GRDC GrowNotes Northern Wheat

Wheat

planning/paddock preparation pre-planting planting

plant growth and physiology nutrition and fertiliser weed control

insect control nematode control diseases plant growth

regulators and canopy management harvest storage

environmental issues marketing current research

Updated: February 2016 Published: March 2014

Northern Region

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FeedbackTable of ContentsWheAT - Whats new February 2016

Whats new February 2016

The GRDC GrowNotes are dynamic documents that are updated according to user feedback and newly available information.

This version of the GRDC Wheat GrowNotes (updated February 2016) contains the following updates on original content published in March 2014:

Section 1 - Planning/Paddock preparationPage 1.4

Key outcomes arising from the crop sequence: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Key-outcomes-arising-from-the-crop-sequence-project

Page 1.6

Dual-purpose wheat and canola - finding the best fit with experiments, experience and modelling: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Dual-purpose-wheat-and-canola-finding-the-best-fit-with-experiments-experience-and-modelling

Page 1.11

Summer weeds reduce moisture and nitrogen: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Summer-weeds-reduce-moisture-and-nitrogen

Page 1.17

Windmill grass (Chloris truncata) the current state of play, Maurie Street, Grain Orana Alliance: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2011/04/Windmill-grass-Chloris-truncata-the-current-state-of-play

Page 1.22

Northern Grower Alliance (2015) Stubble impact on fallow water efficiency in western zones 2014/15: http://www.nga.org.au/results-and-publications/download/356/project-reports-general/results-in-a-nutshell/stubble-impact-on-fallow-water-efficiency-2014-15.pdf

Page 1.25

The strategic use of tillage in conservation: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/The-strategic-use-of-tillage-in-conservation-farming

Section 2 Pre-planting:Page 2.1

Evaluation of alternative dual purpose cereals for grazing and grain production 2010: http://www.farmtrials.com.au/trial_details.php?trial_project_id=16004

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Flowering time of wheat varieties in New South Wales: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/03/Flowering-time-of-wheat-varieties-in-New-South-Wales

Comparing profitability of wheat growing in different productivity districts in SA and the implications for management decision making: http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/08/Comparing-profitability-of-wheat-growing-in-different-productivity-districts-in-SA#sthash.kOa51y7E.dpuf

Wheat varieties - A flour millers perspective : https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/08/Wheat-varieties-A-flour-millers-perspective

Yield and protein relationships in wheat: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/07/Yield-and-protein-relationships-in-wheat

New wheat cultivars for the high rainfall zone: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/08/New-wheat-cultivars-for-the-high-rainfall-zone

Pushing the production barriers what does it take to grow 10 t/ha of wheat and 4 t/ha of canola? https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Pushing-the-production-barriers

Page 2.7

Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf

NVT Queensland Wheat Variety Guide 2015: https://www.grdc.com.au/Resources/Publications/2015/03/NVT-Queensland-Wheat-Variety-Guide-2015

Section 3 - PlantingPage 3.1

Wheat variety response to sowing time: www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Wheat-variety-response-to-sowing-time

Sowing early in 2014 - how did it work? https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Sowing-early-in-2014--how-did-it-work

Sowing time response of 21 wheat varieties Trangie 2014, Greg Brooke, Leigh Jenkins, Guy McMullen. p9 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Response of current and potential wheat varieties to four sowing dates Narrabri 2014, Rick Graham, Stephen Morphett, Guy McMullen. p18 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Sowing date, heat stress and frost risk in irrigated wheat crops: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/08/Sowing-date-heat-stress-and-frost-risk-in-irrigated-wheat-crops

Sowing dates - Getting the best from our varieties and optimising whole-farm wheat yield (NSW): https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Sowing-dates-Getting-the-best-from-our-varieties-and-optimising-whole-farm-wheat-yield-NSW

Turning sowing times on their head with winter habit canola and wheat: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Turning-sowing-times-on-their-head-with-winter-habit-canola-and-wheat

Mud, weeds, frost, sheep and disease - managing the risks of early-sown wheat in South West Victoria: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-

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Update-Papers/2015/08/Managing-the-risks-of-early-sown-wheat-in-South-West-Victoria

Page 3.6

Managing frost risk in warmer seasons may not be as easy as you think: www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Managing-frost-risk-in-warmer-seasons-may-not-be-as-easy-as-you-think

Page 3.7

Northern grains region trial results Autumn 2015: www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Section 5 Nutrition and fertiliserPage 5.6

Optimum inputs may be lower inputs for wheat: http://riverineplains.com.au/_literature_53800/Optimum_inputs_in_wheat_-_John_Sykes

Page 5.10

Model your nitrogen to account for in-crop: http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Media-News/South/2015/06/Model-your-nitrogen-to-account-for-in-crop-mineralisation

Nitrogen management in wheat 2014: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Nitrogen-management-in-wheat-2014

Understanding causes of poor grain yield response of wheat to phosphorus and nitrogen fertilisers: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Understanding-causes-of-poor-grain-yield-response-of-wheat-to-phosphorus-and-nitrogen-fertilisers

Page 5.13

Nitrogen volatilisation: Factors affecting how much N is lost and how much is left over time: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/07/Factors-affecting-how-much-N-is-lost-and-how-much-is-left-over-time

Page 5.17

Where does fertiliser nitrogen finish up?: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Where-does-fertiliser-nitrogen-finish-up

Durum wheat variety response to nitrogen management Tamarang 2014, Rick Graham, Guy McMullen Gururaj Kadkol. p159 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Nitrogen response of six wheat varieties Merriwa 2014, Greg Brooke, Peter Matthews, Guy McMullen. p174 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Nitrogen and sowing time response of six wheat varieties Wongarbon 2014, Greg Brooke, Peter Matthews, Guy McMullen. p177 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Wheat variety response to nitrogen management Tamarang 2014, Rick Graham, Guy McMullen. p184 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

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Getting nitrogen (N) into the crop efficiently and effectively: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/04/Getting-nitrogen-N-into-the-crop-efficiently-and-effectively

Page 5.20

Topping up wheat with foliar phosphorus does it work? https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Topping-up-wheat-with-foliar-phosphorus

Understanding causes of poor grain yield response of wheat to phosphorus and nitrogen fertilisers: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Understanding-causes-of-poor-grain-yield-response-of-wheat-to-phosphorus-and-nitrogen-fertilisers

Page 5.21

Role of legume break crops in mobilising soil phosphorus (P) for wheat: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Role-of-legume-break-crops-in-mobilising-soil-phosphorus-P-for-wheat

Page 5.22

Deep phosphorus placement case study integrating research into Darling Downs farming: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Deep-phosphorus-placement-case-study

Improving fertilizer decisions for P on the Western Downs: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Improving-fertilizer-decisions-for-P-on-the-Western-Downs

Alternative phosphorus fertiliser trial: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/07/Alternative-phosphorus-fertiliser-trial

Page 5.24

A calculator to assess the economics of deep placement P over time: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/A-calculator-to-assess-the-economics-of-deep-placement-P-over-time

Section 6 Weed controlPage 6.1

Weed issues and action items: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Weed-issues-and-action-items

Brome and barley grass management in cropping systems of southern Australia: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Brome-and-barley-grass-management-in-cropping-systems-of-southern-Australia

Progress in developing weed competitive wheat: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2010/03/Progress-in-developing-weed-competitive-wheat

Integrated Weed Management - Crop Topping in wheat: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2010/08/Integrated-Weed-Management-Crop-Topping-in-wheat

Page 6.2

Herbicide resistance management, a local, in-field perspective: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Herbicide-resistance-management-a-local-infield-perspective

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Genetic markers for herbicide resistance: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Genetic-markers-for-herbicide-resistance

Comparison of alternative mode of action herbicides for the control of Group I resistant wild radish (NSW field experiment 2014), Tony Cook. p62 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Page 6.4

New table: Summary of herbicide resistance levels in ryegrass in continuous cropped irrigation in the Murray Shire of southern NSW. http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Herbicide-resistance-management-a-local-infield-perspective

Northern Grower Alliance (2014) Weeds and resistance considerations for awnless barnyard grass, Chloris spp and fleabane management: http://www.nga.org.au/results-and-publications/download/311/grdc-update-papers-weeds/summer-fallow-weed-management/grdc-update-weeds-resistance-mungindi-march-2014.pdf

Page 6.10

Pre-emergent herbicides part of the solution but much still to learn: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Pre-emergent-herbicides-part-of-the-solution-but-much-still-to-learn

Seeding systems and pre emergence herbicides: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Seeding-systems-and-pre-emergence-herbicides

Page 6.11

B Haskins (2012) Using pre-emergent herbicides in conservation farming systems: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/431247/Using-pre-emergent-herbicides-in-conservation-farming-systems.pdf

C Preston, P Boutsalis, J Malone, S Kleeman and G Gill (2012) Pre-emergent herbicides and glyphosate resistance management: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/07/Preemergent-herbicides-and-glyphosate-resistance-management

Section 7 Insect controlPage 7.1

Emerging insect pests: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/07/Emerging-insect-pests

Section 8 Nematode managementPage 8.1

Root lesion nematodes importance impact and management: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/08/Root-lesion-nematodes-importance-impact-and-management

Page 8.5

New figure: Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication, Brendan Burton, Northern Grower Alliance: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication

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Page 8.6

Northern Grower Alliance (2014) Root-lesion Nematodes: Cereal variety and Rotational Crop Impacts on Yield and Nematode numbers: http://www.nga.org.au/results-and-publications/download/325/grdc-update-papers-diseases/root-lesion-nematodes-in-winter-cereals/grdc-grower-update-paper-spring-ridge-warialda-burren-junction-warra-condamine-jul-aug-2014.pdf

Page 8.8

Impact of cereal varieties on the build-up of Pratylenchus thornei across three sowing dates Narrabri 2013: Steven Simpfendorfer, Rick Graham, Guy McMullen. p96 www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Impact of cereal variety and crown rot on the build-up of Pratylenchus neglectus Bithramere 2013, Steven Simpfendorfer, Finn Fensbo, Robyn Shapland. p99 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Impact of wheat variety choice on the build up of Pratylenchus thornei Wongarbon 2013, Steven Simpfendorfer, Finn Fensbo, Robyn Shapland. p101 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication

Page 8.11

Crown rot and nematodes: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/03/Crown-rot-and-nematodes

Impact of cereal variety and crown rot on the build-up of Pratylenchus neglectus Bithramere 2013, Steven Simpfendorfer, Finn Fensbo, Robyn Shapland. p99 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Section 9 Disease managementPage 9.1

Managing barley and wheat diseases priority issues and actions for 2015: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Managing-barley-and-wheat-diseases-priority-issues-and-actions-for-2015

Page 9.5

Crown rot an update on latest research: www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/07/Crown-rot-an-update-on-latest-research

Crown rot - what is coming in the breeding pipeline: www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Crown-rot-what-is-coming-in-the-breeding-pipeline

High crown rot risk - barley vs wheat: www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/High-crown-rot-risk-barley-vs-wheat

Crown rot tolerance in new wheat cultivars is there enough to base varietal decisions on: www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Crown-rot-tolerance-in-new-wheat-cultivars-is-there-enough-to-base-varietal-decisions-on

Fusarium crown rot of wheat do not stress! Rick Graham, Steven Simpfendorfer, Guy McMullen, Neroli Graham. p104 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

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Page 9.6

Improving the accuracy of PreDicta B soil testing, Steven Simpfendorfer (NSW DPI, Tamworth), Alan McKay and Shawn Rowe (SARDI, Adelaide). https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Improving-the-accuracy-of-PreDicta-B-soil-testing

Wheat variety responses to crown rot in southern NSW: http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Wheat-variety-reponses-to-crown-rot-in-southern-NSW#sthash.7CHGaHem.dpuf

Survey of the incidence of crown rot in wheat paddocks in 2012: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Survey-of-the-incidence-of-crown-rot-in-wheat-paddocks-in-2012#sthash.7NTrVlLF.dpuf

Page 9.7

Varietal yield response to crown rot across two sowing times Garah 2013: Steven Simpfendorfer, Rick Graham, Guy McMullen. p132 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Varietal yield response to crown rot across two sowing times Garah 2014: Steven Simpfendorfer, Rick Graham, Guy McMullen. p137 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Page 9.8

Regional crown rot management Macalister, Queensland, 2014, Steven Simpfendorfer, Finn Fensbo, Robyn Shapland. p143 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Regional crown rot management Trangie, 2014, Steven Simpfendorfer, Finn Fensbo, Robyn Shapland, Greg Brooke, Jayne Jenkins, Scott Richards. p147 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Regional crown rot management Westmar, Queensland, 2014, Steven Simpfendorfer, Finn Fensbo, Robyn Shapland. p150 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Crown rot of wheat - its importance and management in southern NSW: https://www.google.com.au/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=zImUVpfsLarM8gfWtKwQ&gws_=ssl#q=Crown+rot+of+Wheat+ %E2%80%93+its+importance+and+management+in+Southern+NSW+ milgate+corowa

New reference: Cultivation can exacerbate crown rot: http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Ground-Cover-Supplements/GCS111/Cultivation-can-exacerbate-crown-rot

Page 9.11

Yield response of wheat, barley and durum varieties to crown rot Rowena 2013, Steven Simpfendorfer, Rick Graham. Pages 140-142. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/578288/northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2015.pdf

Crown rot tolerance in new wheat cultivars is there enough to base varietal decisions on: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Crown-rot-tolerance-in-new-wheat-cultivars-is-there-enough-to-base-varietal-decisions-on

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Page 9.16

New reference and table: Summary of yield responses to added crown rot inoculum relative to EGA Gregory from 7 trials (2012-2014): http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Crown-rot-tolerance-in-new-wheat-cultivars-is-there-enough-to-base-varietal-decisions-on#sthash.uCyE4aXJ.dpuf

Page 9.18

Stem rust control in wheat: https://www.google.com.au/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=Stem+rust+control+in+wheat+quambatook

Page 9.22

New reference: NVT Queensland Wheat Variety Guide 2015: https://www.grdc.com.au/Resources/Publications/2015/03/NVT-Queensland-Wheat-Variety-Guide-2015

New reference: Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf

Page 9.29

Cereal disease update - net blotch, eyespot, wheat streak mosaic virus and white grain: http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/08/Cereal-disease-update-net-blotch-eyespot-wheat-streak-mosaic-virus-and-white-grain#sthash.QiHN8bWf.dpuf

Section 13 StoragePage 13.7

New reference: Phosphine resistance one in ten: http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Ground-Cover-Supplements/Ground-Cover-Issue-119--Grain-storage/Phosphine-resistance-one-in-ten

New reference: Travelling insects help resistance spread: http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Ground-Cover-Supplements/Ground-Cover-Issue-119--Grain-storage/Travelling-insects-help-resistance-spread

Section 14 environmental issuesPage 14.1

Whats going on with frost? http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Whats-going-on-with-frost

Jack of frosts recent trends and drivers of change: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Jack-of-frosts-recent-trends-and-drivers-of-change

Preliminary rating of wheat varieties for susceptibility to reproductive frost damage: http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Preliminary-rating-of-wheat-varieties-for-susceptibility-to-reproductive-frost-damage

Page 14.12

Heat stress tolerance of wheat: https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Heat-stress-tolerance-of-wheat

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FeedbackTable of ContentsWheAT - Contents

A IntroductionA.1 Crop overviewbread, noodle and winter wheats .........................................xviiiA.2 Production ......................................................................................................xviiiA.3 The northern grains region ............................................................................... xixA.4 Keywords .......................................................................................................... xx

1 Planning and paddock preparation1.1 Paddock rotation and history .............................................................................6

1.1.1 Sorghum preceding wheat ..................................................................61.1.2 Chickpea preceding wheat .................................................................71.1.3 Long fallow disorder ............................................................................9

1.2 Benefits of cereals as a rotation crop ...............................................................101.3 Disadvantages of cereals ..................................................................................101.4 Fallow weed control ..........................................................................................11

Double-knock strategies .......................................................................................... 12Important weeds in northern cropping systems ...................................................... 12Awnless barnyard grass ........................................................................................... 13Flaxleaf fleabane ...................................................................................................... 14Feathertop Rhodes grass ......................................................................................... 16Windmill grass .......................................................................................................... 17

1.5 Fallow chemical plant-back periods .................................................................181.5.1 Genetic controls ...............................................................................20

1.6 Seedbed requirements .....................................................................................201.6.1 Deep sowing .....................................................................................201.6.2 Coleoptile length ...............................................................................201.6.3 Moisture seeking ...............................................................................21

1.7 Soil moisture .....................................................................................................221.7.1 Dryland ..............................................................................................22

Technologies to support decision-making ............................................................... 22Subsoil constraints ................................................................................................... 24Effect of strategic tillage ........................................................................................... 24

1.7.2 Irrigation ............................................................................................251.8 Yield and targets ...............................................................................................26

Bridging the yield gap .............................................................................................. 27Yield Prophet ......................................................................................................... 27

1.8.1 Seasonal outlook ...............................................................................281.8.2 Fallow moisture .................................................................................29

Cover crops .............................................................................................................. 29HowWet? .................................................................................................................. 30

1.8.3 Water-use efficiency ..........................................................................31Ways to increase yield .............................................................................................. 31The FrenchSchultz approach ................................................................................. 32

1.8.4 Nitrogen-use efficiency .....................................................................341.8.5 Double-crop options .........................................................................34

1.9 Disease status of the paddock .........................................................................361.9.1 Testing for disease ............................................................................36

Stubble testing ......................................................................................................... 36Soil testing ............................................................................................................... 37

1.9.2 Effects of cropping history ................................................................371.10 Nematode status of the paddock .....................................................................38

1.10.1 Nematode testing of soil ...................................................................381.10.2 Effects of cropping history on nematode status ...............................38

1.11 Insect status of paddock ..................................................................................391.11.1 Insect sampling of soil ......................................................................39

Contents

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Soil sampling by spade ............................................................................................ 39Germinating-seed bait technique ............................................................................. 39Detecting soil-dwelling insects ................................................................................ 40

1.12 Mouse management .........................................................................................40

2 Pre-planting2.1 Varietal performance and ratings ........................................................................1

2.1.1 Yielding ability and GRDC-funded National Variety Trials ...................22.1.2 Maturity ...............................................................................................22.1.3 Protein and other quality traits ............................................................52.1.4 Varieties ...............................................................................................7

2.2 Planting seed quality ........................................................................................152.2.1 Seed size ...........................................................................................152.2.2 Seed germination and vigour ............................................................16

Disease ..................................................................................................................... 172.2.3 Seed purity ........................................................................................18

Sunvale case study .................................................................................................. 182.2.4 Seed storage .....................................................................................182.2.5 Safe rates of fertiliser sown with the seed ........................................19

3 Planting3.1 Time of sowing ...................................................................................................1

3.1.1 Managing frosts with sowing time ......................................................53.1.2 Risk and sowing decisions in western NSW .......................................6

3.2 Targeted plant population ...................................................................................83.3 Calculating seed requirements .........................................................................123.4 Sowing depth ....................................................................................................13

3.4.1 Deep planting ....................................................................................143.4.2 Depth control.....................................................................................153.4.3 Deep moisture ...................................................................................16

3.5 Calculating a planting rate ................................................................................163.5.1 Plant spacing....................................................................................173.5.2 Crop establishment ...........................................................................18

EstablishmentQueensland .................................................................................... 19How to measure your plant population .................................................................... 19

3.6 Causes of poor quality seed .............................................................................203.7 Germination testing ..........................................................................................213.8 Planting techniques ..........................................................................................21

3.8.1 Row spacing .....................................................................................213.8.2 Inter-row sowing ................................................................................22

3.9 Seed treatments ...............................................................................................233.9.1 Choice of seed or in-furrow treatments ............................................23

3.10 Sowing equipment ............................................................................................243.10.1 Using pre-emergent herbicides with different seeding equipment ..26

4 Plant growth and physiology4.1 Germination and emergence ..............................................................................1

4.1.1 Germination .........................................................................................1Phase 1: Water absorption (GS01*) ............................................................................ 1Phase 2: Activation (GS03)......................................................................................... 1Phase 3: Visible germination (GS05GS09) ............................................................... 1Storage on-farm ......................................................................................................... 1

4.1.2 Emergence (GS07) ..............................................................................2Coleoptile formation ................................................................................................... 2

4.2 Factors affecting germination and emergence ...................................................34.2.1 Dormancy ............................................................................................34.2.2 Moisture ..............................................................................................3

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4.3 Effect of temperature, photoperiod and climate on plant growth and physiology ....................................................................................................4

4.3.1 Temperature ........................................................................................4Germination ................................................................................................................ 4Emergence ................................................................................................................. 4Establishment ............................................................................................................. 4

4.3.2 Oxygen ................................................................................................54.3.3 Seed quality ........................................................................................54.3.4 Coleoptile length .................................................................................54.3.5 Nutrition ...............................................................................................6

Nitrogen ..................................................................................................................... 6Phosphorus ................................................................................................................ 7

4.4 Plant growth stages ............................................................................................74.4.1 Zadoks Cereal Growth Stage Key .......................................................7

Early stem elongation GS30GS33 (pseudostem erectthird node on the main stem) 8Leaf dissection at GS32 and GS33 ............................................................................ 8

5 Nutrition and fertiliser5.1 Declining soil fertility ...........................................................................................1

5.1.1 Organic matter ....................................................................................25.1.2 Current situation ..................................................................................35.1.3 Options for reversing the decline in soil organic matter ......................4

Impact of fertiliser N inputs on soil............................................................................. 4

5.2 Balanced nutrition ...............................................................................................55.2.1 Paddock records .................................................................................6

5.3 Increasing complexity of northern region soils ...................................................65.4 Understanding soil pH ........................................................................................7

Soil pH in calcium chloride ........................................................................................ 8Soil pH in water .......................................................................................................... 8

5.5 Hierarchy of crop fertility needs ..........................................................................95.6 Crop removal rates .............................................................................................95.7 Nitrogen ............................................................................................................10

5.7.1 Nitrogen supply and grain protein content........................................10Low grain protein, the signal of nitrogen deficiency ................................................ 11

5.8 Nitrogen volatilisation and denitrification ..........................................................135.9 Nitrogen-use efficiency .....................................................................................16

Protein levels ............................................................................................................ 16

5.10 Plant-available (nitrate) N in the root-zone .......................................................185.10.1 Nitrate variations with cropping and fallowing ..................................195.10.2 The effectiveness of nitrogen application for protein 2012 and 2013 ...............................................................................................19

5.11 Phosphorus .......................................................................................................205.11.1 Phosphorus deficiency ......................................................................205.11.2 Crop demand for P ............................................................................205.11.3 Phosphorus availability .....................................................................215.11.4 Difficulty in establishing P levels .......................................................215.11.5 Long fallow disorder ..........................................................................225.11.6 Reduced tillage .................................................................................225.11.7 Phosphorus budgeting ......................................................................23

The economics of deep phosphorus use ................................................................ 245.11.8 Forms of P .........................................................................................25

Manures ................................................................................................................... 25

5.12 Sulfur .................................................................................................................265.12.1 Deficiency symptoms ........................................................................265.12.2 In-crop nutritional levels for S ..........................................................265.12.3 Sulfur status of the northern grains region ........................................27

5.13 Potassium .........................................................................................................28

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5.13.1 Deficiency symptoms ........................................................................285.14 Micronutrient deficiencies .................................................................................29

5.14.1 Zinc ...................................................................................................305.14.2 Copper ..............................................................................................305.14.3 Boron .................................................................................................315.14.4 Iron ....................................................................................................315.14.5 Manganese ........................................................................................315.14.6 Molybdenum .....................................................................................31

5.15 Soil testing ........................................................................................................325.15.1 Test strips ..........................................................................................325.15.2 Rules of thumb ..................................................................................335.15.3 Soil testing for N ................................................................................33

Forms of N fertiliser .................................................................................................. 33Calculating N fertiliser application ............................................................................ 33Calculation of profile nitrogen levels from soil test values ....................................... 35

5.15.4 Soil testing for P ................................................................................35Colwell-P .................................................................................................................. 35BSES-P .................................................................................................................... 35Phosphorus buffering index ..................................................................................... 35

5.16 Plant and/or tissue testing for nutrition levels ..................................................365.17 Nutrition effects on following crop ....................................................................37

6 Weed control6.1 Planning your weed control strategy ..................................................................16.2 Herbicide resistance ...........................................................................................2

6.2.1 Be a WeedSmart farmer ......................................................................56.2.2 Ten ways to weed out herbicide resistance ........................................6

6.3 Harvest weed seed control .................................................................................76.4 Other non-chemical weed control ......................................................................76.5 Crop competition ................................................................................................86.6 Herbicides explained ..........................................................................................9

6.6.1 Residual v. non-residual ......................................................................96.6.2 Post-emergent and pre-emergent .......................................................9

6.7 Pre-emergent herbicides ..................................................................................10Benefits .................................................................................................................... 10Practicalities ............................................................................................................. 10

6.7.1 Avoiding crop damage from residual herbicides ...............................11What are the issues? ................................................................................................ 11Which herbicides are residual? ................................................................................ 12How do herbicides break down? ............................................................................. 12How can I avoid damage from residual herbicides? ................................................ 13Group B: Sulfonylureas ............................................................................................ 13Group B: Triazolopyrimidines (sulfonamides) ........................................................... 13Group B: Imidazolinones .......................................................................................... 13Group C: Triazines .................................................................................................... 13Group D: Trifluralin ................................................................................................... 14Group H: Isoxazoles ................................................................................................. 14Group I: Phenoxys .................................................................................................... 14Group K: Metolachlor ............................................................................................... 14Group K: Pyroxasulfone ........................................................................................... 14

6.8 In-crop herbicides: knock downs and residuals ...............................................146.9 Herbicide tolerance ratings ...............................................................................156.10 Post-emergent herbicide damage ....................................................................156.11 Selective sprayer technology ............................................................................15

Special permit .......................................................................................................... 16

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7 Insect control7.1 Cutworm .............................................................................................................17.2 Aphids .................................................................................................................2

7.2.1 Thresholds for control .........................................................................27.2.2 Seed dressings ....................................................................................37.2.3 Natural enemies ..................................................................................47.2.4 Oat or wheat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) ..........................................47.2.5 Corn aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis) ...................................................57.2.6 Rose-grain aphid (Metopolophium dirhodum) ....................................77.2.7 Rice root aphid (Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis) ...............................8

7.3 Armyworm ..........................................................................................................87.4 Helicoverpa spp. (Heliothis) ..............................................................................127.5 Mites .................................................................................................................15

7.5.1 Brown wheat mite (Petrobia latens) ...................................................157.5.2 Blue oat mite (Penthaleus spp.) ........................................................167.5.3 Redlegged earth mites Halotydeus destructor ..................................17

7.6 Insect monitoring techniques for field crops ....................................................197.6.1 Factors that contribute to quality monitoring ....................................197.6.2 Keeping good records .......................................................................197.6.3 Sampling methods ............................................................................20

Beat sheet ................................................................................................................ 20Other sampling methods .......................................................................................... 21

8 Nematode management8.1 Background ........................................................................................................28.2 Symptoms and detection ...................................................................................2

8.2.1 What is seen in the paddock? .............................................................38.3 Management .......................................................................................................4

8.3.1 Crop Rotation .....................................................................................68.3.2 Sowing time .......................................................................................6

8.4 Varietal resistance or tolerance ...........................................................................88.4.1 Tolerance .............................................................................................98.4.2 Resistance ..........................................................................................9

8.5 Damage caused by nematodes ........................................................................108.6 Nematodes and crown rot ................................................................................11

8.6.1 Importance of variety choice .............................................................11

9 Diseases9.1 The disease triangle ............................................................................................29.2 Cereal disease after drought...............................................................................29.3 Cereal disease after flood events .......................................................................3

9.3.1 Management options ..........................................................................49.3.2 Strategies ............................................................................................4

9.4 Crown rot ............................................................................................................59.4.1 Damage caused by crown rot .............................................................59.4.2 Symptoms ...........................................................................................59.4.3 Effect of sowing time ...........................................................................69.4.4 Crown rot phases ................................................................................79.4.5 Management .......................................................................................8

Crop rotation .............................................................................................................. 8Inter-row sowing ........................................................................................................ 9Stubble burning ....................................................................................................... 10

9.4.6 Varietal resistance or tolerance .........................................................10Quality ...................................................................................................................... 14How well do the current ratings stack up? ............................................................... 15

9.5 Rusts .................................................................................................................179.5.1 Key points to reduce the risk of rusts in wheat .................................18

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9.5.2 Diagnosing leaf diseases in wheat ....................................................199.5.3 Recommended fungicides for rusts ..................................................20

9.6 Stripe rust (yellow rust) .....................................................................................209.7 Leaf rust (brown rust) ........................................................................................219.8 Stem rust (black rust) ........................................................................................229.9 Tan spot (yellow spot) .......................................................................................239.10 Yellow spot v. stripe rust ...................................................................................24

9.10.1 Hosts and risk factors .......................................................................259.10.2 Correct identification .........................................................................259.10.3 Why are fungicides less effective against yellow spot? ....................269.10.4 What about early fungicide sprays? ..................................................269.10.5 Make management decisions at or before sowing ...........................27

9.11 Common root rot ..............................................................................................289.12 Smut .................................................................................................................28

9.12.1 Bunt or stinking smut ........................................................................289.13 Loose smut .......................................................................................................299.14 Wheat streak mosaic virus ................................................................................299.15 Botryosphaeria head blightBHB (white grain disorder) .................................299.16 Fusarium head blight ........................................................................................30

9.16.1 Symptoms .........................................................................................30Bread wheat and durum ........................................................................................... 30Barley ....................................................................................................................... 31

9.16.2 Identity, survival and spread..............................................................32Pathogen .................................................................................................................. 32Survival and spread .................................................................................................. 32

9.16.3 Management .....................................................................................339.16.4 Resistance .........................................................................................339.16.5 Seed treatment ..................................................................................339.16.6 Tillage ................................................................................................339.16.7 Crop rotation .....................................................................................349.16.8 Planting date .....................................................................................349.16.9 Fungicide ...........................................................................................34

10 Plant growth regulators and canopy management10.1 What is canopy management? ...........................................................................1

10.1.1 Canopy management in a nutshell ......................................................210.1.2 Research on the Liverpool Plains ........................................................2

Results ....................................................................................................................... 3Nitrogen volatilisation ................................................................................................. 6Summary .................................................................................................................... 6

10.1.3 The commercial view ..........................................................................7Limitations of tactical nitrogen application................................................................. 7

10.1.4 Irrigated wheat in north-eastern Australia ...........................................810.2 Key cereal growth stages for disease control and canopy management ...........9

10.2.1 Why is growth stage important in making fungicide decisions? .........910.2.2 Why do these growth-stage timings work for stripe rust control? ......9

Yield loss to disease at different growth stages of disease onset .............................. 9Influence of disease onset on optimum timings of fungicide spray for very susceptible cultivars ......................................................................................... 10

10.3 Use of plant growth regulators .........................................................................13

11 Crop dessication/spray out

12 harvest12.1 Pre-harvest spraying with glyphosate ................................................................212.2 Wet harvest issues and management .................................................................2

12.2.1 Delaying harvest ..................................................................................2

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12.2.2 Weed management .............................................................................212.2.3 Fusarium head blight ...........................................................................312.2.4 Seed retention .....................................................................................3

12.3 Fire prevention ....................................................................................................4Using machinery ........................................................................................................ 4

12.3.1 Steps to preventing header fires .........................................................412.4 Receival standards .............................................................................................5

12.4.1 Protein content ....................................................................................512.4.2 Protein quality .....................................................................................512.4.3 Falling number .....................................................................................612.4.4 Screenings ..........................................................................................612.4.5 Stained grains .....................................................................................612.4.6 Hardness .............................................................................................612.4.7 Moisture content .................................................................................612.4.8 Test weight ..........................................................................................6

12.5 Harvest weed seed control .................................................................................612.5.1 Intercepting annual weed seed ...........................................................7

Chaff carts .................................................................................................................. 8Baling ......................................................................................................................... 8Windrow burning ........................................................................................................ 9Chaff grinding ............................................................................................................. 9Summary .................................................................................................................. 10

12.5.2 Harvest weed-seed management in the northern grains region .......10Background .............................................................................................................. 10Approach.................................................................................................................. 10Results ..................................................................................................................... 11Implications .............................................................................................................. 12

13 Storage13.1 How to store wheat on-farm ...............................................................................213.2 Hygiene ...............................................................................................................413.3 Grain protectants and fumigants ........................................................................613.4 Aeration during storage ....................................................................................1113.5 Monitoring wheat ..............................................................................................14

14 environmental issues14.1 Frost resistance in cereals after head emergence ..............................................1

14.1.1 Effect of frost damage on different growth stagesbetter field identification of frost damage .........................................................2

Young crops ............................................................................................................... 2Advanced cropsnot showing ears or awns ............................................................. 2Advanced cropsears or awns visible ...................................................................... 3

14.1.2 Field screeningvarietal differences ..................................................414.1.3 The need for a better understandinghow and when plants freeze ..414.1.4 Sowing dates ......................................................................................614.1.5 WHEATMAN frost probability ..............................................................6

14.2 Waterlogging/flooding issues .............................................................................914.2.1 Winter cereals pathology.....................................................................9

Legacy of the floods and rain ..................................................................................... 9Management options ............................................................................................... 10Strategies ................................................................................................................. 10

14.2.2 Nutritional and structural impact of flooding on soil .........................10Implications for following seasons ........................................................................... 11Soil testing ............................................................................................................... 11

14.2.3 Soil erosion and waterlogging due to flooding .................................11Preventing future damage ........................................................................................ 11

14.2.4 Weed management following floods .................................................11Potential problem weeds ......................................................................................... 12

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Implications for the coming season ......................................................................... 12

14.3 Heat stress ........................................................................................................12

15 Marketing15.1 Australian wheat grades .....................................................................................1

Australian Prime Hard (APH) ...................................................................................... 2Australian Hard (AH) ................................................................................................... 2Australian Premium White (APW) ............................................................................... 2Australian Standard White (ASW) .............................................................................. 2General Purpose (AGP) .............................................................................................. 2Feed wheat ................................................................................................................ 2Australian Durum (ADR) ............................................................................................ 2

15.2 Wheat markets ....................................................................................................315.3 Links to industry boards .....................................................................................3

16 Current research

17 Key contacts

18 References

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FeedbackTable of Contents SECTION A WheAT - Introduction

A

SECTION A

Introduction

A.1 Crop overviewbread, noodle and winter wheats

Bread and noodle wheats (Triticum aestivum) are the dominant types of wheat planted throughout New South Wales (NSW), Queensland and Australia. They fall into a number of classifications that have different receival standards, from Australian Prime Hard, with high quality requirements, through to Feed, which has limited quality requirements.

Northern region conditions are conducive to the production of high-quality grain. The breeding and development of new varieties reflects this. Flour milled from Australian Prime Hard wheat is used to produce high-protein, Chinese-style, yellow, alkaline noodles and Japanese ramen noodles of superior brightness, colour and eating quality. Australian Prime Hard flour is also suitable for the production of high-protein, high-volume breads and wonton dumpling skins. Australian Prime Hard wheat can be blended with lower protein wheats to produce flours suitable for a wide range of baked products.

Forage wheats are commonly of the winter type and have the major advantage of adaptability to a wide range of sowing times. The winter habit delays maturity in early sowings, thus extending the period of vegetative growth. Maturity varies once vernalisation or cold requirements have been met. Winter wheats are commonly sown in late March or early April. 1

Figure 1: Bread and noodle wheats dominate production in New South Wales and Queensland.

A.2 ProductionWheat is the largest grain crop in Australia. Australian wheat farmers produce ~16 million tonnes (t) of wheat each year, 70% of which is exported. In world terms, Australia is the fourth largest exporter, contributing around 11% of world trade.

1 DEEDI (2012) Queensland 2012 wheat varieties. GRDC/Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation Queensland, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/NVT-Qld-2012-wheat-variety-guide.pdf

SECTION A WheAT - Introduction

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Asia, the Middle East and the Pacific regions are the principal export destinations, while the domestic market is the largest single market and is growing rapidly.

Wheat is the main crop grown in NSW, the second-highest producing state in Australia. Around 4 million ha 2 was planted and 8.6 million t of grain produced in NSW in 201112. 3

In Queensland, on average 80,000 ha of wheat is sown annually, producing around 1.2 million t of grain. About half of Queenslands production is destined for export, and a quarter each for domestic milling and the domestic feed grain industries. 4

Figure 2: Wheat growing in the northern grains region (Photo: Penny Heuston)

A.3 The northern grains regionAustralias northern grains region encompasses cropping land between the Murray River in the south and Clermont/Biloela in central Queensland. The region is characterised by rainfall that ranges from high to low, from summer- to winter-dominated, but is often variable in nature. Rainfall ranges between slightly winter-dominant in the south and summer-dominant in the north, with high rates of evaporation where the rainfall is summer-dominated.

Pre-crop fallowing for moisture is the usual practice. Many of the regions farmers use no-till or minimum till, coupled with stubble retention, for managing the fallows. Cropping patterns are diverse, incorporating long fallows for summerwinter cropping and, vice versa, short fallows for summersummer or winterwinter cropping, no fallows (double- or opportunity-cropping) and pasture phases.

2 ABS (2006) 1301.0. Year Book AustraliaThe Australian wheat industry. Australian Bureau of Statistics, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article212006?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue=2006&num=&view=

3 ABS (2013) 7121.0. Agricultural Commodities, Australia, 201112. Australian Bureau of Statistics, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/7121.0

4 Queensland Government (2009) Wheat quality and markets in Queensland. Fact Sheet, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation Queensland, http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/53799/Wheat-FactSheet-Quality-Markets-Qld.pdf

i More informationhttp://www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/


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Principal grain crops are wheat, barley, sorghum and chickpea, with minor crops being faba bean, maize and sunflower, canola, lupin and field pea.

Additional statistics on grain cropping in the northern region can be found in the ABARES Australian Crop Report series (www.abares.gov.au) and the 2010 GRDC Farm Practices Baseline Report (Kearns and Umbers 2010). 5

The northern grains region is the largest source of Australias premium hard, high-protein wheat for export and domestic use. Demand for feed grains from the regions important livestock industries is a key driver of grain production.

The northern grains region has relatively diverse seasonal rainfall and production variability compared with the southern and western regions. Both summer and winter crops are important for profit. Yield depends, to a significant degree, on conservation of soil moisture from summer-dominant rainfall. The northern region has the highest diversity of crop production, including maize, sorghum and tropical pulses as well as wheat, barley, winter-growing pulses and oilseeds. 6

Wheat can be grown in almost all areas of the region where cropping is possible. The level of production is sensitive to seasonal conditions and the price of wheat. The average area planted to wheat during the 1990s in NSW was 2.4 million ha with an average yield of 2.0 t/ha.

Winter wheats are commonly used in the mixed farming zones. Winter wheats need to experience a certain period of cold temperatures, 010C, to trigger a switch from vegetative growth to flowering (anthesis). This cold requirement is known as vernalisation.

The winter wheat varieties need different periods of vernalisation, so it is important to consider this when selecting a variety. The vernalisation requirement means that winter wheats adapt to varying sowing times and so can be used for the dual purpose of grazing and grain. They can be sown from February to early April for grazing, depending on the vernalisation requirement of the variety.

The vast majority of wheat varieties grown in the northern region are spring wheats. Spring wheats grow and develop in response to increasing temperature and photoperiod (daily hours of light). They do not have a vernalisation requirement to initiate flowering and so are grown in the warmer regions NSW.

It is important to sow spring wheats at the recommended time to minimise the risk of frost damage during flowering and to maximise yield. Recommended sowing times are published each year by the NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) and Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Queensland (DAFF)/Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC). 7

A.4 KeywordsWheat, northern grains region, winter cereals, crop rotation, fallow weed control, cereal diseases, root-lesion nematodes, water-use efficiency, nitrogen-use efficiency, soil testing, crown rot, protein, bread, noodles, crop nutrition and fertiliser, paddock preparation, planting, varieties, plant physiology, crop insects, harvest, storage, frost, marketing.

5 D Herridge (2011) Managing legume and fertiliser N for northern grains cropping. (Revised 2013) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-Managing-Fertiliser-N

6 GRDC www.grdc.com.au

7 NSW DPI Agronomists (2008) Wheat growth and development. PROCORP Series, NSW Department of Primary Industries 2008, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/449367/Procrop-wheat-growth-and-development.pdf

i More informationwww.abares.gov.au

http://www.grdc.com.au/Resources/Publications/2012/11/GRDC-Farm-Practices-Survey-2012


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SECTION 1 WheAT - Planning and paddock preparation

1Know more. Grow more.

FeedbackTable of Contents

1

SECTION 1

Planning and paddock preparation

Profitable growing of winter crops demands higher production per unit area while aiming to maintain a low cost per unit of production. This can only be achieved by increasing grain yields through economic adoption of new or improved technology. The aim is not only higher total production, but also greater productivity from the resources invested in crop production, along with total sustainability of the farm business.

Profit depends on choosing the most suitable variety for each paddock and matching this to the paddocks limitations, such as available moisture, diseases and nutrient status. Profitable yields result from good management, of which variety choice is only a minor part.

Paddock selection and rotation combined with use of disease-resistant varieties are the best actions to minimise disease. A table of disease ratings for current varieties can be found in the NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) Winter crop variety sowing guide and the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) Northern Variety Trials (NVT) Queensland Wheat Variety Guide 2013. 1

Figure 1: Paddock selection and rotation combined with use of disease-resistant varieties are the best actions to minimise disease. (Photo: Penny Heuston)

Paddock selection is an important consideration for crown rot management, in particular, and wheat growers should select paddocks with a low risk of the disease. Paddock risk can be determined by visually assessing crown rot and root-lesion nematode (RLN; see section below) levels in a prior cereal crop, paying attention

1 NSW DPI District Agronomists (2008) Wheat growth and development. PROCROP Series, NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/449367/Procrop-wheat-growth-and-development.pdf

i More informationhttp://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre/guides/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide

http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/National-Variety-Trials/Crop-Variety-Guides

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/449367/Procrop-wheat-growth-and-development.pdf

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to basal browning, and/or having soil samples analysed at a testing laboratory. The presence of spores of tan (yellow) spot is also an important consideration, and effective management of this disease in wheat depends on decisions made before sowing.

Paddock history can also provide clues. Histories likely to result in high risk of crown rot include:

durum wheat in the past 13 years

winter cereal or a high grass burden from last seasoncrown rot fungus survives in winter cereal residues, dense stubble cover or where dry conditions have made residue decomposition slow

break crops, which can influence crown rot in cereals by manipulating the amount of nitrogen (N) and moisture left in the soil profile

paddocks that have high levels of N at sowing and/or low stored soil moisture at depth2

wheat varieties grown in previous years 3

Paddock topographyTopographical characteristics can determine crop and pasture options. Crops and varieties prone to lodging should be avoided in uneven paddocks. Waterlogged conditions also reduce root growth and can predispose the plant to root rots. 4 Choose varieties with higher tolerance to wet conditions.

Figure 2: Topographical characteristics can determine crop options. (Photo: Penny Heuston)

Soil typeSoil characteristics (surface and subsurface) such as soil pH, sodicity, salinity, acidity, texture, drainage characteristics and compaction will affect variety selection. See the NVT Queensland Wheat Variety Guide 2013 for details of recommended varieties and

2 GRDC (2009) Crown rot in cereals. GRDC Fact Sheet May 2009, https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/AF642FA0A889465089D2B6C59E5CA22E.pdf

3 R Brill, S Simpfendorfer (2013) Resistance of eighteen wheat varieties to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thorneiTrangie 2011. In: NSW DPI Northern Grains Region Trial Results Autumn 2013, pp. 129131, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/468328/Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013.pdf

4 J Ransom (2011) Impacts of flooding/waterlogging on crop development. North Dakota State University Crop & Pest Report (26 May 2011), http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/cpr/plant-science/impacts-of-flooding-waterlogging-on-crop-development-5-26-11

i More informationhttp://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/03/Management-of-yellow-spot-in-wheat-decide-before-you-sow

i More informationhttps://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/AF642FA0A88946508 9D2B6C59E5CA22E.pdf

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/468328/Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013.pdf

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/520666/Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2014.pdf

i More informationhttp://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/National-Variety-Trials/Crop-Variety-Guides

http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/cpr/plant-science/impacts-of-flooding-waterlogging-on-crop-development-5-26-11

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planting times for individual districts within the northern region. For more detail see Section 2: Preplanting.

Subsoil moistureSome crops are more expensive than others to grow due to input costs. Low levels of soil moisture at sowing can significantly increase financial risks. Paddocks with ground cover can retain moisture for longer, extending the time for planting after small rainfall events. Levels of starting soil water should also affect variety choice. Varieties with greater canopy size, such as late-maturing and/or very vegetative varieties, will generally require higher soil moisture levels to perform well.

Paddock nutritionFertiliser is a major cost. Fertiliser rates to meet crop requirements may be modified if residual fertiliser from the last season remains. Paddock history, past crop performance, fertiliser test strips and soil tests can help to determine the most appropriate decision. It is not uncommon for paddocks to have multiple nutrition deficiencies, or variations in nutritional requirements, even with a similar cropping history.

Herbicide historyPart of the management of herbicide resistance includes rotation of herbicide groups. Paddock history should be considered. Herbicide residues (e.g. sulfonyl urea, triazines etc.) may be an issue in some paddocks. Remember that plant-back periods begin after rainfall occurs. For plant-back periods, see the NSW DPI publication Weed control in winter crops.

Weed burdenIdentify your cleanest paddocks and consider the use of pre-emergent herbicides. Some broadleaf weed species are difficult and/or expensive to control in pulse and oilseed crops. Risk may be reduced through the combination of pre-sowing weed knockdown, late-sown (early-maturing) crops/varieties and pre-harvest desiccation in crops where registration is current.

Weed management involves strategic herbicide applications in combination with other, non-chemical management options. Weed management in year 1 will affect the crop in year 2. If year 2 is a legume crop, more-vigilant control of broadleaf weeds in year 1s cereal may be a good strategic option.

Disease carryoverCrop sequencing is an important component of long-term farming systems and contributes to the management of soil N status, weeds, pests and diseases. Broadscale decisions on the sequence of crops include commodity prices, the short- and medium-term weather outlook, and the level of acceptable risk.

In the paddock, considerations include soil moisture levels before planting, current and desired stubble cover, history of herbicide use, history of diseases, and the population level(s) of RLN.

The GRDC northern region has seen significant adoption of summer and winter pulses in crop sequences for a variety of reasons, including improved soil N levels and management of crown rot in winter cereals.

For diseases, the focus in the GRDC northern region has been on management of crown rot and RLN, yellow leaf spot in winter cereals, and the roles that rotational crops play, particularly the winter pulses. Crop sequences also affect the incidence and severity of major diseases of summer crops, especially those diseases that have several summer, and in some instances winter, crop hosts. See Table 1: Significant pathogens shared by different crops in the northern region. See Table 2: Susceptibility and resistance of various crops to root-lesion nematodes. 5

5 KJ Owen, J Sheedy, N Seymour (2013) Root lesion nematode in Queensland. Soil Quality Pty Ltd Fact Sheet, http://www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/root-lesion-nematode-in-queensland

i More informationhttp://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/broadacre/guides/weed-control-winter-crops

i More informationhttp://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Ground-Cover-Supplements/Ground-Cover-Issue-68-Integrated-Weed-Management-Supplement/Weeds-dont-like-the-competition

http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/02/More-crop-less-weeds-Competitive-cereal-cultivars-have-higher-yield-and-suppress-weed-seed-set

Video

To view Paul Castor (MCA Goondiwindi Pty Ltd) highlighting the benefits and potential issues for growing summer crops on narrow rows for greater crop competition with weeds, visit: http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/GRDC-Gallery/Video/loACpykKja0.

i More informationhttp://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2011/09/Diseases-shared-by-different-crops-and-issues-for-crop-sequencing

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Crop sequencing is only a part of the integrated management of diseases, other practices include maintaining sufficient distance from last years paddock of the same crop or from a paddock with residue infected with a pathogen of the intended crop, the use of high-quality, fungicide-treated seed, planting within the planting window, variety selection, and in-crop fungicide treatments. 6

The previous crop will influence levels of both soil- and residue-borne diseases. Important diseases to consider include take-all, crown rot, yellow leaf spot, stripe rust, and wheat streak mosaic virus. Transmission from neighbouring paddocks and volunteers are key concerns with some diseases. Controlling the green bridge of over-summering cereals and weeds is an important strategy.

Table 1: Significant pathogens shared by different crops in the northern region

Pathogen/Nematode

Common name Sorghum Maize Sunflower

Summer pulses Cotton

Winter cereals

Winter pulses

Pratylenchus thornei root-lesion nematode - - - PP m,s - PP PP c,f

Pratylenchus neglectus root-lesion nematode PP nt PP PP c

Fusarium graminearum head blight P PP - - - PP -Macrophomina phaseolina

charcoal rot PP PP PP PP m,s,g P - P

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, S. minor

sclerotinia rot - - PP PP s,m,g - - PP c,f,p

Sclerotium rolfsii basal rot P P P PP s,g P - -Fusa

Documents

GRDC GrowNotes Northern Wheat