floor—styled the wo-Many

— are

used as stables or store - places for grain and wood, and som etimes are

let out to m erchants . By a side - door w ithin the arched - entrance youcan m ount by a rude staircase (freeze) to the sets of residential apartm ents above .

S o far most of the dwelling - houses follow one plan . Upstairs theestablishm ents of the gentle- folk are arranged with a fair aim at com

fort, but always with a greater love for tawdry ornam ent than of real

1 The Kashm iri governor, who is chosen by the Tibetan Gye - po from am ongthe Kashm iri residents of Lhasa, decides al l disputes between his own countrym en ;

whilst the Nepalese governor exercises the sam e p owers over the Nepalese inhabi

tants. But when the par ties are of different national ities, the case goes before the

Tibetan authorities who adjudicate up on it ; and in criminal cases they assign the

punishment but deliver the ofiender to his OWn governor to carry out the sentence ,

excep ting where a Tibetan has been m urdered, when the Tibetans punish the culprit

by death or imprisonm ent

LII/ ( SA; THE CAPITAL OF TIB ET. 1 75

convenience or luxury. In the reception- room the ceiling wi ll becovered with flowered satin, and bright

- hued daubs of sacred edifices

and of noted places of pilgrimage are hung on the walls but there islittle in the way of furniture— three or four low tables from 1 0 inches

to 2 feet in height, a lacquered cabinet and a few stuffed mats to sit

on . In fact these cushioned mats (Ma - ten) and the quaint dim inu

tive tables (c/ wgtse) comprise the whole furniture even in better- classhouses. Such dwellings, however, invariably include a worship - cham

ber fitted with altar and a range of shelves holding various m etal

efiigies of deities. A m odern feature in the houses of the rich, we are

told, is the custom of papering the room - walls with pictures fromEnglish illustrated j ournals— especially coloured fashion- plates fromTi mQueen, etc .

— large quantities of which are imported from D arjeelingspecially for this purpose .

Huc refers to the poorer dwellings, where travellers put up,

thus Our hum ble abode was at the top of the house, and to reachi t we had to ascend 26 wooden stairs w ithout railing,

and so steep and

narrow that in order to prevent breaking our necks we always found itprudent to use our hands as well as our feet . Our suite of apartmentsconsisted of one great square room and one small closet . The largerroom was lighted, north - east, by a narrow w indow provided with threethick bars, and above by a small round sky - light . To protect themselves from cold the Tibetans place in the centre of their room s a small

glazed vessel in which they burn argols (m , dried cakes of dung) .As this combustible is extrem ely addicted to diffuse considerably m oresm oke than heat, it is of infinite advantage to have this hole in theceiling as exit for the sm oke . You do, indeed, undergo the inconvenience of receiving from time to tim e a fall of snow or rain on yourback ; but such are trifles. The furniture of our room embraced two

goat - skins spread right and left of the fire- dish, two saddles, our

tent, two dilapidated trunks and a supply of argols in a corner . We

were thus put at once on the full level of Tibetan civilisation.

”

The lower classes, both lay and ecclesiastic,whether visitors or

residents, take their principal m eals not at their hom es but in social

assemblages at som e given house or at one of the large eating restanrants which the Chinese seem to have introduced . These sci - kéangs,

as they are term ed, have in recent years becom e so popular that som e ofthem , it is stated, afiord room for 200 diners at one sitting . The

m ost notable restaurant is said to be the Am: Sea-Many nun’ s eating

house,” situated at the corner of a street leading from the S E.

quarter of the Chokhang square, and adjoining the principal m eat

m arket.

1 76 LIIA'

SA; THE CAPITAL OE TIBET.

D ENIZENS AND VIS ITORS .

D ining establishments such as these as well as the large lodginghouses are specially suitable to the inhabitants of a place like Lhasa.

The population is principally a floating one. E veryday gelongs and

lay- pilgrims from every part of Tibet, and from Ladak, Mongol,Tartary, and S outhern S iberia, are arriving in the city and departingthence . Their business is perhaps to gain adm ission to one of the

large lamaseries in the place or, if pilgrim s, to visit the shrines and

probably obtain ajail -Ma or interview with the Grand Lama him self.

Traders and pedlars, too, either N epalese or Bhutanese ever come and

go ; and a number of native Tibetans make annual business excursionsto Calcutta (where the author has frequently seen and spoken to them )travelling vicZS ikkim . Each nationality has its own comm on lodginghouse, often large rambling buildings in filthy by- lanes. S ome of thelarger monasteries of Tibet have also town hostelries here,

As there is a considerable surplus of unmarried females in Tibet

and morality is only prized theoretically, m ost foreign visitors, bothtraders and religious and particularly Chinese officials and soldiers

,

take temporary wives whether their stay in the capital is to enduretwo years or two weeks . Passing travellers find a plentiful supply

of concubines. For the tim e being, therefore, all m en appear to

assum e the Tibetan nationality as a result of their association withTibetan women .

l All would seem to form one vast social comm unity,

indulging in much joviality as well as religious festivity which likewise includes incessant recourse to the consumption of arak and barleybeer . At the approach of the great religious celebrations in Februaryand June, Lhasa becom es very full and, in spite of pious exercises, thecity is the scene of infinite disorder in which property and life findsmall security. The New Year festivities

, wherein the governm ent ofthe place is literally handed over to a lord of m isrule and his myrmi

dons, brings to a climax a general madness and dissoluteness wh ich

nowhere else in the world would gain the sanction of both law and re

l igion . These practices are described in another chapter .All our native agents who have visited Lhasa agree in asserting

that there are little law and order at any time in the place. Robberies

of the most daring type are frequent and usually go unpunished ;

1 It is stated that a census of the lay - res idents in Lhasa excluding al l travel

lers,temporary visitors, and the inmates of monasteries, reveal ed a resul t of

femal es and males. However , those not reckoned in this calculation must

generally equal in numbers the perm anent populace . And if we add the

m onks of D aipung and S era, just outside the city, we m igh t“

put this total at


1 78 LII/lSA ; TIIE CAPITAL OF TIBET.

temples and m onastic establishments within the precincts of the city

as we m ight have expected . Small shrines and Buddhist inscriptions

with figures are numerous but the larger tem ples and the m onasteries

are few— som e 10 of the latter at the utmost estimate, including only

one tamp er or nunnery .

The first place of sanctified repute to which the new arrival

hurries is that which we have designated the Chokhang or House of

the Lord and which is likewise the

BUD DHIST CATHED RAL OF LHASA.

The huge edifice of the JHO-KHANG or Chokhang which is known

fam iliarly also as the Jho and Kinkhording,” is situated in an open

space in the heart of the inner city and the four gold - plated concavedomes which crown the roof seem everywhere visible . However, the

general look of the building is poor. A lofty flag- pole stands in frontof the gateway. The portico of the main building is raised on stoutpillars of wood barely 12 feet in height imparting a m ean aspect to theentrance . From this porch (which is under the upper storeys of

the temple and contributes to their support) a few steps bring thedevotee into the presence of the presiding genius of the fane .

Here, in the T’i - tsang-Mang as the hall is term ed- “ is seated on

a throne a stupendous effigy of Buddha Shakhya T’ubpa. This fam ous

image, always spoken of as Jfio- o B imp ocfilze The m ost preciouslord,

” is said to be self- sprung and to have been brought to Lhasaby the Chinese wife of king S rongtsan-

gampo as her dowry circa

640 A .D . It represents the Buddha as he appeared when 12 years ’

old. D iamonds, emeralds, rubies, lapis lazuli, and gold have been lavished in profusion on the costume, which is not a priest’s but that of a

royal prince . A monster umbrella of plated gold stands hoisted likea canopy on four pillars half gold half silver . Right and left are

posed images in bronze of Jhampa Gom po (the Buddha to com e) andJam - yang the Bodhisattwa dear to the N epalese. Behind Shahya T

’

ub

pa stands Buddha Marmedze while to the rear of that figure isseated a being styled Gang- citizen T

’so Gyalp o, the king of the lake

of glaciers .”

Shakya him self sits attended by twelve solemn embodi

m ents of Buddha’ s disciples . In this sam e chamber is an image ofTsongkhapa with a rock and a bell beside him .

However the m ost remarkable - looking e ffigy here has yet to beindicated . It is a representation of the great Chenraisi, the beingwhose successive incarnations the Grand Lamas of Lhasa are heldto be. The reputed work of king S rongtsan-

gampo, the souls of thatmonarch and of his two chief queens are believed to have been absorbed

LILISA; THE CAPITAL OE TIBET. 1 79

within the image after death. It exhibits eleven faces and the materials composing it are thus enumerated - A branch of the Tree ofCogitation ; the soil of the mystic island of Yodan ; the pith of a.

sandal - wood tree ; the sand of the river Narainjana and earth from

thee ight sacred places of India. These, together with other articles,have been pounded up into a paste with the m ilk of a goat and of a

red cow Hard- by, inside a small chamber guarded by iron network,is seen a large statue of Tsong- khapa with attendent bronze figuresof Bu - ton the historian, Prince T

’ogmed, Chhyakna D orje, and two

of the Sakya hierarchs There are many other images within theTeeny

-Many and its side - chapels . S uch are T’

onyerchenma (goddessof anger) , D olma, Tamdin, Otzerchen, and a curious antique figure of

the Buddha- to- come nursing a sandal wood doll supposed to beJamyang.

In the Ngawm or courtyard of this the main shrine, is a col lec~

tion of sainted personages : Man- lha (the patron of m edicine), T’

ang

tong Gyalpo (a Tibetan engineer), Bil -wa- bas, Padma Jungnas, andKamala S hila. Many of the effigies are very ancient, som e of them .

being ascribed to the period anterior to the days of king Langdarma,the iconoclast, whose zeal they seem to have evaded. On festival daysthe courtyard is illum inated with butter- fed lamplets.

After visiting the shrines on the ground - floor, circling round them ore sacred items, and ofiering butter and burning scented tapers before favourite deities, the Buddhist votary climbs the wooden stairladders to the second storey of the Jho - khang, which is called thebar- Many . We need no more than enumerate the notabilities personated there Tamdin, the horse - man deity the goddess Lhamo Mag

jorma S er- t’ub Nampar Zigs Korwa Jig, etc. There is also a

series of paintings pourtraying the bloody deeds of the terrific goddessPanden Lhamo, said to be over years old .

Lastly, in the uppermost storey are found the collection of drags/l ed or wrathful deities ; with a special chapel belonging to PandenLhamo, having her gigantic effigy within,

its face veiled in order toconceal the grotesque horrors of the sam e . Upon the walks are pointed out frescoes said to have been painted with blood that flowed twelve

hundred years ago from the nose of the sainted S rong - tsan-

gampo .

Other chapels up here are sacred to D olma in her terrific aspect, to,

Chenraisi wherein he is made with arm s, eyes, and elevenheads, and to the sixteenNai- ten or chief disciples of Buddha. Everywhere in these upper chambers m ice are seen racing about ; and, thoughtheir presence is much to the detrim ent of the venerable objects storedin the place, nobody is permitted to m olest or destroy them . Indeed

1 80“

LHASA THE CAPITAL or . TIBET.

they are'

ga'

zed 0 11 With reverence ; for do they not hold the transmi

grated essence of lamas of by-

gone tim es, who even in'

their degradatmn

haunt the chief asylum of the saints and gods in Lhasa ?

THE D ALAI LAMA’

S HOME .1

As,

already m entioned, the suprem e ruler of Tibet resides in his

palace 0 11 Potalahill . The proper appellation of this pontiff is Gya

ts’o Rimpochhe, “ the m ost P1 ecious Ocean ”; while the Mongols of

Tartary,over whom his jurisdiction extends

,style him D alai Lama. or

Ocean Lama.

”As to the present occupant of the throne, he 1s now

30 years-

of age ; and it i s a remarkable fact that he should have been

suffered to reach an ageso venerable for a D alai Lama. He is indeedthe first - of all the Grand Lamas of the last 1 00 years who has been

perm itted to‘

l ivebeyond boyhood, his five imm ediate predecessors hav

ing all been poisoned,under Chinese instigation, before attaining their

1 8th year . At 1 8 years of age, it must be borne in m ind, the sacredlad assum es full sway

,temporal and ecclesiastical .

The buildings on the hill, which is Ii m ile in circuit and about

300 feet in height, are piled in curiou s confusion up the steep sides .

The whole mound, in fact,is covered w ith halls, chapels, colonades,

and tombs, which spread in an ingenious fashion until they overhangthe hill, where they are borne up by other buildings erected to a greatheight and starting from the base. Five gold-

plated concave cubessurmount the whole mass . A large plantation encircles the base of

Potala, through which are avenues leading to the various ascents, som eof which are m erely a series of rude ladders . At

,the S E . is the

chief entrance . H ere is a long hall into which one can ride. Riding,also, up som e shallow steps at the further end, you reach a m onolith

named D oring Nangma . Thence you m ount by innum erable laddersthrough the entire height of the Red Palace, an edifice of 13 storeys.

.Most pilgrim s appear to find ready adm ission to the -holy person

age who is the'

object of their fervent adoration . As the re- incarnatiOn of a Bodhisattwa, he receives theraseated in a gold chair placedon an altar five feet in height. He is very chary of speech .

THE 0 1e MONASTERIES .

Every morning the denizens of Lhasa—or at least the newly arrived

Whom custom has not yet made unconscious of the sound— are aroused

1 A com plete description of the D alai Lama’s surroundings would require an

article in itsel f. Only a few leading points have been noted here ; and the present

Writer would refer those interrested to a ful l account contributed by him to Murrayls

Magazine,

for October 1891 , also to his paper in the Nineteenth Century, October 1889 .

When those papers were written the D alai -Lama Was stil l only a youth . _


1 82 LHASA ; THE CAPITAL OF'

TIBET.

At the northern base of Chakpo -Ri near the entrance to the outercity from D aipung stands the Kundu Ling, a richly - endowed founda

tion with householders on its books, the head of which is possessed of the

‘

psychic essence of one Tet- tray t zp ockfie and is thereforeso called . He was till lately the chief executive m inister, but not

technically Cyri l- trap or Regent as the D alai Lama. had passed his

majority and become full ruler of the country . Now the office seem sto be vacant or suspended. As to the fourth L ing, T

’se- chhok Ling,

it lies away from the city, on the southern bank of the Kyi Chhu ;Yong- dean B imp oe/i /ie being the incarnation there. He is lord of

only tenants .The other chief m onasteries we can only mention ; the Morn or

Meru Shi- dé, in the extreme N .E . corner of Lhasa ; the Tsi Namgyal

Tats’ang ; and the m edical lamasery,the Waidurya Ta

- ts’ang, on

Chakpo Ri .RAMOCHHE TEMPLE .

The street of shops on the western side of the Jho - khang runsup due north to m eet the Ling- kor road . Where this intersectiontakes place, at the left- hand corner after you have turned into theLing- kor road, is the entrance to a courtyard with a large and curiousstructure considered to be the oldest temple in Lhasa. It

'

was builtoriginally m ore than years ago by the Chinese wife of kingS rongtsan Gampo ; and a crystal- palace of Lu, or serpent gods, isbelieved by the vulgar to exist beneath its foundations, but the templewas erected to counteract their evil influence. The present edifice is900 years old .

The Ramochhe seem s to be the only fane in Lhasa where heterodcx rites are perm itted ; and if the visitor is fortunate he m ay arrivewhen a band of SeT- kyem-

p a sorcerers from S era Gompa, w ith red instead of yellow pyram idal hats on their heads, are perform ing som eof their necromantic jugglery.

Entering the courtyard, you find it containing many decrepitpoplar trees of great age. Within to the left i s a detached buildingknown as Ts

’e-

p’ag Li ck/Icing. In front of you stands a line of

chhortens beyond which is the antique temple of Ramochhe three storeysin height faced with an inscription in Chinese characters and surmounted by a simgle gold - plated yye- m

'

of large size . Under the templeportico, in a room to the left with wire lattice - work before the door,are collected certain images of great antiquity . The chief treasureseem s to be a huge gil t representation of Mik- kyo

’D orj e, one of the

D hyani Buddhas, brought from the Base T’ulnang shrine in Lhasa

where it had been placed by Za- khri,the Nepalese spouse of S rong

LII/ISA ,THE CAPITAL OE TIBET. 1 83

tsan Gampo. Other figures here are D olma (carved in sandal- wood),Chhakna D orje (made of dark blue mamen stone), Chenraisi (two

curious images, one carved out of two huge conch - shells, the other of

sandal - wood) , Ton -

yo- dub (of jade), Ts

’e-

pakme (in coral), anotherof D olma (cut out of a single block of turquoise) , and T

’o - wo Yuk

ngon- chen .

Inside the tem ple,eight old statues denote the disciples of S hakya,

while two m onum ents are pointed out which are reputed to cover the

actual remains of S rongtsan Gampo him self and his Chinese consort .

Along the walls stretch strange daubs depicting in lengthy series the

Buddhas of the countless ages preceding the advent of Shakyat’ubpa .

B efore quitting the shrine we must not om it to view som e famousand venerable effigies of the five queens of the khadroma fairies

,other

wise styled Mi -yyzu'ma. These are made in five different materials, one

for each, nam ely, amber, turquoise, m uman, conch - shell and coral .Moreover, there is an old mirror of magical capacities to be shewn, aswell as a number of very ancient war- implem ents, Tibetan and

Chinese .

N o lamas reside in Ramochhe. It is a shrine referred to in all

the old historical works .

WANG- TO - SHINGKHA MARKET .

In the heart of the city, and reached by a few lanes passing eastfrom the Cho - khang temple, is to be found the m ost popular bazaarwhere anything, from tea to silk - robes and from radishes to a pony

,

can be purchased. The market or t’ om consists of stalls over a largeopen space surrounded by shops of a m ean appearance which

,however

,

are capable of com peting, in what they can produce for you from thedepths within, with the larger em porium s further west . As withm arkets all the world over, the tim e to visit IVang - to- sfiinyf lza

is early in the m orning from 8 to l l ; but few

Tibetans are astir in Lhasa before 9 o’clock . The foreign traders

lodge in Panakshol close by and spread forth their wares to lure them otley crowd which surge round the stalls and the outer square .

Here are silks and carpets from China ; and, near these

, the

humbler native -made carpets from Kotsi near the S ikkim border.

Here, from S ining in the Koko Nor district we see gold lace, Matti

presentation scarfs, red - leather, gold and silver ornaments, side by sidew ith large awkward - looking saddles . Here are the ever- in- requestteapots of hardware ranged in rows, red and black ; and there

,

1 84 LIIASA ; THE . CAPITAL OF TIBET.

Khampas and Chinam en with tables covered w ith beautiful bronze andcopper bells and other m etal work from D erge in Eastern Tibet.Am ongst the latter assortm ent are also to be seen p

’urbu daggers,

dorjés, and many small efligies in brass of Tsong - khapa, Pema Jungne,

D orje P’agm o, and other popular saints. From D archendo com es the

stock of tea- bricks which that woman is wishing to sell . The tea

looks like lumps of dirty Cavendish tobacco, and the woman’ s facewith its purple- black stains looks as if it had been tinted with juicefrom the_ bricks . Musk - pods, cut from the musk deer

,areoften offered

for sale in large quantities here by m erchants from Chhamdo ; butusually those goods are hidden away in lodging - houses and the dealersin them lounge about the market- place ready to begin bargaining ifopportunity offers .

Meat is not usually on sale in this part of the town there beinga special Sa f ew or m eat- market just off the S .E . corner of the greatCho - khang square . Q uantities of fish, however, are often to be seenhere. Our informant m entions three kinds generally to be had , one ap

parently a larg e coarse sort of river hake sold at about 1 3 . 2d. a

piece ; another very cheap, about ten inches long, and .a thirdkind

'

six to eight inches . The last two are pl entiful in the KyiGbhu.

Am ong the m ore curious articles presented for sale one notices

baskets heaped up with piles of long thin tapers. These are the fam ous

p oi- rengéu or incense sticks which when lighted fuse away w ith a

fragrant smell and are in large demand for burning before sacredimages of every degree . Vast quantities are sold, not only for use

in the tem ples of Lhasa, but also for export into Mongolia and China.

Round the t aper- sellers are ever gathered a knot of Mongol and

Khampa pilgrim s . Another queer comm odity is observable at one cornerof the bazaar : you may observe there a collection of fossil bones

, and

so they are ; but not as curiosities foi museum s . They consist of

jaws of strange animals and leg- bones, ribs and ve1 tebrae, evidently

ancient and ready to drop to pieces. They have been dug from the

low hills round Lhasa where they exist in large quantities . It 1s as a

sovereign remedy for wounds and bruises that people buy them ; firstcrushing them into powder before applying them .

'

Here you see thishuge headpiece it probably once belonged to a Tibetan iguanodon or

an ichthyosaurus several thousand years ago . It is only a part of

its skull,for the points of the long jaws m e wanting, yet it m easures

3 feet long and a foot and a half ln breadth . It will ultimately besmashed into soft powder and the cuts and sores of several hund1 edlamas will be thus healed by the 1 ottingo

'

jowl of the extinct m onstei .


1 86 LHASA THE CAPITAL CE TIBET.

to ; terms without letting the bystanders into the secret of their

arrangements .

THE RAGYA - P-A os SCAVENGER BEGGARS .

We said it was tim e to leave the bazaar . But we had best havedone so earlier. We shall not leave it in peace now. For here, mak

ing their way across the market square,and parting the crowd as they

go, comes a squad of rufiianly- looking m en, clad in filthy garm ents

“

,

who by their looks and gesticulations evidently have 11s in view as a

sort of prey . They are led by a tall blackguard who wears a greatyellow turban instead of the ordinary turned- up black wide - awake. We

know who they must be then and try to hurry away, but it is no use.

They are the villanous band who dispose of the dead at the cem eteries,carry away the garbage of the streets, and when not employed thusroam about the lanes of Lhasa to beg from, insult and rob the inoffen

sive . They appear to believe that every new arrival in the sacred cityowes them a tax, as it were in paym ent of his footing in the place ;and thus they levy black - mail upon all fresh - com ers . As these Ragya

pa or corpse - finders have set afloat a current superstition that everypilgrim who refuses tribute is destined never to regain his home but

to die in Lhasa and so fall eventually in their hands, they are generallysuccessful in their demands . If not given enough, they persecutetheir victim s every time he walks abroad .

But now the Ragyépa are upon us, and we record our interviewboth in English and in the Tibetan vernacular

An alms, an alms Give, give S o-m , so- ra. nang

fro nomg !

I have"

noth ing to give you Ngd khyo’

la. ter gyu chang m e.

’

We

'

arev ery poor m en Ngic w iil -p’

ongp a. re.

’

You shal l bestow som e present Khyo"

la. chei -ga’

shik chin go .

Get away, you rogues, you vul E ci - la. gyuk ! ngem pa-

p o khyo ! clai

tures : laflc khyo’

!

Give, give ! you are rich Chin ! Chin Khyo’

chhuk- pofre.

’

I shal l call the watchm en Nga’

korchakp a-Ja. kc tang-

gyu- re.

’

Call , call ! you must give four or Ecik .’ d .

’ Khya’

la tanker. ski , ngci;five tanka ter x

go .

Not even one tanka Tanka. chq, me.

Y ou have been a m onth in Lhasa, D ci -wci chz 'nai khyo’

rang Lhcisd - la

yet there is nothing at all for p'

ep rung, ngci- ts

’

o - la. chang m e.

’

u s

Who cares ! Who cares ! I shal l not A’- u - se ! ci - u - se Ngcircmg ye ter -

gy'u.

give you anyth ing ma. fra.

’

Ah then ! wait until we get you Ohyci - ra l A ngaf- ts’

o - la Zeb-

p a. t’

uk gu lc

(lit com e to us) te db”chik.

D onft bawl l ike that, filthy Ragya'

Ragyd-

p a.’

is when ! Tende chd- cho

pa ma 91104”

L'

HASA THE CAPITAL OF TIBET. 187

All right, l isten here ! when you T’tk- i tk ,

’ d-i - la. nyon shtk'

! Kkyom ng

are a corpse, tying a rope to fro -ne p’

o -wa- lq , rang-

yé Ice- la. t

’

cikp q,

your neck , we wil l drag '

you like chhing- nai , khyi tang date khyo

a dog outside the gates of Lhasa rang Lha’

sa. t’

i l kyi .go-m o p

’

enchhe’

city. dm’

yang. [ref

We will tear you to pieces Ohhdlc- tum - la khyo’frafng

- Ze sir/ ml gya

The dwelling - places of these gruesom e rogues are one of thesights. of Lhasa. They stand in two quarters on the S .E . and E .

confines of the city near the cem eteries. They are large huts built

entirely of the horns of ram s and oxen, the form er being black and thelatter white . The different colours of the horns adm it of their beingarranged in various queer p atterns ; and when the interstices are

plastered up with mortar the walls are fairly solid . These horn - dwellings are ,the only houses in Lhasa left

-

without whitewash . A sayingis quoted by S . C . D as concerning the wealth which the Ragyapa are

reputed to to amass,somewhat thus

Though outside their houses bristle w ith horns ;Inside they are sm ooth and gl itter with coins. 1

THE OCRPSE YARD S OF LHA’

S A .

Outside the' broken walls which enclose the eastern side of the .

‘innercity stands on a slight em inence an ancient chhorten of gigantic size .

It is comm only believed to m ark the spot where the Chinese princesson reaching Lhasa made

“

profound salutation towards the Potala hilland to her saintly husband king S rong - tsan C ampo . Around thism onument is the space where the Rogyapa dispose of the bodies of

the dead . On the rocky surface of this dismal m ound is embedded a

large flat stone said to have been brought from India, on which p laceshave been hollowed out to accommodate the general outline of thehuman frame. Each body is laid here, face upwards with the arm sand legs spread out

"

to their w idest extent. Tr0 0 ps of dogs and p igsswarm round on these occasions eager to tear and devour . However,it is considered . morc auspicious, and calculated to shorten theperiod before re- birth, to haVe one’ s remains eaten by b irdsinstead of by quadrupeds. Accordingly, if appeased by an ade

1 In his report,t he secret explorer U .G. m entions these m en whom he styles

Ragapas.

” He says they are not a race but merely persons out- casted for various

oifcnce‘

s,‘

and that, however rich they may be, they are not perm itted to l ive any}

where but in the horn - buil t huts . He him sel f had a risky encounter with them

They hunted . U .G. into the market- place . of Lhasa where, to .h is dismay,they began to denounce him as a British spy . It seem ed that amongst

’

their

num ber,

was aman who had served as a jhamp cm i at D arjeeling w ho recognised

him . However be avoided exposure ,

by bribing the Ragyapa.

188 LIL/ISA THE CAPITAL OE TIBET.

quate fee, the Rogyapa will ward off the dogs and pigs until kites and

vultures arrive . While the birds are at work the human ogres back

at the corpse to facilitate the process of dessication . Others prefer to

have their friends buried and o thers are partly devoured by the p igs

and then buried. Burning is not practised in this cemetery. The

exact m ode of disposing of each body is determ ined by lamas who

are sent for at their death and, facing the corpse which is bound withropes and placed erect against the wall of the room , they divine bycertain auguries th is point as well as the exact hour and day when thedisposal ought to take place . Bodies of lay- folk who may be buriedare interred anywhere in this Aceldama around the chhorten only as

the ground is rocky and hardened by continuous frost, burial is alwaysan expensive method of disposal .

There is another dur- toz'

or cem etery further south round anotherchhorten ; but it does not appear to be so popular as the larger place.

U .G ., the survey explorer, speaks of a burial -yard within the city wal lsnear the chief temple

,where only the bodies of the highest classes

are done away with. We have not been able to trace this locality.

WATER SUPPLY AND CANALS .

The Lhasa authorities are not so backward in sanitary matters as

one m ight have supposed . Every house has its ashpit and cesspool, thecontents of Which are first sold and then carefully carted away for use

on the fields outside the city . And, although the suburbs of the city

are left in a revolting condition, those streets within the wall s as well as

those in the desfiol of Potala are always well swept ; certain prisonersfrom the jails assisting the Rogyapa in this duty.

But’

the plenteous water- supply furnished to the inhabitants is

worthy a m ore advanced civi lisation and m ore cleanly habits than

Tibetans can boast. Two large conduit - like canals have been cut fromthe Pempo Chhu, an affluent of the Kyi river, in the m ountains tothe N .E . and these bring the water a distance of 5 or 6 miles .

Entering Lhasa in its northern quarter, the canals are immediatelysubdivided into a remarkable network of by- channels which perm eateevery corner of the city . One large branch is carried past the baseof Potala hill to meet the demands of the sacred community there .Another main artery styled the Nyamo Chhu runs down to the YutokSampa bridge at the entrance of the inner city. Unfortunate ly thecustoms of the citizens are strictly oriental ; and, although the drink

ing water"

is nominally separated from those conduits which are con

tam inated w ith sewage, yet in the southern parts of the city theamalgamation between the two seem to be practically complete.


1 90 LHASA ; THE CAPITAL OEQTIBET.

Other Government Officers are those of the Chhaudzo Chhempo

or Chief Treasurer of Tibet housed in a wing of the the Cli o - khangistelf another treasurer for the D alai Lama

’s - household is in Potala

S hol at an old castle known as D ekyi Ling (comm only D ikiThese exchequer officers in all are five in number and

’

to them the

Jongpons in the provinces send in the revenue they have collected for

Government. Here are m ore dungkéorp a registering the receiptsderivable from the land - tax , the traders

’

tax, the pig - tax, and othersources of revenue . But the clerks cannot work so freely as wouldbe the case in England for all accounts have to be cooked in Tibet,every official taking his pickings, from the Chhak - zo Chhempo in the

Chokhang cathedral downwards.

THE PRISONS OF LHA’

SA.

Beneath the Treasurers’ offices at D ekyi Ling is one of the

prisons ; but it is only u sed for a few prisoners prior to trial. The

great central jail is within the city walls,“

being situated next doorto the grand temple, the Cho - khang ; and it bears the designation

of Nagtsa Shar . Adj oining the prison, and in a separate building f acing T

’

om si- gang, is the court where the' judges of first

instance sit ; to wit‘

, the chief justice the T’

z'

mp on and anothermagistrate with the suggestive title of Shal - chhe -

pa“ the B ig

- facedone.

”Torture is a frequent concom itant of judicial investigations in

Tibet ; and this cou rt- house of the chief m agistrate, as well as the

adjacent prison, contains all the adjuncts for extorting confessionsby the aid of physical pain. The infliction of torture is conducted inopen court ; and several m ethods of so dealing with crim inals haveb een borrowed from the Chinese . The Chinese wooden collar, knownin Tibet as ts’o- slzz

'

ng, is in comm on use. There is also another courthouse in Lhasa styled Kashak Lho .

S arat Chandra D as has furnished a few particulars concerningthe Nagtsa Shar Jail . The most curious part of the system there isthat no food is supplied to the prisoners by the authorities ; but theinmates must be fed by their own nearest relatives

,or in the case—a

which often occurs—f of no relatives being available, the unfortunateculprit - is solely dependant for rations on the casual charity of thekindly- disposed. Foreign traders, especially the Musalman m erchants

from Kashm ir, are said to be the m ost beneficent in this way ; many

making a practice of sending food to the friendless prisoners starvingin Nagtsa Shar. All the inmates of the jail are technically cons ider

ed to be incarcerated for life ; but it is always possible to obtain therelease of any convict, no matter how heinous his offence, by a m oney

LHASA ; THE CAPI TAL OE TIBET. 1 91

paym ent styled ts’

e- Tin or life - price . As a religious act, rich

persons com ing on pilgrimage occasionally cause one or two prisonersin the Lhasa jail to regain their liberty by paying the requiredransom .

Both women and m en are kept in this prison . There is muchassociation allowed not only between male convicts but also betweenthose of opposite sex . Men and women, according to S arat ChandraD as

,.are occasionally suffered to live together as husband and w ife

,and

children are born and reared in the jail .

Executions are conducted in the open street before the people, andapparently culprits suffer not far from the temple and not outside thecity, Buddhist injunctions notwithstanding . When N ain S inghvisited Lhasa, he saw a Chinaman beheaded in public for having en

deavoured to raise a quarrel between the S era lamas and those '

of

D aipung, w ith alleged political m otives .

We conclude this description of the capital of Tibet with a

lengthy extract - from Sarat Chandra D z’rs’s fam ous “ Report,

”in

which he describes m inutely a circuit he made by the road whichruns com pletely round the city and which is known as the Ling- korroad

- FromPotala, he says, we returned. by the Ling - kor road . I

have already m entioned that an extensive marsh lies to the north - westof the road leading to Lhasa from D aipung, intervening between S eraand D aipung, drained by num erous tiny outlets in summer . At the

entrance of the city there was a stone bridge over an outlet of themarsh, about 40 paces long and 1 2 broad, w ith parapet walls 3feet high on both sides. The two piers of the bridge, roughly and irre

gularlyr constructed, were about 1 0 feet high and 6 feet thick .

‘

The

stream at this time was teem ing with fish . From this bridge the road

goes towards the north - east by east for a distance of 200 paces to itsjunction with the Ling - fkor, or circular road round Lhasa. From the

bridge, Potala stands due east, Chagpoiri south - east, while Kunduling

lies in a south - south- easternly direction, and Kesar Lhakhang, whichstands m idway between the Kaling

' Chhorten and Kunduling,bear-sslightly to the south - east. To the south, beyond the river Kyi, were

two Zl mkfia (flags placed on the tops of isolated peaks in honour - of

the sylvan gods) visible a great way off . Far to the north of L hasawere to —be seen three lofty peaks of ' barren m ountains withouta nyvotive flags. From the junction of the Ling - kor road with the roadscom ing from the bridge, at . a distance of 1200

'

paces, was a rivulet

stocked with fish crossing the Llng- kor road and bridged by a culvert

1 92 LHASA ; THE CAPITAL CE TIBE T.

about 20 feet long and 9 feet broad. The grand road extends in a

due easterly direction from this culvert up to Chhorten Kaling, theentrance of the city where it slightly bends northwards to join the

Potala Sta road . At a distance of nearly half- a- m ile from this cul

vert, in a north - easterly direction, we cam e to a small culvert under

which flowed a tiny stream . The Ling- kor road thence runs in a

north - easterly direction for a furlong, and then turning due east passesby a park on the left side, where we saw a shed for an elephant . The

elephant itself was standing in a barley - field. A hundred paces further

on was the gate of the temple Lukbang T’am o (house of piebald

Nagas) situated exactly behind the hill of Potala. This shrine, which

had a small gilt gya-

p itiy (dom e) on it, was about 60 feet long and 25

feet broad. S ome 200 paces further along this road there branched

ofi a lane leading into Lhasa. To the right- hand side were numerous

groves and gardens, and to the left suburban villages with num erousbarley- fields now green with barley and pea plants (in June) . The

Ling - kor road runs next 3 00 paces and slightly bends southwards

whence the m onastery of B i gyal (where the D alai Lama resides during his infancy) is clearly seen . From this point S era, which is about8 m iles ofi , bears to the north and Potala south - west by west. A

road from the suburbs com ing from the north joins it here . Proceeding on our road for half- a- m ile we pass the gateway of the celebratedshrine of Ramochhe, and 200 paces further on this road we com e toits junction with a road leading to S era and another leading due southto the Chokhang . The latter is rather m ore than half- a- m ile downthe road thither. Our way by the circular road now bends south - east

and passes for a distance of nearly 300 paces beside the filthy village

of the Rogyabas (scavengers) which is distinguished from others byits huts made of horns . The road continues running in the sam edirection for about a furlong m ore, and then bends towards the south ,j oining a street com ing S .S .W . out from Lhasa. Then running still

due south for about a m ile it skirts the walls of Lhasa, here about1 0 feet high and 4 feet wide, and passes by the antique chhorten whichcomm emorates the site of the spot where the Chinese princess, on reaching Lhasa,made profound salutation towards the palace of Potala and toher saintly husband

,

king S rongtsan Gampo . Now - a- days the spaceround the chhorten is used as a cem etery where the dead bodies of the

town people are disposed of . The pigs which feast on the dead bodieshere are said to yield most delicious pork . Every day at least onedead body is considered necessary for the preservation of the honourof the cemetery, otherwise it is deem ed an evil omen for Lhasa.

The Ling- kor road now turns towards the west, and running for about


194 LHASA THE CAPITAL CIf’ TIBET.

bends northward,and running for a distance of 500 paces stops at a

culvert constructed across a deep canal teeming w ith fish . The

culvert rests, on the road end, on a single pier and spans over to a

bluff rocky ledge of Chagpoi Ri which juts over the stream . A steeppassage along the southern flank of Chagpoi Ri now takes the place

of, and form s the continuation of, the Ling- kor road and in one partit traverses for some 200 paces imm ediately above a precipice overhanging a stagnant pool of the Kyi Chhu . This path seem s very dangerous for passengers on account of its extrem e narrowness as well as

from the rough forky rocks projecting overhead . Here many nichesare cut out in the rock - wall

,within which have been carved in relief

figures of Buddhas and saints . Many of these carvings, we saw,

were painted blue, red and yellow . Certain m onks, who are alm ostconstantly engaged re- painting and furbishing the faded frescoes in

these old niches,supplicated for alm s as we passed by. This is a kind

of livelihood to them . At a distance of 40 0 paces from the culvertwas a sentry- house where the Governm ent had stationed guards towatch the m ovements of strangers and travellers . The passage afterthis g radually becomes broader, and, running past a pair of chhorten,

in about 1 00 paces from the guards - house joins a well- beaten road which

comes from the Norpu Linga. The Ling- kor road now runs directlynorth for a distance of 500 feet, leaving the gateway of Kundulingto the right- hand side and that of N orpu Linga to the left. Thenleaving the gateway of N orpu Linga the road travels som e 300 pacestrending slightly to the north - eastward, and thus m eets the mainthoroughfare from D aipung by which we entered Lhasa on our ar

rival . The grand street of Lhasa runs from this point in a N .E .

direction, the distance between Chhorten Kaling and the D oring being700 paces . The writer’s circuit of the city ended however here at

Chhorten Kaling .

CHAPTER X I .

THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN BUD D HISM .

Whatever praises m odern enthusiasts may lavish on Buddhism as

a pure and philosophic form of belief, they cannot long observe itspractice in any country where it actually prevails without discoveringthat it is largely idolatrous . C ertain recent writers on the subjectwould have us think that the Buddhism of Tibet is singular in thisrespect— that there only

, of all Buddhistic countries, the worship of

many deities“ and demonology are to be found . But one has m erely tovisit Ceylon and Burmah and exam ine the popular faith and practicein those lands to discover that E uropean preconceptions and theoreticreadings are far astray even in the hom es of what is generally styledPrim itive Buddhism . D emonology and idolatry are intrinsic parts of

the religion of the comm on folk of Ceylon though not so tyrannicalas they are with the people of Tibet .

Moreover, no impartial student can read the earliest writings of

Buddhism,whether in Sanskrit, Pali, or Tibetan, and fail to confess

that from the first this religion had its mythology, together w ith a

considerable phalanx of gods and other spiri tual personages . This weaver , even while we adm it that as the centuries progressed a Buddhismarose much less simple and muchm ore idolatrous and superstitious thanthe pristine form s . Furtherm ore, Tibetan phases of this creed may besaid to surpass in these departm ents the Buddhism of the S outhernS chool, in that they have incorporated m ore seriously and philosophi

cally the fantastic mythologies which Time developed. In Tibet theexorcism of devils and mystic rites involving the invocation of deities

of many orders are believed in.

and form part of the daily religion in

the case of the learned and the upper classes In Burmah and Ceylon,on the other hand, such ideas and ce1emonials are now mainly confinedto the general public . The lettered and philosophic am ong Burmeseand S inhalese Buddhists, having been re instructed in their Faith as

interpreted by European theorists, have eradicated from their Buddhism

even the mythology which from the earliest promulgation belonged to

196 THE MYTHOLOGY OE TIBETAN B UD D HISM.

that religion . B ut their religion is no longer Prim itive Buddhism , but

Christianized Buddhism .

Buddhism may be said to deal in three departm ents of mythology

First, may be m entioned, though they do not rank the first, the

gods adopted or adapted from the H indu pantheon. From the com

m encement the leading deities of Brahmanic creation were incorporatedinto Buddhism ,

form ing an integral part of the schem e propounded by

Gautama. The thirty- three chief gods of Hinduism , such as Indra,

known in Tibetan works as Gya- jyin- wang

- chhyuk,1 Vishnu styled

Kyab- jug, andB rahma known as Tsangpa, are frequently m entioned

even in the earlier classical works .2 They dwell on the top of Mount

Meru—which the Buddhism of all countries agrees in locating in Tibet,and which we shall see is referred to the m odern Kailas abutting on the

Manasarowar Lake .

3 Representations of these primary deities are veryseldom to be m et with in Tibetan temples, and they are as a rule nu

known by nam e to the general populace .

Secondly, we have the various classes of supernatural beings special

ly belonging to Buddhism in general and probably first originatingw ith that cult. These comprise Buddhas and Bodhisattwas, D hyani

Buddhas and D hyani Sattwas, together w ith certain orders of m inor

gods and demons and other nondescript spiritual creations to be enum era

ted later ou in these pages.Tfiz

'

rdly, maybe ranged the m any local gods and goddesses not be

longing to Buddhism generally and varying w ith the different countries

where the Faith is professed. Thus,the Buddhism of each land has its

own special national deities, some ofwhich have arisen since that religion

was imported and som e of which survive from anterior beliefs of thepeople . To these m ay be added the direct analogues and local variations of Indian originals, which now form distinctive deities peculiar to

1 The Mongol synonym for Indra in Mongol Buddhism is Khormusda. and i t is

not w ithout significance that they should have im p orted a term from Arm enian

Gnostic l iterature, Hormusta being the D em iurge or creating deity of Gnosticism .

We say imp orted because Mongol Buddhism was long p ost- Ch ristian in origin .

3 Ganesh , the elephant - faced god, is included am ong these and is often m entioned

in early Buddhist writings as the Remover of Obstacles .

”

3 Theoretical ly, however, in Buddhist cosm ogony, Mount Mom is in the cen

tre of the universe, the pivot or axis of a series of flat concentric rings of land and

water lying one within th e other . Water surro unds Mount Mom , and outside that is

a circle of land, and so on land and water al ternately ; each land with its ring of

water representing a world . Outside the last girdle is our earth consisting of 7

continents (Sansk . dwtp a, Tib. giving) afloat on a huge ocean parted into seven seas .

The continents are : Jambudwipa (D zambu -gling), Parbatadwipa, Aparagodéna, Ut‘

taruknru , Vayudevadwipa, Yamuuadw ipa, and Priyangudw ipa ; besides which are

Various islands, as Lanka, Tamradwipa, etc.


’


7'egun—zim

'

len generally rendered he who has gone (or com e)like the others .”

When the present age terminates, another human Buddha, thesuccessor of Shakya- t

’ubpa, may be expected . His nam e will be or is

for he already resides in the Galdan heaven and has many worshippers even now on earth—Jyampa, the loving one,

”the sam e person

age as Maz'

treya of Sanskrit and Pali writings . Other Buddhas willfollow Maitreya, e.g., S imha, Prabhésa, Muni, Pushpa, etc ., to thenumber of

Of the many human S ang-

gye, orthodox Buddhism of theHinayana S chool knows o nly five

, and even the Mahayana S chool onlycares to specify eight, i . e., the six predecessors of S hakya

- t’ubpa,

S hakya- t

’ubpa him self, and his imm ediate su ccessor Jyampa. The

Madhyam ika treatises m ention and give nam es to terrestrialpassed Buddhas . As being frequently m entioned in religious worksand, to a lim ited extent, finding a place in the m odern popular creed,the names of the seven may be set forth in order as follows

(1 ) Nam par Zi : 1 He who saw through and

throughv

(2) Tsugtorchen2 The Fire - crested ;

(3) T’am che Kych 3 “ The Preserver of A ll

(4a) Korwa Jig4 Golden Might

(ED—”lalg'

flq Sert’ub 5 The Guardian of Light

(6) Od S rung5 D issolver of the Round of Life

(7) Shakyu- t’ubpa

7 The Mighty Shakya ;

Buddhas of this class may be said to lie beyond the pale of wor

ship or petition; always excepting Shakya- t’ubpawho is still petitioned,

it would seem . Having been sublimated within the impalpable regionN irvana, they are, in theory at least

, as if they were not and,having

'

no longer any individuality, could hardly be considered to take

1 Sanskr it : Vip asya ; Pal i : Vixp assi ; Mongol : Babushi .

2 S anskrit : S ikhi ; Mongol : Shiki .

3 Sanskrit : Viswabhu Mongol : B isbabu .

Sanskr it : Krakuchhanda vel Kuhn - chhanda Pal i c utsamdha MongolGargasundi otherwise Ortshilanggi ebdekchi .

5 Kanakamuni or Kanchana Pal i : Kondgamana Mongol : Altan - chidakchi .6 S anskrit : Kasyapa ; Mongol : Gdsha

'

b.7 Mongol : S higemfimli .

THE MYTHOLOGY OE TIBETAN B UD DHISM. 1 99

the slightest interest in human affairs . Thus we rarely meet with their

efiigies in temples . Three exceptions,however, are notable . One is

that of Cd- srung Buddha, who is likewise known in Tibet as ZEE SEN

the Atom - eater . Not only is this by-

gone personality representedin tangible figure, but large portions of his actual corporeal substance

are held to be still in ex istence . In fact the elements of the bodily

frame of Zeksen are universally regarded as of marvellous efficacy inrevivifying the expiring life of man and in imparting youth to those

who are aged . Accordingly ts’e- m

'

l or life pills ” composed of atom s

of the Atom - eater are in great request and much traffic is done in them .

N evertheless, it seem s they are not obtainable from anyone save twoor three of the higher ecclesiastical dignitaries, who have apparently an

inexhaustible supply of the earthly relics which once made up the car

case of the saint. S uch functionaries as the abbot of Mindollingm onastery and the lady at the head of S amding on Lake Yamdok have

good store of the pills, which, however, they are said to bestow gratuitously and never to sell .

AnotherBuddha frequently represented is, naturally, Shahya t’ubpa

him self ; but this is the case not so commonly as m ight be supposed .

While in Burmah, S iam, and Ceylon every shrine has a huge image ofthe founder of the Faith ; on the contrary

, in Tibet, only the verylarge centres of worship find a place for the figure of the hero . Moreover, the majority of these effigies are not of great size . In the

Jho - khang at Lhasa is the principal representation of Shakya- t

’ubpa,

who there appears as a lad of twelve years . Other famous images of

the Jto- o, or“Lord,

”as he is designated, are in Gyangtse chhor

ten and in the Kyilkhang college of Tashilhumpo m onastery . The

truth is that in Tibet other m ore sublunary personalities have displacedthe Buddha from the central position in the hearts of the peopleN evertheless, there is in the teaching of the books this contradictionthat, notwithstanding the allegation that S hakya- t

’ubpa has passed

into nothingness, yet all Buddhist votaries are exhorted to cry up tohim for assistance and are taught that he still concerns him self fortheir welfare .

THE MAITREYA CULT .

Maitreya1 or Jyam -

pa, the Buddha- to - come, is the third m ember

of the Human Buddhas’ circle, who still remains an object of devotion .

Indeed his supposed position of waiting, in one of the Heavens adjacentto this world prior to his terrestrial advent, probably conveys the notion of accessibility . A considerable number of Tantras or treatises

l e Pal i : Metteyya ; Mongol : Maidari .

200 THE MYTHOLOGY OE TIBETAN B UD D HISM .

have been written giving special instruction as to the manner in which

he may be brought to the aid of worshippers,and as to how his parti

onlar votaries may even get him into their own control so as to work

out their own projects . Certain establishments are exclusively cousecrated to the propitiation of Maitreya under his Tantrik aspects of

Jayem- kar

,the White Jyampa and !yam- nay, the B lack Jyampa.

Other places hold some m ighty figure of the com ing Buddha, which isstyled in that case a Jyam

- cIT/zen . S everal of the images are trulyenormous, reaching over sixty and seventy feet in height, and in factthe representations of this being are made infinitely larger than those

of any other object of worsh ip in the land . S uch are the Jyamchheu

at Jyampa Ling near Yamdok, at the D aipung Monastery, and at

Tashilhiimpo in the Thoisam ling chapel . N ear Leh in Ladak, a hugefigure of Jyampa has been cut out, has- relief fashion, on the face of alofty rock . In Mongolia there is even a lama incarnation of Maitreyaor Jyampa known as

“ the Maidari Hutuktu .

”

BOD HISATTWAS .

The proper term in Tibet for this order of personage is Jangcfi/iuéS emp ci, but this name is restricted to earth - born Bodhisattwa and is

not to be applied to D hyani Bodhisattwa the correct term for whom is

Ye- s/zes Semyui .

A Bodhisattwa may be defined as a candidate - Buddha,and is sup

posed to have attained the stage in the chain of re- births imm ediately

next to that of Buddhahood . In som e cases he dies as a mortal man,

though by the act of dying he becom es a Buddha. In other instances

the Bodhisattwa seem s to pass into the final stage while still living, andto continue the current life as a Buddha. The last was apparently the

m ethod adopted in the career of S hakya- t’ubpa. In the early years of

his m inistry we find in the classical treatises that he is often designated

the Bodhisattwa. However, he at length acquires Buddhahood

while seated in m editation under the Bo - tree, and yet he does not die,

but continues his earthly m ission some years longer . In num erousinstances, however, a Bodhisattwa does not after death reach the finalposition, but is re - incarnated as a Bodhisattwa. But when that occurs

,

we believe the continuance of the lower birth is at the request of theindividual him self,who voluntarily defers his Buddhahood in order that,by re- incarnation, he may help the sentient creatures of the universe toemancipate them selves from the thralls of this life . In fact the Specialvocation of a Bodhisattwa is to convert the world from ignorancethe desire to live), to point out the path to N irvana, and thus emptythe cycles of existence . His great virtue, therefore, consists in


202 THE MYTHOLOGY OF TI BETAN B UD D HISM .

intercourse with the world . To m eet that want there cam e to bedevised the series known as the FIVE D HYANI BUD D HAS or the Buddhasof Contem plation as distinct from the Human Buddhas who havepassed away . By the Mongols these D hyani Buddhas are styledTitimtu B urMan and by Tibetans Ye—sfies Sang-We.

There are several accounts, not very reconcileable in detail, as to

how'

the m embers of this spiritual order cam e into ex istence . It is

comm only set forth,however, that the general desire to bring about

happiness (which was allowable even in N irvana so long as it took no

personal form and had no definite objects of compassion), innately belonging to the Human Buddhas dissolved in N irvana, at length tookvisible shape. Their conj oint quintessence evolved a ray of pure white

l ight, which, shooting forth, entered the regions of thematerial universe.There the ray of light was disintegrated, as by a prism , into five rays,each of which yielded by contact wi th the five different Heavens a new

and “ self- sprung” D hyani Buddha, each of such being correspondent,

respectively, to the Five Human Buddhas from whom the white lighthad coll ectively proceeded. Thereupon these new Buddhas took up

abode one in each of five heavenly kingdom s or Bl mvana over which henow presides though personally he is ever wrapt in mystic m editation

(Tib. Sam- tan) . The Kalachakra cult (vials p ost Chapt. makes a

primal uncreated Being, termed fi é fl'

fi'

fic’fi fiflwgfl inTibetan,

(fam iliar to English readers as Adi- Buddha the creator of theseheavens (som etim es increased to 1 3 in number) and both the evolverand the president of the D hyani Buddhas.

The nam es of the Five D hyani Buddhas or Ye- shes Sang- gye are

in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Mongol, as follows

1 .—Vairochana. Nang

—pa Nang

- ts’e . Mashi- geigiilun - Jokiak

chi .

2 .—Akshobhya. Mi- kyo D orje . Ulu - kudaliikchi ; or

Airy/tombfii .

3l—Ratna ’

Sambhava. Zingsten Jungdo. Erdeni -yin Oron

423- 4Am itabha. W6-

pag- me. Tsaglashi- ughe- gereltu .

(swam)5.

- Amoghasiddha. D on-dup (fifi‘flq

or'

Ngadra (fig )

THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN B UD D HISM. 203

Of these,the first- nam ed one, Vairochana, resides in the high

est Central Heaven, denominated in Tibetan GALD AN,

‘

and the others in

heavens situated to the east,south, west, and north, respectively . How

ever, the D hyani Buddha who concerns h im selfm ostly with the afiairs ofthis world of ours is Wopak

~me’

. He dwel ls in the Western Heaven,the beautiful realm of D EWACHAN and, being as N umber Four correspondent in his origin to the great Human Buddha of the presentKalpa,S hakya

- t’ubpa, it is only natural that he should be the one who i s

chiefly drawn in sympathy towards the present inhabitants of the earth .

Of course, he especially aifects the sacred land of Tibet'

where he isknown by several nam es besidesWo

’

pak-me

’

Imm easurable Lightsuch as Ts

’e-

pak—m e

’Immeasurable Life and N ang

- wa T’a-

ye

(“ I llimitable B rightness Moreover, in order to prove of still

greater benefit to the people of Tibet, he appears continually there in

human form , being incarnated in eac/e successive Panchhen Rimpochhe,the head of Tashilhiimpo Monastery and titular ruler of the Provinceof Tsang. W6’ -

pak- me

‘

,the often- m entioned Am itabha or Am itayus

of Sanskrit writings, seem s to be the only D hyani Buddha that under

goes a regular series of incarnations upon earth although Mi- kyo ’

D orje,otherwise Akshobhya, is a deity not unknown to the populace

so far as pictures and figures in temples can make him . Moreover,the

famous religious masquerade at Hem is Monastery, Ladak, and at

D arjeeling, is styled theMil- Lye"D orje Kyi l - Mor. It isheld in honour

of the saint Padma Jung - nas,but is under the patronage of Akshobhya,

who dwells in the Eastern Heaven .

D EWACHAN, THE HEAVEN or WO’PAK-ME ’.

This,

' the Heaven of the West (Qfi'

Kl'

sfi possessed Of bliss ”)

of the Tibetans,and the S ukhavati of the Indians

,is the realm ‘

that

mainly concerns m ortal man. Thither, when a man of virtue dies,does his spirit depart after a short period in the Buddhist purgatory,the Bardo . There

,m oreover

,does his “

astral body ” continue,even

after hisrei ncarnation,if he be a saint who engages incessantly 1 11 the

Sam- tan form of ascetic meditation.

The delights of D ewachan are fully set forth in a S utra of the

Mdo series of the Kangyur . There,as we read

,

“

does the fourthD hyani Buddha, Wii

’

pa‘

k- me’ or Am itabha, preside and is ever preach

ing the D octrine . It is edged all round with piles of gold, silver, glass,and topaz ; has seven prom enades with seven avenues of palm- treesand i s diversified with huge lotos—ponds in which grow four kinds of

lotos, each of a different colour, that is to say, b lue, yellow, crimson,

204: THE MYTHOLOGY OE TIBETAN B UD D HISM .

and white . It is full, m oreover, of swans, cuckoos, and peacocks ; and“ in that Buddha country music is always being played .

”Indeed a

portion of this description (written in Sanskrit probably four hundredyears, or rather m ore, after CHRIST) recalls sim ilar descriptions in the

Book of the Revelation of S t. John, of which it is possibly in part an

im itation. Again, for example, we have there the S ixteen Nai- ten, orchief disciples disposed in places of honour .

D HYANI SATTWAS .

In order to bring the new Order of Buddhas into closer relation

ship with m undane afi airs, an intermediate series of spiritual entities

has been devised . The m embers of this series rank as Bodhisattwas

and bear the sam e position of subordination to the D hyani Buddhasthat ordinary Bodhisattwas hold to human Buddhas. While the

D hyani Buddha is, as a rule, tied to one of the heavenly paradises and

does not personally comm unicate with beings upon earth,the D hyani

Sattwa’

s special vocation is to be born and re- born in m ortal guise inorder to lead all sensate creatures to a right understanding of the D oc

'

trine. Thus, each m ember is repeatedly incarnate in the bodily fram eof the successive holders of some particular ecclesiastical office, through

whom h e is supposed to work for the welfare of others.The genesis of the D hyani S attwas or D hyani Bodhisattwas is not

dissim ilar in character to that of the superior Order just dealt w ith.

Rays of light issuing from the head of the first D hyani B uddha were

them eans of producing the first D hyani S attwa Kun- tu Bzangpo ; and

from the latter were evolved, by connubial conjunction w ith his

spiritual yum or calm} Kuntu Bzangmo, other rays which created otherfour S attwas correspondent to the four other D hyani Buddhas . Thereare, however, diiferent versions of this event. A special origin, m oreover, is usually assigned to the fourth D hyani Sattwa correspondent toWc-

pak-m e

’and who plays an important part in Tibetan religious

affairs. While in general Buddhistic lore Kuntu Bzangpo is considered tobe them ost important of the Five D hyani Sattwas and is often confounded popularly with him who in the Kalachakra system is styled the Adi

buddha,” yet in the particular cults of the Faith prevailing in Tibet and

in Japan it is the Fourth Sattwa that has acquired the place of preem inence. l Before, however, entering into details concerning that hero

1 In China the fourth D hyani Sattwa, i2.e. , Avalokiteswara, is as popular as in

Tibet ; but there, by a curious development, he has been transformed into a goddess

Kuan- shi -yin the hear-

prayer Bodhisattwa (Vide Will iam s’s Chinese-Engl ish

D ictionary, p . Not IO, however, in Korea, where the name of the Bodhisattwa

has become Koan Syec‘

Yump o Sal .



of the S eer (clad) in a Garment of Eyes . His origin from Wo’

pak

me’ is thus described . A ray of pure white light stream ed out from

the left eye of the D hyani Buddha and flashing on to a lake teemingwith lotos buds impregnated one of them with divine progeny . Thislotos blossom attained a stupendous size and beauty and when the

king of the land cam e to View it he descried a youth of 1 6 issuingout from the inner cup . Received as a divinity, the youth provedto be a Bodhisattwa

,whose m ission was the emancipation, of

every living creature that should ever be born, from the wheel of

transm igratory existence. Thus was Chenraisi first manifested .

Labouring unrem ittingly from his place in the D ewachan Heaven

under the direction of Wo’pak- me’

, the D hyani Buddha, to effectthe abolition of m etem psychosis

,he found creatures continued to be

.born and re- born. He was then endowed with eleven faces and

eleven months, the better to preach the D octrine but still, notwith

standing much success, the wheels of life went round. N ext, hedeveloped one thousand hands and in the palm of every hand an eye ;but although the thousand eyes evinced immeasureable powers of discernment, the Bodhisattwa was still disappointed—the end was not

.yet. So, while remaining true to his vow not to cease from his selfimposed task until the cycles of existence were emptied, he turned tom ore sober and slower m eans . He joined his spiritual essence to thatof the great ruler of Tibet, King S rong - ts’an Gampo, and determ ined to labour upon earth through that m onarch’ s m ind and body for

the general good . Thereafter he inhabited the forms of other m ightysovereigns, such as Bromston, Jenghis Khan, Kublai Khan, and

various Chinese emperors . At length he has settled down to cc

cupy the personality of the D alai Lamas of Tibet even to the presentday.

In order to further the accom plishm ent of his m ission for thedeliverance of mortals, Chenraisi devised the

‘

famous formula Om mani

p adme tum now used so widely throughout Tibet . It is composed of

six magical syllables, each of which when uttered is of great effect inprocuring the deliverance of one of the six classes of living creaturesthe six syllables together prom oting the good of all six classes . It

is a petition to Chenraisi, who is animated with greater and still

greater power for his work, the m ore human beings that repeat thesentence and the oftener they do so. Hence arose the inmeasurable methods for giving vent to the 0m. ma-m

'

p ad-me tum, which

have become“prevalent in Tibet. S o, whether the winds, the waters,

or the human hand,

revolve the wheels which thus mechanically

grind forth the the syllables, they are regarded by the votary as ad

THE M YTHOLOGY OE TIBE TAN B UD D HISM. 207

dressed, through the D alai Lama of Lhasa, to Chenraisi. Thus doeseveryone unite to speed his sacred work .

l

D EIFIED SAINTS .

After the Bodhisattwas may be said to rank a large number of

personages famous in the history of Buddhism or locally fam ous inTibetan annals . S om e of these attained the position of Bodhisattwaduring life and therefore may be classed as the equal of such beings ;others were emanations of D hyani Bodhisattwa. N evertheless thesesaints in them selves

,independently of the has or Icarma carried from

other personages preceding them , earned apparently a new celestialentity difi erentiating them permanently from such heritage and initiating a fresh lineage of their own . In th is new personality, accordingto modern ideas in Tibet, they inhabit one of the heavens

,whilst if

necessary (in order to continue their labours for Buddhism) theycan

,in nirmciqza form

,be incarnated in successive generations on earth .

The highest of all such creations are the pair of pupils who werewith Gautama during his early asceticism and who after their firstdisgust at his change eventually becam e his devoted followers . Theydied before their master’ s dem ise . This couple of disciples, Shari - i- buor S ériputra andMo - u-

gal-

gyibu or Moggalana, are known in Tibetan

mythology as gr affiti] the best pair .” Very few images of them

are to be m et with in Tibet, save in the largest m onastic templesand in the Lhasa Cho - khang, and then only as attendants on Shahyat’

ubpa the Buddha.

N ext rank the sixteen STHAVIRAS, known as flfiN Q §fi Naiten

in Tibet and as Batu - a/ccfii in Mongolia. These dissem inated the

D octrine in divers countries in the first 4 or 5 centuries after Shakya’s

death, but not in Tibet.2 Their names in Tibetan are

the fire- born. 4 . i fl.

glq the opportunist

5474641 ] the unconquer

able .

5. ! was thunder- born.

q lfinlfl fiq fifl forest6 . tial-Ti l the good.

saint .

1 The six- syl labled ejaculation is both a bija mantra. and a dharani . It is

paral leled in Korea by the utterance of the syl lables Na-m v. a- fmt tah - bu,to be heard

at al l tim es in the m ouths of the rel igious .

2 One tradition, however, makes Me - skyes, the fi rst Naiten, preach in Ladak

and Ngar i Khorsum .

208 THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN B UD D HISM .

7 . at “ a: protector of 1 1 . alfl'

l lfi'

qfifi the guide in

bulls. narrow paths .1 2. Bharadwadzathem editator .

8 ° Bhara- dwadza.

1 3 .alfi fl § fi the path - shower .

9 . fl'

fl l the weasel . 14 . mai l or Nagasena.

1 5.“Tl lwl

'

Gopaka.

E'

S fi'

QEfi Rahula, son of

1 6 . N gfi the half- human one .

S hakya.

There is som e variation in the nom enclature of these sanctities

and in the choice of the particular individuals who ought to be included am ong thern.

l They are usually,however, spoken of

, and re

presented as, a sacred group not as separate personalities .

After the Naiten com e a num erous body of saints deified and,

whether regarded as sublimated into N irvana or as in Galdan, D awachan

,or other of the heavens

,still to be appealed to, coerced and

conjured up, and in som e instances as still taking earthly incarnation .

There . are certain orders or ranks in such a pantheon,naturally.

First stand those who from their splendid effect on the religious

world are entitled to the praenom en of PAL- GON (fil ial 515115)

“ splen

did lord” in S anskrit : S ’

m’

natba. These are only four or five in number,including Pal -yon L it- dud or Nagar—juna, T

’ogs

- med or Aryasanga,Tsong- khapa, and Bu - ton .

S econdly,are ranged the series of M D UB - CHHnN, in Sans

kritMaka Said/ta, said to be 84» in num Am ong these are Naro andTilo (so often m entioned in Milaraspa

’s Gurbnm), S ha- wa- ri - pa, D za

wa- ri- pa, Nya- lto - wa the Fish - bellied), Nagpo S pyodpa, S grombi- wa, and Chang- kya Rolpai D orje, the last- named being the deifiedsaint 1who still inhabits the chief Incarnate Lama at Peking,

1 A . Grunwedel in Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet gives the names of the

16 . S thaviras substantial ly as above, w ith the nam es in Sanskrit of 15 out of the

16, the l ist running as fo llows : Agniya, Ayita, Vanavasa or Khadiravana, Kal ika,

Sarana Vatsaputra, Bhadra, Kanakavatsa, Kanaka- bharadvaja, Vakula, Rahula,

S uda- pant’aka, Pindola- bharadvaja, Pant

’aka, Nagasena., Gopaka. Nevertheless

in a list occurring in the short recension of the S ukhavati Vynha, translated from the

Sanskrit by the late Professor Cowel l , in the series“ S acred Books of the East,

”

a very different list is given, m anifestly incorrect in that S hariputra and Maud

galyayana w ith others are included as of the 16 . This series runs : S hariputra,Maha Maudgalya-yana, Maha Kashyapa, Maha Kapp

'

ina, Maha Katya-

yana, Maha

Kanush thila, Bevata, Suddhi Pant’aka, Nanda, Ananda, Rahula,

'Gavampati, Bhara

dwéga, Kalodayin Wakknla, Aniruddha.


21 0 THE MYTHOLOGY OE TIBETAN B UD D HISIlI .

the most powerful . The individual deity chiefly venerated in one

district may be, m oreover, but little regarded elsewhere .

THE MOTHER GOD D ES S .

Perhaps the goddesses are considered of highest account . Cer

tainly the most w idely - esteemed deity in Tibet, and the onem ost comm ouly resorted to, is a l ira- mo or goddess . This is D OLMA (lit. Sgrolma,The D eliverer known variously, according to the pronunciation indifferent parts of the country, as Rolma (in Ladak) , I

’

d- ma (in Tsang),and D rolma (in Kham s) . She i s often distinguished as Yum,

“ the

Mother,”and asserted to be “

the m other of all the Bodhisattwas.

”

In Mongolia D olma seem s always to be called D am - ate m otherTara” Ormore fully : KeteZ ate the m other who rescues .” S he

was introduced into Tibetan Buddhism as the counterpart or synonymof the Hindu goddess Tara. Her genesis and her after history do notwholly tally, however, w ith the H indu narratives concerning Tara.

Although D olma is supposed to have existed through many agesand to have taken many form s under the guise of which she has en

gaged in various enterprises, she is supposed to have been first enlistedin the cause of Buddhism through the agency of the D hyani BuddhaW6’ - pak- me.

’At the mom ent when the White ray from his left eye

brought Chenraisi into being, another ray of green light from his

right eye was made to evolve the goddess whose essence had passedfrom distant regions into the D ewachan heaven. B eing thus twinwith Chenraisi, she was thenceforward ever confederate with him in his

great projects for the spread of Buddhism and the emancipation of

sentient creatures . S o do we always observe D olma and the elevenfaced D hyani Sattwa coupled together in B uddhist legend .

Her

.

earliest appearance incarnated in human form was contem

porary with Chenraisi’

s adoption of the bodily fram e of King S rongTsan Gampo . The spiritual essence or tu lwa of D olma then divideditself into two and each half became incarnate one in each of the twochief wives of that king . D olma, having been thus split in two, continued so both in her spiritual existence—her astral body—as a god

dess in D ewachan and in her manifestations upon earth . Accordingly,among the images of temples as well as in the Tantras and in Tantrikcerem onial, we m eet with two principal impersonations of this goddess .We have D ol - kar or the White D olma and D ol - jang or the GreenD olma ; the King

’ s Chinese wife being the form er and his N epalesespouse being D ol - jang . We say principal impersonations

,

” becausetwo other wives of S rong Tsan Gampo were further form s of D olma ;while in more recent times the emanations from the goddess have been

THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN B UD D HISM. 21 1

multiplied into as many as twenty - one, which form so many branch

gal - 1m. A D olma Max-Many or“

god- house

,

”of which every larger

m onastery boasts one as a separate shrine, contains the complete rangeof those impersonations .

At the present day, as we gather from Prof . Albert Grunw’

edel’

s

work, the incarnations of the goddess assum e, curiously enough,maleform s in Mongolia and S iberia . The Tsars of Russia successively are

now deemed by the Buriat B uddhists to be the incarnation on earthof theWhite D olma while the Green D olma, known in popular Mon

gol Buddhism as Nokoghan Ketelghekchi Eke“the green del ivering

mother, is supposed to be now corporeally manifest in a Mongolmale buddy/tan (= Tib - tul /cu) resident in Trans - Baikal .

Other branch emanations or aspects ” of D olma are said to bethe goddesses Wu

'

serc/aenma,T

’ong/ er

- cfienma, and the three - faced Lama

gyonma, the latter represented as dancing clad only in a girdle - bandof leaves . The second - named is a wrathful form of the goddess .

PALD AN LHA -MO.

This goddess, who seem s to be always of ferocious and bloodthirsty m ood, is deemed to be one of the m ost redoubtable defendersof Buddhism . S he appears to have been originally the daughter of

Gya Jin or Indra. After her first period of life, she went a progressof visits tothe regions of the variou s orders of beings dwelling on the

slopes of Mount Meru, in each of which successively she was born and

spent one life - tim e. Being naturally of a lustful disposition,she led

a m ost abandoned career in each of those spheres . Her warlike character and physical strength, furthermore, enabled her easily to disposeof her several lovers as she grew tired of them . But, in spite of her

l icentious and m urderous career, the goddess, because of her devotionto Buddhism , i s supposed to have attained to the tenth stage in the

Lam Rim Chhenpo or Mahayana road to emancipation.

This deity, whose name of Paldau Lha m o signifies m erely the

splendid goddess, is also often term ed Lha- mo Mag- jormo

“ the

goddess addicted to war .

”In m ythological art she

'

seems to be pour

trayed in two chief styles . In one she stands in rampant riotous at

titude,a wreath of skulls over - her shoulders and reaching to the

ground, the mangled bodies of one or two of her lovers trampledunder her feet ; and holding aloft a skull from which she is quaffingblood . In her second attitude, or m ilder aspect, she is seated on a

mule-

which she guides.

with a bridle of snakes, holding an umbrella ofpeacock

’ s feathers over her head .

The fact that in her second aspect the goddess is riding her mule,

1212 THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN B UD D HISM.

seated side -ways as an European lady, has given currency to a curiousidea which deserves to be mentioned . Many years ago certain pictures

from . the Il lustrated London News, in which Q ueen Victoria was shown

in early life sitting on horse - back to review the tr0 0ps, found theirway into Tibet. As the great Empress of India was comm only ao

counted in Tibet as a personage warlike as well as of far—reachingsway

,those pictures started the notion that Q ueenVictoriawas an incar

nation of goddess Paldau Lhz’

i - mo .

1 And so in Tibet at the present dayi t is always held the m ild - hearted sovereign of Great Britain embodied

the blood - thirsty goddess—otherwise how could she rule over som ighty a realm of which the vast D zambu - ling (India) forms onlyone fragm ent ? Now that Q ueen Victoria has passed away, we do not

know whether the goddess has becom e re- incarnate in King Edward,whose sex, as we have just seen, would not preclude the succession .

It was the Empress Katharine of Russia that set going the D olma

incarnations on the Ru ssian Throne . H owever, it is perhaps a pity,from the political point of view,

that the British sovereigns should be

held in Tibet to represent the redoubtable but blood - loving Paldau

Mag- jormo whereas the Russian royal autocrats embody the m ild and

motherly and popular goddess D olma.

TAMD IN : THE GOD WITH THE HORS E’S NECK.

A neighing was heard and then Tamdin appeared — that is a

frequent assertion in fantastic Buddhist legends and this deity showshimself redoubtable in his power of terrifying by cries or by his un

couth appearance al l demons who would m olest the faithful votary of

the Buddhist persuasion . Tamdin is the Tibetan analogue of the

Indian Hayagriwa, who is also denom inated Hayagriwa Mandhawa in

o rder to distinguish him from Hayagriwa, a dem on whom he foughtwith and overcame . The Indian deity seem s to be as great a favouritein Assam as is his Tibetan brother in the land of snows ; and ninem iles north - west of Gauhati in Assam stands a very ancient shrineto Hayagriwa used in comm on both by Hindus and by Buddhists .

Tamdin is represented in images as possessed of a horse’ s headwith stream ing gilded m ane and large protruding eyes, but with the

remainder of his form like a man’ s. In Tantrik cerem onial he is addressed as Pei - we Tamdz

'

n Brave Tamdin.

”

D ORJE P’AGMO, THE SOW GOD D ES S .

The Sow with the Thunderbolt as a deity shows Buddhism indeliberate opposition to the religious susceptibilities of the professors

1 S ee Ramsay’s Western Tibetan D ictionary.


214 THE MYTHOLOGY OF TIBETAN B UD D HISM.

god is held to be not the sam e as the Sa- dag, but the two are generally considered identical . l

Clai m- 21m water- gods and also the various river gods are likewiseto be reckoned as of the class of S hib - dag or Sa- dag .

2

S uch is a general outline of the mythology belonging to theBuddhism of Tibet and Mongolia ; and in its leading features, we m ay

re- assert, it is in close agreement with themythology which Buddhism ,

even in its early beginnings, gave adherence to .

At the present day in Burmah, C eylon, S iam ,as well as in Japan

'

and Korea, the main public concerns itself not with the E ight - fold

Path or the Four N oble Truths, or N irvana ; but mainly w ith the sub

jection of and m inistry of demons, m ountain- spirits,and the various

gods of the soil . Incarnations, indeed, are m ore distinctively the

property of the Tibetan and Mongolian creeds . D em onolatry,how

ever,is not m erely Tibetan, but is common to every indigenous form

of Buddhism .

Accordingly, the inference seem s irresistible . When B uddhismwas introduced into all these different regions, she probably founddemonology already a param ount force . N evertheless, far from era

dicating these superstitions, she incorporated many of their elem entsinto her own system ; sometimes developing them further, but givingto them al l her own peculiar colouring, m odelling them after one

general sim ilitude, which, under various modifications,is now

“

foundbequeathed to every Buddhistic land .

1 Am ong . the Mongols an image of the god of the ground is placed on a smal l

altar near th e door of each tent inside . He is styl ed Gdjam n Edzen, landlord of

the ground .

3 The great river- god of Amdo in N .E . Tibet is é di

'

UQ’

M lord

of the great peacocks and exercises sway over the whole of the Hoang Ho .

CHAPTER X II.

THE TANTRAS AND TAN'I‘RIK RITES .

In the early centuries of the Christian era, the votaries of Bud

dhism seem to have becom e dissatisfied with the vague m ethod forreaching wisdom ,

perfection, and N irvana, prescribed by the prim itive

teachers. S im ple as the N oble Truths and the E ightfold Path m ightlook on paper, they were rather too general for practical and personal

application. S om ething less etherial and m ore defined was called for.

The Mahayana, the Thegpa Chhenpo of the Tibetans, the greatervehicle or m ethod of conveyance to perfection, satisfied this want insom e degree . The six virtues or paramim, subsequently subdivided into 36, proved a more articulate m onitor to right conduct than the olde r

p recepts ; but the appeal to personal Bodhisattwas for assistance and

the fascinating m ethods of scientific m editation Were a. stronger ihfluence . But much was still too theoretical .

In the second centuryA .D .,however, came Nagarjuna to the front

promulgating the Madhyam ika system, the Buma-

pa

of the Tibetans . System s wh ich are based on ma" “

media principles andcomprom ise make a good bid for popularity. But there is evidence toshew that Nagarjuna made his tenets m ore inviting by initiatingthe ideas embodied afterwards in the Tantras . Later, the Yogacharyaschool developed the sam e ideas so as to apply them to all sorts of

particular wants mundane as well as spiritual . Padma Sambhawa and

his successors brought the system - to its grossest developm ent with

machinery and purview m ost material .The Tantrik system started With the profession of high perspec

tive and lofty aim s . Its goal was wisdom , perfection, and N irvana,

as m uch as any other Buddhist philosophy ; but it made use of all

the powers and resources of man’ s being and all the help of an en

larged pantheon of mythological personages in order to attain theend. Men’ s powers of m emory were to be availed of to the full by theexercise of learning strings of innumerable syllables, nonsense in

exterior form,but said to be replete intrinsically with mystic meaning

21 6 THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RITES .

and supernatural force . These were nam ed dilemma—or m ore expres

sively in Tibetan fialfl'

Rlé l-T spell- holders . Men’s powers of

systematic contemplation or m editation were to be definitely improvedby marrying the m ental to the physical . Psychical force by m editation could not only be made to animate the arterial blood but also

(which was a very elemental and animal truth) make flux with thesem inal or generative faculties of the body. Concentrated thought,the blood, the semen, were in some subtle m anner to make an ecstaticconjuncture somewhere in the physical arteries thereby impartingm iraculous powers . Thirdly, by the Tantrik system ,

man’ s dom inion

over deities great and small was to be asserted . He was to gain by

perseverance complete control over certain divine beings as well asdemons and use them to accom plish his own will and fulfil his own

wants . The resources of this power of coercion— in Tibetan an”

syrué-p a— to be acquired over supernatural orders of beings was en

larged by allocating to the deities the property of appearing undertwo or m ore earthly form s or aspects . These “

aspects — in Tibetan

fim'

fi'

“ml - Ion —were classified ordinarily as at ! sil t- 10 a m ild orQ , v

benevolent and as EH"

Nara- 20 0 wrat-hful or Sal sadrag- ckan savage.

Under the first form the deity soothed and supernaturally helpedunder the second aspects he terrified and took vengeance .

In process of time, as may be readily supposed, Tantrik learningand the acquirem ent of powers prom ised to votaries were sought afternot for high and spiritual ends but for the m undane advantages and

position they were believed to confer as well as f rom the love of therecondite and mystical which are innate in m an

’ s m ind . The obj ectof many Tantrik cerem onies is seen to be purely material and in orderto bring about worldly sweets.

WHAT THE TANTRAS ARE .

We now come to see what the so- called Tantras are. They are

the guide - books, comm entaries, exposition and ritual of the system .

The science and practice of Tantrik arts and magic are crystalised inthe Tantras . But therein not only are particulars of the variousrites and ceremonies detailed ; but the history, the tenets, and the

philosophy of the different schools and system s are fully expounded .

To comm it to m emory any of the Tantra books is the vocation of the

Buddhist mystic quite as much as is the endeavour to practice the artsand performances prescribed . Moreover, he who is expert .

in such


218 THE TANTI MS AND TANTRIK RITES .

Finally Tsongkhapa, as part of his reform s, condensed and codified

the Tantras in his famous work Lam M'

m Cit/lemma. However, the

usual term in Tibet for Tantrik p1 actitioners,“ Ngakpa,

” is derivedfrom the cult to be next explained .

THE KALACHAKRA CULT .

In the 1 0th and 1 l th centuries, A .D . the eclectic and magical

p1 actices founded on the Tantras we1e still furthe1 elaborated. The

system known as the Kalachakra cam e then into vogue. It was des

cribed as a new vehicle the gqsinqtqq Ngag

- kyi Thegpa,

but did not profess wholly to supersede the tim e - honoured D orje

Thegpa ; only by its expanded mythological schem e and its fascinating and even sublim e mystic conceptions it claim ed to crystalise theold Tantrik m ethods into a regular science as com plicated as it wasresourceful . It was alleged to have arisen and to have been revealedin a city

,probably an imaginary one, nam ed Kalapa, situated in the

country of S hambhala, a region said to be real and to have been a

province of Bactria lying beyond the Jaxartes river in the plains ofthe Sea of Azov . The initiator and expounder of the new vehi clewas one S

'

ri Kalachakra or,as styled in Tibetan, Pal D us - kyi Khorlo,

and the system came to be named after its originator . He i s also

often styled D us - khor Péh - chig (fiN QFRfiQRT-TIS

KT] Other saints

who aided in its exposition and becam e deified thereby were Rig

den PadmaKarpo,Rig - den Jam pal D ag

and Chho -

gyal D a- dag ($Ngmé flflfl the lastnam ed of

whom was king of S hambhala and a special incarnation as well . 1

1 The first book of the Tantra section of the Tangynr 1s h eaded w ith the titleof the prim ary work of the Kalachakra cu lt as fo llows .

err sai l ar e

m

ains“!g aging?

I qfio

fifi.

an

q fifl-

q q.

gfiv

g-

!No

sewer

lThe first leaf is decorated with rude prints, one on each side, of KM

'

Q I'

BI'

sue 513111 D us- khor Pa chig and aw gay5'

Q ‘W'Chho gyal D a dag, the

orm er with his Yum or Sakti enfolded.

THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RITES . 21 9

A leading feature of the Kalachakra or D us- kyi Khorlo cultwas the

'

evolution in Buddhism for the first time of the idea of a

S uprem e Personal Being, most l ikely in rivalry of the great doctrineof both Christian and Mohamm edan teaching which

,in the 9th and

l 0th centuries A .D . ,was being ardently pushed by Nestorian and

Musalman m issionaries in Central Asia. We are introduced to a

Central Arch - God or S upreme Meditative Buddha high above all otherBuddhas or deities. He is denom inated Adi- Buddha (or in Tibetan

flgflaflfifiau

fl i fl sfl“ the first best and many

fine and distinctively theistic characteristics of the D eity, hisdisposition, purity, fatherl iness, benevolence and isolated power are setout in the Kalachakra treatises . It is only an effort

,however, to erect

a S uprem e Being . He is still very like unto an ordinary Buddha and

is even often spoken of as a Tathagata— in Tibetan D e—bs/ n'

a Silage -

p a

“one who has gone like those others .

”Indeed, by the Tibetans his

personality was allocated to the place of a Buddha proper w ith thenam e of D orje S empa and

,later, we find the D hyani Boddhisattwa

Chhakna D orje (flq lfifi'

é ) assum ing the full 7616 of Adi- Buddha,

som etim es in that aspect wherein the Bodhisattwa is regarded as

Lord of the Noijin or m ountain spirits as Kuvera), and som etim es under the generative or (Zemz

'

urgeaspect with the designation of

D orje Chhang Yab -'

yum .

1 Be this as it m ight be, the main revelationof the S upreme Being him self was held to have been brought,

about

by his incarnation on earth in the person of King D a- dag (aflq lfl

or D a- wa Zang-

po, the great sovereign of the country of Shambhala.

2

The treatise opens

Salutation to the sublime D us- kyi Khor - lo !

Possessed of Compassion itsel f a thousand o fol d,

Born in the three sph eres and void of fear ,

A body know ing and to be known both in one

S alutation to D ns Khorlo the Sp lendid !

1 Vide D as Pantheon des Tschangtscha. Hutuktu, by Engen Pander and Albert

Grunwedel , page 59.

3 On page 21 b of the fi rst of the treatises of the Tantra S ection in the Tang

yur we extract th e follow ing

grains

“( SR1 “1m? ififl'

flflmqflii

fl'

flfl'

q fi'

é fll'

i'

220 THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RITES .

An important feature of the system was the series of D hyani

or Meditative Buddhas and their evolvem ents. These beings had

already been in evidence in the earlier developments of the Mahayana

cosmogony, but they were now brought out and properly defined .

To each was assigned a separate heaven or paradise, as a realm wherehe dwelt and which be governed through a deputy called D hyani

Bodhisattwa.

l With characteristic inconsistency, as we have seen,the Adi Buddha himself was one of such Bodhisattwa. He was pro

bably rthus doubly personified because of the intimate relations existing between these deputies and human beings. They were the

W

ia.

“‘R'

in“

.

Na.

NEG»?dfl'

gf

-

N'

Q'”GS N

'

S EES l gaq la‘fi

m

q q lqaq wl aflfi'

-i‘

a'

a

ass-

as s essgq

'

qq qs'

zmr

fissé'

fi'

afifi'

nfifi sis al

as s isfiafi'

és‘

f l sas'

asflis a‘

iwas i'm ares

sawgg'

n'

as'

agsm

Ra}-

sway s ?“Hai ley-

31

h

imiiii;Buddha sometimes occupies a Paradise in the Zenith, but is also found in the East

on a whi te lotos.



Again Manja - sm'

or REfl'

fiq fl’i Jampal took the variety form of

Maaja- g/zosiza or Jam - yang, appealing to the ear but though perman

ent varities they are hardly considered two personages .

However, when we com e to the further and more important sub

division of these emanations we find greater differentiation of persona

lity. These further manifestations of the one deity are styled

Wfi'

fim yang- ta! or Emanations of the S econd D egree . Under

this h ead we have the power whereby as yang- gal the Bod

dhisattwas and greater gods could assum e Aspects,” these aspects

or yang- gal being broadly divided into the two main sections

of Mild or S oothing and Wrathful or Terrifying, the one re

served for the friends, the other for the enemies of Buddhism .

The first section comprises the aspect called santa by Indians, (Gil

a

slzi- wa by Tibetans, and amarl iayyfim’

by Mongols . It may be taken

as a rule that, w ith one or two ex ceptions, the normal attitude and

appearance of Buddhas, Bodhisattwas, and the greater gods and god

desses,is under the S hi- wa or Mild Aspect . This is indeed their

primary saméfioga form ,to soothe and to help. Certain such as

Am itabha (We-

pak- m e ) seem never to take any but the Mild Aspect.

Jampal and Jam - yang also are both to be taken as generally of this the

(an aspect, though the sam e Bodhisattwa has his form s of the op

posite disposition.

The second m ode of manifestation is that of the fin K/w'o- wo or

Wrathful Aspect (Sansk . [cred/la,Mongol Under the Kalachakra system m ost Bodhisattwas and deities have thi s power of terrifying which is almost that of personating a new and wholly differentcreation

,and under which they assum e a different name . The charac

teristic in Kh a- zoo effigies is a figure with gnashing teeth, hair on end,

three bulging rolling eyes, many arm s clenching'

weapons or bloodfilled skulls, and often trampling on victim s . Of the Bodhisattwas,D orje Chhang most frequently assumes this Aspect, having m ore thanone variation of it . Thus, whilst as a m ild deity he appears as the

Green- robed Lak- na D orje (Wflfiw

fifizflfl fifisfi) and as Chhak

dor the Teacher (Sflm

fi’i lfl é R) on the other hand in Klara- zoo

Aspect we have him as the rageful Chhak - dor Khorchen. Jampalor Manju- sri in the sam e way becom es another deity Jampal

'

D orje also Jampal - sgra- seng . D olma or Mother Tara (the D ara- eke

THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RITES . 223

of the Mongols), usually so beneficent a goddess, now shews herself

transformed into H’

q lfia'

sfi'

N “ She who is wrinkled with anger .

Other lesser gods are permanently wrathful and terrifying, having no

m ild form of apparition.

'

S uch are Tamdin (S ansk . Haya

Shinje Gyalpo (Yama) , and Shinjema the D eath Goddess .A third A spect is that of the Cruel and Violent who execute

vengeance on the enem ies of Buddhism . This is term ed in Tibetan

Tal -wa D rag-

ao fiN’

q'

SflN'

N and the creature itself is styled

D rayisfie (Sq q lqfl) the cruel killer . The Sanskrit equivalent

for both Aspect and personage is Ma irava, the Mongol ayolgaltsfii for

the form er and (lots/l it for the latter . These beings seem to be pro

perly eight in number : Tamdin in his manifestation as fiN’flfigq lN

mrsq'

(“ Tamdin w ith the hair of whips Paldan Lha- mo, é N

'

‘a

éfl fg

'

fiq ’the S ix - handed Lord or NHHN SHI

Sall i, D orje Jig- che ( i HRq N Sfi), Cham - shrang (QNNE'

)

and the lord of the five door - keepers who guard the threshold of

Buddhism , nam ely, gN'

gfiz-

‘N XNNN Moreover each of the D hyani

Buddhas seem s to have either a D rag -

po Aspect or else a special D ragshe in his service to do his bidding .

Yet another expansion of the Emanation theory is that whereby

a deity having become embodied in som e great saint, henceforth a

new line of what we m ay term B ranch Emanations is started wherein

the saint is difi erentiated as a deity from that being of whom he was

an incarnation . He still carries [as or karma from his primal embodier,but now in him self he has his samékoga and adamant: bodies or form s,capable of independent aspects and of independent Earthly Incarna

tions . Such Branch Emanations are styled q lfilfi'

fial sum - gal or

Emanations of the Third D egree . An exam ple will do som ething to

make this idea clearer . The founder of the Gelukpa reformation,Tsongkhapa, is held to have been emanated as an incarnation

'

of Man

jusri or Jampal in the S econd D egree . That saint (Tsongkhapa)

while on earth by dint of his perfections (fiCNfiq and particular

ly by constant m editation gradually created for


him self an astral counterpart or samé/l oga form of him self in the D ewachan heaven, which becam e thereby an Emanation of the Third D egree

of the Bodhisattwa Jampal with the nam e of Jampal Nying-

po

Henceforth, as an entity separate from the

Bodhisattwa, this Jampal Nying-

po, the astral form or body fl of

Tsongkhapa is capable of incarnating him self in nirwana or earthly

form in the successive abbots of the Kumbum lamassery near Tankarin Kansu . This personage the Kumbum Ted/ca is, accordingly, notonly an incarnation of Tsongkhapa but also of Jampal in the ThirdD egree .

In a sim ilar manner as a Yang- gal Emanation did Jampal in the

guise of Jam - yang (Mafijagfiosfia) become embodied in Sakya Pandita,of which saint the successive abbots of the great Sakya Gompa are

now incarnations and at the sam e time Emanations in the Third

D egree (seam- ga l ) of Jampal . S o,too, did the same B odhisattwa in

his Jam - yang aspect embody Padma Sambhawa whose astral body hecame an Emanation in the Third D egree under the differentiated per

sonality named (Jam - yang - m ra- seng), the future

embodiments being the abbots of the Ri- wo - tsenga m onastery

(Chinese : Nu- tai - shan) in S hensi in China. Once m ore as

SNN'

N'

s was the great pandit Bimala Mitra procreated and trans

m itted both in astral and earthly form s to the present day .

THE S AKTI FORMS .

Finally, when represented together with their sal ad companions

the D hyani Bodhisattwas seem to appear as in yet another Aspect

the QN'

NSN Aspect as it styled in Tibet . Under the Kalachakra

developm ent which could assim ilate Brahm inistic as well as Christiantheories, gods and goddesses, both Indian and those local to the country

where it m ight be introduced, could al so assum e the different manifestations and be generally utilised under laws like unto those asserted tobelong to Buddhas and Bodhisattwas. Moreover, the saktz

'

ideas of

H induism having been adopted by developed Buddhism (even previously to the Kalachakra system ) the respective goddesses soon became

not m erely the c'

fiN'

N na - ma or female energy of a Bodhisattwa

or a god, but eventually his wife or concubine . Under the Kalachakra


226 THE’

TAN‘

I’RAS AND TANTRIK RITES .

N‘lfi'

l l “ Lords of the world of the Tibetans . Their personal nam es

are given usually as (S ansk . Vz'

radfiaka) , QN'

RFR'

NL' J

gfi'

fil'

q fi : and ciN'

flN'

NN who is also Kuvera the king of Noijin or Yakekae. In Tantrik

mythology, however, these protectors of the world. have been con

verted into protectors of the D octrine or defenders of the Faith, being

placed among those deities known as Chhoi - kyong (é N'

al-Z'

) or in

Sanskrit D fiarmap ala. They are, moreover, no longer four but havebeen assigned a chief or head - in the person of the Shaman god Pe

itar, and together these have becom e known as the Five S elfs

or. Personalities . The Chhoikyong kings especially guard the portalsor entrances of temples and monasteries, and their figures in mon

strous or terrific aspect are generally to be observed painted on or nearM y

to the chief door of the temple and that of the monastic Nafi'

fifi'

or Treasury . These Chhoikyong have been, furthermore, incarnated;and the individuals whom they severally inhabit are deemed the verykings of astrologers and soothsayers the well - known Naichhung

Chhoikyong of Lhasa being considered the incarnation of Pe- izar

GyaZ-p o, and the Karmasha Chhoikyong there personates one other of

the protecting kings .

CONCOMITANTS OF TANTRIK RITES .

In the conduct of these magic , rites considerable apparatusare deemed“

necessary. The correct robes and head-

gear are firstessential , the former being the full gelong apparel, the latter either

the Q'

flN’R (ska-mar) red hat or the m ore elaborate q fl a tawdry

q

crown of five tiers—the hair, moreover, plaited with red riband . The

chief apparatus may bea t once enumerated with brief descriptions .

E dorje or Indra’s thunderbolt : a small open- work dumb

bell 4 or 5 inches long, with two knobs grasped in the right hand between the knobs and worked about as directed in the ritual . Sansk .

Vajra ; Mongol-

ots/lar.

511 159 (177 1624 or am : a hand- bell usually ornamented on the


handle with a triplet of mythological faces and the cup of the bell

chased on the outer surface ; held in the left hand . Sansk . y/laaga ,

’

Mongol fionglcfio.

F'

N'

s damara a small drum form ed of two skull crowns

fastened back to back and the apertures covered with parchment orbladder ; two large seeds or cowries dependent to two short cords are

made to play on‘ the drum by a quick turn of the wrist . This the

S anskrit term is generally used but cfiangte is also heard, and

S E'

S E'

SQ;

5511 1 bum-pa (also 1304554 and Né fl

'

flN) teapot; like vessels\9

with long spouts, curled handle and inverted cover, of various forms ;filled with consecrated water and often crowned with peacock feathers.S ansk . mafigala- kalaéa Mongol torlcfio.

fflfi'

fifl'

Mpg- tang small trum pet which ought to be made out\9

of human thigh - bone or else the tibia bone ; decorated with silk tasselsand pieces of skin (preferably human) blown at certain cerem onials .

a?”fil o-

p a and$45 tlio’pea human skull, often an appen

dage to and symbol of various deities in thei r E'

q or wrathful

aspects in form of brass bowl with foam ing blood in metal im itation

in Tantrik rites, andwhen thus supposed to be full of blood it is term ed

flfi'

fiq l and in Pon ceremonial is even a real skull filled withanimals)

blood ! Sansk . Imp ala Mongol gabola.

NWRFRW mam-Marlo prayer- wheel ; but not often introduced

in Tantrik ceremonial . Mongol wand- karma .

GHIN'

N'

sh it -p a sacred leash ; a cord of many strands with a

small dorje at each end, as supposed to be used by divine defendersof the Faith in noosing and holding- in the foes of Buddhi sm, and

employed now in certain Tantrik rites . Sansk . p ara Mongol car.

p karbaabronze or bell -metal peg with three - sided unsharp .

ened blade supposed to be useful as a dagger for exercising dem ons andsubjugating malevolent deities . The whole is usually about 8 inchesin length, there being at the t0p an ornamental knob of three faceswith necks running down and coalescing in the blade . In some p /l aréa


the knob is further crowned with the slender neck and muzzle of the

horse- headed Tamdin .

J M N

El é nlfl iflé aatsto- dorje two dorjes fastened one across the

other form ing a Maltese cross, sometim es artificially conj oined but

usually cast and made in this complex shape . Sansk . visvavajra.

Né fi'

aq] c/zfio- lcyolc is a variety of flfi'

fizfl being a finely

chased m etal bowl, fashioned as a skull, and used as libation bowl .

NNNmar- me small brass cups filled with butter in which floats a

tiny lighted wick, set out in large numbers .

Nu ll? me- Zong oval convex m irror, over which in forecasts holy

water is poured.

The next im portant accessory in Ngak -

pa or Tantrik ceremonialis the m etal image of the particular deity dealt with . Moreover thisimage m ust be clad in the garm ent proper to him and to the occasion .

S uch clothing is styled aabsa, and bells, drum s, bump er pots, and book sused in the particular rite have to wear .aabsa corresponding in colourto that in which the deity is arrayed . The colour is the main thingand that concerns both the painting of the idol and the clothing.

Red and black are employed to paint and array Fl'

q Wrathful or

S’flN

’

algaCruel Manifestations ; yellow, white, and green belong

to the Mild or al l form s .In this business the mystic circles and other geom etrical figures

known as frail-Mar in Tibet (the Sanskrit mandala) play a conspicu

ous part . These are drawn w ith charcoal- ashes or coloured paint on

the ground, or else are formed with heaps of grain usually colouredand arranged in the required lines and circles . The image of thedeity or Buddha has a particular position within the loyal -Mar l and'

the expression used is “ to offer a mapdala or ti -Mor, When deifiedbeings are invoked in behalf of lay

- folk,the kyil -Mor is form ed

of coins given by the latter or even out of jewels and gold as m ost

efficacious.

MANTRAS AND D HARANI.

Another part of the ritual and that of great importance is madeup of the incantatory exclamations and magical sentences and



even the semblance of order and swing seem s to be utterly abandoned .

We refer to the dfiarant, termed in Tibetan q lécfl'

finlfl“sang

ngat or spell - holders . These differ from mantras, in that they are

not m eant to be uttered but only w ritten . They consist of sets of

Tibetan words trail ing ofi into S anskrit syllables . Written or stam ped oh paper or cloth they are used to wrap up images of deities incerem onial, and are furtherm ore largely employed on the cloths inwhich saintly corpses are enfolded . The term alzaran5, however, seem sto have acquired likewise a much extended application. In the laterworks of mysticsm ,

after the introduction of the Kalachakra cul t,we

find even lengthy treatises, coherent in language but of deeply mystical character, styled dtarant. These treatises are chiefly designedfor the subjection to human power of dem ons, nagas, etc .,

but they

are not ritual to be read or recited, and are meant to be used silently as

of inherent magical virtue and of intrinsi c power by mere presentation or

,perhaps, requiring audible m ention and allusion to be

effective .

1 They are supposed, also, to contain a enya'

ng-ao, an essenceor quintessence, of that which is required for accomplishing a powerful supernatural result ; the main characteristic of all mantra and

dtarant being their compendious embracive quality, that of multumin parvissimo .

”

SPECIMEN CONTENTS OF BOOK OF TANTRIK

TREATISES .

Tangyur : D iv. SWVol . 24'

(44th )

General Title at comm encem ent of volume

54 Wall a“l ]a.

q Ea”Kiki”!TN£5a QK'

Si.

“a.

fi'

fl'

qafl lfl'

(S ansk : Nama Sangiti Brilti Namartha Prasakkar

nadipamnama. )

S alutation : Praise be

unto the renewer of youth (re- juvenator) Jam -

pal .

Cut on right hand of page at opening the Lotsawa Gnyag

dznyatn on left hand JAM- D BYANGS , with brandished gadaor mace inhis right hand and dorje in his left . B lue lotus sprig clasped in bend

1 See the titles and the character of the treatises published by Professor Laufer

under the designationfl QEN'

Q QN’

LIQ'

g:'

Q in the Journal o f the Finnish

Ugrian Society.


of his left elbow . Feet with soles upturned . Head encircled withdiadem .

'N ecklet with pendent round neck . Figure sits cross- legged

on large lotus flower .

Begins

EW

q éqfléqq éi sqN S/Rgg.

sei'

ss'

efi'

flflnw wK N

o p " v 0

an5wasas “h ase

i'

l l'

Nfi'

When salutation has been m ade to Jam -

pal

Possessed of profound and prodigious form ,

Whosoever m ade holy by m editation (Yoga) ,If he would cause the attributes of the Reverend one to be understood,Exerting him sel f and relying on the oral precepts,The Tantra of Exposition m ust be preached.

Then, when the door of the F ive Modes of Exposition is set Open,

And as m any as six classes ranged together ,HeWil l have both the benefit and the explanation .

This the first treatise in this volum e is comprised in 41 folios andconcludes with the following subscription : Composed by the teacher

BimalaMitraat the request of his spiritual son fl‘

flfl gfifl ) Nyang

Ting- nge

-dzin . Translated at Nyeg- nya(“lgqlfl qwii

(a) was erasersaw3‘

(Sansk : Arya Manjus‘ri Nama Sangityartha

Lokaranama) .

Salutatinn :

232 THE TANTRAS AND TAN 7’RIK RITES .

Treatise Opens

44 4 444 4444 444?

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Rgl-I'

til‘

afl'

fifi'

nlfiw:1'

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414 4443”“54 4 5

4 54 444 44 1

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4'

44'

i

fiwfifi ssafififl fifi fl '

smfifl' ma

n

gq ‘aagwfi fir

$1515? a?it “: i

4 4 5 444 44W

4 494 4‘

i4 3 4 44 44 54 4444 4 44 1

44 1 54,”

q m u

m4 44 3444 4s444 i 44451 444 44 4

4414 4 444 4 1 444 r44'

s4s4'


234 THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RITES

é'

av

ifll'

q qafl

w

gag-massage

44444 54454 444

mass age? !

55345? fig.

q 4'

fifl'

fla'i flNWN st agi ng

.

443743414 47 1

(3) f 48 . 4 4454 44 44V

§ C'

Néfi'

5 Has no Sanskrit title . When Buddha gives compl ete

enlightenment, to define the Very Void'

(Sunyatct) in i ts essence.

(4) f 52 . a.

AR N o Sanskrit title. A Mirror,which is free from both origin and

cessation, for instruction in the meanings ofWisdom .

THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RITES. 235

(5) f . 545. t. fifil lafli al

-

gfial/

Qéfi

fl fl Subduing the great

mountain of the world, t a , Mt. Meru .

(6) f . 59 . 6. Title illegible .

(7) Apparently om itted .

(8) f . 65. a.

The Enumeration of the great things which ought to be taught witha mystical voice .

f . 67 . a.

“SE (Sanskrit title illegible) . A thoroughm ethod for epitom izing

the enumeration of actual characteristics (of Bodhisattwas and

deities) .Salutation to Jampal the renewer of Youth ! A lengthy ritual

subdivided into 1 0 sections .

(10) f . 91 . t .

fim

fl éiagfifl The lantern of signs and their meanings, col

leeting as in a handful all which can be brought together.

Opens as follows

41mgs'

flqqgfiwq'

agr cfis'

aaq'

qfim'

aas'

fig jfi'

qs'

4344414 4443

4444434 54 444 4 4 4

WRE-

awi.

quil l.

41mg

44 4 414 444


flafisfl wrfiqfl éfi'

fl m’

3444 64444 4 44 6 ?(1 1 ) f . 99 . t.

mamas?

A lengthy treatise subscribed as having been translated intoTibetan by the great yogi Prajnya S hri D za~na Kirti.

(12) f . 138 . t .

“R'

gq lfl

'

l l (Sans : Arya D znya- na Sattwa Mafijusiri N 0pikanama)

Translated by Prajnya S hri D zana Kirti .

(13) f . 140. a.

§mfl fififla§ 41 Ritual of the stainless precious gestures of the

D hyani Sattwa Jampal.

(1 1 ) £61. 141 . a.

5mS1 (Sans : Arya D ziiana- Sattwa Manjus’ri N ipakanama) Ex

am ination of the Bodhisattwa Jampal .

(1 5) fol . 142 . a . Cerem ony of the m ost precious stainless gestures of the D hyani- sattwa Jampal .

”

(1 6) fol . 143 6.

(1 7) fol . l im . ii'

eifl'

q gfl'

si (Sans : Swapne/cska) The Ex

am ination or S crutiny of D ream s .

(1 3) f . 145. a.

qa'

fiRi l A lamp which cleanses from poison the bod/it meditation

of a Buddha.

(1 9) f . 146. a. TheWheel of Meditation which enters the m indof the D hyani- sattwa Jampal .

(20) f . 149 . a. §41fii 4134m(Sans. Tila- tannanam) The first

method of S eminal Contemplation.



a.

End of treatise .

(29) 9.

Praises to the Sublime Bhag awan Ralpachigpa.

(39) to. 1 97 . a.

§ QS SM

Q § Q § QQ Twenty - five directions in verse for soothing

one’ s own m ind.

”

V M

(3 1) to. 198 . a. TheThirty Aphorism s

of Perception.

Salutation : To the Rich Power of ChenresiLast verse (quartette)

-TIN'

RENN'

5315453 54 ”MN.

4 4 44 9 444444H e who perceiveth the nature of IllusionHath acqu ired knowledge of the truth .

He abideth not in ignorant delu sion,But presseth on beyond m ere goings and stayings ;An d findeth indeed jewel s most precious.”

S ubscription

a, v

(32) fo. 199. t. fil lerfi'

flgfiw'

fia'

figqnq sr

Translated by Nubs the Lotsa- wa .

Salutation To P’

ags - pa Chenresi .

(33) fo . 200. a. flfim

gfififiqfiflm

fifiSlflq “ Coercion

the two No’

jin brothers.

240 THE TANTRASlAND TANTRIK RITES .

S alutation To Pal D orje D zin.

Opens

q lq

afl

nits-

9464 444 344:

isfiswfi qswrm ns

'

4344 414 4444 4

(34) to. 201 . a.

-‘

Qq sfi'

gcw

The enlightenment made by the Reverend

Mahima for the coercion of Rigs- kyi Jig- ten Gompo.

(35) £0 . 204. a. QW

QQ Qaq qfll f The Explanation of Fifty

Or, m ore fully : 24141Eri s)gq'

aiafiifia

'

g-

n-

mwg‘

afi

A lengthy treatise in Three S ections : translated by Yarlungs-

pa

Shud- kye Grags- pa Mts’an, as uttered by the great man Lha- je

Megaling in the monastery of Pal S é- kya,

(36) to . 220. b.

i fl'

q'

figa'

aria.

am.

a.

qFri léi'

l l.

(37) to. 221 . a. anneagaqnw

fi rst?)é’

q'

Kula- loka-nfit’aya ;



S alutation : To Padma S ung—gi Lha (Lotus S peech) !

The whole treatise is given below

44 4244444444 4.

6493 444-

44-

494-

4

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scam-

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film

.

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(46) to. 251 . 9.

Salutation . To Chomdendas Jampai D orje !

(47) fo . 264 a 416Wgq'

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gfiq q56mmq‘

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(53) to. 275. a. fiqm'

gq'

q’

ijifis igqi fsqg-

qggflfiwfixa v

.

NR'

cS fl] Torma Ceremonial for the Support of the Green-Robed

Pal Chhak—na D orje.

to . 276. a.RN

'

Q'

SQTQ'

“ The S ix Grades .

(55) £6 . 278 . 4. flNfi'

l l'

q ififi'

flfiF “ The Nectar which nou

rishes those who have been killed.

(56) to . 280 . 2 . nfiig’fi fla

'

flgifl “ The Ofiering of Milk

Nectar.Salutation : To Dorje Snams !

248 THE TANTRAS AND TANTRIK RI TES .

(57) to . 280. b. “ The Deeds which

are destroyed by Fierce Lu,” or “ by Lu in an angry conditi on.

“ JV“

:

(58) to. 282 . 77 . iii]KE N 5165]flfii RR5IT] Ceremonial for

keeping under the Four S pecies of Lu .

.

V-‘ T

(59) to. 282 . 6. 58]653;E1 818!fiq £1523 gqflfl q é flBurnt- ofiering Ceremonial to the Green- Robed Chhak- na D orje.

(60) £0 . 283 5. Treatise with name precisely same as the preceding one.

(6 1) £0 . 285. a .

Sfim

éfigNRFR SJ/ a gq Ceremonial for the adjustment and ar

rangement of the Green- Robed Lag- na D orje, the Great Chief

of the N6’Jm .

(62) to . 296 . a. NE The Characteristics of

Cancer (Inner Leprosy)”

(63) to . 228 . 6 .

nm

sqqfi fi éq’fiaggflfl

u

m'

wfiq'

The ofiering of Praise to

the pantheon of the Great Wheel of the Green- Robed Lag- na D orje,Great Ruler of the N ii

’

jin.

(64) fo . 299. 6. “The amulet

which produces the connection between Cause and Effect.

v C U v U v 0 0 O Ix

O U

168 f0 300 2 88 228818 828 228122822

818 2528

2’

The foregoing is a lengthy work in 12 chapters or 9403

(66) £6 . 344 . 2 .

Coercion of the Green- Robed Chhak - na D orje.

6 7 ) £2 369 . 2 8122828 8 2822528 8 8 228 88 828Coercion of the Green- Robed Lag- naDorje, Great

Ruler of the N6’Jm .


CHAPTER X III.

THE POET MILARASPA.

Everywhere throughout Tibet and Mongolia are the writings as

cribed to this poet and mystic read and quoted. Composed in lan

guage differing considerably from the stilted artificial style of theKangyur treatises and much akin both in vocabulary and in con

struction to the vernacular of the present day, the works of Milaraspa

can be l istened to by the people w ith comprehension. Thus t heyare perused not merely as a formal religious deed of merit—as is thecase with the older standard books—but because of the real interestof the matter they contain . In Mongolia they aremet with translatedinto the Mongol - Tartar tongue as wel l as in the Tibetan original s,which fact is a certain indication of a popularity not only conven

tional .

The Reverend Milaraspa (q gfii l N S N Q ) is said to have

been born 1 038 A.D . in Gung - t’ang on the borders of N epal, a littleto the east of the modern Kirong and only a few m iles to the westof the peaks abutting Mount Everest. His father was one MilaShesrab Gyal- ts

’an and his m other bore the nam e of Myang- ts

’a

Kar-

gyan. At an early age both parents died and he was broughtup by an aunt and uncle who treated him with great harshness .

Q uitting their protection, eventually, be attached him self to religiousstudies and became the pupil of a famous Zo- tsa - wa

, or translator ofSanskrit works, named Marpa . Having taken the fullest vows, hebegan to qualify him self by systematic ascetic meditation to attain

the position of a Nal - j or (QNH

RSS ) the Tibetan form of Yogi .

When his spiritual father, Marpa, had quitted this sphere, Milaraspaforthwith took to a calling which he adopted as his especial function,that of a peripatetic m issionary. In that character he traversed all

the mountain ranges along the Tibeto - Nepal frontier,visiting Pu

rang, B engri, Kirong, Lake Manasarowar, etc. His plan of operations varied . S ometimes he abode near villages expounding

,both in

THE POET MILARASPA. 251

prose and verse, Buddhist doctrine to many hearers . At other timeshe withdrew te caves in inaccessible spots and remained in persistentmental absorption for months and even years . The result of such:

a line of life was natural in a country where learning and lonelymystic contemplation are held in the highest repute. He obtaineda. large following who were known by the designation of Rae- 622747794

wa or “ the little cotton clad ones .

” These disciples appear to haveusually

“

wandered about with their master, and to have shared in a

much less measure in his austerities but, according to the narrative;they were also often absent from him .

A s his name indicates, one of the principles of Milaraspa was

to be clothed merely in cotton, eschewing the customary wearing

material of'

Tibetans which is invariably of wool . In that respecthis votaries were'

expected to im itate him . In spite of the icy'

tem

perature of his haunts, the ascetic went about clad only in one thin

vestment. He thus describes him self in one of his exordia

I am Milaraspa great in fame,

The direct offspring of Memory andWisdom .

Y et an ol d man am I, forlorn and nakedFrom my l ips springs forth a l ittle song,For all nature at which I lookS erves me for a book.

The iron staff that m y hands holdGuides me o

’er the ocean of changing l ife.

Master am I of Mind and Light,'

And in showing feats and m iracles,Depend not on earthly deities .

The particular Buddhist sect to which Milaraspa belongedwas“

a hybrid one,formed of the Ka- dampa school

,and the Ka-

gyiid-

pa

school, which'

had been started in rivalry to. each other. A power-4

ful deity, Lag - na D orje, prince of the Noi- jin or gods of the

m ountains, was held to preside over the sect, andwas, in fact, thetutelary deity of Milaraspa. The leading theories set forth in the

sage’ s songs are those of the universal illusiveness of al l thoughtsand possible conceptions as well as of all material things, and theadvantages of various mechanical methods of meditation . principallyinduced by suppressing one

’ s breath, and so forcing it to enter certainspecified bloodvessels of the body . To these processes we shal l refer.

m ore particularly later on; but it was, he averred, by the artificialwarmth, which the l tm-mo or m editative ecstasy induced, that hewas enabled to withstand the extremest cold .

We are about to exam ine at considerable length the'

i

productions

which are assigned to Milaraspa . But we should first mention that

5352 THE POET MILARASPA .

these are only two in number,although certain reference is m ade to

a third work which, however, if ever current, is not in circulation

at the present day .

The chief work is that which is known fam iliarly as the GURBUM

or “ One Hundred Thousand S ongs.” It emb races a sort of fitful

narrative of a portion of the worthy man’s wanderings which in

places are described with considerable topographical detail . Thisaccountis plentifully interspersed with his ditties and metrical expositions ofdoctrine. The “ songs

,

”nevertheless, number only som e 200 instead

of as stated in the m etaphorical title—the full designation

8 41828 1118 818 258 2 858 48 5 2 8 1air s 1 6 the

course of the narrative Milaraspa instructs his votaries, preaches to those

whomhe chances upon, works spells and m iracles and fal ls in w ithdivers adventures . H is practice, when asked a question or when re

lating past experiences, was to drop at once into verse. Thus theGurbum takes the form of a record of travel in which m etrical di

gressions—which by the way have no particular m etre whatever—are

perpetually recurring. It should be noted, however, that the wholerecital is not supposed to be told by the hero him self but by som e

third person unnamed who relates the doings and sayings of Milaraspa.

The other book is less in bulk than the Gurbum and diifers fromit inf orm , in that it runs in the first person ; Milaraspa him self beingpersonally the narrator throughout . Accordingly, we have this work

generally distinguished as the NAM- T’

AR, although that designationoccurs in the title of the first mentioned work al so . N am - t

’ar, which

means literally“ the full deliverance,

” is the usual term in the Buddhist

'

sense for biography or even autobiography and in the presentcase carries the latter signification . The complete title of the book

1 The title cf th is Garham seem s to vary in different copies. We have twospecimens of that work in our possession . One bears the title as given above and

is u. block- print of 264) leaves p rinted on both sides. The other copy has the im

print on the outer leaf as fol lows iNQS’R

'

gl’

fi

4°

It will be observed, then, that

in this edition the nam e Mi larasp a is om itted from the title, the appellation Gahad

Pa D orje (47 -6 6 the Laughing Dorje”) being substituted. This last is a fine issue,

very clearly printed and comprising 324: leaves. The S t. Petersburg exam ple has,

we see, 34-2 19aves ; and is therefore another edition stil l . Our copy of the

Nam - t’ar or "Tvol um e is a wel l - printed specim en

'

consisting of 14141 fo lios, double

sided.


254 THE POET MILARASP—A.

h im self, under the influence of the Great Translucent Charm , was sojourning in the district of "

Chhong- lung jung . It happened one night he rose

up to prepare h is food ; but there was not even a p iece of wood in the out

house—not to m ention, no flour , salt, water, or herbs . There being neitherwater nor fire on the ‘b earth , he reflected : It is indeed too m uch for m e tohave suffered my thoughts to sl ip to a degree so great as this ; and ' it wil l

now be necessary to go and find room for som e faggots in my coat- skirt. ’S o departing when he had lighted on as m uch wood as he

'

cou ld manage, a

high wind sp rung up . Wh i le he carried the wood, the wind seized on h is

garments, and whensoever he clutched hold of his garm ents, it seized on th e

wood. Then the thought arose in his m indThough I have been sitting in tim es past so l engthy a space on that

ridge of hill s, yet was I m ental ly ab sorbed in attachm ent to self. I m ay

have indeed succeeded w ith the doctr ine of m ental absorption within myvery self, but what do I now p rop ose to do ? Then let m c

leay—If the

garm ent be p leasing to m e, let the garment be taken away or,if the wood

be p leasing, let the wood be taken .

’

Having seated him self, he lost con

sciou sness from the effects of p oor l iving and the cold . When he rousedhim self thew ind had lul led and his garm ent was fluttering from the top of

a tree- stem . In the depth of the m ental weariness wh ich succeeded, he p lacedh im self flat against the perpendicu lar surface of a bou lder of the size of the

‘

body of'

a sheep . Just then there floated up from out a reddish -

greyval ley on the eastern side a wh ite cloud. Below the white cloud in th e

reddish -

grey val ley was a gompa (is , m onastery) . He revolved : Theredid my lama, the interpreter Marpa, sit translating . In the m idst of the

group of my father, m other , and fel low - discip les—the brethren of the Dorje—was he . And recal ling the substance and style of his p recep ts, togetherwith his p owerful expositions of the Tantras, he thought If only he wereseated there now, whatever m ight intervene, I woul d go to salute h im .

”B e

ing carried beyond bounds with despondency at these vivid m em ories of h is

teacher, m any tears were shed, and he uttered th is ode—a song of yearninggrief—in his keen rem embrance of the lama

Recal l ing my father, and fol lowing the step s of MarpaHe who was th e rem over of longingsYearning dirges should vanish away .

0 Marpa theMaster, on the red rock to the east of the val ley of Chhong !Ah , that rock beneath yon holder of water,The white cloud soaring upwards,The floating wh ite cloudOn a rock backed by a h ill beside which huge elephants are desp icableOn one which is faced by a hill beside which great l ions seem but

p igm ies .

In the Gompa of the red -

grey val ley, a m ighty residence,On a stone p rodigious, the th rone of Am ol ika

A. divan covered with the skins of l ions’ ears,On which to be seated is not to sitIt was there sate Marpa the translator ;Oh , if now he were sitting, how wou ld I rejoice !Of smal l consequence though I be,


Y et from my heart shou ld I wish to do hom age

Though undue yearnings should be l ittle .

I rem ember th is lam a p ossessed of m ental and bodily graces,I remember Marpa the lo - tsz

’

t -wa and his m editations,Flam es m ore holy than a m other ’s couch .

Oh, if now he were sitting, how would I rejoiceThough far distant and inaccessible were his seatI should wish to do homage.

Comely and thoughful is the lam a I recol l ect ;Marpa the lo

- tsa-wa I recal l as he m editates,H is dorie revel ling in the profoundest of Tantras.Oh , if now he were speaking, how wou ld I rejoice !Though poor be my powers of m ind,From my heart should I crave to rehearse what he saidRemembering th e lama, his m ental and bodily graces ,Recol lecting Marpa the lo - tsa-wa as he sits m editatingTantras, m ighty in gesture and sound .

It would seem that his spiritual instructor,this Marpa, over whom

our poet thus utters lamentation, had once enj oined his pupil to prooecd to the summ it of a lofty mountain which may be certainly identified as Mount E verest, for the purpose of ascetic meditation . Thus

,

the earlier peregrinations of Milaraspa are in the region of this thehighest peak of the Himalayas and of the world, which is known to

m odern Tibetans by the name of Lap - chhyi- gang, and which is m entioned by Milaraspa under that appellation . We find in the Gurbum

some curious information concerning the famous m ountain ; and, asno European has ever penetrated w ithin 50 m iles of Mount Everest,such information is worth noticing. It is described as a lofty pinnacleof snow and ice on a desolate and uninhabited chain of m ountainsand on the top of it reside five fairies named Ts

’

e- ringts’

e (or “ life,long life ”) who became deeply attached to the poet . The glaciers ofLap - chhyi- gang produce five lakes, situated on the northern flanks

,

the waters of each differing in colour one from the other ; and theselakes were dedicated by Milaraspa, one to each of the five fairiesaforesaid. Further north of the E verest range m ention is made of avast lake named Kyema Ts

’o, and of a m ighty snow- capped peak

styled Jomo Gang - karmo .

In his ascent of the hills which buttress the main summ its ofthis range, Milaraspa has several adventures . One of these may be

here introduced

Then roving upward to fulfil the command of h is lama, he reached theoutworks of Lap - chhyi

-

gang . On the app roach to Lap - chhyi, when he

cam e to Nyenam , he found the peop le of the neighbourhood celebrating a


great beer - dr inking revel . Now in the beer - house gossip , there was babbl ing of this scrt : Wel l ! as to him who is cal led Milaraspa, he seems to beleading a penitential l ife . Is it p ossible that he is that devout herm it whohas located h im self on this very range of hil ls, where no man dwell s P

As they were talking thus p raisingly of the Reverend one, he p resentedhim self at their doorway. Whereupon a young

'

woman, adorned round theface with goodly ornam ents, cam e forth m aking num erou s exclamations of

welcome.

O Naljor she cried, whence are you ?S aid his Reverence : He who is now speaking to you is one Milaraspa,

a great m editator, who has been abiding on a m ountain the whereaboutsof wh ich I am not sure of. Y ou, hostess, m ust bestow as alm s some fragm ents of victual s .

’

S he returned : ‘ Sufficient to feed on shal l be brought forth . But are

you indeed that very one who is cal led Milaraspa i>

Quoth he It would be w ithout sense to tel l a l ie about it .

’

The wom an ran in brimm ing over with joy, and said to the revellersA del ightful m onk is here who says he has just now com e from a distance,and he has cast him self down this m om ent at th is very door .

’

Al l rushedforth , som e welcom ing h im , others inquiring his h istory ; and when theywere certain it was h is Reverence , they invited h im indoors, and offered himdistingu ish ed attention . Then the young wom an, a rich hou seholder and a

Ben p riestess, who was at th e head of the revel lers, said : There has takenup his abode in the hol low of our val ley a gobl in, and you must thereforeby blessing purge the ground. We wil l then afl ord you al l the service inour p ower .

’

The other folk added : S p lendid indeed ! For our pastures are

m ost pleasant lands, but we are so dreadful ly afraid of bodily inju ries fromth is goblin that we no longer wish to occupy the sam e. Pray com e quicklynow .

’

A l l assembled beseeching h im , his Reverence retorted : I am indeed

going qu ickly, but it is not on account of your pasture - lands that I go . Be

cause of the command I have from my lam a I am going, to m editate .

’

They

repl ied :‘ That is quite sufficient for us. We w il l grant you servants, to

gether with good food .

’

The Reverend One rejoined :‘ Being a m an who

rel ies up on him self, there is no need to m e of com panions and good provisions . I am going quite alone to the upperm ost regions . We will see afterwards about these m arvel lou s services you are going to render .

’

S o saying,his Reverence set out by h im self for Lap - chhyi - gang . A rrivedat the pass - top , terrific ap paritions of those who were not hum an appeared.

A s soon as he reached the cairn on the pass the sky was convul sed, thethunder rolled savagely, and the l ightning darted gleam ingly, whil st them ountains in the val leys far and near seem ed to sh ift The m ountaintorrents, wh irl ing together, grew into a huge lake whose bil lo'

ws boiledviolently. His Reverence cast a mystic look, and plunging his staff into thewaters, the lake, though deep , disappeared, and was resolved into m ist andpool s . Then, com ing up for an instant from below, supernatural m onsterspufi ed forth their breath and broke down crags far and near . Num erousboulders sprang out, clashing and fighting one another in a turmoil of bil lows.Thereupon the sky-walking witches opened a path in between the valleyslike a m ountain - serpent running downwards ; and, standing on the path when



Deer and wild asses—m others and their young—frolic and stamp ;Ap es and m onkeys are gamboll ing on the swardYoung larks interchanging notes in many voices ;That divine bird, the Gongmo, pouring ou t its lay.

The clayey stream s chatter softly and harmoniously below [ratedTheir voice is the voice of Tim e—of friends whose friendsh ip has degeneY ea ! the virtues of the p lace cannot be p enetrated by one

’s though ts ;But the joyous soul leads them captive into song ,

And speeches sage are driven forth into the m outh .

Y e fathers and m others of househol ds h ere assem bledDo as I do, and regain your nam e ;

Renounce your deeds of sin and attain to happ iness .

Occasional ly, however, our friend seem s not to have been received

by the denizens of the places he visited in the am icable spirit he

deemed his due. S uch slights he m eets w ith unruffled composure,apparently ; but then, forthwith, as we shall find, he shows him selfto be ap ast- master in the art of ingenious abuse, and rapidly succeedsin reducing the m ost churlish to abject docil ity. Let us see his method

w ith an old woman who accused him of com ing after her daughter

The Reverend Milaraspa resolved to p roceed for m editative purp oses toJang

- tagoi Gang (‘the Glacier of the Northern Horse Gate Arriving one

n ight in the autumnal m onth , he p resently went to greet the p eop le w iththree basketsful of gou rds . The country - folk were al l busy reaping th e

corn . In the upp er part of one large fiel d in particular a young wom an

about twenty- three years of age was superintending . She was possessed of

al l the tokens and m arks of a wise Khadom a (fairy), and was p laced over aband of reapers composed of many m en . Good p eop le,

’ said he, ‘

p ray bestowsom e v ictual s upon m e, a Naljor .

’

S aid the girl : ‘ 0 Naljor ! go ye and

enter in at the gate of yonder castle . I shal l be com ing there imm ediately.

’

Thereupon the Reverend One p roceeded to the castle -gate, and, having givena push with h is hands to the door , had entered some distance w ithin thegateway , At that very m om ent, however, an old wom an of unprep ossessingap pearance cam e from indoors . She was m eanly clad, and was carryingher hands fu l l of ashes .

What beggars you Naljor are !’

she exclaim ed . In the summ er - timeyou ask alm s of wh ite food, and in the winter you come begging for sourthings. There is never for you any season of sitting still . Y ou fancy youare going to get my daughter as a bride, and steal her goods as a dowry .

Have you com e from the East just at this tim e, when there are no m en

about As she spoke her body trembled with passion, and she made readyto fling the ashes and to brawl much m ore.

‘ Old woman,

’ cried out his Reverence, ‘there will be p lenty of timeafterwards to throw your ashes ; but l isten a little while first to this song of

Milaraspa.

’

And he proceeded to set forth some verses containing conun

drum s for the old dam e :

My first is the bl iss of those who escape to the heavens above ;My second, the woe of the three classes of the damned below ;


My th ird, the loss of all power of those who may be in the intermediateworlds :

In course of tim e these three will m eet three .

Black - hearted old granny, bearing spite against religion,

S ee that you consider this closely in you r heart.

In you r doings, perform the doctrine of the holy gods ;In relying, depend on som e accredited lam a ;

Wh en you return to your hom e, first reflectHas such an one appeared ?My first is she who gets up the earl iest in the m orningMy second , she who l ies down the last at night ;My th ird is the labou r wh ich is never finishedS om e day these three w il l coalesce in one .

S kinny old wom an, servant of servants and void of a stomach ,

S ee you revolve that careful ly in your heart.In your doings, perform the doctrine of the holy gods ;In your relying, lean on som e orthodox lam a ;

Reflect—Has such an one appeared P

My first is the l ifting action of one draw ing tent- pegs from the ground ;My second, the walking action of one creep ing after fowl s ;My third, the crouching action of one breaking stones and clodsS om e day these three actions w il l be comb ined.

Old wom an, dejected in m ind and decayed in the intestines,S ee that you revolve, & c., 850 .

My first are the wr inkles puckering the skin without ;My second, the flesh , b lood, and decaying bones left w ithin ;My third, the dul l , dumb , deaf, blind, dazed, cripp led being betweenS ome day those three wi l l be united in one p erson .

old granny, ugly in appearance and wrinkled with wrath ,

S ee that you take this to heart, & c ., & c.

Rarer than stars in the day - time

Are they who’re set free in the heavens above

More p lenteous than tiny ch ip s of gravelAre those doom ed to woe in the spheres down below .

Ju st now, when body and soul must part company,

The m ind feel s dejected .

Old woman ,consciou s of guilt, hopeless, and w ithout appetite for death ,

S ee you take to heart and consider this !In your doings, perform the divine p recepts ;In your relying, lean upon some orthodox lama.

Having given ear to the song poured forth in condescension by the

Reverend One, faith devoid of self- rel iance was born in the ancient dame . A l

lowing the ashes in her hand to drop thr ough her fingers, the old woman

cal led to mind the actions comm itted by her in past tim es, and repented.

Thereafter Milaraspa endeavours to instruct this old soul and her

daughter—who, com ing in, and finding her m other in tears, is near


picking a q har‘

relwith the S aint-j—ih the rudiments of his doctrinaltheories . As is invariably the case in Buddhist philosophical statem ents, were we to quote here (as we do later on) these enunciations,they would be found to contain no real recondite w isdom , nor even

any scheme of m etaphysics and m orality which could be dignifiedw ith the title of an ethical system . They are mostly mere pretentious phrases which have l ittle consistency, and the profundity is onlyapparent, and will not bear analysis . There is nothing ennobling tothe individual, Or calculated to make the world the better or, even inthe Buddhist sense, less steeped in m isery, in the doctrines of subl ime

vacuity and indifference to al l earthly claim s, with which Buddhism ,

whether Indian ‘or Tibetan, occupies itself. It is essentially the reli

gion of phraseological form s and onom atopoetical positions . Eventhe universal philanthropy preached becomes degenerate when it wouldcondescend to practical individual exercise.

There i s, nevertheless, one great p1 inciple m which the Ch1 1st1an

and the seeker after the h ighest happiness m any Faith m ightacquireimp1 ovement at cei tain junctui es of life f1 om the Buddhist, and thatis the principle w hich expresses the unimportance and indeed nothingness of the good things offered by the world

,

as compared with the

consolations and changeless attitude which Religion presents to himwho yields him self up to its sway alone. This, of course, is no newdoctrine. S olom on in Hebrew ethics had preached it long prior toBuddhism . But the Buddhist

,that is the Buddhist who may real ly

endeavour to fulfil what he professes, accepts no comprom ise w ith thematerial world on the subject. The greatness and happiness of humanl ife are, at least in theory, not even to be reckoned as considerationsin the question. Of course the reason assigned is that all visible andphysical advantages are not only merely tem porary but are in themselves complete i llusions . While such a m otive may indeed appearinferior in its m oral sanction to that which can animate the Christianto any l ike attitude or sim ilar sentiments, nevertheless as an impul siveforce

,

as observable in Buddhist practice it seem s stronger than the

Christian m otive. Christianity, however, is infinitely superior when itteaches the nobility of this present life, its j oys and its possibilites .

N ow we find in Milaraspa m any expositions of this Buddhistichigh principle, and firm and fine is the position which he personallyassumes ih

'

the matter. But we shall make a lengthy quotationfrom the Gurbum dealing fully with the Buddhist point of view

Hail zto the Teacher ! The reverend Milaraspa him self was dwell ing inthe cave of Nyiashang Giri Katya in the S outh H imalayan country and


262 THE POET MILARASPA.

In rep ly to questionings of this sort, his Reverence made answerI am a Naljor of Tibet, Milaraspa so - called .

“

And to lack of necessariesforsooth is due my being entirely free from wretchedness ; and what that isequivalent to let m e duly describe in a song :

To the lords lamas, let salutations go up

I am Milaraspa so to be styled.

At p resent I am free from desire of weal th,I wish not to heap up earthly p elf ;S o, firstly, am Iwithout the m isery of getting,And next, I am free from the m isery of guarding,While lastly, I am without all m isery of coveting moreThus that lack of having noth ing at al l is good.

Again, at present I am free from desire for relatives ;I wish not to be encompassed by love and cheerfulness ;S o, firstly, I am separated from attachments of m ind,And next I am free from bickerings and retorts,Lastly I am subject to no separationsThu s dep rivation of the pleasures of love and cheer is well .At present I desire not to be ful l of news,I wish not to l isten to rum ours and rep orts ;S o, first, I am free from the trouble of m aking enquiries,And next I escape the perplexity of hoisted signal s,Lastly I am without any fears of injury ;In being set apart from gossip and news I am happy.

At p resent I am devoid of the desire for one's country,I wish not any special land to dwell in.

S o, first, I am r id of the m isery of partizanship ;And next am I free from the thraldom of government ;Lastly, do I escape the trouble of watching faces (or opportuni ties ;The want of any certain dwell ing -

place is good.

The em issary having come before the king, related in ful l the accountof his adventures, adding : Such as this is Milaraspa.

Thereupon the king, confident in faith and hum il ity, rejoined :‘ S ee if

you can entice th is Milaraspa h ither ; but, if he wil l not be persuaded,offer him both these things .

’

S o he despatched the Benares cloth and the infal l ible Arura fruit to influence him ; and (the messenger) , having met with the reverend one, said‘ I have been deputed by the p ious king who resides in Kho - kh om and

Yerang to summ on the Naljor of Tibet ; it is necessary that you attend .

’

From the m outh of h is Reverence : In general when I arrive at townsand vil lages I make not the acquaintance of men, and in particular I makenot the acquaintance of kings . I have no wish for del icacies of food and

drink ; and as an individual practising rel igion I am without any relationor story about dying from hunger or cold. The man who adheres to a kingwil l cast aside a lama. As for m e, as I am carrying out the precepts ofMarpa of Lhobrag I shall not com e. Y ou yourself go back again .

’

The other replied : When a m ighty king summons a m ere man whois a yogi is it not seem ly that that one m an should set out and come to dohomage at his feet?

THE POET fMILARASPA .263

Quoth h is Reverence :‘ I am al so a m ighty king of the wheel that re

revolves ; and a king who abounds in riches is by no m eans happ ier orm ightier than I .

’

The other retorted : You king of the revolving wheel , where, pray, are

your seven kingdom s ? As you are go ing to be a great and rich king, ifthose exist, p oint them out.

”

From the m outh of the Reverend One‘

Y e circle of officers of the kingdom s of the world, if you but followed a

kingdom such as m ine is, you wou ld yourselves be changed into the greatest of m onarchs ; while the p ower and the w eal th bel onging to everythingw ould spring forth (for you ) . And thus let m e exp ress this in a song

Y e courtiers desirous of joy and happ inessSuch as this is the kingdom of Milarasp a

In its sway it is blest to everybody both here and hereafter .

Mila’s governm ent is like this

There is Faith , the m ost p recious of things that revolve,Which unites itsel f with deeds of virtue nigh t and day ;There is Wisdom , the m ost p recious of jewel s,Which fulfil s the hOpes of al l for them selves and oth ersThere is Rel igious Duty, the m ost precious of queens, wh ich is adorned

with ornam ents of surpassing beautyThere is Comp lete Abstraction, the m ost p recious of officers ,Which amasses both integrity and wisdomThere is Chastity, the m ost p reciou s of draught beasts,Which carries m ighty loads of the teach ings of Sang-

gyasThere is Dil igence, the m ost p reciou s of horses,Wh ich bears you into a land where Pain itsel f is

“

not ;

There is Attention , the m ost p recious of general s,Which routs the arm ies of the enemyWrong Perception.

If you gain p ossession of a realm l ike this,Y ou wil l acquire the gl ory and fam e of a sovereignPerpetual ly wil l you trium ph over that which is hostileVassal s wil l becom e feudatory to the works of the Ten VirtuesS ensate creatu res without exception wil l becom e as m others .Come, then ! Be a king according to my p lan !

Thus did he speak and thereupon th e other exclaim ed Mostwonderful m ust it be to be m oulded in such faith as that a yogi should be unm ovedby anything. However , the king bestows on you these two gifts . ’

S o saying, he p resented into h is hands the Benares raiment and the in

fall ible Arara fruit. The other , taking them , blest them and offering up

p rayers, he accepted them .

96 96

We cannot attempt to follow this peripatetic saint systematical lyin his wanderings, but m ust content ourselves and seek to interest thereader by picking out the more characteristic pieces . The next quotation is a lengthy one, and m ay be regarded, in a sense, as valuable

archaeologically, inasmuch as it includes elaborate descriptions of certain

264. THE POET MILARASPA .

articlesof ordinary use. Our'

narrative“being several centuries old, this

means that we have m inute accounts of these everyday things'

as theythen were known

That rich power of meditation, Milaraspa him self, had been engaged

during the summ er - tim e in contemplation, seated on the southern slopes of

the S hri mountain . It being now autum n, when harvest- tim e had arrived,

one evening when tired he set forth in quest of food - alm s . On the way, in a

hidden nook in th e desert, he fel l asleep . Then there appeared to him a

wom an w ith both eyebrows and beard gleam ing yel low in the clear blue of

the nigh t. She was leading her son, a smal l youth, as m uch as twenty yearsof age . Milaraspa, she said, you possess eight hearts in a bunch , and one

of them real ly belongs to this lad ; therefore bestow it up on him.

’

Havingthus sp oken , he dreamt that she vanished. Thereup on Milaraspa, arousinghim self, began to revolve the m atter .

Evidently, he m used that woman

'

must have been a khadoma (Le.

aerial female sprite),‘and there w ill com e to m e eight pup ils rip e for karma

—human beings, 0 1 , as it were, hearts sifted unto the utterm ost. Only thisvery day shal l I m eet one human being whose fate must be determ ined by

h is actions ; and I m ust set myself to be really u seful to him .

’

Proceeding upward to the side of the rugged road into Tibet, he sat him

down and slept for a wh ile hard - by the R iver of One Hundred Thou sandS ilver Eyes; After wh ich there cam e up a strip ling riding on a black h orse .

O Naljor he exclaim ed,‘

what are you doing lying down there P Then,

said his Reverence O citizen layman , whither are you going ? He rep liedthat when he had get across the river he would pursue a way straight forward into the m idst of the Ding- r i m ountains .

Thereat the aged Naljor remarked that he, too, was going over theriver, and requested that he m ight m ount on the back of the citizen ’ s horse .

S aid the youth I am hastening away to see sights and to obtain'

know

ledge in the East . If you get up , too, my horse wil l be injured .

’

Having

thus sp oken , he went on ahead, not wishing to keep com pany with the

Naljor .

Then the Reverend One, mystical ly drawing in his breath in the veryecstasy of a saintly lama

’s m editation, started off, and walked onwards upand down upon the surface of thejr iver . Y et he did not sink in the waters .Look w ith one eye behind,

’

he cried ; for he who a l ittle time ago wenton ahead was now being tossed and turned by the frothy waves in the m idst ofthe waters. Looking back, the youth beheld the Reverend One walkingforward, and not sinking in the water . Is it an illusion of m y eye P he

thought, for he is actual ly not sinking in thewater .

’ When he had reachedthe farther side of the river, he app roached right in front of where thelam a had taken up his position, and gazed at his

-

feet. TheWater has notr isen even above the soles of his feet ! he exclaim ed. Thence bel ief and

love were bred w ithin him , and to the lama who had attained to such se

com p lishm ents he said :‘I beseech you to credit that I was ignorant, and to

pardon m e for not m ounting you just now on my horse .

’

Moreover, taking the ends of the bridle of his black horse, and placingthem in the hands of his Reverence, he besought him ina song as fol lows



he may be able to make use of my boots’

; wherefore, pul l ing off his bestboots, wh ich were an ornam ental pair,he made a profi er of them in rhyme

O Naljor, accomp li shed and precious !As you are attached to no countryy ourself;But through the realm you roam aim le ss,Perchance some angry dog may snap your toes,Or jagged thorns m ay wound your feet,Or walking barefoot may bring fatigue.

These boots are fine, with green -hued tagsThey have laces made of silk m ost costly ;In front they are worked with handsome braid,

Whilst p rojecting brass nail s are beaten into the cap s .

»

The fur of the d bd deer is let into the m iddle of the upper parts,The hide of the w ild yak form s both the soles,And a cunning workm an has stitched the whole togetherThe overfiaps guard the toe-nail s from mischance,And cl ing firmly, so to speak, as the water -l eech to a l ion ’s head .

These are the patrim ony of me, a young m an,

And I p lace them at the feet of your Reverence.

But the Reverend One refused acceptance, rem arking I have boots of

my own sur passing any of yours and th'

en,

'

at the other ’s request, he sp okethese lines

Listen faithfully, l ittle m an,my son

Here in my fatherland, the circle of theThree Kingdom s ;The dense darkness of Ignorance has beshrouded ;The m eadows are fil led with the swam p s and m ire of LustThe m oss - lands bristle w ith the thorns of EnvyThe wild dogs of Anger bark and b iteThe mountains and rocks of Arrogance are lofty and steep .

I, having p icked my way across the four 1 ivers,Have sought to flee to the

‘

p lains of m ighty Bliss .There Ka-shai fur is illusive and perishable stuff,Your two leather soles are the p erverted longings for existence,And are stitched together by bel ief in the fruits of karm a.

The green tags are, as it were, the pleasures and p roperty in the land ;The silk laces give freedom of attachm ent to one ’s own ideasMemnonic verses to induce meditation are the beaten brass bosses,While the buckles comp ressing them are the three physicial fetters

restraining m editation .

The best. boots of the Naljor are not such as thatI do not desire your adornm entsDepart, 0 citizen, to the home to which you were going.

Quoth the youth Be it so, your Reverence ; but if you decl ine the

boots, is there not any single article of clothing '

you would l ike, as you wil lfeel the cold ? Here, indeed, is a red and green overcoat for a bed- cover ing .

’

And with the view to his taking it he sang as follows

Precious lama and finished saintAs you bind not yourself to any p lace,


But rove about void of store and p rovisionAt one time you wander to the top of a m ountain,

At another you sleep in the street of a townA s you are without a single cotton cloth for raim entYour body, being in nakedness, must needs be cold .

Th is, which has been worn by m e, a youth ,

Is dyed red and green with the juice of the mendi plant and the waterof clouds ;

A skilful worker has cut it out and put it togetherInside it is finished with fleecy l ining white as the cloudsAbove it is satin - trimmed with marm ot’ s fur ;Round the lower part are fastened flounces of lynx skinThe border below is turned in with otter - skin ;On the shou lders silk ribbon- stream ers are knotted.

Now, by wearing this, not only wil l it look dashing and lustrous,But al so you will not dread the cold p iercing wind.

On the whole, it is a robe for an envoy or a Brahm in .

The Buddhism of Milaraspa is almost identical with the philosophic Buddhism m ost popular in Tibet at the present day. A lthoughMilaraspa l ived some 350 years previous to the period of Ts

’ongkhapa

(the reform er of Tibetan B uddhism ), he is supposed to have professedsim ilar principles . H is creed maintains the utter illusiveness of all

material things, the world itself only existing in the imagination ofits inhabitants . All mental reasonings and earthly knowledge (Riots

j m) are despised, as obscurations of higher perception (rig-

pa) , in

tuitive learning (sites-m 6), and the perfect wisdom of a saint’

(ngos

grués) . Compassion for the physical sufi erings of men and animalsm ust be swallowed up in an impersonal and unimaginative pity, prempted solely by the fact of their being still the subjects of ignorance andm istakes . D ivers difficulties and foes stand in the way of attainmentto this effulgent state : not only the allurements of the appetites andpassions, and the seductions of science, but also the many supernaturalbeings of Buddhist mythology—demons, goblins, gnomes, etc. On

the other hand, there are spiritual agents who, on propitiation, can aid

the aspirant, such as theNoi -ym , or m ountain- gods,andtheEu, or snake’

gods, dwellingin the numerous lakes of Tibet . But dem ons, gnomes,

and gods have m ore than a spiritual influence. They have the controlof diseases, and are the cause of most temporal and bodily ills ; theyhave the disposal of earthly abundance, are the arbiters of good and

bad fortune, and can make a

'

man impervious against the schem ings,and even the physical attacks, of his human enem ies . The Naljoror the Buddhist sage, according to the extent of his ascetic

'

andmagical

attainments,possesses more or less power of coercion of deities

.

and

devils for those mundane purposes and the populace in general value the

2 68 THE P OET MILARASPA.

expert ascetic chiefly as a guide_to earthly acuteness and as a medium

in dealing with invisible protectors and foes . The Ngag-

pa sorcereris now,

however,the m iracle- worker in m odern Tibet ; and he is al

together a m ore mundane personage than the Naljor of the olderdays .

Now, it is a cardinal doctrine of Buddhism , both ancient and

modern,that none can hope to gain perfect wisdom and the,

m iracu

lous powers of a saint unless they practise continuous and systematicmeditation . Meditation consequently assumes the position of a

science ; and its m ethods and stages have been studied and shaped

to such a nicety as to form the science into an abstruse art, the rulesvarying, however, in different schools of philosophic Buddhism .

Milaraspa, whobelonged to a sect of theMadhyam ika school of thought,itself a sub - divisiono f .the great Mahayana branch of Buddhism ,

laysdown the stages of systematic meditation as four '

g'

Q'

Tct-wa.—Contemp lation or concentration .

fifl'

l l'

Gom -

pa.—Com plete abstraction .

gil l

.

Chyo’

p a..—Consumm ation, and the Very S elf seen .

D ai - lm .— Fru ition, with new faculties under one’s w ill .

S uch meditation,b efore it ripens, must often be continued for

years, and with only the m ost necessary relaxations and the scantiest

diet. The majority of the herm its found dwelling in caverns throughout

Tibet never reach further than the Gom-

p a stage but, properly or theo

retically, a Naljor -

pa, who is also a m iracle- worker, is o ne who has

gained the third stage. As to the curious artificial means employed toinducemeditation, and the weird fancies connected therew ith, they havebeen described in another chapter. S o far, enough has been said to

enablethe reader to follow m ore intelligently further e xtracts from

our author

q

The p eop le begging to be given the opportunity of learning and bringing into easy comp rehension the arts of contemplation, m editative abstraetion, and consummation, in rep ly thereto he sangto them this ditty

May the lam a’ s benediction enter your soul s !

Blessed is it to perceive the Very VoidIn returning thanks to you householders who bel ieve,Accept -

a song'

wh ich my tutelar gods del ight in .

That which is apparent,"that which is void, that which is l iberated from

discernm ent of distinctionsThree are these ;


270 THE POET MILARASPA’

.

mind m a lama. But whence do they originate ? ‘They arise,’ replied he,

‘ from the understanding of one’s own soul . ’

If the essentials of systematic meditation, b oth spiritual ; andartificial, are continuously persevered in for years, then rapid and

assured advance through the stages of ascetic rank proceeds . From

the grade of Trub- t’op (flfl fla ) that of Gama/Ell en ( fifl fifi)

attained and when the subsequent stage of Nab’

or is at last reached,m iracles such as those described in our next and concluding extractsare rendered possible.

Du‘

e

'

north of the Kumaon portion of the Himalayas, and justwithin Tibet, is a region famous both mythologically and geographi

cally. Here are situated the cluster of peaks known as Mount Kailasand the pair of lakes named in our m aps Manasarowar . Geographi

cally the lakes, which bear in T ibet the names of Ts’o Mei - pang and

Ts’o Lang - gak, are of importance. From the latter - issues f orth the

Sutlej river ; while threeotherm ighty rivers—theIndus, the Karnali,and the Yeru Tsangpo—are bred from m onster g laciers on the

'

sur

rounding mountains. Kailas, styled Gang Tisé by Tibetans, continnes absolutely unexplored but it has a central summit measured tri

gonométrically at 21 ,830 feet. D esolate, even for Tibet, though thelocality is, eight m onasteries stand on

_

the shows of LakeMa- pangand four others on the slopes of Gang Tisé.

In the course of his travels, Milaraspa with a band of his pupilsreached the great snowy mass of Mount Kailas or Tisé. He foundthe sacred m ountain inpossession of a; priest of

‘

the Ben religionthe aboriginal cult .of Tibet previous to the introduction of Buddhism ,

and which has a considerable following still in the remoter districts ofthe country. OnMilaraspa

’

s arrival he claim s Tisé as the inheritanceof the Buddhists. Thi s claim the B6n chief repudiates

,and compar

ing Milaraspa and the sacred m ount as being both of them”

nothingclose at hand, but famous only at a distance, he proposes that theyshould compete in . feats

‘

of jugglery, the w inner to hold sway overTise. The heretic begins by straddling over Lake Ma- pang, placingone foot on either shore, and opens thus

Great is the fame of white, frosty Tise,Yet for helmet hasthe mountain onlysnow.

Great, too, is the talk aboutMapang, the turquoise lake,Yet, being merely water, by water is it torn apart .

Big, l ikewise, by report is Milaraspa,Yet is hebut an old man bound to lie naked ;From his mouth a puny song flows forth ,


And in his hand he grasps an iron staff.

If miracles be wrought, l ike this should they be shown .

Because the Bon thus spoke his Reverence proceeded to sit down,and, though his body did not become larger, and Lake Ma- p’ang didnot grow smaller, he covered the entire surface. Then this song did

he utterHo! ho ! then hearken, gods

‘

and men ?

On the hill of the Vulture’s PeakThe victor, Shakya T ’

ubpa, sits .There, too, the S ixth Buddha, Dorje ChhangWhile the m ighty mother , h is other sel f,Born together with him , revels in h is essence .

Mila, with name all fam ous, am I

And, fulfilling the commands of Marpa of Lhobrag,

I come to m editate here on the snows of Tisé .

As toyou , you heretical B’

o’

npo,

I wil l m easure in my verse answers to your dicta.

Great is the fame of Tisé white and frosty,

Snow is the covering of that m ountain ’

s crestSnow -white also are the teachings of Buddha.

Great indeed is the talk about Mai - pang,

The lake so l ike unto the turquoise ;Being water itself, by water is it rendedSo doexisting things pass into the ground and are consumed.

Great, too,is the repute of me, Milaraspa ;That old m an, bound to lie naked,Has issued forth from the overthrow

'

of al l his tastes .

From hismouth p roceeds a l ittle song,

And al l he sees takes form as in a bookIn his hand an iron staff is poised,Which has steered him o

’

er

'

l ife’

s ocean .

Y e B6npo, embrace the Doctrine, and be useful to al lNot doing so—conquered by my mystic artsDepart ye to other lands and countriesAnd look, m oreover, on this feat .Thu s speaking, he hel d forthwith Lake Mai - pang on the tip of his

thumb ; and this he did without injuring the l iving creatures wh ich dweltin the waters .

The Reverend One enunciated : Though the stars in a body competewith the sun and m oon to give l ight, nevertheless it is the sun and m oononly that disp el the darkness of the Four Continents . S o also, though you

and I make trial of our sk ill , you cannot m atch yourself with m e. Tisé ismy p roperty. H owever, as much for your own immediate satisfaction, as

wel l as in order that all may behold the m ight of the Tantrik achievem ents

possible in my religion, the exhibition of magic performances is allowable.

’


Having spoken, his Reverence all at“

once transferred himself to theLotos Cave in the valley on the western side of Tisé, where he seated'him

self and whilst the Bonpo remained on the east of the m ount, his Reverencestretched forth his legs from the west, right round on to a rock in the rel igious cell of the '

Bc'

npo, and left h is footprints there. Y ou do l ike that ! ’ hecried.

The other stretched out his legs towards the west, but they did not evenreach down to the margin of the water . Thereat the demons which were inhe sky set up a peal of chuckling laughter .

Although the B6npo was confu sed and ashamed, nevertheless, ‘Onceagain,

’

he exclaimed, ‘ let us test ourm agic.’

S o the B6npo started out on

his Ben circuit round the m ount from right to left), while the ReverendOne went forth on the strictly orthodox round. Once m ore meeting, thistime on the southern side of Tisé, a shower of rain began to fall . As it

seemed needful to make som e shel ter from the rain, his Reverence askedWil l you build the wall s below, or wil l you construct the roof for the tOp P

‘Y ou build the wall s ; I shal l put on th e roof,’

was the rep ly. Then his

Reverence beckoned to a huge boul der as big as three m en to ascend upwards. Oh now, pass over to the farther side,

’

he said. I do so,’

it said,and went. Looking at the back of the wal l s, he noticed that as much inh eight as the body of a child of eight years was required to finish them ,

and that just such a piece had been rent from the boulder . Casting at it a

magic glance and lifting his index - finger , he cried : ‘ Let that stone be cleftin the m iddle and brought to m e !

‘ That p iece is mine which you have broken,

’ said the Bonpo .

If you vie with m e in m iracles, then you can cause that it be unbroken.

You cannot make the magic glance that broke it . However, break it, andfetch it if you can.

’

Then the Bonpo—able to break a p iece like the first—attempted to l ift it

up ; but the other with his magic glance made it incapable of being raised,and the Bdnpo stood with averted eyes .


274 THE PRACTIS'E OF JVIAGIO AND S ORCERY.

In Tibet the arts of occult mystery (which include all departm ents of magic, ram ifying into necromancy, astrology, dem oniacagency, and into every branch of sorcery) are studied w ith differentpurposes by two different classes of persons . The larger body are

those who apparently devote them selves to the pursuit with the objectof gaining wealth, power, and influence . And these, we must adm it,are intenselyp ractical . C onsciously or unconsciously, they indulge in

many form s of trickery which are sheer charlatanry and imposture.

Nevertheless, there can be little doubt that in the efficacy of certain oftheir m agic rites they are as frank believers as those who pay them

for"

their services . Indeed there is often considerable t ond -fides on the

part of the sorcerer ; and som e of the results brought about are not

always to be explained by comm on sense investigation. As to the

other and numerical ly smaller class of occultists, they seem to followtheir profession rather from an honest desire for the possession ofmystic knowledge and m iraculous powers than from any m ercenarym otives . They subm it eagerly to privation, solitude, and systematicmeditation w ith a single-mindedness which in the abstract is certainlyto be adm ired. One m ight compare these, perhaps, with the astrolegers of the m iddle and early ages in Europe only the intell igence andthe partially true science of the latter are here replaced by gross stu

pid1ty and a routine which never seeks to pass to new m ethods ordream s of fresh discoveries .

Between the two classes we have m entioned, m oreover, there are

of course other shades and orders partaking m ore or less of thecharacteristics of either class . Mixed m otives prevail here as everywhere. The

‘

magician, who works for a mundane recompense, is notalways devoid of ambitions which concern his own sanctification ;while there are certain ascetics who interm ingle with their ghostlymeditations considerable efforts after the earthly Offerings of thefaithful. But we shall new venture to describe the practical dabblersin magic, together w ith their methods and the uses to which theirarts are put. Moreover, as a matter of convenience, we shall, for our

purpose, divide the magicians into two general classes, namely, (1 ) thePractical S orcerers to whom the public resort

,and (2) the Philosophi

cal' Ascetics whose aim

, ostensible or real, is to com pass their ownsanctity and increase their own magical powers .

1 .—PRACTICAL SORCERERS .

In Tibet the public workers of magical ceremonial are usually

known asfiq lfl l l Ngakpa. In their neophyte days many of these

THE PRACTISE’OF MAGIC AND SORCERY. 275

have belonged to the school of Tantric learning or Ngakp a Ta- tsfémg

in one of the great m onastic establishments where instruction in thephilosophy and the ritual of occult rites is regularly given . One of

the m ost noted and frequented of these schools of magic is the Thoisam ling Tats

’ang in Tashilhiimpo m onastery.

There is a general impression am ong Tibetan lay- folk that mem

bers of the Gelukpa institutions are not versed in Tantrik arts andthat it is always best to 1 eso1 t to monks of some Nying - ma or nu

reformed m onastery or even to the Bonpo priests who possess manyBuddhist treatises gai bled or doctored so as to suit the Ben shihboleths Tsong - khapa, however, was a great Tantrik teacher and

one of his chief works for the reformed or Gelukpa Buddhists was onedeal ing with these rites and their intelligent performance. S till,except in Lhasa itself, the fashion is to prefer a Nyingma m onk ;

and in the districts a graduate of the Mindol Ling

can carry all before him ,being also consulted by Gelukpa priests them

selves . The m ore learned men of any very large establishm ent are‘N

known as Ge- e/Ee flq'

l'

q q fl'

and these have often a considerable “

prac_

tice.

For special prognostics, as to the right day for starting On a jour‘

ney, the best day to commence harvest, the interpretation of a dream ,

particular prescription of ceremonial in the case of severe illness— msuch business it is usual to resort to a Ge- s/ze or man of reputed learning or else to the head of a m onastery, particularly if the latter

'

shouldbe a gal /cu or incarnate lama . B ut for ordinary rites of karim, casesof sickness, services for a safe j ourney, child- birth conj

'

urat’

ions, etc:,etc., sets of Ngakpa readers and Gelongs are employed. In Lhasathose ritual reciters belonging to the guild of S erkyempa or dealersin the golden drink— especially the band attached to the Ramochhe

Temple—are in general request . In the sam e city, the comm on fo’lk

go for consultation to such popular sorcerers as the herm it of Tala

luguk cave near Chakpo'

Ri 2 while the rich may betake them selves

to the S tate Astrologer the Nai- chhung Chhoi- Kyong .

3 But in

1 Mindol Ling is the ch ief Nying -m a, or red - cap , m onastery in Central Tibet,and is considered the h ead- quar ters of the Dukpa sect. It is built on a hil l ten

"

m iles

sou th of the Yeru’

l‘

sang-

po and not m ore than 15 m i les from the fam ous Gelukpa

estab lishm ent of S amye .

2 Also styled Tak - la- lu - bup animals:“the hole of the nagas in the

3 Besides being the S tate Oracle the Naichhung Chhoikyong 1'

s also open to pri

vate consul tations by the genera-1 publ ic . His ordinary fee 1s stated to be 1-0 srang

276 THE PRACTIS E'OF MAGIC AND SORCERY.

D aipung and S era m onasteries there are many consulting lamas ofreputed learning each of whom have their votaries and thus Lhasa.

peOple‘have a wide choice.

2 .—PHILOSOPHICAL ASCETICS .

Persons “of this class devote them selves, with at least a certain

am ount . of solitude and privation, to systematic m editation of a settled

and peculiar quality. Moreover, by dint of such m editation, they ar

rive at, or are supposed to arrive at, certain defined stages in the art

which bring with them accompanying degrees of spiritual perf ection

as well as of physical adroitness .Before describing the cha1acte1 and the stages of this ascetic pur

suit, the individuals who practise it should be briefly denoted. S om e

of them are am ong the regular dwel lei s m m onaste1 ies . In nea1 ly all

such cases, if a personage devotes him self to any m arked extent to the

art, he is a man of learning and position. Occasional ly he m ay be a

Tulku or Incarnate Lama, but one of that order— though he is alwayssupposed to engage in systematic m editative functions— has rarely theprivacy or the leisure fo1 anything prolonged of this natu 1 e. H is

publ ic duties, and sometimes his p 1 ivate business avocations, where -he isperm itted to . manage the m onastic revenues, would probably preclude

the due concentration of one’ s whole being which is believed to be indis

pensable to any perfection in the pursuit. Generally, however, where

any resident in a gompa devotes him self to exercises of this abstractqual ity, he is the head of some mystic school such as the Ngag

-

pa Ta

ts’ang in the place. S uch a man has usually considerable knowledgeof technical doctrines and occult rites as set forth in the books. Others

whoare Kai- ram, or members of any school established for philosophicalstudy, often like to pose as gem- otter, or systematic m editators . In

these cases it is the custom for the devotees to w ithdraw for lengthyperiods to certain sets of caverns or to artificially

- constructed cells, a

series of'

which are available in the rocky heights adjacent to all the

larger m onasteries . These cells are styled dub-Many. When the

spel l of mental concentration is over, they return to the community and

After consul tation he bestows a scarf stam ped w ith sung- agak or dharam’

sentences

in colour either red or white according to whethe1 the man is man ied o r a cal bate .

A great deal of outward 1 everence seem s to be ofi ered to th e Naichhung Chhoikyong,as the 1nca1 nat1on of the god Pe har . N0 one, for instance, may look at him when

he proceeds into Lhasa. Incense is then burnt before h im and he is attended by

a retinue of 70 trdpa'

or religious . Even high state offi cial s have been fined for locking on him while passing . Mem bers of the recent Mission to Lhasa who visitedh is oracle- cham ber describe it as fitted up in m ost exquisite taste and as being

different from al l other shr ines they saw in its superlative cleanl iness .


278 THE PRACTISE' OF MAGIC AND S ORCERY.

Moreover , theypersonal ly collect alms from the neighbouring ham lets

and m onasteries .

But if the recluse aspires to becom e a gem- citi es

,or perhaps even

tually to attain the sanctity of a nal -jor -

p a, such as was the greatMilaraspa, solitude of. a complete nature is im perative and he m ust forlengthy term s renounce intercourse with outsiders . Philosophical as

cetics of this type, accordingly, m ake their habitations on the loftiest

ledges without leaving access from below ; but the bags which they let

down the face of the cliii andwhich rem ain permanently suspended arealways sufficiently filled w ith food and fuel by villages living hard- by.

Certain anchorites of this class located near Tse- t’ang, at a placenamedYarlung S hos on the Yeru Tsang -

po, do not dwell in caverns orhigh up but pass their existence in small stone hovels by the roadsidebuilt without doors or windows . They hold no comm unication w

i

ththe outer world except by m eans of one hole in each hut through Whichofferings are received from the public

,and on such they entirely depend

for subsistence. The sanitary state of these abodes m ust be truly aw

ful ; yet the occupants are asserted to attain to a great age.

THE S CHEME OF MEDITATION .

And now for the employment to which the genuine gome/e/zenadapts him self. This is, as we have said

,systematic Meditation .

The mode of operation appears to be something thus An object isfirst selected upon which to concentrate the thoughts . For a beginneri t must be something of tangible shape and mystic import . It may

bea small m etal image of a deity or a saint or it may be a dorje orother sacred priestly implement set up in a corner of the cave or aniron nail or a peacock’ s feather. However, the best outward object onwhich to fix the m ind and the eyes is considered to be the Tibetan

letter W'

which is the last character in the alphabet and is in shape

of particularly subtle import.

Having set the gem- ten or visible focus of meditation at a con

venient d istance, and having abstracted his thoughts from all othersubjects, the devotee seats him self in a prescribed attitude in front ofit . S itting thus he gazes at it intently measuring with his eyes itscolour, size, shape ; at first abstaining from thinking of its innerm eaning or symbolism ,

merely contemplating its outward aspect fromevery possible point of view. As he looks thus

, he must strain hisgaze by degrees more and m ore, until the object wavers and swim sbefore his eyes, and until at length his whole m ind becomes absorbed

THE PRACTISE OF MAGIC AND SORCERY. 279

in it. He will then find‘

that he loses all visual sight of the outwardfigure but his eyes are not shut. However, the figure itself has beentransferred to his brain where it is seen as a black outline edged withcrim son and floating in a sea of pale-

yellow light. That at least isthe description given by commencing ascetic m editators . Olderpractitioners profess to behold nothing either outwardly or mentally.

This portion of the course when successfully carried out bringsthe votary to the first stage in the meditative art. He is said, then ,

to have accomplished TA- WA or CONTEMPLATION . He m ust,how

ever,persist in repetitions of the process, practising it daily and for

several hours together until expertness becomes so great that l ittleeffort is requi red to throw h im into the half - trance - like state which isstated to superve

‘

ne . The main requisites of C ontem plation are laiddown as abstinence from food not only during, but for three hoursprevious to starting OE

,and also freedom from al l outward objects of

distract-ion, which therefore m eans solitude and an unfurnished and

completely empty cel l .The second step in systematic meditation is considered infinitely

harder to perform than the first, and he who acquires any degree ofsuccess in effectuating it is far on the path to sainthood. This stagewhich is styled GOM- PA or COMPLETE ABSTRACTION takes rank as beinga real part of downright Meditation compared with which Tci - wa orContemplation can scarcely be named beside it .

Ex cept when he w ishes to cc - erce or acquire power over som e

particular deity (a business already explained fu lly) the devoteewho attem pts the Gompa stage of the art, dispenses with any outwardfigure to steady his m ind. He has grown adroit enough to disdainthe helps which novices demand. He requires, to begin the process,some mental object indeed, but it is carried entirely in the m ind

’s eye .

Moreover it must not be any idea which shall cal l for intellectual ex

perience— toy

-

joa or m ental knowledge,as comm only understood, beinga positive failing in a saint— or for any worry or excitement. It istherefore always some suppositious thing, not an abstract train of intelligent thought even, but a fanciful object which could never reallyexist.

Accordingly, am ong the favourite mig - te’ or mental concentrators

we find Mo - sam tyi B u or the Child of a BarrenWoman, and B atang

gz'

Go- Za Ru or the Horn on a Hare’ s Head . S ays the ascetic Milaraspa

My sons, wander not, wander not, in the m idst of a lesson !For if you wander in the m idst of instruction,S ometim es there cometh up the appearance of food

280 THE PRACTISE OF MAGIC AND SORCERY.

Whensoever the semblance of food shall arise,Instead of food, swal low untainted Contem plation ;Know al l the sweetest flavours to be il lusions .

S om etimes there com eth up the appearance of raimentWhensoever the aspect of raim ent shall arise,Instead of clothing, be clad in the blessed warm th of the Tum -m o

Learn that al l softness and finery are il lusions .

S om etim es there com eth up the semblance of wealthWhensoever the semblance of m oney shal l arise,Instead of money, seize on the S even Jewel s of the S aintsLearn that al l things costly are illusions .S om etim es there com eth up the ap pearance of FriendsWhensoever the semblance of friends shal l arise,Instead of friends, confide in the Wisdom that is S elf- sp rungKnow al l com rades and acquaintance to be illusions.

=ll< St

Neverthel ess, know ing everything to be il lusive,That

‘

which is profound m ay arise—THE HARE WITH A HORN .

That Horn is as a King seated on the divan ;Beh ind, it is like a wh ite flag up lifted on a hil l ;

In front, it resem bl es a m ound heaped w ith p recious th ingsAt the summ it, it is l ike a jewel led cook ’s - comb ;It is as officers bending l ow on seven m ountainsIt resembles a mandal of gol d in a wooded m eadow .

Those destined for conversion are on such a hill as that ;And you, when you have gone thither, accompl ish their conversion !

Having devised som e such im aginary mig- te’as the above, the

Meditator m ust assume the prescribed pose of the body . In order totake this attitude the limbs and facial organs should be di sposed inaccordance with the foll owing seven conditions known as the

Nedz'

e’

n

I . Hands loosely united

over the stomach, the fingers enfolded but the thumbs extended apart.

2 . fil§ The body seated, w ith the legs\3

folded inwards and crossed, with the top of each foot turned over resting the toes on the thigh Opposite and the soles of the feet turnedupperm ost.

3 . gma fl fil'

flfiqgfl'

flr fl r The backbone on the alert

straight as an arrow .

4 . The shoulders slightly

rounded but on the watch as the wings of a hovering eagle .


CHAPTER X V

MAMMALIA OF TIBET.

The fauna of Tibet is, like all el se connected with this land, sin

gul ar and set apart from that prevailing in other countries . It may

be said to possess two remarkable characteristics . First, the ex

traordinary abundance of animal life,both wild and domestic second

ly, the unique nature of nearly all the species found.

I . For regions so elevated, the quantity and variety of quadrupeds are certainly phenomenal. In a country of great fertility and

with temperate or tropical climate, one m ight expect to find in the

sparsely inhabited districts a Surplusage of wild animals . But in a

land such as Tibet, notable for its scanty vegetation and the rigourof its seasons, with an altitude of unparalleled loftiness, such profusion as really exists is somewhat startling . E special ly on the greatnorthern tracts, where the elevation ranges from to feetabove the sea, does this plethora of m ammalian life prevail . D uringthe summer season the Jhang - t ’ang (as those parts are styled) teem swith al l kinds of game. Herds, numerically immense, of the herbivorous species such as yak, antelope, wild ass

, goat, and wild sheep,roam everywhere over the open, shallow val leys . N or are the carnivora wanting for wolves, lynx, and bears haunt in large numbers thesame realm s, preying on the grass- feeders, while, again, a multitudeof smaller rodents, as the bare, the marm ot, and the

'

lagomys—each

in several varieties—are never absent from the sam e wondrous grounds.Neither in the depths of winter are these tracts altogether destitute .

The brave travellers, who in recent years have crossed the upper regionsof the north when valleys were snow - fields and rivers lay ice- bound,report the

"

presence of yaks and hares and antelopes which they haveobserved scratching below the snow for the possibly- surviving herbagein January and February.

However, the southern districts of Tibet are hardly as prolific as

the northern steppes . The elevation is generally of m uch lower average—the upland pastures and lake- side fens varying from to

MAMMALIA OE TIBET. 283

feet, the river - valleys from to feet . But here, too,exist large quantities of mammals—wild ass, ovis amm on, gazelleand ibex on the mountain crags stags on the scrub—yielding plainsmusk - deer and nap e in the lower valleys—while, to the S .E ., the

fauna, though different, seems quite equally abundant.It may be interesting at this point to supplement these general

statements by quoting from the reports of recent travellers particularinstances of the vast concourse of various animals observable everywhere in Tibet.

Mr . Rockhill, passing through the country some 90 m iles S .S .W .

of K'

ciko N or at an average altitude of feet, towards the closeof April, remarks The country was everywhere literally alive with

game ; yak and wild asses were particularly plentiful, but orange and

tse’

ria antelopes,w ild goats, hears, wolves, hares, ducks, geese, shel

drakes, sand grouse, and partridges, were also m et in vast numbers .

”

A . K. brought back extraordinary accounts of the herds of wildcreatures encountered by him 0 11 the plains just north of the D angLa range

,circa long . 92

°— 93°E . in October 1 879 . He speaks of the

country being over- run w ith enorm ous numbers of dong (wild yak),aka (a deer) , you (cham ois) , rm (wild goat), ayen (ovis amm on), e/l a

'

ngtu

(wolf), g/ z'

(lynx), icyamg (wild ass) , e/zz'

p z'

(marmot), and so forth . The

elevation here averaged feet .D r . Thorold, summ ing up the animals seen during his journey

across Tibet, keeping between lat. 33°and 34

°N . and thereabouts in

the height of summ er, writes The high central plateau of Tibetappears to be densely stocked with animal life. Yak, Hodgson

’ santelope

,ravine deer

,kiang, harhal, ovis amm on, wild dog, gray wolf,

were the larger well- known animals m et with in suitable ground,Often in immense num bers . Herds of 410 to 80 yak—bulls, cows,and calves together— were seen grazing in sheltered valleys on thehill - sides . As m any as 300 kiang, 700 or 800 antelope, and 80 or1 00 ravine deer, were sometimes viewed on the same day .

”

Then, in quite a different district a few m iles east of the easternm ost upper waters of the Indus, one of the S urvey pundits—whencrossing the Nagts

’al range 60 m iles N .E . of Manasarowar Lake

saw“a very large herd of wild yak ; his party counting over 300

before the herd ran Off. Those yaks, called dong,”were mostly seen

betweenMajin Kinglo and theManasarowar lake. Great herds of Wild

asses were Observed throughout,som e 200 in sight at the same time.

The Hodgsonian antelope, wild goats, and sheep (the latter including

the gigantic ovis amm on) were all seen in numbers. Large greywolves were constantly noticed, but never more than two. or three at a

284 MAMMALIA OE TIBET.

time and packs of wild dogs were heard yelling at night. Numbers

Of reddish hares and a kind of fox were seen on every march .

Finally may be quoted an extract from the report on the loftyplateau separating the two branches of the early Indus in the Gartok

district of Ngari Khorsum :“ In spite of the desolate aspect of the

mountains traversed, the number of wild animals was rem arkable

quantities of Tibetan antelopes, w ild asses, yaks, yellow wolves, hares,and marm ots. Wild fowls swarmed on some of the small lakes, and

ravens used to visit the camp in pairs .”

From statem ents of this sort it may be assum ed, we imagine, thatany sportsman lucky enough to be adm itted on a leisurely trip throughTibet would m ost probably be able to rival the bags of large gam e once

possible to a Gordon Cumm ing in S outh Africa. But, personally, we

shall be truly overjoyed if the mere slaughterer of animals be foreverexcluded, lest this land also become one day as bereft of magnificentherds as is the greater part of the Africa of present times .

Now, we do not at all consider it to be either necessary or possibleto discover set causes for every rem arkable fact in the physical world.

The vagaries of nature, particularly when they prove inexplicable tom odern science, are a delight to us. Yet, in the present case, it m ay

be owned, that reasons apparently sound can be assigned in part explanation of the phenomenon of the crowded state of animated naturein these regions .

Accordingly, first, let it be observed, that explorers of the territory under review

,such as Przhevalsky, A.K., Captain Bower

Obruchev,and Mr . S t. George Littledale, unanimously agree in noting

the abundance of coarse grasses which for som e four m onths coverval ley- bottom and undulating hillside through the m aj or extent ofN orth Tibet . The curious rapidity of its maturation combined with a

certain uncouth luxuriance are features of these vast stretches of pasturage . Much herbivorous food for a certain short space of the yearis accordingly provided for the troops of living creatures existingthere. D uring those m onths

,at least for animals, the food supply is

practically inexhaustible and the fact that they increase prodigiouslyand appear well - fattened, indicates that the herbage, though of coarse

quality, must be exceedingly nutrient . One other fact, moreover,shouldnot pass unmentioned. While the beasts flourish on the yield of”

grass, so does the grass in its turn derive rich sustenance from the

feeders in the shape of ample supplies of manure. Thus the pendulum of inter- dependence once set swinging, the source of mutualsupport becomes ceaseless . Such is the reciprocity which the Creatorhas made inherent throughout nature.



not necessarily prove the existence at those periods of a luxuriantvegetation to sustain them .

II .—Passing, next, to the second feature of the Tibetan fauna,

let the unique quality of the species be considered. Mr . W . T .

B lanford, the most discerning of m odern naturalists, has in his zoolo

gical papers m ore than once pointed out what he term s the remarkablespecialization of the mammalian fauna inhabiting the Tibetan plateau .

”

Mr . B lanford gives a l ist of 46 different mammals known toinhabit the tracts north of the Himalayas and south of the Kuen- liin

andNan- shan ranges at elevations exceeding feet . Out of these46, he distinguishes no fewer than 3 1 as animals not known to existbeyond the confines of Tibet ; and am ong these 231 he notes that inaddition to so many species peculiar to the country there are five new

genera of which no representatives occur elsewhere .

We should hardly venture to avow any difference of Opinion fromso high a zoological authority as Mr . B landford, nevertheless we shouldl ike to point out that his list m ight be legitimately extended. For

exam ple, if he includes B arloreas taaz'

eolor,he can hardly with justice

om it Nemor/wclns E rlwarflsr'

z'

,Mose/ans Se

’

f anz'

eas,Kemae cinerea

,and

SueMorgaz'

nensls, al l Of which were m et with first and are still foundin approximately the same quarter of Eastern Tibet . Then we shouldlike to see the yel low wolf and the black wol f differentiated as Species .Can they be local variations of the same wolf

,as they both occur in

one district and side by side ? Moreover,the natives regard them as

distinct kinds ; they have different names for them , and aver that theynever interbreed . General Kinloch

,also, has noted several radical con

trasts in their structure as well as in their colouring . Again,from

information supplied us from Tibetan sources, there seem s little roomto doubt that other species of fox, besides fianescens and f errl latns,exist in the country. Tibetans them selves count four different kindswhich are styled warno, natse, walrotro, and wand/c respectively. N ex t,must be put forward the claim s of both the tiger and the leopard.

The thick - furred, broad- headed, Chinese variety of the former is frequently seen between Litang and D archendo, at heights approaching

feet ; while both the tiger and the leopard were reported toPere Armand D avid as occurring between his “Moupin

”and the

D erge territory to the west, l .e., still further within Tibet . Also two

leopard- cats hail from these districts,and another cat has been de

scribed by the various Russian travellers who have explored the southernor Tibetan base of the Kuen Liin range.

l Furthermore, with regard

1 Mr . Bl anford has included Paradoxurus lam ’

ger in h is l ist ; but perhaps this

mythical creature should now be om i tted from zool ogical enum eration .

MAMMALIA OE TIBET. 287“

to the smaller insectivora and rodentia the principle of selection forinclusion in Mr. B lanford’ s list is not clearly apparent. Where, forexample, are

“ the musky m ole” Seap loelzelros mosel az

‘ns

’and that

nondescript“

outcast from the genus Talpa Scap tonya fnsez’

eanclalns,’

together with Urop sz'

lns sorz'

cz'

p es, all of which frequent the Tsaidam region south of the Altan Tag range near the head- waters of theH oang- ho ? Where, likewise, are many items of Lepus, Arvicola,Mus, and Hystrix ? Finally, Mr . B lanford has entirely barred out allQ uadrumana and, with the exception of Eupetaurus, all the Pteromyidae.

On the whole,we think, it is undesirable in compiling any

catalogue of Tibetan mammals to fix any lim it Of altitude as a. con

dition'

of adm ission thereto . Many writers are unaware of the variability in the range of elevation occurring in every part of the regionsin question . Thus Mr. Blanford nam es the geographical boundariesof what is comm only designated

“the Tibetan plateau —though

plateau it is not—and takes the lowest lim it of altitude w ithin thoseboundaries at feet. As a matter of fact

,no river- valley of

Central Tibet east of longitude 90°E . and south of the latitude of

Lhasa attains‘

that height . The extensive valley of the Yeru Tsangpo“

east of Shigatse and west of Tse- t’ang (both towns in the heart ofTibet) averages feet ; and east of Tse - t’ang (lat. 29

,1 5 . N .

long . 9 1°4S

’E), it rapidly drops towards feet . But in estimating the fauna of Tibet it would be ridiculous to exclude from our

purview the river- valleys, to which, m oreover, such characteristic item s

as the m usk - deer, otter, and hedgehog are confined. D own to thesouth

,towards one portion of the N epal frontier, Tibetan territory

sinks still lower and Kirong, an important Tibetan town with small

district attached, registers only feet above the level of the sea.

Again to the far S .E .

, still in regions legitimately assigned to Tibet,the descent to lower levels becom es truly extraordinary, and the extreme

point is reached in Zayu l, where the chief town S bikha is marked at

only feet in altitude .

Avoiding, however, the inferior elevations in the southern partsof the country and proceeding due east only, towards the confines of

China, we come down to feet without leaving Tibetan soil.

This is the altitude of Moupin, and that district—although it is near

ly feet under his feet lim it— is undoubtedly not excludedfrom the jurisdiction Of Mr. Blanford’s list. Moreover, it is in these

eastern extremes that som e of the m ost curious and distinctive of thequadrupeds

’

Occur . Thus both Aelnrop ns melanolenens and Barl orcae

do not seem to prevail at higher altitudes than feet ; but


injustice would be done to the peculiarities of the Tibetan fauna if wefail to reckon these and others as w ithin its sphere. However, on a

later page, we shall venture to present a list of wider scope than Mr .

Blanford’s and one which will afford, as we believe, a fairer view ofthe variety and special isation of the mammals of Tibet . All form soccurring between the southern and northern barriers of the countryand between Ladak and the S zechuan- Yunnan frontier- l ine, at whatever altitude, have a plain right to be classed as Tibetan animal s .

Our list, however, is in a measure a speculative and therefore an un

scientific one,several item s being discriminated as species solely on

native evidence and native opinion .

In exam ining the leading characteristics of the genera of mam

m alia found in Tibet, we cannot fail to notice the large number ofherbivorous animal s and small rodents . Of the deer and antelopekind, no fewer than 25 different species are met with while as akin tothese m ight be added thereto the wild yak and four wild sheep, to

gether with two species of wild pig . Then the little creatures of themarm ot class are an especial feature . E verywhere throughout thelength andbreadth of the land do their warrens extend. S O perforatedis all ground, save that on the steepest hill - sides, w ith holes and

burrows , that riding is beset with continual peril . As many as fourspecies of marmot are already known whilst of the lagornys or

“ tailless rabbit ” at least six kinds have been discriminated. With thesem ight be l inked the large variety of rats

, m ice, voles, and shrews,som e of them of considerable size, notably Masfiam

‘

p eclns, a hugefel low measuring 15 inches from nose to tail - tip . Of these smallerrodents and insectivora about 34 Species have been recorded withinthe confines of Tibet .

In truth Tibet appears to be the land of burrowing animals .N umerous are the kinds of every class which resort to such methodsof habitation or shelter . And that it should be so is m ost reasonable,considering the intense cold and the poverty of scrub and underwood inthis barren - looking territory. Great numbers of. quadrupeds live thusbeneath the ground. We find for example the foxes with holes hardlylarger than those of the marm ots and that the 1 5 kinds of martin,weasel, and badger—not to mention the otters, the porcupines, and

hares- dwel l down below goes without saying .

Glancing over the m embers Of the fauna, still in a general m anner,another observable point is that while several of the anim als distinctively Tibetan, and found nowhere else, have a very wide range, beingmet with in every quarter of the prescribed regions, on the other handa much larger number are extremely local . The wild yak, the wild


290 MAMMALIA OF TIBET.

This district,which is watered by the upperportions of theMekhong

and Yang- tse- kiang, includes the S .E . part of the sub - prefecture ofBat’ang and the whole of the Tibeto - Chinese chieftainry known as

Chien- chang T’ ing. Forest, luxuriant thicket, river - gorge, and lofty

mountain- ridge scaling up to feet, are the physical features,with a general elevation not often under feet . The region hasbeen explored only in places by travellers such as Gill, Baber, and Prince

Henry of Orleans and by naturalists such as Pratt and John Anderson,

and by native collectors whose spoils have been assorted and appraised

by Milne - Edwards, W. T . Blanford,G . D obson, etc. S o far as we

know,the following are the species

,

occurring in this region andnowhereelse, save perhaps in contiguous districts

Macaens eyelap ie. Cap ra Heurcl zz. Pteromys eanlcep s.

Kemas grieeae. Mae Ynnnanensz'

s.

Fells tristis. Nemor/icedas Snmalrensls. Mas grlsez'

p ectns.

Prionodonp ardz'

color . Budorcas taxicolor . Mas vienlornrn.

Aelnrae oe/lraeene (var ) Pleroms nnnanensls.Hyelris Yunnanensis.

Lntra Salwlnensls. Pteromys al l orafns. Manz'

s aarlta.

Another portion of the eastern borderland of Tibet which has hadsome measure of exploration from the zoological purview l ies further

north, about 1 50 m iles or so E .N .E . of D archendo . It is often referredto in works of Natural History asMoupin, and always as having yielded some rare finds brought home by the Roman father Mons. D avidand described by Mons . Milne-Edwards. But where and what is

Moupin ? The name is given with such grave pronouncement byzoological and botanical writers that one would fancy it was as certainlyknown and well- established a local ity as Assam or Yunnan . We verilybelieve that scarcely one of the writers who mention it so freely haveanything but the vaguest notions of either its situation or physica l

circum stances.As this Moupin affords a fair specimen of the country and pro

ducts of the no-man’ s land” running down from the Huang

- ho due

south towards D archendo al ong the Tibetan fringe of the Chinese pro

vinces of S hensi and S zechuan, we have taken some trouble to makeout its exact whereabouts . It is a district or sub - prefecture lyingbetween Latitude 31

°30

’and 32

°N .

, and between Long . 1 02°30

'

and

Long . 1 02"

50’E .,

and is so small a tract that to write, “ this speciesinhabits Moupin

” would be paral leled by stating as the general habitat of the English weasel “ it is found in Gloucestershire . The name

Moupin occurs in no map, the fact being that the Abbe D avid hastold us the Frenchified form of the Chinese name of a Tibetan

MAMMALIA OF TIBET. 291

district. Moupin, which should be Muping - sze, is a Chinese designation for Nang- chhen Sbring

- wa, commonly known to Tibetans asD rumba or Jumba. This D rumba, otherwise Moupin,

” is occupiedby a S ifan tribe and is shut ofi from China by a lofty snow - cappedrange styled by T ibetans Gyalmo Mordo . The average elevationm ay be set at circa feet, and the climate is exceedingly damp:m in or snow f al l ing, it seems, nearly em'

eg/ day. Though the Chineseare fast imm igrating and burning the timber up in wasteful fashion,the country is still well - wooded and encradled amid lofty heightscovered with trees and thicket .

We have made so lengthy a digression as this, because a fullknowledge of the exact situation and physical features of the localityin question supplies us with a ready explanation as to Why the

animal - life there prevailing should be in any way specialised as it isfrom the rest of Tibet. On the whole, too, the country there, inquality and in its natural history, may stand as a sample of the entirem ountainous region which separates Eastern Tibet from China. We

shall not, however, here Specify the considerable number of quaintmammals which were collected by Mons . D avid in D rumba orMuping- sze and made public by Mons . Milne- Edwards, as sufficientenumeration occurs in the general list of Tibetan quadrupeds to beintroduced presently, and sufficient description of certain items is

given subsequently. It may be as well to mention that a Mr.

Kricheldorfi , a German in the employ of Mr. A . E . Pratt, the

naturalist,visited this district in 1 891 , but did not add much to the

previously- ascertained information .

Reverting to the animals belonging to the main territory ofTibet, passing reference may be made to the curious under -

growth ofdelicate down or soft silky wool which is a characteristic feature ofthe greater number of these quadrupeds . This pashm— or Zena, as ittermed by Tibetans—grows beneath and at the root of the outer hairwhich form s the ordinary coat of the animal . Hardly a single speciesof mammal appears to be unfurnished with such accessory covering .

The goat is providedwith it in its thickest and m ost perfect form ; but

in fact every tame animal, save the sheep and the horse, and am ong

wild animals all except the marm ot, hare, and lagomys, are supplied

m ore or less w ith this warm under- clothing. Even the dog and the

Wild ass, the wolf and the yak, rej oice in their down of softest growth

and finest texture.

We now proceed to display our speculative and tentative catalogue of Tibetan quadrupeds, which relates to al l animals found at anyheight within the prescribed limits, and including also a few domestic


animals . However, in comm on w ith Mr . Blanford, the entire series'

of Cheiroptera has been omitted by us from the list, as form ing an

anomalous section entitled to separate classification. Comparing,then, our list with Mr. Blanford’s and on that account excluding the

domestic item s of it, we find there are 1 46 different species ofm ammalia occurring somewhere or other w ithin Tibetan territorywhile he has reckoned only 46, exactly 1 00 1ess l Of these, 70 are,

species peculiar to Tibet, in which number we do not include severalkinds so far found only in the Koko Nur tracts but which may be

reasonably supposed to extend into Mongolia andWestern China . As

to unique genera confined to Tibetan regions, they may be estimatedat five, or, with the peculiar insectivora of KokoNur, at nine. We

are fully conscious that many item s deserve to be erased by the

newschool of zoologists who prefer the word“ variety to that of

species,” but we leave erasure to them .

The Tibetan native synonym s are in many cases here firstpublished . In other cases a m ore accurate version of the name than

those quoted in zoological works have been given.

A SUGGESTED LIS T OF TIBETAN MAMMALS .

(Being such as occur between Ladak and the S zechuan- Yunnan

frontier and betweenN orthern Tsaidam and the Indian H imalayas .)

Tibetan Name. Locah'

tyf requented.

Q UADRUMANA.

Macacus Assamensis Kirong, Lhobrak, D za.

Macacus cyclopis D archendo, D a-yul.

Macacus Tibetanus : 1 Sure-M6 Chhamdo, Derge, ZOk‘

chhen.

Semnopithecus Ku- éupLhobrak

,Subansiri

taceus upper waters.

1 Mons. Bonvalot brought hom e a species of monkey al ive from EasternTibet, which was p laced in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. This was a female

and was procured by him near Chham do . I am unable to trace any description or

scientific identification of this m onkey . Probably it proved to be M. Tibetanus.Kozlov also found monkeys in that region .


294 MAMHALIA OF TIBET.

Cuon alpinusflx

'

gfl'

P’ar - e/iany N .E . Tibet.

Cuon primaevus q g'

q'

F ar - d,

Vulpes fiavescens

Vulpes ferrilatus Wijj

ro Central T ibet.

Vulpes m ontana Kirong, Purang .

Vulpes Tibetana Central Tibet .

Martes flavigula Ubique.

Martes toufaeus D engri, & c.

Putorius Tibetanus Ubique.

Putorius zibell inaN .W’

. Tibet.

Putorius auriventer Tsang, D ok -

’tol .

Mustela erm inea D ang La range.

Mustela tem on S outh Tibet.

Mustela canigula ”(3 5V Lcikyz'

mo Western Tibet.

Mustela Moupinensis fl'

fl fl'

S ire- many

Mustela astutus Se’

mang

Mustela D avidianus fiSH

E: 07mg

WkHelicti s monti cola “

an“fi’rfi 2m ,

Meles leucura S . Tibet .

Tibet, should it be accorded specific dignity. The black wolf. has been encountered

not far from the Manasarowar lakes by three Europeans on separate occasions

C olonel Kinloch , Capt . Biddulph, andMr . H. Savage Landor .

953"W e.»

WHEY

g‘

aj'

Weimo

Wcimik

MUSTELID ZE .

“‘q 5 S /zuZ-j / n'

massesKclan- sh im

fi'

fll’

lfl'

B ululta\9

F'

q'

flfl. Kil au

81mm

Eastern Tibet.

D za Chhu valley, E .

D erge.

Koko Nur, Tsaidam .

D engri ; Gandak sources .

MAMMALIA OE TIBET. 295

Meles Kumbume nsis

Arctonyx albogularis

Lutra aureobrunnea

Lutra leptony

Lutra Salwinensis

Aelurus ochraceus

Ursus pruinosus

Ursus lagomyarius

AelurOpus melanoleucus

Tupaia Chinensis

Erinaceus auritus

E rinaceus Amurensis

Erinaceus

fi r st“?

Wokdong/car

Unsm zs .

as:D ik

if]534 4 amp .

TUPAIID ZE .

Shiny7 9z

ERINACID E .

8 67 7720,

Koko Nur district .

Ubique .

Ngari Khorsum .

Lho- yul, P’o -

yul .

Ba- t ’ang district.

Zayul S ubansiri

valley .

Central Tibet .

N .E . Tibet, Amdo .

D erge, Chhamdo, S zechuan frontier .

Nyagrong, Makham .

N .W. N .E . Tibet.

Koko Nur, Amdo .

Central Tibet .

1 This is a purely tentative nam e which I have ventured to introduce in

order to designate a species of otter noted by th e French m iss ionar ies as occurring

on tributar ies of the Up per S alwin. From their inform ation it is clearly to be

differentiated as a specie s p ecul iar to S .E . Tibet and Yunnan .

2 A hedgehog occurs in the Lhasa district, and I think it m ost improbab le

that it should move of any known species when its isolated habitat is borne in

m ind . I have only general al lusions to the anim al .


Talpa macrura

S captonyx fuscicaudatus

Uropsilus soricipes

S orex nigrescens

S orex murina

S ore-x myoides

Anurosorex squam ipes

Nectogale elegans

S captocheirOs m oschatus

Bos Tibeticus

Poephagus grunniens

Ovis dalai lama

TALPID ZE.

Surciman

fl'

m'

Profit

SORICID ZE .

ai l"

P’use

Lcitsi

D omestic

OVID ZE.

Yeru valleys .

Koko Nur district.

Tsaidam , Amdo .

Kirong, Lhobrak.

Tsaidam

Ubiq

N .E . T ibet .

Lhasa district.

Kuen Lun and D ungbura ranges .

1 Russian naturalists seem fond of d iscrim ina ting two species of yak , to

one of wh ich they ap p ly th e nam e P . m ums. As w e al l know ,the commonest form

of domestic yak in Tibet is the cro ss - b reed, the male of wh ich is styled zo -

p’o and

the female ao -mo.

2 The Ovis ammon of Northern Tibet is clearly to be differentiated from the

widely- spread O. Hodgsoni .



Procapra gutturosa

Procapra subgutturosa

Pantholops Hodgsoni1

Cervus afiinis 3

Cervus Thoroldi

Cervus eustephanus

Cervulus lacrymans'

Elaphodus cephalophus

Moschus S ifanicus

Moschus moschiferus

Moschus Saturatus

Camelus bactrianus

a“.

Gydriz d o Nur districtAmdo .

figurafi'

D ze'

ren Kuen Liin West range.

“IsaTsot also‘ flq15 Tao or 0120

also“isms.

Ubi-m

Purang, T s an gChhumbi.

SIM- a Eastern Tibet.faclia

(wild camel : N .E . Tibet, Tsaidam.

Nyd-

yé"

)

1 This antelope was observed by Mr . Littledale as far north as the neighbour

hood of Cherchen, som e 60 m iles north of the Akka Tag, the Tibetan boundary(Geog. Journal ,May

9 Three specimens of this fine stag were shot by the ofi cers of the recent

Tibetan cam paign in the Chhumbi val ley and one was captured alive by Captain

Ottley on the Lingma- thang in the sam e district.3 H . B . Hodgson difierentisted no fewer than three species of musk-deer as

inhabiting the Nepal and S ikkim Himalaya, namely : Moachus chrysogaster, M.

lsucogaster, and M. eaturatus (see Journ . Asiat. Soc. Bengal , 1889, p.

Kuen Liin terai ;Amdo .

S outh-East Tibet .

“Hag Nép’i Muping, Lit

’

ang, Bat’ ang .

fi'

flfl'

flflfl'

Kuderi Kham s province and

Z’aynl .

a'

Q'

Lei- oi West Tibet, Nepal .v

a.” Ld-

p’o

MAMMALIA OF TIBET.

EQUIDE .

Equus caballus var. Tibe Ell i Teingan

tiousv

Equus asinus var. Tibe Bony-

ya

Equus kiang

S us Moupinensis

S us scrofa

S ciurus castaneoventris

S ciurus S ladeni

S ciurusMcClellandi

S ciurus Nipalens1s

Eupetaurus cinereus

Pteromys Yunnanensis

Pteromys m elanOpterus

Pteromys alborufus

Pteromys Montgomeru

Pteromys magnificus

Pteromys albiventer

Pteromys caniceps

Pteromys alboniger

Pteromys villosus

Arctomys Himalayanus

3C: Kycmy

S ums}.

flfl‘

fifi'

P’ak-

yb"

Bodony Geifiaz'

Scu mmnz.

s yam C/Memp o.

éws'i q

’ii'

B iyum- cL/zemp o

D rembyu

299

Tsan'

g and north of

Lhasa.

Ubique.

Ubique.

D erge, Muping, Tsarong .

Tsaidam,Shang, 850 .

East Tibet.

Kirong, Chhumbi .

P’o - yul, Makham .

Yeru Valley, Kirong .

Lower Yeru and S u

bansiri banks .

Chhumbi,Kirong.

flfi'

fifl'

Stings/lam

REqTali'

Jakmong

Gang- ding

mg.

T’alyi

flq i'

flfi'

Take/tam Shigatse, Kyi Cbbu .

Zayul;D archendo .

Muping, D erge.

Hor- chhok, Bat’ang .

Lit’ang, D archendo .

Yarlung, S ubansiri

Valley.

Ngari Khorsum .

Bat’ang .

800

Arctomys caudatus

Arctomys aureus

Arctomys robustus1

Lagomys Roylei

Lagomys Curzoniae

Lagomys auritus

Lagomys griseus

Lagomys Ladakensrs

Lagomys ogotona

LAGOMYID JE .

( C R: Rang- rang

MAMMALIA OF TIBET.

Ubique.

W. Tibet .

Mouping,Derge,N . E .

Tibet.

S utlej Valley.

Tsang Lhasa.

Rudok district.

N orth and Cent. Tibet.

Changchenmo .

Tsaidam ,Amdo .

FAMILY Lsrosmm.

Lepus pallipes 3

Lepus hyp sibiu

L Clamepus Tibetanus sqQfifi Hr dciga

Lepus Yarkandensis Tabsfiayd

Lepus oiostolus i '

q r Iii - bony

Lepus tolai inf Tnla Koko Nur di strict .

1 Captain Wellby noted the imm ense size of Tibetan marm ots I hap pened

to be taking shelter under a rock from a storm of sleet, wh en I saw sitting up below

m e some huge marmots. They were of an enorm ous size, as large as m en .

" Again

he once m istook a marmot with its young for a man with a dog (Through Unknown

Tibet, pp . 169 and 186 These marmots occurred in N .E . Tibet near the early

waters of the D i Chhu north of the Dang La range.

3 Tibetans rarely if ever wil l eat hares. They assign as a reason that they

belong to the same family of animals as the dom estic ass ! Moreover they give theass and bare similar names, the former being cal led bong

-

gm, the latter re - bong,

or“ass of the mountains.

" Lepus hypeibius is found in W. Tibet at elevations evenover ft.

W'

s Abra

flfi'

sfl

Brcip usev

Prcih'

P’e'

tre'

Icycm'

ng

Kq fifi Wok/io’no

Cent . and East Tibet .

Lingzhi - (fang ; N .W .

Tibet.

West and Cent . Tibet .

Base of Kuen Lun .

D engri, Jong- nga.



MANIDE .

Toma D archendo,1 Ba

Mani s auri ta ’i]NENFW“gym ; t’ang .

THE YAK.

NOMENCLATURE—The scientific name Poep /zayns grunniens Lin .

is by Russian naturalists and some German writers restricted to the

tame variety, whil e the wild yak is discrim inated as P oep fiagns mntus

Przhev .—Mongol : butter, wild yak, sarlok, dom estic yak ; East

Turki : Kutaz Chinese : cizangmao nz'

u Hindustani ; ban-Mowin

Tibetan : dong (spelt Raf.

abrang) wild yak ; dong- aim,female wild

yak ; yap“151W tame male yak, dri

- mo tame female ;

drimdzo, cross between comm on Indian ox and (ire-mo dzo orjo crossbetween yak - bull and common Indian cow,jomo (or dzomo) female ofthis breed and the m ost widely- used domestic animal in Tibet ; garp oand garmo (sometimes karma) male and female resulting from furthercrossing of jo orjomo with Indian cattle ; tolmo further cross, backtowards the yak, by interbreeding garmo with pure- bred yak- bull .The dsomo or jomo is styled p ien nin by the Chinese and unye byMongols .

GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE .—The yak cannot in ordinary life exist

below an altitude of feet and in the wild state it rarely wandersbelow feet in summer or feet in winter. It liveswith ease at elevations of feet ; though, occasional ly, numberssuccumb to the extreme cold of great altitudes in windswept regions .

The habitat of the yak in its wild state is the whole of Tibet savethe S outh - East extrem ity. It occurs nearly everywhere from the

D epsang plains near the Karakorum s in the far N orth -West to thevicinity of the Atag Gang La in S outh - East Tibet and from the

S utlej and Indus valleys in S outh -West Tibet to the borders ofKoko Nor in the N orth - East. In the direction of Amdo the wildbreed probably penetrates, in places, over the Chinese frontier, butkeeps always to the south of the course of the Hoang Ho . In the

bounding ranges of N orthern Tibet the wild yak is often shot, beingsystematically hunted by Taghliks of Lob Nor and Cherchen on the

Akka Tag range as well as on the Chimen Tag, which is a direct

1 Mr . Pratt reported seeing in the market at D archendo skins of “a species of

armadillo. In al l probability they were skins of the above -named pangolin.

MAMMALIA OE TIBET.

‘

303

western continuation of the S outh Koko Nor mountains .'

A.R .

mentions the Sait’ang plains north of the latter range and lyingbetween lat. 38° and 39° N . as visited by wild yak but, at any rate,it never crosses the Altan Tag range, though said to resort to thesouthern slopes of those m ountains . On the Ladak side a few are

found on the northern spurs of the Karakorums and a certain numberannually visit the Chang Chhenmo Valley, specially in the Kyobrungoifshoot also the southern shores of the Pangkong Lake. In N gariKhorsum at the present day none of these animals are seen west ofthe S utlej, but one of the Survey Explorers reported a herdin the upland country N orth - East of the Manasarowar Lakes.Mr . Webber, forest officer, has al so shot several in Purang beyondTaklakhar.

Passing to the domestic yak and the cross - breeds, those naturallyhave a w ider sphere of habitation. Besides a widespread distributionin Tibet itself, they are comm on as beasts of burden and farm animalsmuch further to the west than is generally supposed. They are in

everyday use by the Kirghiz of the higher districts of Ili and Kuldja,and are met with in m ost of the Kirghiz vil lages of the Pam irs .S ven Hedin states that the inhabitants of the Eastern Pam irs livechiefly on yak

’ s m ilk and on m utton whilst it was on the back of a

yak that he made his fam ous ascents of the Mus- tag- ata, and reached

on this yak a point feet in altitude . Again, in the Indianhi ll states of the Himalayas, the domestic animal is reared in plenty.

In the higher valleys of Bhutan, S ikkim , Nepal, Kanawar, Kulu,Lahul, S piti, Rupshu, and Ladak, droves of yak form the m ostcoveted possession of the people. In the Chinese province of Kansu,the slopes of theNan Shan afford pasturage to vast numbers of the tame

variety, and between the towns am id these m ountains the traffic iscarried on chiefly by yak - labour. East of S ining- fa, however, this

animal is hardly seen, being replaced as a beast of burden by the mule.

The domestic yak cannot live in Mongolia Proper or north of the

Nan S han.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS .—The dong in general outline is not

unlike the American bison. It carries its shoulders very high, the

neck sloping sharply downwards to the head, which is large and heavyand borne hardly a foot from the ground. Again from the

shoulders backwards there is a slope, though not so steep, to the tail.

The appearance of massiveness arises from the enorm ous masses oflong woolly hair which adorn in an extraordinary m anner the sides

and flanks and hang in thick festoons to the hoofs, insomuch thatviewing it sideways no daylight is visible between the fore

,and

304: MAMMALIA OF TIBET.

hind- legs. Nevertheless, the belly itself is really destitute of thisdrapery. The hull yak is naturally much larger than the female wild

yak, many specimens of the former measuring 1 1 feet from nose- tipto tail- root, while the average cow does not exceed 8 feet. But the

wild yak, though of great girth and considerable length, is not a

tall animal , the male at the shoulders rarely, if ever, exceeding5 feet and the female standing under 4 1} feet high . The horns curvebeautifully and present the points forwards . In the bull , theirlength is 30 to 33 inches ; in the cow about 1 8 inches . In the

domestic kind the horns are shorter and much more slender .In the wild yak, its great peculiarities are the tail, the tongue,

and the hoofs . The tail is a huge and singular appendage expandingin a cascade of bushy hair towards the tip, often m easuring nearly4. feet in length and M feet in circumference. Tibetans designateit Jnkmaz

'

yab,“ the father of tails ,

”and regard it as sacred. In

the wild animal the colour of the tail is jet black, now and thenspeckled with silver ; in the tame and cross- breeds it is pure whiteor else dun and sometimes a beautiful buff, generally one colourthroughout . A pure black w ild yak

’ s tail of enormous bulk and

spread fetches a large price as a ckowry for importation to India orChina. As the dong is an expert cl imber of mountains, the hoofsare adapted to that end. They are often as large as a camel’ s, even1 8 inches in circum ference. There are two toes, and these are of aprehensile nature enabling them to oling to rough and rocky points.Behind the toes are, as it were, large secondary hoofs generallycarried off the g round but capable of expanding downwards to givea hold on glaciers and steep slippery rocks . The yak

’ s tongue is a

form idable object . It is armed with veritable hooks of horn, the barbscurving backwards down the th roat . These are necessary to help totear out and triturate the coarse wiry herbage, the camel

’ s thorn,lichens,

m osses, and rough astragah'

which it delights in ; for, Curiouslyenough, the yak w ill not eat corn barley, or gram , though fond of a

truss of hay or soft grass when avai lable .

The tame breeds and jomo are much smaller in size than the«l ong. Miss Gordon Cumm ing alludes expressly to the form er as

the little ox .

”Their general outline is the same, though in the

domestic animal the arch of the shoulders is less dom e- like than in theother. While the wild yak is pure black throughout, save for a few

grey streaks on the neck, the tam e beast grows large patches ofwhite

, yellow, and brown hair, and presents in general a variegatedappearance.

'

In July 1 903 we saw in the Antwerp ZoologicalGardens a herd of 19 yak, but they were al l colours and small in size .



The skin, the flesh, the horns, and the hair of the wild yak are

al l prized. Leather of exceeding toughness and durability is made

from the skin of the back, which the Kowa Nye- Ham of D erge

and Lhasa manufacture into saddles and harness of great repute.

Boats, for transport purposes on the great rivers, are made from the

untanned hide. When cleaned and combed, the long hair form s

the staple of the famous black felt tents of the D okpa nomads of Tibet

and of the Tanguts of Koko N or. Felt and a rough unyielding canvas

are both woven from the hair, which is of a coarse silky quality, and

blankets styled cu cik'

from the soft wool growing at the root of the

hair . The fat is considered a sustaining and portable comestible.

Captain Wellby notes The fat of the yak was so precious to us

that we used to boil down every ounce of it and put it into our old

cocoa tins . These cakes of yak’ s fat were verymuch appreciated by all .

We used to knock off bits of it and eat it as if it were Everton

toffee.

”

USES on THE D OMESTIC Yam—As beasts of burden in the

m ountains the domestic breeds are in request all over Tibet as well as

in the adjacent H imalayan states wherever the elevation does not run

below feet. The trading caravans comprise many hundreds,that proceeding annually between Lhasa and S ining often consistingof yak.

'l‘

heir rate of progress on comparatively level pathswhen loaded, is a steady 3 to 3 1} m iles per hour . Their agility and

hardiness in surm ounting passes deeply embedded in snow rendersthem invaluable for draught purposes . Though loaded, they will

leap down sheer depths of 6 to 8 feet, alighting, heavy beasts asthey are, without shock on their feet. They will climb ice- encrustedrocks and hard snow- banks, scraping out with their fore- hoofs

lodgment for their steps as they advance. Again if the animalfall through a treacherous surface of snow into a crevasse of a glacier,it will

,if not sunk too deep, carefully adjust its chin on the opposite

edge and heave itself out on the other side by a superlative effort ofleverage. S o sensible is the brute that on suddenly dropping intosome bottomless crevasse it will sometimes manage to root its bodyacross the depths just in time and hold itself as stil l as death untilthe drivers loop a rope round it and cause the other yaks thus to haulit out. Father Hue

,moreover, described long ago how yak are often

driven on ahead over newlyfallen impassable snows in order to tramplea passage for men and horses . Yak are likewise safe though dis

agreeable riding- beasts . Dr. S ven Hedin’s experience of the Mus

tagh - ata mountain on this kind of steed is worth quotation You

require some practice before you can feel at home in the saddle.

MAMMALIA OF TIBET. 307

One moment the heavy animal balances him self on the sharp edgeof a rock ; the next he jumps incontinently over a yawning chasm ,

and somehow manages to secure a foot- hold on the opposite side .

S ometimes, again, he pulls him self together and, with rigid immovable legs, proceeds to glissade down a precipitous gravel sl ope, wherea two - legged being would inevitably come to grief. Riding a yak,

however, is a trial of patience, by reason of his absolute sluggishnessof temperament . He often comes to a dead stop, and has to be

rem inded of his duties with a cudgel . To any appl ication of the

whip he is absolutely insensible, whilst he looks upon a m oderateblow as a sort of caress, and answers it with a cheerful grunt .

”

As a dairy animal the jomo or hybrid animal is preem inent .

The m ilk is singularly rich in cream , notwithstanding the pasturageis of the poorest . When on a long march their nourishment is oftenm ere scrub and picked up where they can find it . Girls tend the

yak and accompany them , in parties of three or four, quite unprotectedby male escort, to lonely and distant valleys for pasturage . B utter,which form s such a staple article of food throughout Tibet, is obtainedin double quantity from a given am ount of yak

’s m ilk as compared

with that derived from an equal m easure of cow’ s m ilk . Butter,

made from the two kinds of m ilk m ixed, keeps the longest . Placedin sheep’ s stom achs it will remain good in the elevated regions ofTibet for many years. On great occasions this butter, 35 to 45 yearsold, is brought out as a delicacy with the sam e pride that a B ritishconnoisseur shows in producing his rare old port . Tibetan physieiaus prescribe this ancient butter, mar - flying by name, as a remedyfor epilepsy and madness .

WOLVES

NOMENCLATURE .—Russian voila and biryuk Turkish : bore

’

Eastern Turki (Kashgar) ; bum Persian : wiry Armenian : Ita/l l ;

Thian Shan Kirghiz : 6am S iberian Yakuts : 50 rd Mongol : cl wno

(spelt : clamor) Buriat : Mono Nepalese : boweingao Tibetanckanykn the grey wolf (Lup us laniger) and cfianyku nagp o the blackwolf (B al ms Myer) ; in Lahul and S piti claangtu becomes sizangku .

In parts of Tibet as well as in Mongolia there is a prejudice againstusing the proper term for the wolf in comm on conversation, and to

use it is thought to portend the destruction of flocks by wolves,

Accordingly a paraphrase is employed, Myi—go wild dog and

sometimes jukma tz‘

ilp o or juts- tai l“ blunt backside .

”The S iberian

Tatars have a sim ilar superstition and style the wolf by an epithet


alm ost identical with the second Tibetan expression, nam ely sedan

i mzmw/c S tumpy tail . Mongols use the paraphra se yorosb’

n net/l ot,

wild dog,”when talking of the wolf.

GEOGRAPHICAL Barren—General Kinloch’ s reasons for differen

tiating the black and the grey wolf of Tibet as distinct species are sowell put, that we can only refer the reader to his remarks on the

subject . The black wolf, there is the best evidence to believe, isrestricted to the westernm ost districts of West Tibet . It has been

seen, or shot, or captured alive, near Hanle, Lanak La, the PangkongLake, and about the S utlej tributaries in Guge . Mr . Savage Landorrecords having seen a b lack wolf on the southern sh ore of Ts’ o Lang

gak (Rakas Tal) as he was gazing at m ount Kailas across the lake ;and, indeed, the Manasarowar Lakes are known by natives as a hauntof this rare animal . Genera] Kinloch procured two cubs in the

Indus valley, and these eventually reached the Zoological Gardens,London

,where they l ived 8 or 9 years and bred t ogether, the cubs

in each of these litters being all pitch black in colour . The greywolf of Tibet is found plentiful ly in every part.

THE MUSK DEER .

The species found so extensively throughout Central T ibet and

in the eastern sub- provinces of Kong-

po, Kyung-

po, and Chamdo,as wel l as in Tsang, is the type Mose/ m3 mosclzéferus. S kins and

dead animal s brought into D arjeeling vary considerably in certain

points from this type. In parts of Tibet other species occur.This deer is as an adult male about 3 feet 3 inches in length

from nose to the root of the tail rather less in the female. It standsm uch lower on the fore- legs than on the hind, being about 33 inchesfrom the shoulder to the ground but 37 inches to the top of therump . It has several rather curious points .

First, as to the hair, which is of singularly spiky texture. In adultsthis is of a dark umber colour

, glossy, and of a close deep pile‘

like

a bed of soft pliable thorns packed together, the hairs alm ost rattl ingwhen sharply rubbed over . S econd ly, the scrotum is in colour of a

vivid scarlet, very peculiar in appearance. Thirdly, as to the two

forem ost canine teeth in the upper jaw. These protrude downwardsout of the mouth, one on each side of the muzzle, from beneaththe upper lip, im parting the appearance of tusks . They are employedby the animal in digging and scraping up scanty herbage on steeprocks and often beneath snow . D uring the rutting season the maleswhen fighting ,

are said to inflict downward blows with these fangs .


3 10 MAMMALIA OE TIBET.

By the analysis of Geizar and Reiman it appears to consist of : 1 , apeculiar volatile principle (which can exist in a free state) ; 2, amm onia

3, a peculiar, fixed, uncrystall izable acid (these three are in undeter

m inable quantity) ; 4, stearine and oleine 5, cholesterine 6,a peculiar

bitter resin 7, osmazome, with several salts 8, a mouldy- like substance,in part combinedw ith amm onia, andnumerou s salts ; 9, sand 1 0

,water,

acid, & c., with some volatile odorous matter.

It has been hardly ascertained upon what m usk depends for itspeculiar properties beyond amm onia and some animal oils . Taken in

the dose of a few grains, m usk rouses the energy of the digestive or

gans and it soon afterwards produces sym pathetic phenomena, the

powers of the whole animal system appearing suddenly increased. By

repeating the doses till half a drachm or a drachm is consumed, the

active principles penetrate the whole frame, influencing all the tissues,and exciting effects dem onstrative of its stim ulating property the

blood circulates with m ore force, accompanied som etimes with bleedingfrom the nose the perspiration and other secretions are perceptiblyincreased.

It also acts strongly on the brain, Spinal chord, and nerve centres,producing by large doses strangely severe spasm odic actions . Accor

dingly, on homoeopathic principles unacknowledged by those employingit in their practice, it was form erly in vogue both for hysteria and epi

lepsy, adm inistered in small doses . It has been sim ilarly tried both in

typhus fever and in Asiatic cholera ; and in the latter disease it oughtfrom its provings to be usefu l . In old days musk was said to exercise

a powerful effect in cases of hydrophobia in the human subject ; and in

Tibet and Mongolia,where hydrophobia is often prevalent through the

number of rabid dogs, it is now highly'

valued as an alleviative of thetetanus and as a professed cure. S o

, too, in Arabia.

The demands in Europe for this curious product has greatly decreased for the last 30 years or m ore. Its use in England both medicinally and as a perfume is now alm ost in abeyance. In Poland and

parts of Germany musk is still employed for both purposes . In

China and Eastern countries, includingN orth Africa and Egypt, a con~

siderable demand continues .

In commerce the “ pods,

”as the musk receptacles are term ed, are

discriminated as of three varieties, wh ich may be thus described .

1 . The Tonquin or Tibet musk,received from China

, also imported direct into Kashm ir and India, is made up in small oblongrectangu lar boxes, lined with lead, and covered with paper or silk .

Each bag, or pod, as it is termed, is wrapped in thin blue or red paper,on which are marked som e Chinese characters . S om etimes the bags

MAMMALIA OE TIBET. 31 1

are enveloped in a deep yellow - brownish nearly transparent paper,which becomes brittle by time. The most distinctive mark of thissort of m usk is, that it is slightly flattened, nearly round and veryrarely pear- shaped. The yellow or yellowish - brown hairs, chiefly at

the sides, are often cut,while those which remain in the centre are

darker coloured, finer, and less bristly. General ly the hairs convergeor point towards a small natural opening . The pods are mostly abouttwo and a half inches long, and one and three- quarters broad. The

weight of difierent specimens varies considerably, some being merelythree drachm s thirty grains, others nine drachm s forty- seven and a

half grains ; the average is six drachm s twelve grains . The averagequantity of musk contained in the sacks is about two and a halfdrachm s .

2 . Kabardin, Russian, or S iberian m usk, is either receivedthrough S t. Petersburg

,or

,it is said

,sent to China, and laid for some

time am ong the bags of genuine Tonquin musk, to acquire the odourof the latter, and then forwarded to Europe . The pods of this sort are

in general larger, m ore oval, more compressed, and the margins often

have large portions of the skin of the abdomen attached to them .

The colour of the hairs is a dirty m ilk - white. The m usk exhibits a

m ore hom ogeneous and less granular appearance, having amuch fainter odour and taste than the preceding kind. The odour is augmentedby m oisture, but is som ewhat nauseous and disagreeable . Musk ismore soluble in water than in alcohol . Of 1 00 parts of genuine Tonquin musk, boiling water dissolves 90 parts, alcohol only 50 . Of Ka

bardin m usk,water dissolves only 50 per cent . It is likewise soluble

in ether, acetic acid, and yolk of egg.

3 . A very smal l kind of pod is sometimes met with, which isnot flattened, but perfectly round, the hairs of a yellowish - browncolour . This is probab ly the m usk bag of the Moschus Altaicus .

It is safest to purchase the m usk out of the pod, as there is thenless opportunity of adulteration . Infusion of genuine musk is notprecipitatedby a solution of bichloride of m ercury (corrosive sublimate) ;but genuine musk is precipitated by nitric and other strong acids, byacetate of lead (sugar of lead), and infusion of galls . The m usk bagsare used by perfumers to prepare essence of musk .

’An artificial

musk is sometimes m ade with nitric acid and oil of amber .In spite of its general disuse in England, we still observe it quoted

in drug prices current ; and it still stands at a high price . Thus in

the List of the London “ Army and Navy S tores for 1 905,pure

musk is priced at £ 1 l s. 6d. the dram ; that is, £ 8 per ounce.

Per grain it is put at 5d.

CHAPTER X V

THE FLORA OF TIBET .

In considering the botanical characteristics of Tibet, it m ight bedeemed impossible to treat so large an area as a whole . Moreover,the general altitude of one portion of the territory is so much abovethat of other portions, which also in their turn vary in elevation, thatthe vegetable productions could not conveniently— one would suppose—be estimated on any common footing . H owever in the case ofTibet the difficulty of such general treatment is curiously sm all .

S trange to say, notwithstanding the variety of range in the heightabove sealevel in diiferent districts, the flora throughout these regionsis w ith certain l im itations rem arkably uniform . Thus the main bodyof plants occurring in the lofty val leys of North -Western Tibet isanalogous, at least in genera, to those found in the central provincesof U1 and Tsang, where the average elevation is som e feet lower ;while, again, we do not meet with a dissim ilar flora far t o the N .E .

and E .

,in the Kaks Nur region and on the borders of N orthern

S zechuen, although the main level o f the territory there is fromto feet under that of the central provinces . When it is

borne in m ind for example that the ordinary elevation of the countryaround the lakes visited by Captain Bower and by M ajor D easy inN .W . T ibet scales some feet, yet the lands abutting the

head- waters of the Hoang - ho average only feet or less, thekindred quality of the botany of the two areas is a little inexplicableNevertheless, it must be noted that the sim ilarity only extends to

genera and but rarely to individual species . But on this last pointwe shal l enlarge later on .

In remarking the uniformity of the flora in its leading membersthroughout the regions under review,

certain im portant exceptionshave to be named . As you enter the south - eastern parts to the eastof longitude 92

°

E . and to the south of latitude 30° N ., the analogy to


314 THE FLORA OF TIBET.

three separate areas dependent chiefly on the leading physical characteristics of each . To apportion these areas, first we Should split theprescribed territory horizontally into two great stretches of country,one lying to the north and the other to the south . The two beltsmay be taken to be demarcated by a southernly dipping line fromwest to east—dipping from about latitude 34° in the extreme westdown to latitude 31° just beyond the meridian of Lhasa long . 92

°

being our eastern lim it. S uch a division is in som e respects purelyarbitrary and as a distinctive botanical line will not carry throughout.However, we may take the area north of thi s line as embracing a

botanical zone fairly consistent in its products in every part, thegeneral altitude, apart from the traversing m ountain ranges, beingfrom to feet. The southern belt of country, n

'

evertheé

less,ought to require further subdivision, and cannot be Viewed as a

single botanical zone . The western parts of this southern portion _are

much higher than those to the east ; and the latter, m oreover, are

everywhere cut up by ram ifying river - valleys . Irrespective of theuniform ity in genera which,aswe haVe stated, governs the flOra of thewhole Tibetan plateau, there is in particulars a decided change noticeable in the southern zone as we proceed east beyond the 85th degree oflongitude. Unfortunately we can only speak of the difference herein general term s . S o, while we indeed imagine two botanical areas tothe south, this meridian form ing the boundary between them , neverthe

less we shall treat of these hypothetical areas of the south under one

heading only.

Our three areas m ight, however, be thus summarised

(1 ) The N orthern ; com prising the north - western districtsnorth of lat. 34

°N ., and the north - central districts

north of lat. 3 1°N .,

bounded to the east by long. 92°

E . Geographically this area includes the Jhang- t’angw ith the stony deserts along the base of the so - cal ledKuen Liin range also the Salt—lake tracts lying N .Wof Lhasa.

(2 ) The S outh-Western ; comprising the country bounded byLadak and Rupchu on the West, by the Indian Himalayas on the S W . and S .

, and by long . 85° E. on the

'

east the northern barrier being a south - easternlydipping line from Ln- Kong at the head of Pang - konglake to the point of intersection between long . 85

°and

the latitudinal parallel 31 ° 35’ N .

(3) The S outh- Central ; comprising all territory between the

85th and 9zud meridians,south of lat. 3 1

°N . and

THE FLORA OF TIBET.315

north of the frontier line of N ipal, S ikkim, and

Bhutan . Geographically this area includes the greatvalley of the Yeru Tsang- po along the central portion

of its course through Tibet, together with the y alleys

of its many affluents also the whole of the two cen

tral ’ provinces of Ui and Tsang with the savannah

like val leys lying N .W. of Lhasa to Nam Ts’

o

Chyidmo (Tengri Nor) .

In exam ining these portions of country the main difference

observable in,each is said to be Me cfianye in species of the plants

represented. With a certain number of important exceptions'

where

the genera of one area are not found to intrude within other a reas,we shall usually find a particular species belonging to

'

one area'dis

appearing in another but still replaced inevitably by”

“

another memberof the same genus. This is especial ly noticeable in the case of genera

so distinctively Tibetan in habi tat as Meconopsis,Delphinium , Arenaria,and Pedicularis. Indeed the species of Pedicularis seem to vary withevery district of the country, two or three species being pecul iar toeach district . S o, too, with the many kinds of Astragalus and Oxytropis, plants conspicuously characteristic of the flora of Tibet . But

instances of these and other genera w ith regard to the replacement ofcorrespondent species will be particularised under the respective areas.

Our leading keys to the botany of the southern belt are the resul ts ofthe researches of the late Dr. Thom son and of S ir J. D . Hooker, sup

plemented by the information and specimens furnished by S trachey,Royle, and H . A. Jaeschke, as well as by D r. Prain

’s native col lectors.

Dr. W. G. Thorold and one or two of the companions of Pevstov are

for present purposes the sole direct reporters upon the northern flora ;besides which we now have the collections made by Messrs . Wellby,

Littledale and Deasy, sent to Kew to be adjudicated upon by ProfessorHem sley. We regret that this chapter has been written before Pro

fessor Hem sley has reported.

The existence of any vegetable products whatever at the heightswhere they are found in Tibet seem s almost beyond belief. We havein N .W. Tibet a vast series of broad shallow valleys general ly oflittle concavity and developing almost into plains . These are oftenOfgreat extent and bounded by low undulating hills not of any consider

able elevation above the far- reaching bottoms . When occasionallythe bounding ridge rises steep and rugged from ,

one Open valley, itfalls away in gentle s10pes into the level of the next on the other side.

This Contour is a common feature‘

both in the northern and southernbelts of the territory we are co nsidering .


But in the northern parts the general altitude of these s hallow

val leys is feet and over . Nevertheless vegetation is by no

m eans absent . Where the ground is formed of dry biscuit- like flakesof black calcareous sci-Lu st a blade of grass will be probably found.

1

But the usual constituent of the valleys is a loose sandy gravel . In

fact almost everywhere it is gravelly and, when July has fairlybegun,

a coarse yellowish -

green grass covers the whole of these steppesin innumerable isolated knotty tufts . The grass between and

feet above sealevel is nearly universally various species of Poa,chiefly Poa alp ina, but seven varieties or species have been 11o .

Al so Glycerz’

a and Festuca grasses have been found plentifully up tofeet. It is on these Gramineae, which spring up, mature, and

ripen with incredible rapidity, that the m ighty herds of antelope, w ild

asses and yak o f these regions and the myriads of m arm ot and lagomys

chiefly feed. Poor enough herbage it looks, and of m iserable fructifi

cation and seeding power ; nevertheless vast is the amount of animal

l ife it sustains .

East of longitude 81° these extensive valley- plains of the north

are known as theMany or Ji mmy- f ang and except when the deposits ofnitre and soda are in surplusage— for a certain sal ine taint lies everywhere in this region—the abundance of grass on the ”any for 3

m onths of the year is proverbial throughout Tibet . Yet such pastureshere in the north range from to feet in general

altitude ! And up there in summer the great herds are nourished and

m ultiply. Moreover, Captain Bower writes of“ long grassy plains

at an elevation of

However, where Nature is less grudging in her inducements tovegetable life, grateful indeed is the response . B rown and yellow,

purple and ochreous - red are these hill s you are m ounting ; but now

you look down from the top of the ridge, and lo at the roots of thespurs, close below you, the brightest emerald green skirts in fringesright and left and thus marches forth into

“

the plain. The truth is,

amongst the gravel down there, a secret stream exudes not indeed a

gushing running brook, only a sort of watery suppuration. But it is

1 Moreover extensive plains exist in these northern tracts where no grass or

vegetation of any kind is possible. Such are those parts where the ch ief deposits

of borax are found ; for exam ple the vast desert country known as P’a-

yul Bnl-

yul

lying east of the T'

abchhab Gangri m ountains and north of lat . S oda and

borax occur in such plenty in that district that the whole p lain,which takes severaldays to cross, is a glistening dazzling white, so trying to the eyes that al l Tibetans

journeying there wear spectacles of yak - hair . S im ilar districts stretch E . S . E . of

Rudok and near the Lingzhi T’ang in the far N .W.



.cymbalam'

w and Cockleam'

a scape/lam on stream s running into the lake ;

Parrya lanugmosa with small purple flower, the blue Tretoearyap raten

sis and the humble yellow- blossomed Cremaat/zodz'

um lzumz’

le growingam ong m uddy stones ; also a new B raya, and finally a Crep is, probablySibirica. We particularise these as they are evidently prom inent

m embers am ong the loftiest- blossom ing flowers known, namely those

growing at heights closely approaching feet.

Again, a little further east, on the borders of the Tsarol Chhe'l‘

s’o (Bower

’ s “ Lake Aru Cho ”) at

‘

an altitude of the ad

venturous captain records how they travelled up the west side of the

lake over a plain lying between the water and the m ountains covered

wit/z grass and flowers.”

From D r. Thorold’s notes we find that

these included Adam'

s acerulea, Tanacetum Tibetz'

cum, Erysimum f uni

cu losum,Saussurea subulata, Saussurea sorocep /mla, Crew

'

s glauca,

Tamwacum leucantfius, Nep em longebm cteata, and a new species ofS axifraga as yet undescribed. This seem s a goodly l ist from an

altitude of over feet. But m ore occur than those. Am ongstother plants met with on the m ore fertile high - level plains and

valleys, the following occurring above feet deserve to bementioned : Ranunculus p ale/cel lar, Caiydal ie Tz

'

éetz'

ca, S isymbrz'

um

kamil e, B raya zmi/Zoral(at by D r. Thorold), D m éa aéaina,

Carmel la Tfiomsom’

,Arenarz

’

a muscéformz'

s, Taraxacum ofiicz’

nale (up toSenecz

'

o am icoides, Potenti l la p umila, and Gentiana

squarrosa.

Naturally one must ascend to the passes to ascertain what are thehighest-

growing plants on the Tibetan plateaux. Even on the passtops of the dark ranges separating the valleys of N orthern Tibet, vegetation of a kind occurs . But the plants are m ostly of tufted habit

,

nearly all stalkless and cl inging closely and desperately to the groundas if to derive all the warm th and nourishment possible from the sterilesoil. A sm all number only are woolly or hairy ones growing inmattedtufts ; and, strangely perhaps, the m ajority are bare and unclothedspecies . The chief exception is the Saussurea gossyp z

'

na, known toTibetans as d yz

'

ma, which assumes the form of clubs of the softest

1 Of th is curiou s l ittle p lant which was first found by D r . Thomson in Nabra(Ladak) , and subsequently specim ens brought h om e by Henderson from Yarkandand by Thorold from near Mangtsa Ts

’o in N .W. Tibet, Professor Ol iver wr ites “ It

is the only m ember o f the large and fam iliar Order Cruciferw so far as my exper i~

ence goes—in which we have true cohesion of the sepals . is singular that in an

Order of considerab ly over species, in a very large number of wh ich the sepals

are erect and closely app l ied in their imbricate aestivation, a tendency to a gam o

sepalous calyx should no t be m ore frequent

THE FLORA OF TIBET. 319

whitewool ; its flowers and leaves, as Sir J. D . Hooker quaintly remarks,being uniform ly clothed with the warmest fur that nature coulddevise.

One of,the m ost curious growths to be found on passes, up to an

altitude of over feet, is a sort of sandwort of m onstrous developm ent, which form s great hem ispherical balls on the ground eight to teninches in diameter. Th is is Arenam

’

a fiolosteoides, and is termed byTibetans c/ n

'

ki or “ furry rabbit,”who eat it cooked as a vegetable.

Hooker states that it greatly resemb les the Balsam - bog found only inthe Falkland I slands and which grow s am id very sim ilar scenes.

Perhaps the plants met with at a higher altitude than any othersare the two B elp /zz

’

nia, namely 17. B runom’

anum and B . glaciale,

which are found on passes up to feet, the first in WesternTibet, the latter in the neighbourhood of Lhasa. The flowers are smallbut beautiful, of two or three colours ; but they exhale a musky scentof a rank and penetrating character . Tibetans style both of themMaker or star of musk .

”Glaciale is also called lciddm . Two other

Species of D elphinium not grow ing at such extreme heights seem tohave been collected by D r. Thorold in the heart of Tibet,N .W . ofLhasa. Next to B elp /aim

'

um and probably occurring equally high upare several Artemisz

’

a, Sedum, Astragalus, Saussurea. S ome to be speci

al ly m entioned are Saussurea tr idactg/ Za found at feet, Saussurea

glandul ip em , Microula B ea/Mame, D racocejofialumfielerop /lyl lum (whichalso grows on passes in Ladak, where it is comm only designatedMang

l m the Sedum Strackeyi, Arenam’

a B oylea, Tam-mo

lester inflate

(found by D r . Thorold at w ith yellow flowers in bloom ) . On

passes up to feet are many others such as, Potentd la p olyc/im

'

sta, Coiy’

dal z'

s Tibetica,Pedicularis tubz

'

jiora, and including severalspecies of a genus, Owytrop z

'

s, which seem s particularly to affect the

Tibetan plateau six different kinds,three of which were at least new

varieties, having been obtained by D r. Thorold. S ome species, as O.

c/zi lz'

op fiyl laand O. p fiysocarjoae, form great circles on the ground for,

being perennials and the centre annually decaying, the new shoots growoutwards and are constantly enlarging the circle.

It m ust not, however, be assumed that only hardy and tuftedvegetation with inconspicuou s flowers can be seen at the climax of

T ibetan passes, even though the altitude be considerable. S omem ost delicate and fragile- looking plants with large and beautifulflowers are occasionally found withstanding the keenest winds and,

though the season is summer, having to undergo at night- time a tem

perature little above freezing- point. The stalks are under 5 inches or

less, and they crouch to the lee of sheltering rocks if possible, but still


they are there. One of these is the Tibetan blue horned- poppy(Meconopsis aculeata), which occurs up to at least feet. S o

l ikewise grows that specimen in D r . Thorold’s collection described by

Mr . W. B . Hemsley as Meconop sis fiarrz'

du la, but which possibly is

not qu ite the same. Miss Isabella B ird refers thus graphically tothis flower : “ In the m idst of general desolation grew in the shelterof rocks poppies blue as the Tibetan skies, their centres filled with a

cluster of golden -

yellow stamens—a m ost charm ing sight. Ten

or twelve of these exquisite blossom s grow on one stalk ; and stalk,leaf, and seed‘ vessels are guarded by very stiff thorns .

” Other slenderand pretty flowers are a purple Aster, (A. Tibetanus) found up tofeet, the strong - sm elling spikenard Nafrdostacleys Jatamansz

'

up tofeet, and a new species of yellow Iris gathered by D r. Thorold

on the top of a pass of feet in lat. 32°28

’N . long . E .

To these should be added the Tibetan forget-me- not, Myosotis a lp es

tris (aflinis), with clear blue flowers much larger in expanse than itsEnglish relative ; also Androsace chamzjasme.

And now we m ight introduce the trees and shrubs of these re

gions . Unfortunately in the northern tracts of Tibet, trees are utterlyunknown though in the river- valleys of the south, to which we are torefer later, the case is otherwise. Very few also are the plants inthese m ore elevated parts which can be described as shrubs ; and suchas may be so specified are exceedingly low, trailing, and decumbent.

Perhaps the comm onest shrub, and one fam iliar to all travel lersin Ladak and Tibet from its universal employment as fuel , is theEurotz

'

a known everywhere as barise . It developes above groundan extensive m eshwork of woody roots which can often be collectedin large quantities ; and being exceedingly dry they ignite readily and

maintain heat a l ong while. It grows up to feet and ‘ is rarelyabsent where the country is broken up into crags and ravines but in

the great savannahs of the salt country between long: 82°and 88

°E . it

becomes very scarce. There it is frequently replaced by a l ow bushbearing red berries known to travellers as camel’ s thorn and whichis met with in the most barren and salt- encrusted deserts throughoutCentral Tibet, the Kokii Nur district

, and Mongolia. Cam els readilydevour thewhole shrub, thorns and all the men relish the berries, whichare dried and are said to resemble raisins in flavour. The scientificname is Nitrarz

'

a Scl obem'

, and in T ibet it is called tam, the Mongol s

styling it karma. Then there is the yellow- flowered Tibetan furze,Caragana pygmcea, the

“dama” of the natives, differing slightly from

the European in not being quite so thorny. Its bushy growth affordsexcellent fuel ; but it is less abundant in the Northern tracts than



character of the'

botanic productions of the northern districts if onefact is borne in m ind . Of all the plants brought home by D r. Thorold

and gathered at heights exceeding feet, not a single species

even in the m iddle of the summer season grew m ore than six inches

above ground, while the majority rose cut of the soil only from ii of

an inch to as inches.1 D ensely tufted and with leaves and blossom sclosely packed on the ground is the prevailing habit. These often

form sub- globose and hem ispheric cushions, as we have seen is the case

with the several Arenam'

a and is especially so for instance in l lacas

p armam rzqog'

f ragum. Both the scanty rainfall and the continuousviolence of the daily wind have probably as much to do with the pecu

liar and restricted growth of the flora as has the excessive cold.

Another curious characteristic of all these Tibetan plants has yet

to bementioned. Their contracted and scanty appearance above ground

is to some extent compensated by the extraordinary size of their rootsbelow. To the meagre and often m inute leafage and flowering apparatus seen on the surface, there is attached in nearly every example

some enorm ous tuber Or a long fleshy tap - root or an extensive systemof underground runners, or in the case of the so- called shrubby plants

a mass of woody fibres which eventually become exposed and dry up

into a wiry tangle on the surface. In the Astragali and Oxytropes of

Tibet, though the show above is so trivial, large fleshy appendagespenetrate deeply in the soil. S ometimes the rootstock of the tinyplant is ridiculously long and creeping, bearing in its course many

small fleshy tubers, as may be observed in one or two species of Cardam ine. Moreover, in those cases where the rootstock is woody with a

stout and heavy crown it is generally thickly clothed with the witheredpetioles and leaf- sheaths of past seasons . The Tibetan species ofAnemone and

/

Corydalis are quaint examples of the persistent manner

in which the remains of old growths cling to the ancestral stock .

Other types of the Tibetan style of root are to be met with inthe underground developments belonging to B raya, Megacarpoea,

1 The self- restraint in growth exh ibited by Tibetan plants is strikingly ex

emp lified in the genus Meconopsis, which is al l the more rem arkable because that

genus is essentially sub - alp ine and alp ine in its natural distribution, being confinedto cold and inclem ent cl im ates. Thus we find th ese species of Meconopsis wh ich

actual ly occur in Tibet either stem less or nearly so , wh ile the soapes from the root

which bear the flowers are extremely short, t.e.

,from 3 to 6 inches in M. horrtdu la

and 25 to 6 inches in M. p rimu lz‘

fna (Prain) . By contrast, however, the members of

the genus growing just outside Tibetan l imits have tal l and even branch ing stem s

with lengthy scapes, raohes and petioles. S oM. Nip alensis, found in Nipal at altitudesbetween to feet, has stem s 4. to 6 feet h igh as al so, M . robusta w h ich

bears floral cymes 2 feet long and l eaves o f 14 inches.

THE FLORA OF TIBET 323

Chorispora, and Meconopsis—the appendage in the two last- named

genera being spindle- shaped.

As one might well expect from the substantial nature of theroots, Tibetan plants are alm ost without any exceptions perennials .S uch genera as Artem isia and Arenaria, which in other regions numberm any annuals among their Species, are here strictly perennial plants,although the Tibetan species are com paratively numerous . Perhapsthe only annual in Tibet is an Erodium and it is said to he usuallybiennial in actual growth .

The curious amplification of the subterranean parts of the mem

bers of the Tibetan flora cannot be regarded otherwise than as a provision of the C reator for the preservation of life to vegetation in sorigorous a cl imate, where the extreme cold is generally unaccompaniedby the preservative pal liation of heavy falls of snow .

The inhabitants of these desolate steppes are not slow to availthem selves of this excellent subterranean supplement to the scanty productions of the surface of the earth . S everal roots of plants are fa

vourite articles of diet in Tibet. One kind is particularly so namely,

the large knotty tubers of Ooclonop sls ovala, which are eaten eitherboiled or else are roasted and grated into flour . Natives term theseroots Lu - clu “

lknots of the Ln"’—the Lu being the naga or serpent

god. Another root much prized is that of Potea lz’

l la anserz’

na, a little

fern- l ike plant called Cil owa. When in the m onth of June the firsttokens of germ ination appear above ground, then the soil is scratchedup to the depth of a couple of inches and quantities of creeping rootsare found. To these, which are long and thin like dog -

grass, innumerable l ittle tubercles are attached, filled with a very sweet juice.

Washed carefully and fried in butter the rootlets make a tasty dish, as

good Father Huc long ago testified.

Another point of great interest connected with vegetation in thehigher valleys of Tibet is the remarkable celerity with which it rushes tom aturity when once it has appeared on the surface . The necessity forsuch haste is evident. In the upper tracts of feet or so

altitude, brief indeed is the period during which blade and leaf and

blossom can remain exposed.

'

Three to four m onths only elapse from

the first sprouting above ground to the death and decay on the surface.

The small buds begin to show on the plants as July opens, and in S eptember everything with suflicient fertility has turned into seed. D r.

Thorold’s last flowers at feet were plucked early

“

in S eptember .

But, although the process of maturation is thus hurried, there is-especially in the all - important grasses, the Poas the hardy fescue,

and the universal Carex Moorcroftii—a a fullness of growth and a

324. THE FLORA OF TIBET.

sufficient luxuriance. Though the time is cut short, each stage of

growth is complete.

Both D r. Thom son and S ir Joseph Hooker explain the rapiditywith which

,in the greater altitudes of Tibet, vegetation proceeds

to fructification by the additional power which the sun possesses in the

clear antrammelled atmosphere of such upper regions during the summerm onths . But it is not only the greater vital ising influence of the sun

(which up there is also tempered from burning and scorching when thusemployed) . Another force has been previously at work as well ; and

that is the anterior tonic influence of the intense cold on the roots and

the early germ ination. This,as D r. Thom son has hinted, causes pri

marily a checking of the vegetative organs below,resulting in a secret,

pent - up stimulus to extraordinary activity afterwards above-

ground,in which activity the unaccustomed clear warmth of the sun is ofcourse a powerful factor .1

No agricultural operations are carried on in that portion of Tibetwhich for the purposes of this enquiry we have denom inated the Nor

therh Belt ; nothing is planted or reaped by the hand of man westof the m eridian of Lhasa in all the territory north of a diagonal l inedescending from lat. 34

°in the extreme west to lat. 31° in the

meridian of Lhasa.

SOUTHERN BELT OF TIBET .

As we have already pointed out, some of the conditions affectingthevegetable world inNorthernTibet prevail equally in the southwhere,as incertain localities is the case, the plane of general elevation exceeds

feet. Moreover, as the passes of S outhern Tibet are ful ly as

ofty as those in the north, and indeedmuch higher above the surround

ngcoun try than the northern ones, we shall find practical ly the samePass - flora in both zones . As a fact the difference of flora on TibetanPasses is rather varied according to the situation west or east than

1 S ir J. D . Hooker makes the fol lowing interesting observations on this subjectin his “ Himalayan Journals

“ From May til l August the vegetation at each el e

vation is (in ascending order ) a m onth beh ind that below it feet being about

equal to a m onth of sum mer weather in one sense . I mean by this, that the genera

and natur al orders (and som etimes the species) , which flower at feet in May,are not so forward as that at feet till June, nor at feet till July.

After August, however, the reverse holds good. Then the vegetation is as forward at

feet as at feet . By the end of September m ost of the natural orders

and genera have ripened their fruit in the upper zone, although they have flowered

as late as July ;whereas October is the fruiting m onth at and Novem ber below


326 THE ELORA OI TIBET.

thirteen andfourteen thousand feet, cannot be conveniently enumeratedhere. They include several varieties of Melilotus, Tar-exacum , Aoch i

tum , Polygonum ,Potentilla, Tanacetum ,

Pedicularis, Oxytropis, and

notably Iris Kumaonensis . Long patches of rose- red primulas are

frequently to be seen at feet bordering fields of snow. Saus

sureas and Astragali grow higher up but in Tsang in S outh Central

Tibet are such species as Cli elz'

elom'

am clieranosllgma, Acom'

lum larlehlm,

Pap aoer mal icaa le, al l found under feet altitude.

Of course the vegetation of the river - valleys is of a differentcharacter to that we have hitherto referred to . N ot only dowe have

another range of flowering plants but we are now introduced to thelarger shrubs and even to the trees of Tibet . In this lofty bed of the

Indus and in that of the upper course of the S utlej (where the altitude is over feet) are lengthy alluvial flats and the fans ofaffluent stream s, upon which grow only the coarser type of brushwood.

Great thickets of the thorny Happ op /iace r/iamaoia’es and of Tibetan

furze occur there . These attain several feet in height—very differentfrom the shrubs of the northern area—and, if villages or grazing

grounds adj oin, are a special haunt of wolves, of both the golden and

the black species .But if we pass further east to the many rivers which flow into

the Yeru Tsangpo, we shall soon find better things. On the al luvialterraces and lower clifls of the rivers of D okt’ol, north - west of long .

occur numerous smal l willows and poplars . We have three speciesof willow—S al im alOa or the mal - Chang

,S . elap finoz

'

eles, and S .

tetrasp erma—and three species of poplar—Pop ular M yra, P . balsami

f era, and P . eap firalr'

ea. Further east still and following the Yeruthe appendant river—valleys become m ore and m ore fertile, until inthe Penam - nyang Chhu (the river of Shigatse), the Yarlung Chhu ,the Kyi Chhu, and the Holkha val ley we meet with the cl imax ofsuch fruitfulness as Tibet Proper can offer us . Not only do the wilfi

lows and poplars continue and grow larger, but other trees, generallycultivated qualities, namely walnut, apricot, peach, and pear are com

monalso . Near Lhasa are to be seen junipers, large yews (Tamas baccala)and ilex in plenty. Those who took part in the recent expedition toLhasa (in 1 904) speak of that city as appearing to lie amid a circuitof greenery, this appearance arising from the large quantity ,

of treeswith which the suburbs and the western quarters are planted. Treesthere are most carefully preserved

,and those in the city precincts are

al l numbered and registered, though two to three thousand in the aggre

gate. Another feature noticed on this occasion was the'

number ofcommon English flowers cultivated in private and mouastic gardens.

THE FLORA OF TIBET. 327

Am ong these,hollyhocks, marigolds, stocks of various colours, wall

flowers,nasturtium s, asters and large ranunculi were especial favourites .

And this at length brings us to an important branch of our sub

jcet— the interference of man with Nature and the extent to whichthe cultivation of crops is carried on . This branch belongs essentiallyto the southern districts .N ow

, wherever the Tibetan can do so,he resorts to husbandry .

He is a born farmer by instinct . In the northern parts of the countrywest of the m eridian of Lhasa, neither sheep - raising nor agricultureseem possible. But in the S outhern Belt the conditions are different.In the extreme west indeed, outside the confines of Ladak, no cultivation of crops is attem pted ; and the inhabitants devote their energiesto sheep, goats, and hybrid yak . It is said that nothing cereal is

grown in Tibet itself west of long . 87°

and the inhabitants there depend for their grain supplies on importations from Ladak, Lahul,Garhwal, Kah awar and Nepal . East of Ralung m onastery near theYeru Tsangpo, the cultivation of the soil is

'

first to be m et with ; and

thence along the great river eastwards and up the valleys of its tributaries every available spot on terrace or alluvial flat is turned to aocount . E specially near and on the rivers of the central provinces of Uiand Tsang is agriculture pursued. Here the valleys yield long flatsof rich soil

, and numerous stream s of rapid current debouching fromthe uplands render irrigation comparatively simple . Terrace aboveterrace is cultivated, and great ingenuity—akin to that of the denizens of the hills below S im la and in the Kulu Sutlej valley—is shewnin conducting water from below to the higher spaces .

On the Kyi Cbbu or Lhasa river, which flows down to the greatYeru from the N .E .,

there is as m uch grain grown as anywhere elsein Central Tibet. Just about Lhasa the val ley of the river expandsinto a wide plain which is irrigated profusely by canals chiefly cut

from a branch of the Kyi— the Pempo Chhu fi com ing down from the

north . These are led from the Pempo a long distance into the Kyi

and by a m inute system of subdivision an enorm ous range of opencountry is artificially watered. As the general level here is only about

feet, every cereal and vegetable possible to Tibet is thus raisedwhere there is naturally the largest demand, in the immediate vicinityof the chief city. This cultivation continues along up both the Pempo

and Kyi rivers for a considerable distance. The fields are very small

and separated by low walls of massive stones .

The highest latitude, west of where crops are produced in

Tibet (not including Ladak or Nubra) is in the lake district

and N . in the neighbourhood of Lhasa. Rading, in elevation


about feet, is the m ost northern place in the Lhasa districtwhere fields are seen . However

,in Eastern Tibet cultivation is prose

outed m uch further to the north than in the central and westernprovinces.

The most popular of the cereals are barley and buckwheat ; of

the pulses, peas (both Indian and Chinese) and a bean known as

taicl mng . The barley is of two leading kinds 8065 or so- wa, a thick

shelled sort m ostly g l ven to catt le as fodder, and are, the beardless

loose-

grained variety (known comm ercially as grim) which needslittle manure or depth of soil and ripens at greater altitudes than any

other grain . The last- named prolific species can be readily grown up

to feet, and in a few spots it is produced evenabovefeet, Mr . Frederick D rew m entioning an instance at that altitudewhere 1 2 acres were sown with 726 and yielded harvest. But at Ombu

on the N .W. shore of D angra Yum Lake in Central Tibet is thehighest place where this barley is regularly grown ; it is feet

in altitude. On the Re Chhu and Raka Tsangpo in Tsang provincewhole villages are dependent for food on the produce of this grain

grown at to feet. It is from na that the staple food

of the country, nam ely tsamp a, is prepared, as well as e/Mariy the

favourite beer. However, ri e barley has three diiferent varieties, all of

which are cultivated. These are distinguished by Tibetans as yaagma

or tukel u 728 , the early kind which springs up and completely ripens

within two m onths after sowing el ite- 726, a m iddling sort and sermo

the best kind, which matures later than any other .

Buckwheat is largely consumed in certain districts, and is knownas (law or Oran. There seem to be two form s of it Fagopyrum emargi,

nalum,a coarse hardy plant, and F . eseulenlam

,a better kind cultivated

only in sheltered spots near Lhasa and in the Yarlung valley. Wheat

(lro) is always raised where possible, but often fails to ripen above1 1

, 500 feet, though grown up to feet . It is consum ed onlyby the richer classes, and the peasantry profess to dislike it . Two

kinds of cats are also cultivated, called h ilaam and yer- Eu, the former of

which ranks above buckwheat in general estimation and is sownwherever possible. Rice grows nowhere in Tibet, but is importedfrom S ikkim and Tawang . Other grains rai sed where feasible are

m illet (el l i lse), maize (mdmoip e lolo) and rape Mu stardis grown everywhere in several varieties, but is m ore plentiful in Kham sand S outh East Tibet . S ometimes in the lower valleys m illet can be

raised as a second crOp after the early barley (lahol m no) .However, the favourite crops are root - vegetables. Radishes are

the first choice, and are allotted as much space as barley. Turnips



Willows and poplar on the flats, and dense thickets of p atma (Juniperussquamosa) and fir (com- sting), interspersed with a few walnutscovering the lower terraces of the bounding heights . B ut so fruitfulis this whole valley that it has received the name of Nyang Chhu, or

“ river of del icacies —delicacies, at least, to the poor Tibetan .

However, the Yarlung Valley and the lower parts of Lhobrakhave perhaps the greatest reputation for fruitfulness in Central T ibet

Unfortunately, although explored by the S urvey agent Urgyan

Gyats’o and also earl ier by Nain S ingh, apparently no specimens of the

flora of those district-s or particulars of their produce were brought back.

Their fertility, which is always spoken of as something unusual forTibet, is probably owing not only to the comparatively lower elevation

(Yarlung valley : feet ; Upper Lhobrak valley

feet) ; but also to the considerable rains and snow they ex

perience. Apparently the Yarlung district comes in for a share of the

abundant rainfal l wh ich Western Y unnan and S outh - Eastern Tibetare favoured with—due to currents brought up from the ocean aid the

Yangtse- kiang and S alwin river . These m oist discharges do not seemto reach to the Nyang Chhu or to Lhasa. N evertheless the T sangprovince, where the Nyang occurs, receives some slight eflfects fromhigher currents of the Indian m onsoon, the superflux of which passes inover the lower summ its of the Bhutan H im alayas . The Lhobrak

district, m oreover, enj oys the m oisture driven up from Bengal throughthe defiles of the Lhobrak Tsangpo and the Manas river .

KHAMS AND EASTERN TIBET .

We can hardly close these imperfect remarks on Tibetan vegetation Without a few words on the Eastern Provinces . In the northernparts of Eastern T ibet, when the altitude of the plains north of thelong D ang La range and south of Koko Nur runs between and

feet, the flora which has been revealed somewhat meagrely byPrzhevalski

’s collections approximates to that of Western Tibet,

Lahul, and Phari at higher altitudes. In the Tsaidam salty steppesand the region at the base of the Altan Tag range, we have likewisea related flora, even though the general level is m ore than feetlower. l The collections of the Russian explorer Obruchev, made from

1 In a letter to the author dated May 1895, D r. David Prain of the RoyalBotanic Gardens, Calcutta, al luding to this matter, says : The point you raise isindeed a very pertinent one, and it is one that has often puzzled m e. Why dospecies occur at lower l evels as we go progressively fur ther east ? I find it true

THE FLORA OF TIB ET. 33 1

1 893 to 1 895, and Major Wellby

’s of 1 896, have not yet, however,

been assim ilated, so far as published reports reveal .S outh of the D ang La range in the many districts of the pro

vince of Kham s, that is, south of lat. 33°and east of long . we

have few materials for any detailed description of the plants and

trees of E astern Tibet .Travel lers in those parts assure us that the whole aspect of the

country, with its vegetation, is different to the general condition inthe west . For example, in portions of the Kham s territory lying so

far north as lat . and a few m iles west of Chhamdo, where the

elevation ranges between and feet, we are told of picturesque gorges and lovely bits of forest scenery ; and there am idst rocksflourish large rhododendrons, coccinea, and junipers

, w ith groves offir trees . Pine woods of considerable growth, probably of Al ice

Webbiana,skirt thickly the banks of the D zi Chhu

,only a l ittle

further sou th,afi ording timber of large girth used as roof- beam s for

the houses . Again in the Riwochhe district, a few m iles still furthersouth (circa lat. N .

,long . along the northern bank

of the Gyama Ngul Chhu, we find one of the m ost beautiful valleysconceivable, rivalling the best in Kashm ir. Forests of rhododendron

(probably R . Hodgsoni or R . campylocarp um) and fir overhang the

river, w ith here and there cpen grassy vales w ith trees scattered parklike about . The abundance of wood- fuel allows of iron- sm elting operations being carried on . Moreover the fields of barley are here separated by palisading of fir branches instead of with stone wal ls . Yet the

observed altitude of the Riwochhe valley is put down at quitefeet. There can be no doubt that considerable supplies of oceanm oisture penetrate even so far as th is up the Gyama Ngul Chhu byway of the Salwin River, into which the other river developes .

However, in certain narrow and sheltered valleys m uch furtherto the north than the latitude of Chhamdo, an unexpected luxurianceof vegetation m ay be m et w ith . Thus, the Russian traveller Kozlovwrites in glowing term s of What he styles the warm -wooded valleyof one of the tributaries of the Upper Mekong, the Ra Chu,

” whereh is party w intered in 1 900—01 . This valley would be as far north as

of al l the Himalayan genera that I have studied so far. Wh en the same sp ecies

does extend so far I find th at p lants of ft . in the N .W. H im alaya occur at

from 9 ft. in S ikkim and at 7 ft . in Yunnan and S zechuen. What isodder stil l , occasional ly we find species, that occur up to these levels in the

H imalaya, sti ll present in the Khasia H il ls and at tim es even in the S han H il ls,where they can

’t go above 6 000 ft., as there is no possibil ity of their extending

higher for want of elevation.


lat. 32°N . and in about long . 9 7

°45’E . Kozl ov says

“ The expeditionfound here large forests of fir, and of a tree- like s z

'

j mws Pseudo

S abina,intermingled with birches, willows, wild apricots, w ild app les,

and a great variety of bushes . The rugged crags, covered w ith a richvegetation of trees, bushes, and grasses, presented a beautiful harmonyof colours . In the thickly tree- clad gorges we found quantities of thewhite- cared pheasants (Crossvp tilon Mibetanum) , the green Il /l agim

'

s

yeofirog/ i, the Tetraop /l aszs'

obscuras, the Tetrastes sewerlzowz'

, severalspecies of woodpeckers, and a great quantity of smaller Passerinebirds . D uring warm and bright days the naturalist, and in fact everyperson not insensible to the beauties of nature, could reap enjoym entboth w ith eyes and ears . Flocks of pheasants walked about the l ittle

m eadow s, the eagles described their curves on the blue sky, and from

the th ickest of bushes, richly coloured by sun’ s rays, the songs . of

thousands of small birds could be heard. Of mammals which we did

not see previously, we found m onkeys , which were living in large and

small colonies—very often in close neighbourhood to the Tibetans .

Further north still , in Eastern Tibet, in the val ley of the D i Chhu(the upper waters of the Chinese Yangtse - kiang) , alm ost as far N . as

lat. the sam e travel ler found in March a surprising degree of

warmth and of advance in vegetation . Here on the banks of the

B lue river, which flows at an altitude of about feet above

sealevel, it was also very warm , and we saw already the first appear

ance of spring vegetation ; the Gentiana squarrosa was in bloom , as also

the buttercups, the dandelions, and so on . All sorts of insects and

butterflies flew about. We also noticed the bank swal low (Cotz'

le

rip aria) . The Tibetans were busy in tilling the soil , and som e of them

had already begun sowing wheat and barley, wh ile on the best fields

we saw the first seedlings of wheat piercing the ground.

The principal trees of Eastern Tibet, S .E . of Chhamdo, appear to

be various species of pine, evergreen oak, holly, and rhododendron,which quite take the place of the m iserable w illows and poplars of

Central andWestern Tibet . Junépem s excelsa form s the comm on scrub

on the hillsides from to feet ; and, wherever it is,there do the lovelyCrossopz

‘z'

lon pheasants abound, feeding on its berries .

On the m ountain spurs below feet Rites shrubs w ith several

sorts of Rubus bramble supersede the juniper .

As you approach the region lying just west of Batang and you

descend to an elevation between eight and nine thousand feet above the

sea, the whole vegetation changes ; and you journey am ong clemati

s,

syringas, jessam ine, eglantine, and scandent '

species o f Col qu/l oum'

a.

Past Batang, though the general level ascends to feet, and


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