Jung, Carl Gustac

For M (cd.) 1975 Modcn Jcrish Ethict, Ohio Su.G Univcnityhes. Columbur. Ohio

Frccdman H. Simon M (cd3.) l9l9 llc I'lidrash- (Rrbb.hl. l0Volr. Soncino. London

Fncdfander G (trant.l 1965 Pirka da Rcbbc Elrc:cr. Scphcr-Hcrmon. New York

Gcndlcr E E l97E Wrr end the Je*rsh trodition. ln: Kellncr MM (cd.) l9?8

Goldin J (tranr.) 1955 Acot dc Rabhi ,lathon. Ya,lc UnivcnityPrers. !{cw Haven. Connccticur

Grccabeurn A l9tl .{drcc (Li*utcr &:ot. Rebti Nrthen ofSrtdov on Rabbi Nehmenl. Erctlov. Nar Yorl

HiEh R G 1974 The ,llos Prccrotts C{t: Pcocc h tcrish Tt&-,ior. u^Hc. Nar York

Jekoboviu I t9t6 Thc nuclcar dcbetc in thc litht of Jcvichrcaching!. L'EIlah. (Spring) pp. fE

Krdushin M t93l IAe Theology of Sedcr E/ialu. Bloch. NcwYork

Krpfrn V V 1970 Tlc Rcligron of Ethical )iatoalwd: tfu-sa's Coatrtbutrcn to lVorld Paocc. Mecmillen. London

Keprtcin l. Eraudc w (tranr.) l9tl Tuno Dck &ir.tahu. le*irh hrblicatron Socrcty oi Amcne. Philedclphir"Pen nsylvanrl

Kcflncr ill !f (ed.) l9?E Contemporarv./cwrrlr Eliicr. Senhe.dr in. Ncw York

Kimcfmrn R l96E Non-violcncc in thc Talmud. ludobn gg.I | 6-llJ

Klci! A M (uu!.) l9*t Tte Complcrc lfotk ol HayyimNal},tarll Etolik. Eloclu Ncv Yort

Kornicb J S l93J J&itn ond Intcrnotioaol Paocc. Thc TractConmisdon Ciocinnetl Ohio

Lcr M S l9ti ?1r Humanilr of tctish &tr'. Soncino. LondonNcher A 1966 Rebbinic rdumbrrtions of non-riolencc: lsr.rcl

and Crnarn: ln: Locsc R (cd.) t966 Stwlics m Rututuulisn.J&bm and Unitcrsalism Routlcdge and Kecaan Prul.London 9p. 16F96.

Novel D 19t5 Thc threat of nucletr wer Jewish pcrspccrisc.Hal&hoh in o Thcologicel Dimcnsioa. Scholarr Prcrr. Chico.Celiforaie

Fail M t95 Thc dynenks of porce Morelity in lrmcd confrictellcr thc Sir Dey Wer ln: For M (cd.) 1975

Shrlro D l9?J Thc Jcvish ettitude towtrdt war and pcace.Studics in Jcwith Thought, Ycshivah University Prcss. NewYork pp. 316{3

SinScr S (trenr.) 1962 Thc Dailv Pravr &ook. Eyre rnd Spottrs-soodc. London

Stuen4ohcn G H l9t4 Thc Struggle n llaa Bcttcea Gul und&r/. Kok. Kempcn

Wafd M 1914 Shalom: Jetuh Teaching on Pcuce. 8loch. NcwYork

Prur- Monnrs

Juy,, Carl Gustav-/,-

According to thc analytical psychologfsr6id-unav Thc collectivc unconscious in Jung's vicw has aJung (lE75-1961). people arc inhcrently pcaocful, as "doppelgingcr effect" a3 "a boundlcss realm thatcvidcncrd by his concept of thc collcctivc uncon- Gmeins hiddcn bccausc ir is not (usually) connectdscious. This concept s€riously challcnges thc notion with thc egxonrciousncs" (Jaffc l97l p. 13. pp.

of powcr roored in conscious moral forcc. Jung'r 15()-53). Jung took the cxample of lsaac Luria. aclari f icat ionofvalucsthroughabcttcrundcntanding Jewish pacif ist who explored thc col lect ive uncon-of thc collective unconscious allows for diffcrent scious in terms of world ordcr, as his prototype formerhds of reconci l iat ion and l iberation. dcf ining thc conscious import of the col lect i le

To dcvclop rhis inrcrpreration more thoroughly. i t unconscious. Fol lowing years of painstaking analy-might bc hclpful to describc the work of Jung on thc sis. Jung dccidcd that the major threats to thc collec-collectivc unconscious. lnitial suppon for his work tivc unconsciou3 are omnicidal weapons and the pov-

bcgan wirh rhe Jungian Psychological Club. financed cny of toralitarianism. Thcsc threats torture thein parr by Edirh Rockefcl ler McCormick. His work col lcct ive unconscious. repressing the irregulari t ics ofgained international recognition through the Jung rgality (Jaffe l97l pp. 122-21).Foundarion and the Boll ingcn Foundation in As Jung notcd (195E). thc search lor pc:rce is cen-Gcncva chancred by. among othe6. Mary Conover tered in one's tersonal rcality and lvcll-berng. suchMcllon and her friends. that peace is:

Jung's work was most intenscly conccrnd with thcdcfinition or "mcanins." or rhc "cxpcriencc or rorat- :i:-1"^t-:::j-:1-l{:I}li:::id^ff*tion'

for

ity," synchronicauy linking conscious evcnrs to rl: lfi ily":ffiinil5.'ji:T:T,'J;",'rJ:,:1.'j;collcctivc unconscious. Jung proposcd that thc col- *fr.r i,

'*."f. hclplcss and in nced of support-rhe

lective unconscious was first graphically encountcred very ground and motive of (inrer)depcndcnce.in thc twcntieth ccntury by the Blaue Raitar school ofcxprcssionisr painrenr in Munich. Gcrmany-includ- From this intcrpreation of the collectivc uncon-ing Franz Marc. Wassily Kandinsky. and Paul Klee scious. it appcars that one should fint reconcile con-

-in their kinesthetic. chthonic portrayals of the ago- r iously clashing ideologics and then rcvive thcnizing and bittcr-swcet reality of war. pcaccablc collcctive unconscious.

, Lio*, .?.=J;u., .€ruln/"/,xrrkt6)r"+ 8

"^=- &rq*l /'t| V: pego-,*^ lg,\/ ?t/,2 /

Jung, Carl Gustau

Pnt differently, Jung argued that our disrcgard forour collective unconscious has. in cffect, stancd thebasic pan of our sclf-image needed for mcre survival

-lcading to the mcaninglessness that is war. Starv-ing the collective unconscious dcbases traditionaltcchniqucs lor solving domestic needs apart fromnihilistic technologies, destroys abilities to drcam orcreate altcrnative meaning. rcpresses a pcrrcnal

undcrstanding of one's own biscxuality in thc collcc-tive unconscious. and most scriously of all. irrcveni-bly negatcs rescrve energics for comprchcnsirc altcr-nativc future plans,

In denying thc lundamental peaceableness of thccollective unconscious. thc consciousness of Sover-eignty undermines the global foundations lor sur-vival csscntial to both domestic and intcrnationallegal structures as wcl l . For example:

tgnorance in English law is no excuse for breaches ofthc law. ln the collective unconscious. ignorancc (or)unawaren6s is not only inexcusable. but thc grcatestoffcnse with the most dire conscqucnccs. That is whyin Greek myth. legend. and art, thc vi l lain is alwayslhe ignorancc that scrvcs as an imagc of unawareness;i t is always the "no( knowing". thc nonrccognit ion ofman's (human) inncr evcntfulncss which is thc rcalcrime. (van dcr Post 1975)

Within the power of thc collcctive unconscious lics

thc singular potential for world pcace. "lnstinctual"

sovereignty has clouded our interpretation of thc

Just

The international law of war rel ies heavi ly on the

doctr ine of thc just war. or as i t was cal led in thc

Larin of the classical churchmen and lawyers. the Eel-

lun justum- This doctrine grcw out of the shared cul-

ture and values-particularly a concern with justice

--of early Greek and Roman civilization ru

cxpresscd in writers such as Plato and Ciccro (sce

Cicero, ,Varcus Tullius). lt took rooL in Christian

theology as devclopcd by Augustinc. Thomas Aqui'

nas (sce Sr. Thomas Aquinas\, and the body ofcanon

law. A secular branch of just war doctrine was also

pan of medieval customs and concepts of civilized

behavior. De Vitoria. Suarez. Centili, Grotius (scc

Grotius, Hugo), and later scholars werc conccrned

with appropriate authority to make war and to detcr-

mine objectives. intent. and mode of conduct. Such

conccrns have takcn modcrn form in various bilat-

cral and multilatcral trealies. acts of intcrnational

couns and organizations. and acadcnic works-

508

pot€ntial of thc collectivc'unconscious, obscuringbasic questions of both solidarity and sovcreignrywithin internarional relat ions.

Ncvcrthcless. a great shift in our collective uncon-scious did occur during the Renaissance. with therecognit ion lhat we l ive in a hel iocentr ic star system.This revclation caused conscious lension bctweenindividual. domestic. and international perceptionsof sccurity. Thc passagc of Europcan impcrialismand colonialism from the political ccntcr of thc world

stage also thrcatcned racial myths, sexual prcjudices,and culturally imposcd masks of militarism. In thefuture, awesome omnicidal wcapons foreshadowanothcr great subconscious shift in thc foundationsof our now global self- image.

See also: Freud, Sigmund: Psvchology' of Peace

Bibliography

Bcrnstcin J S l9E5 Jung. Jungians and thc nuclcsr panl. Psycho'logical Perspccitrr Spring

Jaffc A l97l The ll-vth of .lleaning. G. P. Putnam's Sons. NcwYork

Jung C G I95t flrc L'ndiscorered Sefi Littlc. Brown. Eoston,Massachusctts

Odajnyt v W 1976 Jung and Polirics: The Political ond SociolIdcos of C. G. lung. H*pcr and Row. Ncw York

vrn dcr Port L 1915 Jug and thc Stor; of Our Time. PrnthconBookr. Ncs York

Aaoul Aztz Seto: PruL HuaeRs

War

The doctr ine of the just war has two majorbranchcs: just i f icat ion for going to war.Tas ad bel lum;and justifiablc lsr in wartime. jus in bello.

I. Jus ad Bellum

Thc justification for going to war. ius ad betlum.depcnds on four principal elements (Johnson 1975p. 26):

(a) Proper authority

(b) Just cause

(c) Right intent

(d) Peaceful end.

l.l Proper Authoritt'

Classical writers insisted on the proper authority to

engage war. Cicero. in Roman t imes. staled that'Just war must bc waged undcr thc authority of thc

statc" (Bainton 1978 p 136). Subsequent scholars

Madailaga, Salvador de

Mrnrlicld H C Jr lgtl Oo nc inpcrroarfilt "t

* rl.fnrL: A oiluDcrt of Mrchbrrlli'r u* ol rro. An. Potlt.&i . nr .n

Mrzco J A 1962 Thc poctry of porrtr: Mechitwlli'r lianryvirion. Aa'. liotioaol Uteratwc 19

Mcinccke F 1957 Mochiarcrrnn. LondonOrvin C l9?t Mrchievclli 'r unchnsrien cheriry. ,ta. Polit. Sci.

rRa. 7lPctcrm:n L l9tl Danrc ud thc rrrin3 for Machirvcllienirm.

Am. Potit. Scr. .Ra. 76Prcsr S 1979 Mechrevelli 'r funaionel enelysis of rcltgion: Con-

tert rnd ob.pct. J. Hatory of ldcas llPrczzolini G l96t Machiot'cl/i. LondonPn:zolini G 1970 Thc Chnrtien roos of Machirvclli 'r monl

pcsrimism. Rct'. National Literatwe. I

- -""^Scrw n l9J9 A hfdfcetion by Mrctirrlli. Rau/ll,oacc Nrlr.tt?

S*lor C S l95l Thc pcrrgcriw of rn. fiar.rsr Rt.r.. 15Sfinr Q l9tl llochiadli. OrfordSrnse L l97t Thoujhts o! ltochiorclli. Chrcz3o. lllinoirV6Flin E l95l Machiavclli 'r Prince: B:ckground rnd forme-

tion. Rrr. Polit. 13Wood N 1967 Mechrevclli 's conctpr of vinu rcconridcrcd.

?olit. Studics 15Wr J C H 1970 Mrchr:vclli .nd tbc lcphrrt of Anocnr Chin:.

Ra- ltatioaal Literatwe. I

Joxc-Yrr- Rr

Madariaga, Salvador de

Salvador dc Madariaga (t88Gl97E) was rhc personclected by thc Lcaguc of Nations to coordinatc thcLcaguc sc3sions on disarmamenr. In this position hcbccamc a focus of attcntion for rhc world's mostprowerful warring rcvereign 3tat6. His expericncc inthc 193G39 Spanish Civil War had lcd bim to pon-der thc rcalitics ol pacifism. collccrivc sccuriry, soli-darity. and sovcreignty. He found no casy answers.

' The principal legal insrrumcnts for usc in intcrna.t ional confl ict resolurion in thc ninereenrh cenrurywcre the 1861 Lal^'o[Gcncva for noncombatant cas-ualtics and thc 1868 Law of the Haguc for bclligcr-cnts in war. Madariaga's early dchnit ions of thcnation-statc conscqucnllv conccrncd standing armiesand conscriprion. Pol i t ical rruth in this contcxt *,asfunctional or instrumcntal, not relared to goals forpractical intcrnational disarmamcnt.

Madariaga similarly defined "intcrnational rela-tions" in his 1937 Thcorv and Practice of Interna-tional Relotiou as thc "mcchanics of collectivc (con-sciously moral) forccs" or thc irrational m€chanics ofinstitutionalizcd powcr. Thesc "collcctivc forces"werc subscguently dcfined as "all (conscious) mani-fcstations of life endowcd $irh powcr to influcncccollcctive cvcnts" (Bailey 1972: Madariaga 1935,1937b). What this mcant in rcal iry was thar 'Just"war principlcs werc amrmed and thus a contcmpcrary. Grenville Clark. for cxample, could draft thc1920 and 1940s United. Statcs conscription laws(Swomlcy l96a). The consciousn6s driving thcworld to war overwhclmed the Lcaguc of Nations bythe mid-l9l0s.

The central obstacle to implementing disarmamcntappcared to Madariaga to bc thc di lcmma of sovcr.cignty. He dcfincd sovercignty as "a tcndency. bothpnmary and reactivc, to consider or to asscrt thcnational will as the solc. or at least the final dctcrmi-

nant of action" (Madariaga 1937b). Prccmincntnational sovercignty made international world pcacealmoet impossiblc.

Maderiaga saw thc historical clcmcnts of sover-eigrty as fundamcntal to nationalism. Sovercigntysnncd undcr Roman law end thc laws of thc HolyRoman Empire with thc symbolic /ascas of theEmpcror. rcprescnting collcctive military might.Madariaga also vicwed sovereignty as a more or lessadolescent stage blocking thc way to world solidar-ity, under rhe guisc of various forms of expansionistimpcrialism or charismatic hero worship (Madariaga

1937a and 1937b). An analogy, however tenuous.might bc that of sovereignty s€rvtng much like"apanheid." "gcrrymandcring," or "rcd l ining." asunderstood, translated. and implcmented on a worldscdc.

Sovercignty was thc nemesis o[ solidanty forMadariaga. Solidarity. dcfincd as thc inrcrdcpcn-dcncc needcd for cxistence between thc parrs and thcsum total of intcrnational rclations. undergirdcdworld organization. Solidarity eristed in either objcc-tiw . or subjcctivc forms. Objcctivc solidantyoccurred in world powcr srructures, whilc subjcctivcsolidarity occurred within countrics. Oblcctivc soli-darity included charactcristics of territory. climatc.habitat. food, rcsourccs. interdcpcndcncc. racc,world trade. and linguistic affinitics.

Madariaga postulatcd that collcctive sccurityresulted from military forcc. For this reason. hede$ribcd Article X defining collcctive securityenforccd by common milinry intervention as thecore Covenant art iclc of the Lcague of Natrons Cov-enant. lmplcmcntation of Art iclc X. through Art icleXl. was thcorctically supposcd to safcguard interna-tioo.l pcac. bctwcen nations (Madariaga 1937b).

557

M&rlaga, Sahndor de

;; iDDlcaatrdc rrilr tb cotlcaiwrrcirnr trla rbpc h tb pnab of roddoid6. h rer h tlc 'bra&.oo' Fcdcc of roddordcr thrt Mrdrrirjr bcpn to criticrlly qucrionrovereignty. rnd opt inrtcrd for pnjrnrtic conllictrcrolution. Mrdrrirjr fourd thrt ecturl implcmcn-utioo of rorld or&r rcquired jrdtiout rnnrnetion-diror ud rolidrrity. irucrd of treditioael collccricrccurity mahodr. Hir crpcnrc Fotcd to rhrtecrrnlly worlcd. both in rcpontc to rcturl condi-tionr rnd future trendr.

Mrdrrirgr rttcrnptcd to ovcrcomc the berrier ofrcwrcignty in thc pncticel opc'rrtion of thc Lcrgueby rhc corrcpr of rcliderity. Thc tcm roliderity hrrpprrcntly rbo bom urd rithin thc Unitcd Nlioorin thc rcrrc of rorld ordcr. Tnnronionelirn rndrcliderity referrcd to r mcthod rcrchin3 bcyond thclimiu of mtiond rovcreigrty or fronticn. At thcrenr rirr. tlsc tcrrnr rdrc ro thc bcbrvior oft-ti-

rad rrrnnerirnd spcrta arrcprba TbcDnfrtic $irl of Mdrbn o tbb pcin nrrtcdbir ropitioo of haao;acou mcthodr for cteajcrnd thc impkmeaution of powct.

Mrdrrirgr notd thrt foreign rffrin hrd litcrtllyccercd to erirt in rerlity. rinct world rfhin domi-neted eny rnd rll inrcraerionel rcbrionr. Hc rccom-rErdcd thet dl foreigr ninirten bc rccbrilcacd-miohcrr of rorU elfein- Dy l9lt tr hrd bquoto conccpturlizc rolidrrity in phnnin3 for rorldordcr. rcarrdinj tendcncio rnd vduer incorponrcdthroujh sorld tnde rnd trenrponrdon. Hc pre.dicted thrt world dirermemcnt would only uork onr plerur;- rcelc.

Hc rcdefined urrrrrtlertu er inrtrumcatr of rowr-ci3nty. innced of s toolr for sorld ordcr. Rccogtir-inj thrt thcrc would bc no rucccrrful miliury dcter-rent to wcrpont of mrrr destruction, he pcrceivedthrt the only othcr dternetive wlt to crcrtc r worldoryrnisr by rorld or&r. Tbc fcer of put vtr endcononrt rurerly un&t tbc norion of rvcrcigttyrtrrcly &hFd hcelthy dadoptttcttt of world indrtrtionr. Hc bepn to r3r thrt rovercignty ss futr.tionrlly unnGsc$rry.

Hc incrercd hb cdll for non-nrtionrl or3rnizr'tionr rr wcll. idcntifyinl tltctc non-nrdonll ot non'rcrtteigr orpni:rtioru ia tsrnr of r6,j5 busincs

td rfin Gc aruroj totttEF oerrool-irn" lt ttrH Ort tb D.bo of rGritrty rrrvcry d rfr. u iluntd by tlc Jrgrrc intcr-cru io Eert Adr rcllccting thc Unitd Sutc MonrocDoctrinc in lrtin Arncrica. Hc concludcd in Anorchyor Hktocht,(193?) thrt thc modern tutc rhouldrtnc itr lsl rolc in 3owramcnt. fnrrrLlly dircrtfrm ilcrartiorl rrr rn&. narootrc3 inrcrnetionetrtrtc torcrcrttrty. ua build inrtitutronr for pcle(Cen ud Mrderirp l94l).

ln dfet. Mederir3r callcd for world plannin3 torven thc probhmr rnd conrguencs of wrr. Hirnotioo of intcrnrtiorul rclidrrity. in rn internrtionrlnrhcr rhen Fci.htt or ceptelirt rn!.. mctnrcrrossrpnt rrthodr for tnnrnetionelin and drr-conn3iq aetionel fronricrr. Hc ventcd to rchicrcwodd eonomic ordcr end conriournes by over.coninj world hun3er. poveny. rnd thc lnns rscc.

Wald odGr rould bc rcrchod rhcn thc notionrof rr:fnq rad colcairl ctriry bqrrc dcbltr.bf c urdqfcr l|c lr nitury colrfrontetioa rrrcod b wpaird" urrrctt rntrrln lo hurnenncc:rdtict lite horning hcrlth. employmcnt. rndeducrtion. lnternrl wcll-bcin j o[ the collectirculroosciour sould rdvence when wcepons of mersdctnrtion rnd thc pownt of totrliuntnrrmb.cec nranin$es. Hc sgcnt t9 ycen of hrt hfc rn

Flibl crilc frm Sprin" wuttfeTlll! srlhcaonria! tot Fnicubr nrtion. bcfott dyrng tnSwitz'-rlend in 197t.

Eibliogrophy

fjft S D lf72 hfran d R.t ru,t -

L'cr OrfordUisiry trl!. l{rr Yort

CIr E H. Xdrru3r 3 & l9'l f* fstnc { lloutruth*et. hecr Airar PrtnghLt No. l. Nrtronrl PcerrCoorril. Orford

Mdrrirp 3 dr l9tJ lln ltuc ol leecc (Richrrd CoMcn Lrr'rrf Cotdea-Srl&|so. Loa&a

X*qr 3 & f tlTr Aerly o Ha;r*y. Alha rnd Unrtn.L-.10.

ff*r; S & ttttl llri d ?tatt a lteertlrr,|r&'rg'. Urrrrrnf of ?tlrytntr. ?tur. ?hiL.LlPhu.klr/narr

Srooht J M lr l96a Thc Nllhorl' f,,r,tabllshacnt. ktcoalicr loloa. Mrrlchurcrs

ArDUL Azz Seto: Pew Hurcrs

Meldevelopmcnt

lf o dcvelopmcnt procc33 docs not tnd cannot mobil'irt tbc cotirG rocirl forcc. end ir lrh thrt thc cadnrciel forcc docr nor rnd cennor plniciprtc in er

55t

wcll rs contributc to thc functionr of production rnddirrribstion. dccidon rnrlinj rnd dccrlon rmple'grtirn, oornrngtioa ertd raiel crchen3c. onc

Thorsson, Inga

lines of the Theology of Uberation issued by the

Sacred Congregation for thc Doctrine of thc Faith in1984, in which thosc clements in liberation thoughtwhich derived from Manist sourccs werc firmlyrcpudiated. It is possible to arguc that thc prescntpapal stance keeps the language of libcration theol-ogy while denying much that was prcviously scen asintegral to it. How lar theologians in Latin Americawill bc willing to conform to thc Vatican guidclincsremains to be scen. If they are it will lcad to a ra,licalchangc in what the expression "thcology of libcra-tion" should bc takcn to mean.

Concerning thc impact of thc theology of libcra-tion on world peacc it must bc said that in its full-blooded. rcvolutionary form it represcnts a signifi-cant threat. ln Populorum Progressio Popc Paul VI

appcared to condone rcvolutionary uprising "wherethere is manifest, long-standing tyranny," and thistheme has bcen strongly developcd by some theolo-gians into the concept of the "Just Revolut ion." Fr.Camilo Torres, a priest who died leading an armcduprising. has in some places gained the status of amartyr. And though leaders l ike Dom Helder Cam-cra havc explicitly repudiated a dirrct resort to vio-lcnce, the terms in which they dcnouncc the injusticcsin thcir continent must incvitably give encourage-ment to thosc who scck spcedicr resolution 'of thcircontincnt's ills. A call to "fight" oppression issucd in

a metaphorical scnsc can well bc understood in alitcral one. And it is ccrtain that at least some libcra-tion theologians sce violent revolution asincscapable.

Sce also: Christianity; Religion and Peace

Bibliography

Betr L Botr C 1919 Da libcrtacao: O sentido teologico dulikrtacocs sociohktoricat Editora Vozcs. Brazil [9t4 Sa/-cation ud Ubcration. Orbir. Maryknolll

Bonino J M 1975 Rctolvtionory Theology Comcs o./-Atc. s?cr,Londoo

Davics J G 1976 Christians. Polirics and Violent Rerolution.rv. London

Ghecrbnnt A 1969 L'Eglisc rcbelle d'Amzrique /atiz?. Editionsdu Scuil. Paris fl97J The Rebel Church in Lztin .{merrca.Penguin. Harmondswonhl

Gibcllini R 1975 L.o nuocafrontiera della tcologio in Amerrcmularira, Editrice Queriniana. ltaly fl980 Froatiers of Theol-ogy in Lotin America. SCM. Londonl

Guticnez G l91l Teologia de la liberacion. Perspectilu. CEP,Lima fl974 A Theology of Lib<rotion. SCM, London]

Kirk J A 1979 Libcrorion Thtology. Marshall. lvlorgan lndScott. London

Kirk J A l9EO Theologl' Encouters Rqolution. tvp, LondonSacred Congregation lor t]rc Doctrinc of the Faith 198-l Cuidc-

lincr on thc Theology of Libcration. The Pop< Spea*s 29Walsh M. Davics B l9t4 Proclaining Justice snd Peace. Col-

lins, London

Pruu Beoseu

Thorsson, Inga

The contribution to pcace of Inga Thonson. formerSwedish Under-Sccretary of State, camc lrom herleadcnhip of the Unitcd Nations Disarmament andDevelopment approach. which historically followedfrom New Intcrnational Economic Order discussions(sce rVerv International Economic Order). As shcnoted, "the arrns racc and underdcvelopment arc notrwo problems: they are one. They must be solvedtogether or they will never bc solvcd" (United

Nations l98l). Shc also uscd this approach in plan-ning a disarmamcnt and dcvclopmcnt program forSwcden. Shc found that, within Sweden, the twomost casily identidablc clements working against dis-arrnament and dcvelopmcnt were relatcd to thc costsof labor and productivity.

Thc first clemcnt she idcntified, thc conscriptionsystem of thc military, was found to olTcr the "clear-

est distinction bctwect budgetary outlays and socialcost in thc cntire dcfcnsc s€ctor." This clement, inother *'ords, was the most important factor working

against disarmament and development because o[the valuc of lost production it represented in theSwedish cconomy. Conscription was found not onlyto shoncn thc working lifc-span and the lifetimeincome of al l who part icipate in i t , but also to costthc average Swedish worker us$2?.625 per year(defined as the "value addcd per employee"). Con-scription was estimated to cause economic losses ofuss770.000.000 for Sweden as a whole for the 1984-85 fiscal ycar.

Sccondly, productivity was dcpressd since thcSwedish military systcm resultd in massive losscs inlost land rent and lost land revenue, whilc sup-pressing productivity by the strategic stockpiling ofoil and food.

Thc action advised by Thorsson recognized theincfficicncics of productivity and followcd the pro-posals of the uN Disarmamcnt and DevelopmentFund lnitiative. This fund was to takc a percentageof the military expenditures from contributing coun-

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Thorsson, Inga

trics and put this into a world danclopmcnt fund.Fint proposcd by lndia in l95O thc plans for thcfund are now channclcd through tbc ux Institutc forDisarmamcnt Rcscarch (uuotn). Sbe spccifically rec-ommcndcd surcbargcs on military production, subsi-dics to cncounrge convgrsion from military to civilproduction, labor-rctraining allocations, and armscxport taxes or tariffs.

Thesc options could bc implcmentcd by localSwcdish convcrsion council funds in miliury tradcunions and companies, linkcd to a Swcdish Counsilfor Disarmamcnt and Conversion "Ccntral Conver-sion Fund" and the trN Developmcnt Fund for Dis-armiunent. Rccalling thc 1983 Palme Rcport, shccndcd hcr proposal by noring that avcrting nuclcartcrrorism and crr:ting sccurity depends upon opcra-tiooalizing thcsc rccommcndations (Ihorssonr984b).

Scc afso: lrms Corwrsiorc Dbarnument andDanclopment

Bibliography

Tbonrco I l9t4a .fn Purnit of Disttwrent, Cotroctsion froaMilitary to Cbil Pro&tction in Swdcn, Vol. tA: Socl-ground, Facts, Analyses. Ubcr Allmana F6rlaget, Stocx.holm, pp. lt0-t6. 19l-94, 207-209

Thorsson I 1984b /n Purnit of Disononcn!: Conccrsion fromMilitarv to Ciuil Production in Sttdcn. Vol. lB: Sunnorr.Appraisals, Reconuncn&tions, Ubcr Allmana F6rlagct.Stockholm, pp. 43-a6, 5F60

Unitcd Nations l9tl W'orld Chroaich No. 060/82-43180 (Nov-cmbcr 3. l9El). pp. !.6

United Nations l9E6 The Intcrnotional Confcrence on the Rclo-tiorehip htwcen Dbonmcn od Dexlopmcnr. UnircdNetions Fect Shect No. 4i. tjoircd Natioos. Ncw York

A.spw Azrz Sep: Pew HusERs

Titoism

Titoism refers to the idcology, policics, and politicalsystcm bcgun by Manhal Tito (1892-1980). Thctcrm is generally uscd in two ways. One usage is criti-cal andaccuscs Tito of bcing a rcvisionist of social-ism. The othcr rcfcrs to Tito's vcnion of socialism.thc unique form of commrinism which bas dcvclopcdin Yugoslavia, and to thc indepcndent policies Yugo-slavia has pursud in intcrnational society.

Tito was thc pseudonym takcn by Josip Broz dur-ing his undcrground activities in thc Sccond WorldWar. Broz was born in Croatia on May 7, 1892, thescventh of 15 childrcn of a poor pcasant family. Hcspcnt his youth as an apprenticc locksmith and amctalworkcr. Hc joincd thc Communist Party ofYugoslavia in t920. Working in a machinc factory,thc shipyards, and a railroad-car factory, bc devotedhimsclf to party activities and becamc a professionalrevolutionary in 1928. Hc was s€Trt to Moscow in1934 and workcd thcrc in the Balkan scction of theComintern. In 1937 he was appointcd to thc post ofSccrctary-Gcneral by thc Comintern's ExccutiveCouncil.

Yugoslavia was dividcd and occupied by the armyof thc Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Hungary)in 1941. Tito lcd the Partisan movsment whichharasscd the encrny, at last succccding in thc libcra-tion of thc whole of Yugoslavia on Novembcr 29,1943. A ncw govcrnmdlt, directed by Tito as PrimeMinistcr, was sct up on March 7, 1945. The ncwcommunist Yugoslavian state wrs born on Nov-cmbcr 29, 1945.

462

Yugoslavia has scven ncighboring countries andhas within its own bordcn six constitucnt nations inwhich four di.ffcrent languages are spokcn, two sepa-rate alphabcts are uscd, and thrcc major religions arepracticcd. It was an arca which had long bccndividcd beforc suffcring thc occupation of the Axis

Fnwcrs during the Sccond World War. Tito was first.thercfore, a national leadcr who succccded in lcadinghis country out of its miscry and accomplishing the

cstablishmcnt of unity in Yugoslavia.Whereas the othcr Eastern Europcan countries

now bclonging to the Warsaw Pact gaincd thcir inde'pcndencc and were communizcd in thc confusion of

thc aficrmath of thc war with thc support of the

Sovict Union, Yugoslavia was thc only country to

establish a communist governmcnt on its own. Titocstablishcd the one-party rulc of the CommunistParty and boldly put into praaicc ncw'land reformpolicics and tle nationalization of industries. He alsoplayed a vciy imponant role in establishing the

Cominform in 1947. His cfforu in this task wcrc

highly cstimatcd by Stalin at that time, and, as a

result. the Cominform hcld its executive office in Bcl'gndc. Thus, Tito at first kcpt in step with the SovietUnion and was a faithful disciple of Stalin. Howevcr.he graduatly began to resist the opprcssivc attitude of

the Soviet Communist Pany in its asscnion of Sovictccntralism and he disdained its actions of forcing the

communist parties of various countries to adopt

entirely pro-Sovict policies. In thc cnd Tito came to

opposc Stalin hcad-on. Conscqucntly thc Yugoslav'