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planning/paddock preparation • pre-planting • planting •
plant growth and physiology • nutrition and fertiliser •
weed control • insect control • nematode control • diseases •
crop desiccation and spray out • harvest • storage •
environmental issues • marketing • current projects
August 2015
CanolaNorthern Region
1020
3040
5060
7080
9010
0
1020
3040
5060
7080
NO TILLUse no-tillage as it
stores more soil moisture
than conventional fallows
Ensure heavy stubble does not cover the
plant line as it will impede canola
establishment
Phosphate nutrition for
canola is very important. Canola can respond to phosphorus on soils where wheat does not
P
Always sow on
100cmof wet soil
Suited to earlymaturing varieties
SOWEARLY
MAY
Mid season varieties
MIDMAY
Early varieties
to minimise frost risk
Aim to establish
30–50 plants per square metre,
which can beachieved by sowing
2–4 kg of seed/ha
Use similar rates of nitrogen on canola as you would for high protein wheat in the same soil
N
WESTERN EASTERNSuited to
mid seasontypes
Always sow on
80cm of wet soil
HERBICIDETOLERANTVARIETIES
Consider e.g. triazine tolerant (TT) RoundupReady® or Clearfield® where weeds are a problem
Grow several varieties to spread harvest timing and the risk of unfavourable events e.g. moisture stress and frost
Monitor crops for insect pests during the critical times. Take account of
BENEFICIAL INSECT NUMBERS when making decisions on control options
ESTABLISHMENT FLOWERING PODDING
Canola is best followed with a
WINTER CEREAL, as disease levels (e.g. crown rot) should be reduced and AM* (Arbuscular Mycorrhiza, previously known as VAM) is not a high requirement with these crops
Recent seasons have seen high levels of aphids in spring, monitor aphid levels in autumn and spring to reduce the impact of virus transmission and crop stress from feeding.
APHIDS
If choosing to windrow prior to harvest this should start when
40-60%of seeds have changed colour to red, brown or black.
Windrowed crops should be ready to harvest
5-14 DAYS after windrowing depending on the weather.
WINDROWINGThe moisture content of the grain should be
8% or less.
Start here for answers to your immediate canola crop management issues
What variety should I grow? • What do the blackleg disease ratings mean?
How much sulfur should I apply to canola? • New research results for the northern region.
What’s the latest thinking on optimum sowing rate?
What approach should I take to weed control in my canola crop?
What pre-emergent herbicide control options do I have?
Should I choose windrowing or direct heading?
How do I control aphids in canola?
Know more. Grow more.
Key Management Issues for Canola in the Northern RegionCanola can have an important role in northern NSW cropping systems, particularly in the higher rainfall areas of the region. It generally yields 40 to 60% of wheat grown under similar conditions and in normal years, average yields of around 1.5 t/ha should be possible with good management.
© 2015 Grains Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.
Disclaimer:
This Canola GrowNote has been prepared in good faith on the basis of information available at the date of publication without any independent verification. The Grains Research and Development Corporation does not guarantee or warrant the accuracy, reliability, completeness of currency of the information in this publication nor its usefulness in achieving any purpose.
Readers are responsible for assessing the relevance and accuracy of the content of this publication. The Grains Research and Development Corporation will not be liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred or arising by reason of any person using or relying on the information in this publication.
Products may be identified by proprietary or trade names to help readers identify particular types of products but this is not, and is not intended to be, an endorsement or recommendation of any product or manufacturer referred to. Other products may perform as well or better than those specifically referred to.
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A Introduction
A.1 Crop overview .............................................................................................xiii
1 Planning/Paddock preparation
1.1 Paddock selection .........................................................................................1
1.1.1 Soil types ............................................................................................2
Hardpans ................................................................................................................... 2
Crusting soils ............................................................................................................. 2
Acid soils ................................................................................................................... 2
Sodic subsoils ............................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Rotations and paddock history .....................................................................3
1.3 Winter and summer fallow weed control .......................................................4
Double-knock strategies ............................................................................................ 5
Important weeds in northern cropping systems ........................................................ 6
Awnless barnyard grass ............................................................................................. 6
Flaxleaf fleabane ........................................................................................................ 8
Feathertop Rhodes grass ......................................................................................... 10
Windmill grass .......................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Herbicide plant-back periods ......................................................................13
1.5 Seedbed requirements ................................................................................14
1.6 Soil moisture ................................................................................................15
1.6.1 Moisture stress during rosette formation and elongation .................16
1.7 Yield and targets .........................................................................................17
1.7.1 Seasonal outlook ...............................................................................18
1.7.2 Fallow moisture .................................................................................18
1.7.3 Nitrogen- and water-use efficiency ...................................................18
1.7.4 Estimating maximum yield per unit water use by location
and nitrogen .......................................................................................19
Step 1 ....................................................................................................................... 19
Step 2 ....................................................................................................................... 19
Step 3 ....................................................................................................................... 19
1.8 Potential disease problems ........................................................................20
1.9 Nematode status of paddock ......................................................................22
2 Pre-planting
2.1 Varietal performance and ratings yield ..........................................................1
2.1.1 Maturity ................................................................................................2
2.1.2 Yielding ability ......................................................................................2
2.1.3 Oil ........................................................................................................5
2.1.4 Seed meal ...........................................................................................5
2.2 Varieties for NSW ..........................................................................................5
Contents
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2.2.1 Conventional varieties ........................................................................5
2.2.2 Triazine-tolerant varieties ....................................................................6
2.2.3 Clearfield® (imidazolinone-tolerant) varieties ......................................7
2.2.4 Roundup Ready® varieties ..................................................................9
2.2.5 Roundup Ready®–triazine-tolerant varieties .....................................11
2.2.6 Juncea canola (Brassica juncea) ......................................................11
2.3 Planting seed quality ...................................................................................11
2.3.1 Seed size ...........................................................................................11
2.3.2 Seed germination and vigour ............................................................13
Harvest timing ......................................................................................................... 14
Seed chlorophyll ..................................................................................................... 14
Seed handling ......................................................................................................... 14
2.3.3 Seed storage .....................................................................................14
2.3.4 Safe rates of fertiliser sown with the seed .........................................15
3 Planting
3.1 Seed treatments ............................................................................................1
3.1.1 Insecticide treatments .........................................................................1
3.1.2 Fungicide treatments ...........................................................................1
3.2 Time of sowing .............................................................................................2
3.2.1 Northern NSW .....................................................................................5
3.2.2 Central and southern NSW ..................................................................5
3.2.3 Southern NSW irrigation areas ............................................................5
3.3 NSW DPI research. Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice ..................................................6
3.3.1 Background .........................................................................................6
3.3.2 2012 trial details ..................................................................................7
3.3.3 2012 trial results ..................................................................................9
Effect of time of sowing on establishment ................................................................. 9
Effect of time of sowing on length of flowering ........................................................ 10
Effect of time of sowing on yield .............................................................................. 11
Effect of time of sowing on oil content .................................................................... 12
3.3.4 Discussion .........................................................................................12
3.3.5 Conclusion .........................................................................................13
3.4 Targeted plant population ............................................................................14
3.4.1 Calculating seed requirements ..........................................................14
3.4.2 Row spacing ......................................................................................15
3.5 Sowing depth ..............................................................................................15
3.5.1 Canola establishment research ........................................................16
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 19
3.6 Sowing equipment ......................................................................................20
3.6.1 Alternate sowing techniques .............................................................21
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4 Plant growth and physiology
4.1 Canola types .................................................................................................1
4.1.1 Conventional .......................................................................................1
4.1.2 Triazine-tolerant canola ......................................................................1
4.1.3 Hybrids ................................................................................................2
4.1.4 Specialty canola – high oleic/low linolenic (HOLL) ..............................2
4.1.5 IMI-tolerant canola .............................................................................2
4.1.6 Condiment (Indian) mustard ................................................................2
4.1.7 Junecea canola – Brassica juncea ......................................................3
4.1.8 Roundup Ready® ................................................................................3
4.1.9 Industrial mustard ...............................................................................3
4.1.10 Winter types for grazing .....................................................................3
4.2 Why know about canola development? ........................................................5
4.3 Plant growth stages.......................................................................................6
4.3.1 Germination and emergence (stage 0 [0.0–0.8]) ..................................6
4.3.2 Leaf production (stage 1 [1.00–1.20]) ..................................................6
4.3.3 Stem elongation (stage 2 [2.00–2.20]) ................................................7
4.3.4 Flower bud development (stage 3 [3.0–3.9]) .......................................7
4.3.5 Flowering (stage 4 [4.1–4.9]) ................................................................8
4.3.6 Pod development (stage 5 [5.1–5.9]) ...................................................8
4.3.7 Seed development (stage 6 [6.1–6.9]) .................................................9
4.3.8 Environmental stresses impacting yield and oil content ..................11
5 Nutrition and fertiliser
5.1 New nutrition thinking for the northern region ....................................................1
5.2 Crop removal rates ........................................................................................1
5.3 Soil testing .....................................................................................................2
5.4 Nitrogen ........................................................................................................2
5.4.1 Estimating nitrogen requirements ........................................................4
Example ..................................................................................................................... 5
5.4.2 Northern Grower Alliance trials ...................................................................6Yield ........................................................................................................................... 6
Oil content .................................................................................................................. 7
5.4.3 Diagnosing nitrogen deficiency in canola ............................................8
What to look for ........................................................................................................ 10
What else could it be?.............................................................................................. 10
Where does it occur? ............................................................................................... 10
Management strategies ............................................................................................ 10
How can it be monitored? ........................................................................................ 11
5.5 Phosphorus .................................................................................................11
5.5.1 Role and deficiency symptoms .........................................................12
Fertiliser placement .................................................................................................. 12
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Phosphorus requirements ........................................................................................ 13
5.6 Sulfur ..........................................................................................................14
5.6.1 The new paradigm in canola nutrition ...............................................14
Reducing rates of sulfur fertiliser ............................................................................. 15
5.6.2 GRDC Grain Orana Alliance (GOA) research .....................................15
Background .............................................................................................................. 16
Recent findings ........................................................................................................ 18
Central West Farming Systems (CWFS) ................................................................... 22
Discussion ................................................................................................................ 22
Re-focus investment on nitrogen instead of sulfur .................................................. 24
Summary .................................................................................................................. 26
5.7 Potassium ....................................................................................................27
5.8 Micronutrients .............................................................................................28
5.8.1 Zinc ....................................................................................................28
Deficiency symptoms ............................................................................................... 28
Fertiliser strategies ................................................................................................... 28
5.8.2 Molybdenum ......................................................................................29
Role and deficiency symptoms ................................................................................ 29
Fertiliser requirements .............................................................................................. 29
5.8.3 Magnesium ........................................................................................30
5.8.4 Calcium ..............................................................................................30
5.9 Toxicity ........................................................................................................31
5.10 Nutrition effects on following crop ..............................................................31
6 Weed control
6.1 Key points: ....................................................................................................1
6.1.1 Weed spectrum and herbicide resistance ...........................................2
6.1.2 Herbicide resistance in Australian weeds ............................................3
6.1.3 Weed management in differing scenarios ...........................................4
Canola in a continuous cropping sequence ............................................................... 4
Triazine Tolerant (TT) canola ....................................................................................... 5
Imidazolinone Tolerant (IT) canola .............................................................................. 5
Liberty Link® canola.................................................................................................... 6
Roundup Ready® canola ............................................................................................ 6
6.1.4 Future directions ..................................................................................7
6.2 Clethodim damage ........................................................................................7
7 Insect control
7.1 Integrated pest management ........................................................................1
7.1.1 Area-wide management .....................................................................2
7.1.2 Biological control ................................................................................2
Types of biological control ........................................................................................ 3
Trichogramma wasps ................................................................................................ 4
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) .............................................................................. 4
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Bacillus thuringiensis .................................................................................................. 5
7.2 Earth mites ....................................................................................................5
Feeding ...................................................................................................................... 7
7.2.1 Redlegged earth mite ..........................................................................8
Description ................................................................................................................ 8
Seasonal development .............................................................................................. 8
TIMERITE® for management of redlegged earth mite ............................................... 8
7.2.2 Blue oat mite ......................................................................................9
Description ................................................................................................................ 9
Seasonal development .............................................................................................. 9
7.3 Lucerne flea ..................................................................................................9
7.4 Slugs ...........................................................................................................10
7.5 Diamondback moth ....................................................................................10
7.6 Aphids ........................................................................................................11
7.6.1 Recent GRDC-funded research ................................................................13Take home message ................................................................................................. 13
Outcomes and recommendations—management of aphids in canola .................... 13
Experiment 1. Bagging canola racemes................................................................... 14
Experiment 2. Increasing severity of cutting flowering racemes .............................. 14
Experiment 3. Damage to flowering racemes at late flowering-pod filling ............... 15
Experiment 4. Liverpool Plains 2014 ........................................................................ 15
Conclusions and observations ................................................................................. 17
7.7 Helicoverpa..................................................................................................18
Seasonal biology ..................................................................................................... 18
Scout crops regularly .............................................................................................. 19
Spray eggs and very small caterpillars, particularly of the corn earworm ............... 19
7.7.1 Corn earworm ...................................................................................19
7.7.2 Native budworm ...............................................................................19
7.7.3 Descriptions of corn earworm and native budworm eggs
and caterpillars .................................................................................20
Eggs ........................................................................................................................ 20
Caterpillars .............................................................................................................. 20
Egg laying ................................................................................................................ 20
7.7.4 Resistance-management strategy ....................................................20
7.8 Other soil pests ..........................................................................................22
8 Nematode management
8.1 Background ...................................................................................................1
8.2 Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication ............................................2
8.2.1 Take-home messages ..........................................................................2
8.2.2 What are nematodes? .........................................................................3
8.2.3 Why the focus on P. thornei? ...............................................................3
8.2.4 Soil testing ...........................................................................................4
8.2.5 Management of RLN ...........................................................................4
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Resistance differences between winter crops ........................................................... 5
9 Diseases
9.1 Two major canola diseases: blackleg and Sclerotinia stem rot .....................1
9.2 Managing blackleg ........................................................................................3
9.2.1 Four steps to beating blackleg ...........................................................4
Step 1. Determine your farm’s risk ............................................................................. 4
Step 2. Determine each crop’s blackleg severity in spring ........................................ 4
Step 3. Management practices can reduce the risk of blackleg infection.................. 5
Step 4. Blackleg resistance groups ............................................................................ 6
9.2.2 Blackleg rating .....................................................................................7
9.3 Managing Sclerotinia stem rot ......................................................................7
9.4 Managing viruses ..........................................................................................8
10 Plant growth regulators and canopy management
11 Crop desiccation/spray out
12 Harvest
12.1 Windrowing ..................................................................................................2
12.1.1 When to windrow .................................................................................4
12.2 Direct heading ...............................................................................................5
12.3 Comparing windrowing and direct heading ..................................................6
12.3.1 Windrowing ..........................................................................................8
Timing ........................................................................................................................ 9
12.3.2 Direct heading ...................................................................................10
Timing ...................................................................................................................... 10
12.3.3 Desiccation followed by direct heading ............................................10
Timing ...................................................................................................................... 11
12.4 Wet harvest issues and management .........................................................11
12.5 Receival standards ......................................................................................11
13 Storage
13.1 Canola storage at a glance ...........................................................................1
13.2 Storing oilseeds ............................................................................................2
13.3 Seed quality and moisture content at storage .............................................2
13.4 Types of storage ............................................................................................3
13.5 Hygiene—structural treatment .....................................................................4
13.6 Aeration ........................................................................................................5
13.6.1 Aeration cooling ..................................................................................5
13.6.2 Automatic controllers ..........................................................................6
13.6.3 Operation of aeration fans ...................................................................6
13.6.4 Aeration drying ....................................................................................6
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13.6.5 Heated air drying ................................................................................7
13.6.6 Fire risk ...............................................................................................8
13.7 Insect pest control ........................................................................................8
13.8 Further reading ............................................................................................10
14 Environmental issues
14.1 Frost .............................................................................................................1
14.1.1 Issues that can be confused with frost damage..................................3
14.2 Waterlogging and flooding ...........................................................................6
14.2.1 Symptoms of waterlogging .................................................................6
14.2.2 Effect on yield ......................................................................................6
14.2.3 Germination .........................................................................................7
14.2.4 Seedfill .................................................................................................7
15 Marketing
15.1 Selling principles ...........................................................................................1
15.1.1 Be prepared .........................................................................................1
When to sell ............................................................................................................... 2
How to sell? ............................................................................................................... 2
15.1.2 Establishing the business risk profile—when to sell ............................2
Production risk profile of the farm .............................................................................. 3
Farm costs in their entirety, variable and fixed costs (establishing a target price) ..... 3
Income requirements ................................................................................................. 4
Summary .................................................................................................................... 5
15.1.3 Managing your price—how to sell .......................................................5
Methods of price management .................................................................................. 5
Summary .................................................................................................................... 7
15.1.4 Ensuring access to markets ................................................................8
Storage and logistics.................................................................................................. 8
Cost of carrying grain ................................................................................................. 9
Summary .................................................................................................................. 10
15.1.5 Executing tonnes into cash ...............................................................10
Set up the toolbox .................................................................................................... 10
How to sell for cash ................................................................................................. 11
Counterparty risk ...................................................................................................... 14
Relative commodity values ...................................................................................... 15
Contract allocation ................................................................................................... 16
Read market signals ................................................................................................. 16
Summary .................................................................................................................. 17
15.2 Northern canola market dynamics and execution ......................................17
Price determinants ................................................................................................... 17
Ensuring market access ........................................................................................... 18
Executing tonnes into cash ...................................................................................... 19
Risk-management tools ........................................................................................... 20
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16 Current projects
17 Key contacts
18 References
SECTION A CANolA - Introduction
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SECTION A
Introduction
A.1 Crop overview
A.1.1 History of canolaCanola refers to the seed and oil that is produced by several cultivars of the rape
plant, generally cultivars of either rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) or field mustard/turnip
rape (Brassica rapa subsp. oleifera, syn. B. campestris L.). 1
Rapeseed oil was produced in the 19th Century as a source of a lubricant for steam
engines; however, it was less useful as food for animals or humans because of high
levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates, chemical compounds that significantly lower
the nutritional value of rapeseed for animal feed.
Canola was developed in Canada in the early 1970s by traditional plant-breeding
techniques to reduce significantly the levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates that
were found in the parent rapeseed plant. The name ‘canola’ is a contraction of
‘Can(adian)’ O(il) L(ow) A(cid). 2
In the 1970s, intensive breeding programs in several countries including Australia
produced high-quality varieties that were significantly lower in the two toxicants.
Varieties termed ‘canola’ must meet specific standards on the levels of erucic
acid and glucosinolates. They must yield oil low in erucic acid (<2%) and meal low
in glucosinolates (total glucosinolates 30 µmol/g toasted oil-free meal) (CODEX
International Food Standards 1999), and are often referred to as ‘double low’ or
‘double zero’ varieties. 3
Australian canola typically contains <10 µmol/g of glucosinolates, 43–45% oil, and
38–40% protein in oil-free meal. 4
Canola now dominates the consumption markets for oil and meal (Figure 1).
Production of high erucic acid rapeseed is confined to production under contract for
specific industrial uses, including environmentally friendly lubricants. 5
1 Canola. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.or g/wiki/Canola
2 CanolaInfo (2015) Where does canola come from? CanolaInfo, http://www.canolainfo.org/canola/where.php
3 OGTR (2002) The biology and ecology of canola (Brassica napus). Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/content/canola-3/$FILE/brassica.pdf
4 AEGIC. Australian grain note: canola. Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/oilseeds_industry/quality_of_australian_canola
5 CanolaInfo (2015) Where does canola come from? http://www.canolainfo.org/canola/where.php
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In addition to varieties from the traditional B. napus and B. rapa species, cross-
breeding of multiple lines of B. juncea has enabled this mustard variety to be
classified as a canola-type variety by lowering both erucic acid and glucosinolates to
the market standards. 6
Figure 1: Canola is now a major oilseed industry, providing national economic benefits in employment, processing, manufacturing and exports.
A.1.2 Canola in AustraliaRapeseed was first trialed in Australia in the early 1960s and grown commercially in
1969, following the introduction of wheat delivery quotas. The first commercial seed,
of the variety Target, was imported from Canada in 1967 by Meggitt Ltd.
6 Canola. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canola
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Early varieties were not well adapted to Australian conditions, being Canadian in
origin. Canadian plant breeders had developed varieties much lower in erucic acid
than Target and Arlo, but they were also lower in yield, so never became popular
in Australia. For the same reason, the first ‘double low’ varieties were not widely
grown in Australia. The varieties available were also quite susceptible to blackleg,
and farmers suffered increased disease losses. The growth of the industry was being
limited by a lack of suitable varieties.
The first rapeseed-breeding program in Australia was set up in Victoria in 1970,
followed by Western Australia and New South Wales in 1973. Their initial objectives
were to develop varieties that were blackleg-resistant and low in erucic acid and
glucosinolates while maintaining or increasing yields. Blackleg became a major
problem in the early 1970s, and the disease was soon widespread. In Western
Australia, where the disease was most severe, yield losses of up to 80% resulted in
plantings crashing from 49,000 ha in 1972 to 3,200 ha in 1974.
Although resistant varieties were developed, the Western Australian industry did not
produce significant quantities of canola again until the early–mid 1990s. The first
Australian varieties were Wesreo (released 1978) and Wesway (released 1979), which
were low-erucic-acid, blackleg-resistant varieties from Western Australia. In Australia,
canola is used to denote varieties with erucic acid level <2% and total glucosinolates
<40 µmol/g. The first canola-quality B. napus varieties to be released were Wesroona,
in Western Australia in 1980, and Marnoo, from Victoria in 1980. Marnoo was higher
yielding and had much lower glucosinolate levels than earlier varieties and so became
a popular variety, particularly in Victoria.
However, Marnoo’s limited blackleg resistance was a handicap in New South Wales.
Growers there had been growing mainly Span, and quickly adopted Jumbuck (B. rapa
variety, released 1982) because of its better yield, quality and disease resistance.
In 1987, with the release of Maluka and Shiralee (both B. napus) from New South
Wales, high-quality canola varieties became available. These were the first varieties to
combine canola quality with blackleg resistance and high yields. They also resulted in
a trend back to B. napus varieties.
The first hybrid canola, Hyola 30, was released by Pacific Seeds in 1988, followed
by Hyola 42 in 1991. Triazine-tolerant (TT) canola was first commercialised with the
release of the variety Siren in 1993. Siren was late maturing with low yield and oil
content but was useful where crucifer weeds reduced the chances of success with
canola. New TT varieties rapidly followed, both early (Karoo and Drum) and midseason
(Clancy and Pinnacle) maturity. This led to the rapid adoption of TT canola across
Australia, especially in Western Australia, where TT canola now comprises ~90% of
the total crop.
The TT varieties continue to have a yield disadvantage of 10–15%, and about 3–5%
lower oil content than conventional varieties, but they are accepted by farmers
because they allow canola to be grown where it could not previously.
Since the early 1990s, canola production has extended into lower rainfall areas in
all states, even where rainfall is as low as 325 mm/year. This expansion has caused
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plant breeders to select earlier maturing varieties, with the release of Monty in 1998
and Mystic in 1999. Early-maturing varieties currently have lower oil contents than
midseason types and often have slightly lower resistance to blackleg; however, further
work is being conducted to improve these types. 7
The first imidazolinone-tolerant (Clearfield®) variety was released in 1999, further
expanding weed-control options. Genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant varieties,
incorporating the Roundup Ready® trait, were grown commercially for the first time in
2008 in New South Wales and Victoria. High oleic, low linolenic acid varieties were grown
commercially for the first time in 1999. These varieties differ from conventional canola in
the fatty acid profile of the oil, which increases its uses, especially for deep frying. 8
A.1.3 Canola in the northern regionSignificant areas of canola were grown in the early 1990s, but the crop suffered
from frost damage, a series of drought years and the consequences of not forming
arbuscular mycorrhizal associations (J. Slatter, pers. comm.), and so the area dropped
away. Yield and oil content were variable and often disappointing. Problems with
crop production were often cited as being due to variable climatic conditions, poorly
adapted cultivars, poor establishment and inadequate nutrition.
Frost at the early stages of pod filling devastated several commercial crops, which
led to the perception that canola was poorly adapted to northern climatic conditions.
In addition, in areas with significant summer cropping, it was noted that canola
suppressed establishment and growth of subsequent sorghum and other summer
crops. 9
The production area of canola in northern New South Wales has increased in recent
years, with canola becoming a more important and stable part of the farming system.
Canola best management recommendations from the southern region are a useful
starting point; however, they need to be fine-tuned and adapted for conditions and
soil types in the northern region (New South Wales and Queensland). 10
A.1.4 HybridsA hybrid is a plant created by cross-pollinating male and female parents of different
inbred lines. A hybrid has the benefit of heterosis (hybrid vigour). Hybrid canola
generally has higher yield potential than traditional, inbred, open-pollinated varieties.
This improved yield is achieved through a combination of superior traits such as larger
seeds, leading to early vigour, and better stress tolerance. However, hybrid seed
7 B. Colton, T. Potter. History. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/2701/Chapter_1_-_History.pdf
8 D McCaffrey (2009) Introduction. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
9 JF Holland et al. Canola in the northern region: where are we up to? Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/4446/CANOLA_IN_THE_NORTHERN_REGION_WHERE_ARE_WE_UP_TO.pdf
10 GRDC (2004) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, Hot Topics, 28 April 2004, http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region
SECTION A CANolA - Introduction
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should never be retained for sowing because it will not produce true copies of the
original hybrid plant. 11
Although the first canola hybrid was released in 1988, only recently have hybrids been
grown on a large scale. Canola breeding of the future will focus more on hybrids.
The major global canola producers are China, the European Union, Canada and
India. Canada is the major exporter and Japan and the European Union are the major
importers. Australian canola competes with Canadian product in the international
marketplace. Canola is the third most important winter grain crop in Australia, behind
wheat and barley. 12
A.1.5 Domestic productionAustralian canola production has averaged ~1.4 Mt/year, ranging from 512,000 t to
2.46 Mt. The total Australian oilseed crush capacity is ~1.1 Mt, with much of this in
the eastern states. Some 550,000–650,000 t of canola is crushed annually, with the
main export markets for surplus seed being Japan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, China and
the European Union.
The vast majority of canola oil is used in the food industry: about one-third in spreads
and cooking oil, and two-thirds in the commercial food-service sector (Figure 2).
About 20–25% of Australian canola oil is exported. Canola meal, the main byproduct
of crushed canola, is used as a high-protein feed for intensive livestock, mainly in the
pig, poultry and dairy industries.
Figure 2: Most of Australia’s canola oil is used in the food-service sector.
The challenge for growers and the industry over the next few years will be to continue
to improve productivity by adopting best practice management and being responsive
to climate variability to ensure a stable supply of high-quality oilseed for domestic
11 GRDC (2010) Growing hybrid canola. GRDC Canola Fact Sheet, August 2010, https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/D4B939DB8790453FB2D6CBD04CA11B78.pdf
12 D McCaffrey (2009) Introduction. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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and international markets. 13 Table 1 shows production in four states for 2013–14 and
estimated production for 2014–15.
Table 1: Canola production in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia
Sources: industry estimates, GIWA, PIRSA
Final 2013–14 Estimate 2014–15Harvested area (ha) Production (t) Area planted (ha) Production (t)
NSW 600,000 900,000 550,000 750,000
Vic 400,000 700,000 400,000 700,000
SA 300,000 500,000 280,000 450,000
WA 1,180,000 1,800,000 1,250,000 1,750,000
Total 2,480,000 3,900,000 2,480,000 3,650,000
13 D McCaffrey (2009) Introduction. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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SECTION 1
Planning/Paddock preparation
1.1 Paddock selection
In addition to early preparation and good crop management, success with canola
cropping depends on careful paddock selection. The major considerations when
selecting a paddock to grow canola in rotation with other crops are:
• soil type
• potential disease problems
• previous herbicide use
• broadleaf weeds
Choosing more reliable and weed-free paddocks is the best option (Figure 1). It is
desirable to soil-test prior to sowing the crop and to continue to manage broadleaf
and grass weeds prior to sowing. In the northern region growers need to soil test
later the previous winter as nitrogen readings will change due to summer microbial
breakdown and leaching.
When considering the rotation using crops such as wheat or barley prior to sowing
canola will allow for increased broadleaf control through more herbicide options and
increased crop competition. If a pulse is the prior crop, consider the use of herbicide-
resistant varieties to manage broadleaf weeds. Well thought out weed control can
have significant benefits, especially where problem weeds are difficult to control in
canola. 1
Many growers are now growing canola to actually control weeds not able to be
controlled in wheat. This is through use of Round Up ready or TT varieties.
1 P Parker (2009) Crop rotation and paddock selection. Ch. 4. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Figure 1: Choosing more reliable and weed-free paddocks is the best option for canola.
1.1.1 Soil types Canola is adapted to a wide range of soil types. Whilst sandy soils can grow canola
successfully particularly in areas with winter dominant rainfall, canola is best adapted
to red-brown earths and clay soils. These soils generally have higher organic matter
and inherent fertility. Canola has a high requirement for Nitrogen that will need to
be met by fertilizer application in soils of lower fertility. Canola will perform best on
neutral to alkaline soils, with good tilth. Paddocks with a uniform soil type will permit
more even sowing depth and seedling emergence and more even crop ripening.
Climate and Soils
Avoid growing canola where the following problems occur.
Hardpans
Although canola is a tap-rooted plant, it is not strong enough to penetrate some tight
hardpans and can still suffer from ‘J’ rooting problems. Paddocks should be checked
12 months in advance by using a soil probe or by digging a small pit to visually assess
a suspected problem and determine the depth of working or ripping that may be
required to break up any hardpan.
Crusting soils
The surface of a soil can crust after rainfall and reduce plant establishment if it is
poorly structured with low organic matter levels, or a sodic clay that disperses after
wetting. The use of gypsum and/or stubble retention on hard-setting sodic clay soils
may improve seedling emergence and early growth.
Acid soils
Canola is more susceptible to low pH and aluminium (Al) toxicity than most other
crops. If you expect the pHCaCl2 to be <5.0, have the prospective canola paddock
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soil-tested in the previous winter. If acidic subsoil is suspected, take split samples
of soil depths 0–10 and 10–20 cm. Where a pHCaCl2 <4.7 is combined with
exchangeable Al level of ≥3%, do not grow canola before obtaining specific advice.
Other indicators of acidity problems are poor growth in barley and lucerne, or if oats
and triticale grow better than wheat. Consider using lime when the topsoil pHCaCl2
drops to <5.0.
Sodic subsoils
Soils with a sodic clay subsoil of low permeability become waterlogged when rainfall
exceeds their infiltration capacity. A sodic subsoil problem can be identified by a
simple soil testing procedure (dispersion test) backed up by laboratory chemical
analysis. Avoid these soils unless they have a good depth of well-drained topsoil,
which allows for adequate root growth even after heavy rainfall. Use of raised beds
has been a successful strategy for reducing the impact of waterlogging in high-rainfall
areas of south-western Victoria and Western Australia. 2
1.2 Rotations and paddock history
Canola can reduce but not eliminate the incidence of some cereal root and crown
diseases, such as crown rot and take-all. Research has shown canola to be the most
effective winter crop for reducing levels of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops. 3
Canola is not a host for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and will result in lower
levels following the crop This may disadvantage subsequent crops that are highly
dependent on AMF, particularly if environmental conditions and progressive fallows
have also reduced AMF levels. Crops with a reliance on AMF include all commonly
grown summer crops (sorghum, cotton, maize, sunflowers and the summer pulses) as
well as faba beans and chickpeas.
Wheat, barley and oats have a lower dependence on AMF, and any reduction can
be counteracted through additional phosphate fertiliser application. Because canola
reduces AMF levels the same way as long fallows, it should be grown with short
(about 6 months) fallows before and after.
Research has shown that wheat yield increases of ~0.6–1.0 t/ha can be expected
when following canola compared with following wheat.
No-tillage, which retains more stubble, is increasing the carryover of many of the main
cereal diseases, such as crown rot, in New South Wales (NSW). Canola fits well into
this system by allowing an additional season for cereal stubble breakdown to occur,
therefore reducing the carryover of disease.
2 P Parker (2009) Crop rotation and paddock selection. Ch. 4. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
3 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
i More information
Canola best practice
management guide for
south-eastern Australia
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Canola should not be included in the rotation more frequently than one in every
four years. This reduces the potential for canola disease build-up and also allows
for rotation of herbicide and weed control tactics. The use of triazine-tolerant (TT),
imadozoline-tolerant (IT) and roundup ready (RR) canola systems can also be used
strategically for hard to control weeds.
When planning cropping systems on the farm consider placement of future crops
in relation to potential insect pest host crops. Rutherglen bugs may be present in
large numbers on canola stubble around harvest time. These can readily move into
neighbouring summer crops or crops planted directly into the canola stubble, causing
serious damage. 4
1.3 Winter and summer fallow weed control
Fallow management is important in all parts of NSW and Queensland. Whether winter-
or summer-dominant rainfall the management of weeds throughout the summer
has been found to directly add value to the next crop. This is achieved through the
storage of moisture, particularly in soils with some clay content, but also by avoiding
situations where weeds are tying up nutrients, hosting insect pests, or providing a
green bridge for disease.
Weeds can affect crop yield either through direct competition or possibly as hosts for
pathogens such as Sclerotinia. In particular, for canola, a number of Brassica weeds
can cause significant problems.
Growers should be aware of the following important Brassica weeds when selecting a
paddock for canola:
• charlock (Sinapis arvensis)
• wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)
• wild or Mediterranean turnip (Brassica tournefortii)
• wild cabbage or hare’s ear (Conringia orientalis)
Each of these weeds has a seed size similar to canola and they cannot be easily
removed from canola grain samples. Because they contain ~50 times more erucic
acid in the oil and ~10 times more glucosinolates in the seed than found in canola,
any contamination could result in the crop being rejected at delivery because of the
impact on oil and meal quality.
Other problem Brassica weeds have smaller seed than canola and they are usually
removed during harvesting. These include shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-
pastoris), turnip weed (Rapistrum rugosum), musk weed (Myagrum perfoliatum) and
the mustards (Sisymbrium spp.). These weeds reduce yield through competition; for
example, shepherd’s purse may be a problem weed of canola grown after a pasture
phase.
4 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
i More information
Choosing rotation
crops—north
Canola—northern NSW
planting guide
Over the bar with better
canola agronomy
Canola best practice
management guide for
south-eastern Australia
Crown rot in winter
cereals
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If sowing canola into paddocks where any of these Brassica weeds are present,
select an appropriate, herbicide-resistant variety. Growing TT, Clearfield® or Roundup
Ready® canola allows problem broadleaf weeds to be managed. However, eradicating
problem weeds or reducing their seed populations prior to sowing is preferable. 5
Paddocks usually have multiple weed species present at one time, making weed-
control decisions more difficult and often involving a compromise after assessment
of the prevalence of key weed species. Knowledge of your paddock and controlling
weeds as early as possible are important for good control of fallow weeds. Information
is included for the most common problem weeds; however, for advice on individual
paddocks, contact your agronomist.
Benefits of fallow weed control are significant:
• Conservation of summer rain and fallow moisture, which can include moisture
stored from last winter or the summer before in a long fallow, is integral to winter
cropping in the northern region, particularly as the climate moves towards
summer-dominant rainfall.
The GRDC funded Northern Grower Alliance (NGA) is trialing methods to control
summer grasses. Key findings include:
1. Glyphosate-resistant and -tolerant weeds are a major threat to reduced tillage
cropping systems.
2. Although residual herbicides will limit re-cropping options and will not provide
complete control, they are a key part of successful fallow management.
3. Double-knock herbicide strategies (sequential application of two different
weed-control tactics) are useful but the herbicide choices and optimal timings
will vary with weed species.
4. Other weed-management tactics can be incorporated, for example crop
competition, to assist herbicide control.
5. Cultivation may need to be considered as a salvage option to avoid seedbank
salvage.
Double-knock strategies
Double-knock refers to the sequential application of two different weed-control tactics
applied in such a way that the second tactic controls any survivors of the first. Most
commonly used for pre-sowing weed control, this concept can also be applied in-
crop. 6
Consider the species present, interval timing and water rate. For information on
double-knock tactics, download the GRDC Herbicide Application Fact Sheet:
Effective double knock herbicide applications northern region.
5 P Parker (2009) Crop rotation and paddock selection. Ch. 4. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
6 C Borger, V Stewart, A Storrie. Double knockdown or ‘double knock’. Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia.
i More information
Canola volunteer
control guide
i More information
GRDC Integrated Weed
Management Manual
Summer fallow spraying
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Double-knock herbicide strategies are useful for managing difficult-to-control weeds
but there is no ‘one size fits all’ treatment.
The interval between double-knock applications is a major management issue for
growers and contractors. Shorter intervals can be consistently used for weeds where
herbicides appear to be translocated rapidly (e.g. awnless barnyard grass, ABYG) or
when growing conditions are very favourable. Longer intervals are needed for weeds
where translocation appears slower (e.g. fleabane, feathertop Rhodes grass and
windmill grass).
Critical factors for successful double-knock approaches are for the first application
to be on small weeds and to ensure good coverage and adequate water volumes,
particularly when using products containing paraquat. Double-knock strategies
are not fail-proof and rarely effective for salvage weed-control situations unless
environmental conditions are exceptionally favourable.
Important weeds in northern cropping systems
Weed management, particularly in reduced tillage fallows, has become an increasingly
complex and expensive part of cropping in the northern grains region. Heavy reliance
on glyphosate has selected for species that were naturally more glyphosate-tolerant
or has selected for glyphosate-resistant populations.
Awnless barnyard grass
Figure 2: Awnless barnyard grass. (Photo: Rachel Bowman)
Awnless barnyard grass (Figure 2) has been a key summer grass problem for many
years. It is a difficult weed to manage for at least three main reasons:
1. Multiple emergence flushes (cohorts) each season
2. Easily moisture-stressed, leading to inconsistent knockdown control
3. Glyphosate-resistant populations increasingly being found
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Key points
• Glyphosate resistance is widespread. Tactics against this weed must change from
glyphosate alone.
• Utilise residual chemistry wherever possible and aim to control ‘escapes’ with
camera spray technology.
• Try to ensure that a double-knock of glyphosate followed by paraquat is used on
one of the larger early-summer flushes of ABYG.
• Restrict Group A herbicides to management of ABYG in-crop and aim for strong
crop competition.
Resistance levels
Prior to summer 2011–12, there were 21 cases of glyphosate-resistant ABYG.
Collaborative surveys were conducted by NSW Department of Primary Industries
(DPI), Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Queensland (DAFF) and
NGA in summer 2011–12, with a targeted follow-up in 2012–13. Agronomists from
the Liverpool Plains to the Darling Downs and west to areas including Mungindi
collected ABYG samples, which were tested at the Tamworth Agricultural Institute
with Glyphosate CT at 1.6 L/ha (a.i. 450 g/L) at a mid-tillering growth stage. Total
application volume was 100 L/ha.
The main finding from this survey work was that the number of ‘confirmed’
glyphosate-resistant ABYG populations had nearly trebled. Selected populations were
also evaluated in a separate glyphosate rate-response trial. The experiment showed
that some of these populations were suppressed only when sprayed with 12.8 L/ha.
Growers can no longer rely on glyphosate alone for ABYG control.
Residual herbicides (fallow and in-crop)
Several active ingredients are registered for use in summer crops, e.g. metolachlor
(e.g. Dual Gold®) and atrazine, or fallow, e.g. imazapic (e.g. Flame®), and these provide
useful management of ABYG. The new fallow registration of isoxaflutole (Balance®)
can provide useful suppression of ABYG, but this herbicide has stronger activity
against other problem weed species. Few (if any) residuals give consistent, complete
control. However, they are important tools that need to be considered to reduce
the weed population exposed to knockdown herbicides, as well as to alternate the
herbicide chemistry being employed. Use of residuals together with camera spray
technology (for escapes) can be a very effective strategy in fallow.
Double-knock control
This approach uses two different tactics applied sequentially. In reduced-tillage
situations, it is frequently glyphosate applied first, followed by a paraquat-based
spray as the second application or ‘knock’. Trials to date have shown that glyphosate
followed by paraquat gives effective control, even on glyphosate-resistant ABYG.
Note that the most effective results will be achieved from paraquat-based sprays
by using higher total application volumes (100 L/ha) and finer spray quality and by
targeting seedling weeds.
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Several Group A herbicides, e.g. Verdict® and Select®, are effective on ABYG but
should be used in registered summer crops such as mungbeans. Even on glyphosate-
resistant ABYG, a double-knock of glyphosate followed by paraquat is an effective
tool. In the same situations, there has been little benefit from a Group A followed by
paraquat application. Note that Group A herbicides appear more sensitive to ABYG
moisture stress. Application on larger, mature weeds can result in very poor efficacy.
Timing of the paraquat application for ABYG control has generally proven flexible.
The most consistent control is obtained from a delay of ~3–5 days, when lower rates
of paraquat can also be used. Longer delays may be warranted when ABYG is still
emerging at the first application timing; shorter intervals are generally required when
weed size is larger or moisture-stress conditions are expected. High levels of control
can still be obtained with larger weeds but paraquat rates will need to be increased to
2.0 or 2.4 L/ha.
Flaxleaf fleabane
Figure 3: Flaxleaf fleabane. (Photo: DAF Qld)
There are three main species of fleabane in Australia: Conyza bonariensis (flaxleaf
fleabane; Figure 3), C. canadensis (Canadian fleabane) and C. albida (tall fleabane).
There are two varieties of C. canadensis: var. canadensis and var. pusilla. Of the three
species, flaxleaf fleabane is the most common across Australia. 7
For more than a decade, flaxleaf fleabane has been the major weed-management
issue in the northern cropping region, particularly in reduced-tillage systems.
Fleabane is a wind-borne, surface-germinating weed that thrives in situations of low
competition. Germination flushes typically occur in autumn and spring when surface-
7 M Widderick, H Wu. Fleabane. Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia.
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soil moisture levels stay high for a few days. However, emergence can occur at nearly
all times of the year.
An important issue with fleabane is that knockdown control of large plants in the
summer fallow is variable and can be expensive due to reduced control rates.
Key points
• Utilise residual chemistry wherever possible and aim to control ‘escapes’ with
camera spray technology.
• This weed thrives in situations of low competition; avoid wide row cropping unless
effective residual herbicides are included.
• 2,4-D is a crucial tool for consistent double-knock control.
• Successful growers have increased their focus on fleabane management in winter
(crop or fallow) to avoid expensive and variable salvage control in the summer.
Resistance levels
Glyphosate resistance has been confirmed in fleabane. There is great variability in
the response of fleabane to glyphosate with many samples from non-cropping areas
still well controlled by glyphosate, whereas fleabane from reduced-tillage cropping
situations shows increased levels of resistance. The most recent survey has focused
on non-cropping situations, with a large number of resistant populations found on
roadsides and railway lines where glyphosate alone has been the principal weed-
management tool employed.
Residual herbicides (fallow and in-crop)
One of the most effective strategies to manage fleabane is the use of residual
herbicides during fallow or in-crop. Trials have consistently shown good efficacy
from a range of residual herbicides commonly used in sorghum, cotton, chickpeas
and winter cereals. There are now at least two registrations for residual fleabane
management in fallow.
Additional product registrations for in-crop knockdown and residual herbicide use,
particularly in winter cereals, are being sought. A range of commonly used winter
cereal herbicides exists with useful knockdown and residual fleabane activity. Trials to
date have indicated that increasing water volumes from 50 to 100 L/ha may improve
the consistency of residual control, with application timing to ensure good herbicide–
soil contact also important.
Knockdown herbicides (fallow and in-crop)
Group I herbicides have been the major products for fallow management of fleabane,
with 2,4-D amine the most consistent herbicide evaluated. Despite glyphosate alone
generally giving poor control of fleabane, trials have consistently shown a benefit from
tank mixing 2,4-D amine and glyphosate in the first application. Amicide® Advance
at 0.65–1.1 L/ha mixed with Roundup® Attack at a minimum of 1.15 L/ha and then
followed by Nuquat® at 1.6–2.0 L/ha is a registered option for fleabane knockdown in
fallow. Sharpen® is a product with Group G mode of action. It is registered for fallow
control when mixed with Roundup® Attack at a minimum of 1.15 L/ha but only on
fleabane up to a maximum stage of six leaves.
i More information
Australian glyphosate
resistance register:
summary
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For more information on label rates, visit: Australian Pesticides and Veterinary
Medicines Authority.
Double-knock control
The most consistent and effective double-knock control of fleabane has included
2,4-D in the first application followed by paraquat as the second. Glyphosate alone
followed by paraquat will result in high levels of leaf desiccation but plants will nearly
always recover.
Timing of the second application in fleabane is generally aimed at ~7–14 days after
the first application. However, the interval to the second knock appears quite flexible.
Increased efficacy is obtained when fleabane is actively growing or if rosette stages
can be targeted. Although complete control can be obtained in some situations (e.g.
summer 2012–13), control levels will frequently reach only ~70–80%, particularly when
targeting large, flowering fleabane under moisture-stressed conditions. The high cost
of fallow double-knock approaches and inconsistency in control level of large, mature
plants are good reasons to focus on proactive fleabane management at other growth
stages.
Feathertop Rhodes grass
Figure 4: Feathertop Rhodes grass. (Photo: Rachel Bowman)
Feathertop Rhodes grass (Figure 4) has emerged as an important weed-management
issue in southern Queensland and northern NSW since ~2008. This is another small-
seeded weed species that germinates on, or close to, the soil surface. It has rapid
early growth rates and can become moisture-stressed quickly. Although FTR is well
established in central Queensland, it remains largely an ‘emerging’ threat further
south. Patches should be aggressively treated to avoid whole-of-paddock blowouts.
Key points
• Glyphosate alone or glyphosate followed by paraquat has generally poor efficacy.
• Utilise residual chemistry wherever possible and aim to control ‘escapes’ with
camera spray technology.
i More information
Flaxleaf fleabane—a
weed best management
guide
Integrated Weed
Management of
Feathertop Rhodes
Grass 2014
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• A double-knock of Verdict® followed by paraquat can be used in Queensland prior
to planting mungbeans where large spring flushes of FTR occur.
• Treat patches aggressively, even with cultivation, to avoid paddock blowouts.
Residual herbicides (fallow and in-crop)
This weed is generally poorly controlled by glyphosate alone, even when sprayed
under favourable conditions at the seedling stage. Trials have shown that residual
herbicides generally provide the most effective control, a similar pattern to that seen
with fleabane. Currently registered residual herbicides are being screened and offer
promise for both fallow and in-crop situations. The only product currently registered
for FTR control is Balance® (isoxaflutole) at 100 g/ha for fallow use.
Double-knock control
Although a double-knock of glyphosate followed by paraquat is an effective strategy
on ABYG, the same approach is variable and generally disappointing for FTR
management. By contrast, a small number of Group A herbicides (all members of the
‘fop’ class) can be effective against FTR but need to be managed within a number of
constraints:
• Although they can provide high levels of efficacy on fresh and seedling FTR, they
need to be followed by a paraquat double-knock to get consistent, high levels of
final control.
• Group A herbicides have a high risk of resistance selection, again requiring follow-
up with paraquat.
• Many Group A herbicides have plant-back restrictions to cereal crops.
• Group A herbicides are generally successful at a narrower range of weed growth
stages than herbicides such as glyphosate; that is, Group A herbicides will
generally give unsatisfactory results on flowering and/or moisture-stressed FTR.
• Not all Group A herbicides are effective on FTR.
For information on a permit (PER12941) issued for Queensland only for the control
of FTR in summer fallow situations prior to planting mungbeans, see: Australian
Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority.
Timing of the second application for FTR is still being refined, but application at
~7–14 days generally provides the most consistent control. Application of paraquat
at shorter intervals can be successful, when the Group A herbicide is translocated
rapidly through the plant, but has resulted in more variable control in field trials. Good
control can often be obtained up to 21 days after the initial application.
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Windmill grass
Figure 5: Windmill grass. (Photo: Maurie Street)
Whereas FTR has been a grass-weed threat coming from Queensland and moving
south, windmill grass is more of a problem in central NSW but is spreading north.
Windmill grass (Figure 5) is a perennial, native species found throughout northern
NSW and southern Queensland. The main cropping threat appears to be from the
selection of glyphosate-resistant populations, with control of the tussock stage
providing greatest management challenges.
Key points
• Glyphosate alone or glyphosate followed by paraquat has generally poor efficacy.
• Preliminary data suggest that residual chemistry may provide some benefit.
• A double-knock of quizalofop-p-ethyl (e.g. Targa®) followed by paraquat can be
used in NSW.
Resistance levels
Glyphosate resistance has been confirmed in windmill grass with three documented
cases in NSW, all located west of Dubbo. Glyphosate-resistant populations of
windmill grass in other states have all been collected from roadsides, but in Central
West NSW, two were from fallow paddock situations.
Residual herbicides (fallow and in-crop)
Preliminary trials have shown a range of residual herbicides with useful levels of
efficacy against windmill grass. These herbicides have potential for both fallow and
in-crop situations. Currently, there are no products registered for residual control of
windmill grass.
Double-knock control
Similar to FTR, a double-knock of a Group A herbicide followed by paraquat has
provided clear benefits compared with the disappointing results usually achieved
by glyphosate followed by paraquat. Constraints apply to double-knock for windmill
grass control similar to those for FTR.
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For information on a permit for NSW only for the control of windmill grass in summer
fallow situations, visit: Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority.
Timing of the second application for windmill grass is still being refined, but
application at ~7–14 days generally provides the most consistent control. Application
of paraquat at shorter intervals can be successful, when the Group A herbicide is
translocated rapidly through the plant, but has resulted in more variable control in field
trials and has been clearly antagonistic when the interval is ≤1 day. Good control can
often be obtained up to 21 days after the initial application. 8
1.4 Herbicide plant-back periods
Canola is particularly susceptible to a range of residual herbicides. Under dry
seasonal conditions or in alkaline soils, residues from a herbicide applied to a
previous pulse or cereal crop can persist into the next cropping season. For example,
the sulfonylurea group (e.g. chlorsulfuron, sulfosulfuron) used in cereal crops have
a canola plant-back period of 24–30 months. Similarly, some herbicides registered
in pulse crops can have plant-back periods ranging from 9 months (simazine) to 24
months (flumetsulam) to 34 months (imazethapyr). The use of these herbicides can
therefore restrict crop options and prevent the sowing of canola for up to 3 years. The
use of various herbicide-tolerant (TT or Clearfield®) canola varieties coupled with their
companion herbicides (triazines or Group B herbicides) can restrict crop-selection
options in the following year. Plant-back periods are provided on herbicide labels for
sensitive crops under these conditions. 9
Plantback periods do not begin until there has been a significant rainfall event.
Plant-back periods are the obligatory times between the herbicide spraying date and
safe planting date of a subsequent crop.
Soil behaviour of pre-emergent herbicides in Australian farming systems: a reference
manual for agronomic advisers
Some herbicides have a long residual. The residual is not the same as the half-
life. Although the amount of chemical in the soil may break down rapidly to half
the original amount, what remains can persist for long periods, as is the case for
sulfonylureas (chlorsulfuron) (see Table 1). Herbicides with long residuals can affect
subsequent crops, especially if they are effective at low levels of active ingredient,
such as the sulfonylureas. On labels, this will be shown by plant-back periods, which
are usually listed under a separate heading or under ‘Protection of crops etc.’ in the
‘General Instructions’ section of the label. 10
8 R Daniel (2013) Weeds and resistance—considerations for awnless barnyard grass, Chloris spp. and fleabane management. Northern Grower Alliance, http://www.nga.org.au/module/documents/download/225
9 P Parker (2009) Crop rotation and paddock selection. Ch. 4. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
10 B Haskins (2012) Using pre-emergent herbicides in conservation farming systems. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/431247/Using-pre-emergent-herbicides-in-conservation-farming-systems.pdf
i More information
Herbicide resistance in
summer grasses
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Table 1: Residual persistence of common pre-emergent herbicides, and noted residual persistence in broadacre trials and from paddock experience 11
Sources: CDS Tomlinson (Ed.) (2009) The pesticide manual (15th edn), British Crop Protection Council; Extoxnet, http://extoxnet.orst.edu/; California Department of Pesticide Regulation Environmental Fate Reviews, www.cdpr.ca.gov/
Herbicide Half-life (days) Residual persistence and prolonged weed control
Logran® (triasulfuron) 19 High. Persists longer in high pH soils. Weed control commonly drops off within 6 weeks
Glean® (chlorsulfuron) 28–42 High. Persists longer in high pH soils. Weed control longer than triasulfuron
Diuron 90 (range 1 month–1 year, depending on rate)
High. Weed control will drop off within 6 weeks, depending on rate. Has had observed, long-lasting activity on grass weeds such as black/stink grass (Eragrostis spp.) and to a lesser extent broadleaf weeds such as fleabane
Atrazine 60–100, up to 1 year if dry
High. Has had observed, long-lasting (>3 months) activity on broadleaf weeds such as fleabane
Simazine 60 (range 28–149) Medium–high. 1 year residual in high pH soils. Has had observed, long-lasting (>3 months) activity on broadleaf weeds such as fleabane
Terbyne® (terbuthylazine) 6.5–139 High. Has had observed, long-lasting (>6 months) activity on broadleaf weeds such as fleabane and sow thistle
Triflur® X (trifluralin) 57–126 High. 6–8 months residual. Higher rates longer. Has had observed, long-lasting activity on grass weeds such as black/stink grass (Eragrostis spp.)
Stomp® (pendimethalin) 40 Medium. 3–4 months residual
Avadex® Xtra (triallate) 56–77 Medium. 3–4 months residual
Balance® (isoxaflutole) 1.3 (metabolite 11.5)
High. Reactivates after each rainfall event. Has had observed, long-lasting (> 6 months) activity on broadleaf weeds such as fleabane and sow thistle
Boxer Gold® (prosulfocarb)
12–49 Medium. Typically quicker to break down than trifluralin, but tends to reactivate after each rainfall event
Sakura® (pyroxasulfone) 10–35 High. Typically quicker breakdown than trifluralin and prosulfocarb; however, weed control persists longer than with prosulfocarb
1.5 Seedbed requirements
Seed–soil contact, especially under dry conditions, is crucial for helping moisture to
diffuse into the canola seed. Emergence of canola seedlings can be reduced by the
formation of soil crusts in hardsetting, sodic or dispersing soils. Sodic or dispersing
soils that surface-seal will reduce the emergence of canola seedlings.
A firm, moist seedbed provides uniform seed germination and rapid seedling
growth. Adequate soil moisture at the seedling and elongation stages promotes the
development of a strong, healthy plant less prone to lodging and with maximum leaf
growth by the end of July. 12
11 B Haskins (2012) Using pre-emergent herbicides in conservation farming systems. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/431247/Using-pre-emergent-herbicides-in-conservation-farming-systems.pdf
12 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
Australian Pesticides
and Veterinary
Medicines Authority
Using pre-emergent
herbicides in
conservation farming
systems
Weed control in winter
crops
Sulfonylurea spray
contamination damage
to canola crops
i More information
Canola best practice
management guide for
south-eastern Australia
Lifting productivity
in retained stubble
systems
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Figure 6: The hard canola seed needs good seed–soil contact to germinate.
1.6 Soil moisture
Soil moisture is vital for both germination and emergence. Canola must absorb a high
percentage of its weight in water before germination begins. It will germinate when the
seed moisture content has risen to approximately 24%.
Water absorption is a passive process. The ability of seeds to absorb water depends
on the difference in water potential between the seed and the surrounding soil. Seeds
can absorb water even at very low soil-water potentials, but low water potentials may
induce secondary dormancy.
Seed size influences the rate of water absorption. Small seeds have a high surface-to-
volume ratio, which means that less time is required to absorb adequate moisture for
germination.
In soils with a low moisture content, the germination rate will be lower and emergence
slower (Table 2).
Table 2: Effect of soil moisture content on final emergence percentage and days to 50% emergence
Source: Modified from Canola Council of Canada (2003)
Total soil water content (% weight)
Final emergence percentage
Days to 50% emergence
18% 82% 9
15% 59% 12
13% 45% 13
11% 4% –
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The trial was established in a growth chamber at constant day–night temperatures of
8.5°C–10°C. In summary:
• The higher the total soil water content, the higher the final germination
percentage.
• The higher the soil water content, the quicker the time to 50% seedling
emergence. 13
Water is essential for plant growth. Adequate soil moisture:
• promotes root growth
• promotes a large, abundant leaf area
• helps plants to retain their leaves longer
• lengthens the flowering period
• increases the numbers of branches per plant, flowers forming pods and seeds per
pod
• increases seed weight and seed yield
Moisture stress is more important during podfill than at the vegetative stage. However,
too much or too little water at any growth stage reduces yield potential. Factors that
may limit yield include:
• the amount of moisture stored in the soil over summer
• the rate and duration and timing of rainfall during the growing season
• the ability of the soil to absorb water, store it, and make it available for plants
Modifying some of these factors can improve moisture availability and efficiency of
water use.
When soil water and nutrients are abundant, the balance of root to stem and leaf
growth typically shifts in favour of stem growth at the expense of roots. When water
is limited, the opposite usually occurs. Roots account for ~25% of plant dry matter
at stem elongation in moisture-stressed canola, compared with ~20% in unstressed
plants.
1.6.1 Moisture stress during rosette formation and elongation
Canola has limited ability to withstand severe drought. To avoid dehydration, the plant
closes its stomata and rapidly sheds leaves.
Moisture stress during the early vegetative stages reduces the ability of stomata to
conduct carbon dioxide and therefore slows photosynthesis. This in turn reduces leaf
area expansion and dry matter production. It also limits root growth, which reduces
nutrient uptake. More severe water deficits inhibit photosynthesis because of cell and
chloroplast shrinkage.
13 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
Is there a place for
canola on irrigation?
Yield of wheat and
canola in the high
rainfall zone of south-
western Australia in
years with and without
a transient perched
water table
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This is important in seasons with dry winters. It is also important in low-rainfall areas
where the period of crop growth is restricted at the start of the season by lack of
rainfall and at the end of the season by water deficits and high temperatures.
Plants under early-season moisture stress will usually recover normal growth with
subsequent rainfall or irrigation. Stressed plants are able to recover leaf area, form
flowers, set pods and fill seeds when water becomes available, but with hastened
development rates, crops have early maturity and lower yields. The worst time for
drought stress in canola is during stem elongation or flowering.
Long periods of drought will reduce yields more than frequent, short periods of
drought. The impact will be greatest on coarse-textured soils and shallow soils with
low water-storage capacity.
Adequate soil moisture tends to lengthen the number of days to maturity by up to 10
days. Additional soil moisture will result in no further increase in yield and may cause
yield reductions through poor soil aeration and/or increased lodging and diseases. 14
1.7 Yield and targets
Average canola yields in NSW vary over a range of around 1t/ha in the drier regions
but up to 3-4 t/ha in the more favourable growing areas or on irrigation. Canola
has traditionally yielded approximately half of what wheat would yield in the same
situation. Said another way it achieves only half the water use efficiency of that of
wheat (kg of grain per mm of water available).
More recently with improved varieties and the agronomy and management of the crop
many farmers are now targeting 60-70% of typical wheat yields.
As discussed in Section 2, varieties vary in yield performances. However, several
generalisations can be made:
• TT varieties will often perform less well than conventional, Clearfield or Roundup
Ready varieties as there is a fitness penalty integral to breeding herbicide
tolerance. This is often referred to as yield drag and quoted as up to 15%
compared to conventional varieties. However some agronomists believe this is
over-estimated in some regions and it must be remembered that the TT tolerance
allows control of weeds that could otherwise not be controlled. TT varieties often
have less seedling vigour which can hinder establishment and this can have
ramifications through to harvest.
• Hybrid varieties generally have higher yield potential than open pollinated
varieties. This is achieved through the hybridization process, enabling coupling
of strong and desirable traits from the parent varieties. Many breeding or seed
companies are also investing greater effort into hybrid varieties as gains are easier
and quicker to achieve as well in ensures seed sales each year.
14 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
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• GMO varieties, specifically Round Up Ready or glyphosate-tolerant varieties,
promise improved yield potential and performance but at present these varieties
are achieving only average performance, not withstanding weed management
benefits.
In setting yield targets or expectations, growers also need to take into account sowing
date, seasonal conditions (particularly rainfall and fallow moisture) and disease and
pests. In southern regions Blackleg, and more sporadically Sclerotina, can impact
heavily on crop performance but the northern region does not seem to experience the
same level of disease particularly Blackleg so this should not in many cases be too
much of a yield barrier.
1.7.1 Seasonal outlookThe NSW DPI provides a seasonal outlook to assist grain growers. The Seasonal
Conditions and Climate Change Summary e-newsletter will let you know as soon as
the monthly report is published. Subscribe now.
1.7.2 Fallow moistureLike wheat, canola will benefit from stored subsoil moisture, particularly in marginal
cropping areas where winter and spring rainfall is unreliable. Manage fallows efficiently
to maximise the amount of moisture at sowing. 15
1.7.3 Nitrogen- and water-use efficiencyNitrogen fertiliser can increase the water-use efficiency (WUE) of early-sown canola.
The additional N enables the crop to cover the ground quicker and develop a dense
leaf canopy, resulting in reduced soil evaporation and better WUE. 16
A University of Adelaide study in 2013 of canola under different water regimes with
N showed that grain yield was mainly driven by biomass production. It also revealed
that the timing of N had little impact on yield; however, split application improved oil
content. (However, trials by the Grain Orana Alliance (GOA) didn’t show this, more
details will be available in 2016.)
Canola crops extracted water to 60–80 cm, and addition of N increased the drying
of the profile by maturity but had little effect on total water use relative to nil N. Both
N-use efficiency and WUE were improved by additional water availability. 17
15 L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
16 P Hocking, R Norton, A Good (1999) Crop nutrition. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/2704/Chapter_4_-_Canola_Nutrition.pdf
17 A Riar, G McDonald, G Gill (2013) Nitrogen and water use efficiency of canola and mustard in Mediterranean environment of South Australia. GRDC Update Papers, 13 February 2013, https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Nitrogen-and-water-use-efficiency-of-canola-and-mustard-in-South-Australia
i More information
NSW climate summary
Seasonal crop
outlook—wheat
Grain marketing—
wheat, canola and
barley outlook
Agribusiness Outlook
2015
Canola agronomy
research in central NSW
Irrigated canola -
Management for high
yields
Growing hybrid canola
i More information
GRDC Update paper:
Pushing the production
barriers
GRDC Update paper:
Finely irrigated wheat,
canola and faba beans
systems results 2014
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1.7.4 Estimating maximum yield per unit water use by location and nitrogen
Researchers propose a three-step procedure to derive the ‘slope’ parameter
representing maximum yield per unit water use accounting for N and location.
Figure 7:
Nitrogen supply (kg N/ha)0 50 100 150 200 250
0
4
8
12
16
20
24 (a)
-44 -42 -40 -38 -36 -34 -32 -30 -28 -26 -24 -2210
12
14
16
18
20
22
24 (b)
Latitude
Max
imum
yie
ld p
er u
nit
wat
er u
se (k
g/h
a/m
m)
Maximum yield per unit water use (kg/ha.mm) as a function of (a) nitrogen and (b) location.
Step 1
Use the data in Figure 7a to account for the effect of N on maximum yield per unit
water use. For severely limited crops (N supply <50 kg N/ha), maximum yield per unit
water use would be about 5–6 kg grain/ha.mm. For crops with abundant N supply
(>200 kg N/ha), the parameter approaches 24 kg grain/ha.mm. For intermediate N
supply, maximum yield per unit water use can be estimated graphically using this
curve.
Step 2
Use the line in Figure 7b to correct for location. For a latitude of –41.5° (Launceston,
the southernmost location in this study), maximum yield per unit water use would be
~24–25 kg grain/ha.mm. For a latitude of –23.5° (Emerald, the northernmost location),
maximum yield per unit water use would be ~12 kg grain/ha.mm. For intermediate
locations, maximum yield per unit water supply can be estimated graphically using the
line in Figure 6b.
Step 3
Select the lowest value from steps 1 and 2. For example, if we want to estimate the
maximum yield per unit water use for Dalby (latitude –27.1°) with intermediate N
supply (100 kg N/ha), the location correction would return 14.7 kg/ha.mm and the N
correction would return 16.6 kg/ha.mm. We therefore select the lowest value, 14.7 kg/
ha.mm, as a benchmark for this combination of location and N supply. 18
18 V Sadras, G McDonald (2012) Water use efficiency of grain crops in Australia: principles, benchmarks and management. GRDC Integrated Weed Management Hub , http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-WUE
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Table 3: Water-use efficiency based on total biomass (WUEdm) or grain yield (WUEgy) of different crops
Water-use efficiency is based on the biomass or yield per mm of crop water use. Values are mean and range.
Crop Region WUEdm WUEgy Source(kg/ha.mm)
Canola Victoria 24.0 (17.1-28.4) 6.8 (4.7-8.9) Norton and Wachsmann 2006
Canola* NSW 13.4 Robertson and Kierkegaard 2005
Chickpeas Western Australia 16.0 (11.1-18.3) 6.2 (2.6-7.7) Siddique et al. 2001
Lentils 12.7 8.5-16.7) 6.7 (2.4-8.5)
Lupins 17.3 (9.3-22.3) 5.1 (2.3-8.3)
Faba beans 24.2 (18.7-29.6) 10.4 (7.7-12.5)
Peas 26.2 (17.6-38.7) 10.5 (6.0-15.9)
Vetch 18.2 (13.4-22.4) 7.5 (5.6-9.6)
Chickpeas Tel Hadya, Syria 13.7 (9.4-18.1) 3.2 (2.1-5.2) Zhang et al. 2000
Lentils 8.7 (5.0-14.2) 3.8 (1.9-5.5)
Wheat South Australia 36.1 (21.2-53.1) 15.9 (9.2-23.2) Sadras et al. (unpublished)
South-east Australia 9.9 (max =22.5) Sadras and Angus 2006
There are intrinsic differences in the WUE of crops (Table 3), with wheat more water-
use efficient than grain legumes or canola, in terms of both total biomass production
and grain yield. Differences in the composition of the grain—it is more energy efficient
to produce starch than oil or protein—partially explain the higher grain yield per unit
water use of wheat compared with oilseed crops and pulses.
Further, canola and the grain legumes are grown at lower plant densities and/or have
less vigorous seedlings than wheat, contributing to greater early losses of moisture
through soil evaporation, and hence to lower WUE. The amount of winter growth
made by the crop is therefore an important factor in determining crop WUE. 19
1.8 Potential disease problems
Blackleg is the major disease of canola in Australia and can significantly reduce yields,
especially in higher rainfall districts. Research has shown that 95–99% of blackleg
spores originate from the previous year’s canola stubble. Blackleg is found in crops
in northern NSW but at a lower incidence due to the lower frequency of canola in the
rotation and overall area grown.
Spores can travel >1 km on the wind but most travel shorter distances, so selecting
a paddock as far away as possible from the previous season’s canola stubble will
help to reduce disease pressure. Where possible, a buffer distance of 500 m is
recommended.
On larger farms, it may be possible to implement a system of block farming whereby
blocks of several paddocks of a particular crop type are rotated around the farm to
maintain an adequate buffer distance. Reducing canola stubble by raking and burning
19 V Sadras, G McDonald (2012) Water use efficiency of grain crops in Australia: principles, benchmarks and management. GRDC Integrated Weed Management Hub , http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-WUE
i More information
Water use efficiency of
grain crops in Australia
Nitrogen and water use
efficiency of canola
and mustard in South
Australia
Nitrogen use efficiency
in canola
Water-use efficiency of
canola in Victoria
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provides only limited benefits in reducing the disease level because not all of the
infected stubble and old roots are destroyed.
Figure 8: Sclerotinia is a major cause of canola stem rot. Photo: Cox Inall Communications
Use of blackleg-resistant varieties in combination with an appropriate fungicide
treatment, if necessary, is the best way to minimise yield losses. Careful paddock
selection can also assist in reducing the impact of another potentially serious canola
disease, Sclerotinia stem rot (caused by S. sclerotiorum).
Sclerotinia stem rot - Managing the disease in 2013
Sclerotinia stem rot is an intermittent problem in many canola-growing districts,
particularly central and southern NSW. It has a wide host range of broadleaf plants
and weeds, including lupins, chickpeas, field peas, faba beans, sunflowers, cape
weed and Paterson’s curse. Growing canola after any of these crops or in paddocks
that have had large populations of these weeds can increase the risk of Sclerotinia
stem rot, especially when canola is grown under irrigation or in higher rainfall areas. 20
Sclerotinia infection occurs when there is rainfall around petal drop but only when
those petals have sclerotinia spores on them. Predicting infection is difficult but
fungicides can be applied to combat the infection. The economic benefits of this
approach in the northern region are questionable.
20 P Parker (2009) Crop rotation and paddock selection. Ch. 4. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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1.9 Nematode status of paddock
Canola has hosting ability of root-lesion nematodes of low–medium for Pratylenchus
thornei and medium–high for P. neglectus.
Testing soil is the only reliable way to determine whether root-lesion nematodes are
present in a paddock. Before planting, soil tests can be carried out by PreDicta B
(SARDI Diagnostic Services) through accredited agronomists, to establish whether
crops are at risk and whether alternative crop types or varieties should be grown.
Growing-season tests can be carried out on affected plants and associated soil;
contact local state departments of agriculture and PreDicta B. 21
To organise testing and sending of soil samples, visit the PreDicta B website.
For testing and interpretation of results contact:
Rob Long, Crown Analytical Services
0437 996 678
For more information, see GrowNotes Section 8. Nematodes.
21 GRDC (2015) Root-lesion nematodes. GRDC Tips and Tactics, February 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/TT-RootLesionNematodes
i More information
Variety choice and
crop rotation key to
managing root lesion
nematodes
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
2.1 Varietal performance and ratings yield
The main features to consider when selecting a variety are maturity, yield, oil content,
herbicide tolerance and disease resistance. Early-maturing varieties are generally
more suited to drier western areas, and midseason types are suited to higher rainfall
areas. 1
Fifty-two canola varieties and one Brassica juncea variety were released to the market
in New South Wales (NSW) for 2015.
There are 12 new releases for NSW:
• Nuseed: Monola® 515TT, Monola® G11 and Nuseed® Diamond
• Pacific Seeds: Hyola® 600RR and Hyola® 725RT
• DuPont Pioneer: Pioneer® 44Y26(RR), Pioneer® 45Y25(RR) and Pioneer®
44Y89(CL)
• AGFSeeds: SF Edimax CL
• Bayer:IH51RR and IH52RR
• Seednet: DG 550RR
Outclassed, but still available:
• Hyola® 555TT, Hyola® 505RR, Hyola® 971CL, Monola 605TT
Withdrawn:
• Pioneer®45Y22(RR), Crusher TT, GT Cobra, GT Viper, Hyola® 433, IH50RR,
Monola 413TT,Tawriffic TT, Thumper TT, Victory® V5002RR2
1 L Serafin, J Holland, RBambach, DMcCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.nvtonline.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Crop-Guide-Canola-Northern-NSW-Planting-Guide.pdf
2 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
i More information
Winter crop variety
sowing guide 2015
Canola: northern NSW
planting guide
i More information
Canola variety trials
Baker Seed Co.
Newsletter
Optimal canola
establishment to
maximise yields
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2.1.1 MaturityThe relative maturity of varieties may vary depending on location and sowing time.
The maturity groupings listed in Table 1 are intended as a guide only, and they relate
to physiological maturity.3
Table 1: Variety maturities for canola
Note: winter types for graze and grain are not included; their maturity is generally considered late–very late
lower rainfall north < 550 mm, centre/south < 500 mm
Higher rainfall north > 500 mm, centre/south > 450 mm
Early-maturing Early–mid maturing Mid-maturing Mid–late maturing
Conventional Nuseed® Diamond Victory® V3002 AV-Garnet AV-Zircon Hyola® 50
Triazine tolerant (TT) ATR-Stingray Monola® 314TT Pioneer® SturtTT
ATR-Bonito ATR-Gem Hyola® 450TT
ATR-Wahoo Hyola® 559TT Pioneer® Atomic TT Monola® 515TT
Hyola® 650 TT
CLEARFIELD® Pioneer® 43C80(CL) Pioneer® 43Y85(CL) Pioneer® 44C79(CL) Pioneer® 44Y84(CL)
Carbine Hyola® 474CL Pioneer® 44Y87(CL) Pioneer® 44Y89(CL) XCEED® VT Oasis CL
Hyola® 575CL Hyola® 577CL Pioneer® 45Y86(CL) Pioneer® 45Y88(CL)
Archer
Roundup Ready® Hyola® 400RR IH30 RR Nuseed® GT-41 Pioneer® 43Y23(RR)
Hyola® 404RR Monola® 513GT Pioneer® 44Y24(RR) Pioneer® 44Y26(RR)
DG 550RR Hyola® 500RR Monola® G11 Nuseed® GT-50 Pioneer® 45Y25(RR) IH51RR IH52RR
Hyola® 600RR®
Roundup Ready® plus Triazine tolerant (Dual tolerance)
Hyola® 525RT® Hyola® 725RT®
2.1.2 Yielding abilityTables 2 and 3 present the relative performances of mid-maturing and early-maturing
canola varieties from trials conducted in 2010–14, under theNational Variety Trials
(NVT) program. Note that new varieties have fewer data supporting the 5-year dataset
and hence, those results should be viewed with caution, especially where there are
only two trials.4
3 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
4 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
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Table 2: Comparative performance of mid-maturing varieties of canola, based on predicted yields from an analysis across all sites (NVT, 2010–14)
Number of trials in parentheses. Oil content, adjusted to 6% moisture content, is expressed as a region-wide average for the maturity trial grouping and is for 2014 only. Blackleg ratings are the published ratings for spring 2014
Variety North West North East South West South East oil % Blackleg rating 2010–2014 2010–2014 2010–2014 2010–2014 2014 2014
Mid-maturing conventional trials– mean seed yield expressed as a % of AV-Garnet
AV-Garnet 100 (3) 100 (4) 100 (3) 100 (6) 41.9 (4) MR
AV-Zircon 101 (3) 102 (3) 100 (3) 96 (4) 41.4 (4) MR
Hyola® 50 111 (3) 111 (4) 113 (3) 105 (6) 42.7 (4) R
Nuseed® Diamond 115 (2) n.d. 119 (2) 115 (3) 42.7 (4) R–MR
Victory® V3002 105 (3) 103 (2) 106 (3) 104 (2) 42.1 (4) R–MR
AV-Garnet t/ha 2.13 2.01 2.33 2.63
Mid-maturing Triazine Tolerant (TT) trials – mean seed yield expressed as a % of ATR-Gem
ATR-Bonito 103 (4) 104 (5) 104 (3) 104 (16) 44.3 (12) MR
ATR-Gem 100 (5) 100 (5) 100 (4) 100 (20) 43.5 (12) MR
ATR-Stingray 96 (7) 96 (7) 99 (4) 98 (22) 43.2 (12) MR
ATR-Wahoo 101 (4) 100 (4) n.d. 102 (15) 43.8 (10) MR
Hyola® 450TT 103 (3) 106 (4) 106 (3) 102 (8) 43.7 (8) R
Hyola® 559TT 108 (4) 111 (5) 111 (3) 108 (17) 43.4 (12) R
Hyola® 650TT 107 (2) 109 (4) 110 (2) 111 (9) 42.9 (12) R
Hyola® 525RT 101 (2) n.d. 103 (3) 103 (7) 44.5 (8) R–MR
Hyola® 725RT n.d. n.d. n.d. 101 (3) 44.4 (4) n.d.
Monola® 314TT 92 (2) 93 (2) 89 (3) 84 (7) 41.5 (9) MR
Monola® 515TT 92 (2) n.d. 90 (2) 87 (4) 42.4 (9) n.d.
Pioneer® Atomic TT 106 (4) 109 (5) 106 (3) 101 (13) 41.1 (8) MS
ATR-Gem t/ha 2.03 2.06 1.95 2.28
Mid-maturing ClEARFIElD® trials– mean seed yield expressed as a % of Hyola® 575Cl
Archer 104 (4) 105 (5) 101 (3) 100 (18) 42.4 (12) MR–MS
Hyola® 474CL 100 (6) 100 (7) 100 (6) 98 (18) 42.8 (8) R
Hyola® 575CL 100 (7) 100 (8) 100 (6) 100 (29) 43.5 (12) R
Hyola® 577CL 100 (3) 99 (4) 100 (2) 100 (11) 43.6 (12) R
Pioneer® 44Y87(CL) 103 (3) 104 (3) 101 (3) 100 (10) 41.6 (12) MR
Pioneer® 44Y89(CL) 103 (2) 104 (2) 103 (3) 100 (5) 42.8 (12) R–MR
Pioneer® 45Y86(CL) 105 (6) 107 (7) 102 (6) 100 (29) 43.7 (12) MR–MS
Pioneer® 45Y88(CL) 104 (4) 105 (5) 103 (4) 103 (16) 41.7 (12) R–MR
Hyola® 575CL t/ha 2.18 2.16 2.02 2.50
Mid-maturing Roundup Ready trials – mean seed yield expressed as a % of Hyola® 500RR
DG550 RR 96 (6) n.d. 96 (2) 96 (6) 43.4 (7) R–MR
Hyola® 400RR 100 (3) n.d. 98 (3) 100 (3) 45.2 (4) R
Hyola® 404RR 102 (19) n.d. 99 (5) 102 (19) 45.9 (7) R–MR
Hyola® 500RR 100 (8) n.d. 100 (3) 100 (8) 45.0 (7) R
Hyola® 600RR 103 (3) n.d. n.d. 103 (3) 46.9 (4) n.d.
IH51 RR 93 (3) n.d. 91 (2) 93 (6) 42.5 (7) n.d.
IH52 RR 99 (6) n.d. 96 (2) 99 (6) 42.6 (7) R–MR
Monola® 513GT 92 (8) n.d. 88 (3) 92 (8) 45.5 (4) MR
Monola® G11 96 (5) n.d. 95 (2) 96 (5) 45.3 (6) R–MR
Nuseed GT-41 99 (7) n.d. 95 (4) 99 (7) 43.2 (4) R–MR
Nuseed GT-50 106 (14) n.d. 101 (5) 106 (14) 44.2 (7) R–MR
Pioneer® 43Y23(RR) 105 (10) n.d. 103 (4) 105 (10) 42.2 (5) R–MR
Pioneer® 44Y24(RR) 106 (15) n.d. 101 (5) 106 (15) 42.9 (7) R–MR
Pioneer® 44Y26(RR) n.d. n.d. 95 (2) 99 (3) 44.1 (7) R–MR
Pioneer® 45Y25(RR) 109 (6) n.d. 105 (2) 103 (16) 44.1 (7) R–MR
Hyola® 500RR t/ha 2.40 1.84 2.63
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Table 3: Comparative performance of early-maturing varieties of canola, based on predicted yields from an analysis across all sites (NVT, 2010–14)
Number of trials in parentheses. Oil content, adjusted to 6% moisture content, is expressed as a region-wide average for the maturity trial grouping and is for 2014 only. Blackleg ratings are the published ratings for spring 2014
Variety North West North East South West South East oil % Blackleg rating
2010–2014 2010–2014 2010–2014 2010–2014 2014 2014
Early maturing conventional trials– mean seed yield expressed as a % of Hyola® 50
AV-Garnet 88 (9) 94 (2) 94 (5) n.d. 37.8 (3) MR
Hyola® 50 100 (9) 100 (2) 100 (5) n.d. 39.5 (3) R
Nuseed® Diamond 91 (3) n.d. 101 (2) n.d. 38.8 (3) R–MR
Victory V3002 90 (5) 97 (2) 94 (2) n.d. 38.6 (1) R–MR
Hyola® 50 t/ha 1.82 1.23 1.34
Early maturing Triazine tolerant (TT) trials – mean seed yield expressed as a % of ATR-Stingray
ATR-Bonito 108 (3) 105 (2) 106(3) n.d. 39.8 (3) MR
ATR-Gem 107 (3) n.d. 104 (3) n.d. 40.1 (2) MR
ATR-Stingray 100 (8) 100 (2) 100 (4) n.d. 40.2 (3) MR
Hyola® 450TT n.d. n.d. 106 (2) n.d. 40.7 (3) R
Hyola® 559TT 122 (5) 112 (2) 116 (2) n.d. 39.6 (3) R
Monola® 314TT n.d. n.d. 89 (2) n.d. 39.1 (2) MR
Pioneer® Atomic TT 123 (2) n.d. n.d. n.d. 39.0 (2) MS
Pioneer® Sturt TT 106 (5) n.d. 106 (3) n.d. 38.0 (3) MS
ATR-Stingray t/ha 1.74 0.91 1.37
Early maturing Clearfield trials – mean seed yield expressed as a % of Hyola® 474Cl
Hyola® 474CL 100 (7) 100 (2) 100 (4) n.d. 39.4 (3) R
Hyola® 575CL 102 (7) 102 (2) 101 (4) n.d. 39.2 (3) R
Pioneer® 43Y85(CL) 91 (7) 92 (2) 98 (4) n.d. 37.6 (3) MR
Pioneer® 44Y87(CL) 99 (4) 100 (2) 105 (3) n.d. 37.2 (3) MR
Pioneer® 44Y89(CL) n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 38.7 (3) R–MR
Hyola® 474CL t/ha 1.75 1.12 1.19
Early maturing Roundup Ready trials – mean seed yield expressed as a % of Hyola® 404RR
Hyola® 400RR 97 (2) n.d. 96 (3) n.d. 41.5 (2) R
Hyola® 404RR 100 (4) n.d. 100 (4) n.d. 42.0 (2) R–MR
Hyola® 500RR 94 (2) n.d. n.d. n.d. 40.0 (2) R
IH30 RR 97 (3) n.d. 100 (3) n.d. 39.6 (2) R–MR
Nuseed GT-41 99 (3) n.d. 96 (3) n.d. 40.0 (2) R–MR
Pioneer® 43Y23(RR) 100 (4) n.d. 100 (4) n.d. 38.5 (2) R–MR
Pioneer® 44Y24(RR) 100 (3) n.d. 98 (3) n.d. 38.5 (2) R–MR
Pioneer® 44Y26(RR) 97 (2) n.d. n.d. n.d. 38.9 (2) R–MR
Hyola® 404RR t/ha 1.72 1.35
Blackleg rating disclaimer. The blackleg ratings above, published by NSW
Department of Primary Industries, are based on best information available at the
time of publication. However, nursery and grower experience has shown that disease
severity may vary between locations and years, depending on seasonal conditions
and possible changes in the fungus for reasons not currently understood. Therefore,
growers may sometimes experience significant variation from the averages shown in
these ratings.
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2.1.3 oilCanola was developed from rapeseed to produce an oilseed crop with improved
nutritional composition. The aim was to produce a crop that had low levels of
glucosinolates in the meal and low levels of erucic acid in the oil.5
Oil is extracted by mechanically crushing the seed. The oil is then processed by using
heat and/or chemicals. Approximately 73% of canola in Australia is processed by
addition of solvents, 25% by expeller treatment and 2% by cold-pressing.
The seed typically has an oil content of 35–45%. The oil content is generally
expressed as a percentage of the whole seed at 8% moisture content. The oil
contains:
• 10–12% linolenic acid (omega-3)
• <0.1% erucic acid
• 59–62% oleic acid
• 12–22% linoleic acid
Canola oil is high in unsaturated fats (93%) and has no cholesterol or trans-fats. It has
the lowest saturated fat content (7%) of any common edible oil. 6
2.1.4 Seed meal The seed meal is what is left over after the oil is removed. It contains proteins,
carbohydrates, minerals and fibre. The exact composition of seed meal depends on
the oil extraction method. The protein content varies each season and increases as
the oil content decreases. Typically, seed meal consists of 36–39% protein, 1.5–2.0%
fat, 11–13% fibre and <10 µmolglucosinolate/g.
The minimum protein content of seed meal, as determined by the AOF (Australian
Oilseeds Federation) is 36%, measured at 12% moisture.7
2.2 Varieties for NSW
2.2.1 Conventional varieties AV-Garnet: a mid-maturing to mid–early-maturing variety. Medium height. Moderate–
high oil content. Widely adapted. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR; resistance
group A. Tested in NVT trials 2006–14. Bred by Department of Environment and
Primary Industries (DEPI) Victoria. Marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
5 R Mailer (2009) Grain quality. In Canola best practice management guide for eastern Australia. (EdsD McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard)) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
6 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
7 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
GRDC Update paper:
Australian canola oil
quality
Variety and agronomy
trials
i More information
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AV-Zircon: a mid-maturing variety. Medium height. Moderate oil content. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, MR; resistance group currently unknown. Tested in NVT trials
2011–14. Bred by DEPI Victoria and Nuseed Pty Ltd. Marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Hyola® 50: mid-maturing to mid–early-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Widely
adapted. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R; resistance group AD. Tested in NVT trials
2005–14. Bred by Canola Breeders International. Marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Nuseed® Diamond: new release (coded NCH1203C). Early-maturing hybrid. Medium
height. High oil content. Suited to low–medium rainfall zones. Blackleg resistance
rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group ABF. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred and
marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
SF Brazzil™: late-maturing, winter, dual-purpose, open-pollinated variety. Suited to
early sowing and winter grazing in very high-rainfall zones. Blackleg resistance rating
2014, R–MR; resistance group BC. Not tested in NVT trials. Marketed by Seed Force.
SF Sensation™: very late-maturing, winter, dual-purpose hybrid. Suited to early
sowing and winter grazing in very high-rainfall zones. Blackleg resistance rating 2014,
R–MR; resistance group currently unknown. Not tested in NVT trials. Marketed by
Seed Force.
Victory® V3002: early–mid-maturing conventional specialty (high stability oil) hybrid,
slightly later than Victory V3001. Moderate–high oil content. Blackleg resistance rating
2014, R–MR; resistance group ABF. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred by Cargill and
DEPI Victoria. Marketed by AWB Ltd in a closed-loop program. 8
2.2.2 Triazine-tolerant varieties Triazine-tolerant (TT) varieties can have lower yield and oil content than some
Roundup Ready varieties. However, they can give good yields in weedy paddocks,
when sprayed with atrazine and/or simazine herbicides.
ATR-Bonito: an early-maturing to early–mid-maturing variety. High–very high oil
content. Plant height slightly shorter than ATR-Gem. Blackleg resistance rating 2014,
MR; resistance group A. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred by Nuseed Pty Ltd and
DEPI Victoria. Marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd. An EPR (end-point royalty) applies.
ATR-Gem: a mid–early-maturing variety. High–very high oil content. Slightly shorter
plant height than Tawriffic TT. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR; resistance group
A. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred by Nuseed Pty Ltd and DEPI Victoria. Marketed
by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
ATR-Stingray: an early-maturing variety. High oil content. Short plant height. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, MR; resistance group C. Tested in NVT trials 2010–14. Bred by
Nuseed Pty Ltd and DEPI Victoria. Marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
8 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
i More information
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ATR-Wahoo: a mid-maturing variety, similar to ATR-Marlin. High–very high oil content.
Plant height similar to ATR-Gem. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR; resistance
group A. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred by Nuseed Pty Ltd and DEPI Victoria.
Marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd. An EPR applies.
Hyola® 450TT: early-maturing to mid–early-maturing hybrid. High–very high oil
content. Medium plant height. Suited to low-rainfall to medium–high-rainfall areas.
Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R; resistance group ABD. Tested in NVT trials 2013
and 2014. Bred and marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 559TT: mid-maturing to mid–early-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Medium
plant height. Suited to medium–very high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating
2014, R; resistance group ABD. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred and marketed by
Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 650TT: mid-maturing to mid–late-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Medium–
tall plant height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating
2014, R; resistance group ABE. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and
marketed by Pacific Seeds
Monola® 314TT: early–mid-maturing, open-pollinated, specialty oil variety. Moderate
oil content. Medium plant height. Blackleg resistance rating 2014 and resistance
group. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Monola® 515TT: new release (coded NL805). Mid-maturing, open-pollinated specialty
oil variety. Moderate–high oil content. No published GRDC blackleg resistance rating
or resistance group for 2014. Tested in NVT trials for the first time in 2014. Bred and
marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Pioneer® Sturt TT: early-maturing to early–mid-maturing, open-pollinated variety.
Moderate oil content. Short–medium plant height. Adapted to low–medium-rainfall
zones. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MS. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred by
NPZ Australia Pty Ltd. Marketed by DuPont Pioneer. An EPR applies.
Pioneer® Atomic TT: mid-maturing hybrid. Medium height. Moderate oil content.
Suited to medium-rainfall zones. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MS; resistance
group AB. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred by NPZ Australia Pty Ltd. Marketed by
DuPont Pioneer. 9
2.2.3 Clearfield® (imidazolinone-tolerant) varieties These varieties are tolerant to Intervix® imidazolinone herbicide and are part of the
Clearfield® Production System.
Archer: mid–late-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Medium–tall plant height. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, MR–MS. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Marketed by Heritage
Seeds.
9 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
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Carbine: early–mid-maturing hybrid. Moderate–high oil content. Medium plant height.
Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR–MS. Tested in NVT trials 2011–13. Marketed by
Heritage Seeds.
Hyola® 474Cl: mid-maturing to mid–early-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Medium–
tall plant height. Suited to medium–low-rainfall to high-rainfall areas. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, R; resistance group BF. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred and
marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 575Cl: mid-maturing hybrid. High–very high oil content. Medium plant
height. Suited to medium–very high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2013,
R; resistance group BF. Tested in NVT trials 2010–14. Bred and marketed by Pacific
Seeds.
Hyola® 577Cl: mid-maturing hybrid. High–very high oil content. Medium–tall plant
height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R.
Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 970Cl: late-maturing, winter graze and grain hybrid. Pacific Seeds indicate
high–very high biomass, good grain yield and oil content. Early–mid autumn and
spring sowing, graze and grain option for very high-rainfall zones. No published GRDC
blackleg resistance rating or resistance group for 2014. Released 2014. Not tested in
NVT trials. Bred and marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 971Cl: late maturing, winter graze and grain hybrid. Pacific Seeds indicate
high–very high biomass, good grain yield and oil content. Early–mid autumn and
spring sowing, graze and grain option for very high-rainfall zones. Blackleg resistance
rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group A. Released 2012. Not tested in NVT trials. Bred
and marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Pioneer® 43C80(Cl): an early-maturing variety. Adapted to low-rainfall areas. Medium
plant height. Blackleg resistance rating in 2013, MR–MS. Tested in NVT trials 2008–09
and 2011–12. Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
Pioneer® 43Y85(Cl): early-maturing hybrid. Short–medium plant height. Moderate
oil content. Suited to medium–low-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014,
MR; resistance group A. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred and marketed by DuPont
Pioneer.
Pioneer® 44C79(Cl): an early-maturing to early–mid maturing variety. Medium plant
height. Blackleg resistance rating in 2013, MS. Tested in NVT trials in 2008, 2009 and
2011. Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
Pioneer® 44Y84(Cl): early-maturing to early–mid-maturing hybrid. High–very high
oil content in 2013 trials. Medium–tall plant height. Blackleg resistance rating 2014,
MS; resistance group A. Tested in NVT trials 2009–13. Bred and marketed by DuPont
Pioneer.
Pioneer® 44Y87(Cl): early–mid-maturing hybrid. Moderate–high oil content. Medium
plant height. Suited to medium-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR;
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resistance group A. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred and marketed by DuPont
Pioneer.
Pioneer® 44Y89(Cl): new release (coded PHI-1305). Early–mid-maturing hybrid. High
oil content. Short–medium plant height. Suited to low–medium-rainfall areas. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group BC. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and
2014. Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
Pioneer® 45Y86(Cl): mid-maturing hybrid. High–very high oil content. Medium–
tall plant height. Suited for dual-purpose (graze and grain) option in full-season
environments. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR– MS; resistance group AB. Tested
in NVT trials 2010–2014. Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
Pioneer® 45Y88(Cl): mid-maturing hybrid. Moderate–high oil content. Medium plant
height. Suited to high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance
group A. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14. Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
SF Edimax Cl: new release. Late-maturing, dual-purpose winter hybrid. Undergoing
BASF Clearfield registration. Suited to early sowing and spring sowing in high-rainfall
areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group C. Not tested in NVT
trials. Marketed by AGF Seeds.
2.2.4 Roundup Ready® varieties DG 550RR: new release (coded VT-WZ-11-2685). Mid-maturing hybrid. High oil
content. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group AB. Tested in NVT
trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by Seednet.
Hyola® 400RR: early-maturing to mid–early-maturing hybrid. Very high oil content.
Medium plant height. Suited to low–medium-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance
rating 2014, R; resistance group ABD. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and
marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 404RR: early-maturing to mid–early maturing hybrid. Very high oil content.
Medium plant height. Suited to low–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating
2014, R–MR; resistance group ABD. Tested in NVT trials 2010–14. Bred and marketed
by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 500RR: mid-maturing hybrid. Medium–tall plant height. High oil content.
Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R; resistance
group ABD. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 600RR: new release. Mid-maturing to mid–late-maturing hybrid. Very high oil
content. Medium–tall plant height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall to very high-rainfall
areas. No published GRDC blackleg resistance rating or resistance group 2014.
Tested in NVT trials for the first time in 2014. Bred and marketed by Pacific Seeds
IH30RR: early-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Suited to low–medium-rainfall areas.
Blackleg resistance rating R–MR; resistance group AB. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14.
Bred and marketed by Bayer.
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IH51RR: new release (coded AN13R9003). Mid-maturing hybrid with Bayer’s new
pod shatter reduction trait. High oil content. Suited to later windrow timings or direct
harvesting in medium–high-rainfall areas. No published GRDC blackleg resistance
rating or resistance group for 2014. Tested in NVT trials for the first time in 2014. Bred
and marketed by Bayer.
IH52RR: new release (coded AN11R5201). Mid-maturing hybrid. High oil content.
Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–MR;
resistance group AB. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by
Bayer.
Monola® 513GT: early–mid-maturing, open-pollinated, specialty oil variety. Very high
oil content. Medium plant height. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR. Tested in NVT
trials 2012–14. Bred and marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Monola® G11: new release (coded NMH13G011). Early–mid-maturing, specialty oil
hybrid. Very high oil content. Medium plant height. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–
MR; resistance group ABS. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by
Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Nuseed® GT-41: early-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Medium plant height.
Blackleg resistance rating 2012, R–MR; resistance group ABF. Tested in NVT trials
2012–14. Bred and marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Nuseed® GT-50: mid-maturing hybrid. High–very high oil content. Medium–tall plant
height. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group ABF. Tested in NVT
trials 2012–14. Bred and marketed by Nuseed Pty Ltd.
Pioneer® 43Y23(RR): early-maturing hybrid. Moderate–high oil content. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014. R–MR; resistance group B. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred
and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
Pioneer® 44Y24(RR): early–mid-maturing hybrid. High oil content. Medium plant
height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, MR;
resistance group C. Tested in NVT trials 2011–14. Bred and marketed by DuPont
Pioneer.
Pioneer® 44Y26(RR): new release (coded PHI-1311). Early–mid-maturing hybrid.
High–very high oil content. Medium–tall plant height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall
areas. Blackleg resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group ABS. Tested in NVT
trials 2013 and 2014. Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer.
Pioneer® 45Y25(RR): new release (coded PHI-1306). Mid-maturing hybrid. High–very
high oil content. Medium plant height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group BC. Tested in NVT trials 2012–14.
Bred and marketed by DuPont Pioneer. 10
10 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
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2.2.5 Roundup Ready®–triazine-tolerant varieties New varieties are being developed that combine two herbicide tolerance traits,
allowing improved weed control in paddocks where weeds have developed resistance
to other herbicide chemistries.
Hyola® 525RT®: mid-maturing, RT® dual-herbicide-tolerant hybrid. High–very high
oil content. Medium plant height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall areas. Blackleg
resistance rating 2014, R–MR; resistance group ABD. Tested in NVT trials 2013 and
2014. Bred and marketed by Pacific Seeds.
Hyola® 725RT®: new release. Mid–late-maturing, RT® dual-herbicide-tolerant hybrid.
High–very high oil content. Medium–tall plant height. Suited to medium–high-rainfall to
very high-rainfall areas. No published GRDC blackleg resistance rating or resistance
group for 2014. Tested in NVT trials for the first time in 2014. Bred and marketed by
Pacific Seeds.
2.2.6 Juncea canola (Brassica juncea) Juncea canola is adapted to low-rainfall areas (300–400 mm) and dry conditions.
It has oil quality similar to canola, but still requires segregation and has designated
delivery sites.
XCEED™ VT oasis Cl: first herbicide-tolerant Clearfield® juncea canola in Australia.
Early–mid-maturing, open-pollinated variety. High oil content. Suitable for direct
harvesting. Blackleg resistance rating R and resistance group G. Tested in NVT trials
2008–13. Bred by DEPI Victoria/Viterra. Marketed by Seednet. An EPR applies. 11
2.3 Planting seed quality
2.3.1 Seed sizeCanola seeds weigh only approximately 3 mg each, with the 1000-seed weight of
canola typically 3–6 g. Seed size varies according to the growing conditions. There are
also varietal differences. Generally, hybrid varieties have larger seeds (Figure 1).
Seed size plays an important role in crop establishment. Larger seeds produce
seedlings that are more vigorous and give improved crop establishment (Table 4).
There is also an interaction with sowing depth. Larger seeds establish more plants,
particularly if sown at depth of ≥3 cm.12
11 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
12 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
What is Roundup
Ready canola?
Queensland hope for
short season canola
Crop Guide- Canola:
Juncea Canola in low
rainfall SW NSW
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Figure 1: Dr Abed Chaudhury cross-pollinating canola flowers. Following their discovery of two genes that control the size of plant seeds, CSIRO Plant Industry researchers are investigating how that knowledge can be used to produce larger seeds across a wide range of crops.(Photo: Carl Davies)
Table 4: Plant establishment, days to emergence and 100 plant weights (15 days after emergence) for three hybrids (Pioneer 44Y84 (CL), Hyola 50 and Hyola 555TT) and three open pollinated (Pioneer 43C80 (CL), AV-Garnet and ATR-Gem) canola varieties segregated into large and small seed sown at three planting depths. 13
Planting depthHybrid open-pollinatedlarge seed Small seed large seed Small seed
Establishment
2.5 cm 19.4a 19.8a 19.4a 16.3b
5.0 cm 18.8ab 12.8c 17.4b 8.8d
7.5 cm 15.9b 3.8e 8.7d 1.0f
Days to emergence
2.5 cm 5.0a 5.1a 5.1a 5.2a
5.0 cm 5.9ab 6.7b 6.8b 7.2b
7.5 cm 7.4b 11.3e 8.7c 10.0d
100 Plant weight 15 days after emergence
2.5 cm 56.9a 31.5d 45.7c 29.7d
5.0 cm 51.8b 24.5e 44.9c 23.5e
7.5 cm 49.5b 10.3g 45.8c 13.0f
**Numbers within each section (e.g. Establishment) designated with a different letter are significantly (P=0.05) different.
13 R Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter. GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
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Sowing-depth trials were conducted at Coonamble, Nyngan and Trangie in 2012 and
at Nyngan and Trangie in 2013. Each trial used six common varieties with a range of
seed sizes (Table 5). Target seeding depths were 2.5, 5 and 7.5 cm.
Table 5: Seed size (1000-seed weight, g) and number of seeds sown in three canola variety–sowing depth trials in 2012
Variety
Seed weightNo. of seeds sown per m2012 2013
AV-Garnet 3.78 3.27 60
ATR-Stingray 3.06 2.97 60
Pioneer® 43C80(CL) 3.68 4.11 60
Pioneer® 43Y85(CL) 5.03 4.77 60
Pioneer® 44Y84(CL) 5.34 5.20 60
Hyola® 555TT 4.26 4.00 60
Sowing large seed (> 5 g/1000 seeds) increases the likelihood of achieving an
adequate establishment. For growers who wish to purchase seed, hybrid seed is
generally larger than open-pollinated seed. For growers who retain open-pollinated
seed on farm for their own use, aim to clean seed with a 2-mm screen. 14
For full results, see GrowNotes Canola. Section 3. Planting
2.3.2 Seed germination and vigourSeed quality is important for good establishment. Canola seed should have a
germination percentage >85%. Planting high-quality seed is essential for rapid, even
crop establishment.
Early seedling growth relies on stored energy reserves in the seed. Good seedling
establishment is more likely if the seed is undamaged, stored correctly, and from a
plant that has had adequate nutrition.
Seed moisture content, age of seed, seed size and germination percentage all
contribute to seed quality. There can be substantial differences in the performance of
commercial certified seed lots from different sources, and these differences can be as
great as differences among varieties.
Several factors can greatly affect germination, including seed size, seed handling and
harvest timing. 15
The larger the seed, the larger the cotyledon and the lipid reserves. Although seed
size does not affect germination, larger seeds have earlier and faster emergence than
medium-sized and small seeds. This is because larger seeds germinate more rapidly
and produce longer roots than smaller seeds.
14 R Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter. GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
15 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
Canola establishment;
does size matter?
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Seed size is usually measured by weighing 1000 grains; this is known as the 1000-
seed weight. The 1000-seed weight differs among varieties and from season to
season. As a result, sowing rates should be altered according to seed weight to
achieve the desired plant population. 16
Harvest timing
The timing of windrowing can also affect germination. If the crop is not windrowed at
the correct time, seed development can stop, resulting in unripe seeds with reduced
germination ability.
Seed chlorophyll
High levels of seed chlorophyll can reduce seedling vigour and increase seedling
mortality. Chlorophyll levels <35 mg/kg are desirable. Canola seed harvested from
plants suffering frost or severe moisture stress during seed-filling may have elevated
chlorophyll levels.
Seed handling
Germination can also be affected by seed-handling procedures. Care needs to be
taken when harvesting canola seed to ensure that it is not cracked. Cracking can
reduce germination. 17
2.3.3 Seed storageThe aims of storage are to preserve the viability of the seed for future sowing and to
maintain its quality for market. Canola is more difficult to store than cereals because
of its oil content. The oil content makes canola more prone to deterioration in storage.
For this reason, canola should not be stored on-farm for more than one summer.
The rate at which canola deteriorates in storage depends on:
• aeration
• storage temperature
• seed moisture content
• seed oil content
• relative humidity
• storage time
• percentage of green or immature seeds in the sample
• amount of weathering after physiological maturity
Monitoring of seed moisture of canola is necessary during storage, because a
moisture content of 6.0–8.5% can be unsafe, depending on the seed oil content
(Figure 2).
16 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
17 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
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Figure 2:
5.0
40 55504535
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
Seed oil content (% dry matter)
See
d m
ois
ture
co
nten
t (%
dry
mat
ter)
Safe
Unsafe
Potential unsafe storage limits for Australian canola varieties at 60% equilibrium relative humidity and 25°C. (Source: http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/4110/Oilseeds_Flyer.pdf)
High temperatures or moisture levels can cause a number of reactions in the seed,
resulting in:
• increased levels of free fatty acids, causing off-flavours in the oil
• oxidation and browning reactions, which taint the oil
• changes to the oil profile of the seed, due to reactions involving chlorophylls,
carotenoid pigments, flavonoids and phenols
Canola should be stored at ≤8% moisture and at temperatures <25°C (but preferably
<20°C).
Safe storage limits are determined by the oil and moisture content of the seed.
Canola falling into the potentially unsafe area above the line in Figure 2 should not be
stored for any length of time unless appropriate action is taken, such as lowering the
moisture content and seed temperature.18
2.3.4 Safe rates of fertiliser sown with the seedNitrogen (N) and starter (N and phosphorus,P) fertilisers can affect germination and
reduce establishment if sown in contact with canola seed. Seed can be affected in a
number of ways:
• Toxic chemical effects from ammonium vapour, most likely from urea and
ammonium phosphates (e.g.mono- and di-ammonium phosphate, MAP and DAP)
• osmotic or salt effect due to high concentrations of salts produced from soluble
fertiliser dissolving in water (both N and P)
• seed desiccation from direct moisture absorption by fertiliser in very dry soil
18 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
GRDC Fact sheet:
Fertiliser toxicity
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Fertiliser at high rates is best separated from the seed at sowing, by banding. The risk
of seed damage from fertiliser increases:
• with narrow sowing tines or discs, particularly at wider row spacing, where
fertiliser becomes more concentrated close to the seed (Table 6)
• in more sandy soils
• in dry soils
Table 6: Amounts of nitrogen (kg N/ha) that can be sown with canola seed, as determined by calculations of seedbed utilisation
Source: Jim Laycock, Incitec Pivot, adapted from ‘Fertiliser management in direct seeding systems’. Better Crops 81(2), 1997
25-mm seed spread (e.g. discs, knife-point) 50-mm seed spread
Row spacing: 15 cm 22.5 cm 30 cm 15 cm 22.5 cm 30 cm
Seed bed utilisation: 17% 11% 8% 33% 22% 17%
Light (sandy loam) 10 5 0 20 15 10
Medium–heavy (loam–clay) 15 10 5 30 20 15
i More information
Canola best practice
management guide for
south-eastern Australia
Canola irrigated: GM—
SQ
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SECTION 3
Planting
3.1 Seed treatments
3.1.1 Insecticide treatmentsInsecticide treatments are important for the proactive control of insect pests in canola.
Imidacloprid products, such as Gaucho® 600 or Picus, are registered for use on
canola seed, for protection against redlegged earth mite, blue oat mite and aphids.
These chemicals work through repellency and anti-feeding action, rather than by
directly killing earth mites or aphids. They will protect emerging seedlings for 3–4
weeks after sowing. As well as the direct effects of controlling aphids, the use of
imidacloprid may also reduce the incidence and spread of aphid-transmitted virus
diseases during this period. This product can be applied only by registered operators.
All seed companies can supply seed pre-treated with imidacloprid. Fipronil (e.g.
Cosmos®) is registered for control of redlegged earth mite in canola. It should be used
as part of an integrated pest management approach to redlegged earth mite.
Fipronil can be applied either on-farm or off-farm by a contractor or seed company. 1
APVMA Pubcris
Winter crop variety sowing guide
3.1.2 Fungicide treatmentsFungicide treatments can be used in high disease risk situations, however depending
on level of risk may not be required.
Fluquinconazole products (e.g. Jockey®) can be used in high-risk situations as a
seed dressing to help minimise the effects of blackleg disease. These products may
shorten the hypocotyl length of canola. To avoid the possibility of reduced emergence,
do not sow treated seed deeper than 20 mm or in soils prone to crusting. Ensure that
treated seed is sown in the season of treatment.
Fludioxonil + metalaxyl-M (Maxim® XL) is a fungicidal seed dressing that provides
suppression of blackleg as well as protection against seedling diseases caused by
1 L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5 In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani. It will not cause shortening of the hypocotyl or
affect seed viability.
Flutriafol products (Impact®) are in-furrow fungicide treatments that are mixed and
sown with the fertiliser to assist in minimising the effects of blackleg disease. In
situations of high blackleg pressure, research has shown flutriafol products to be
superior to other fungicides for controlling blackleg disease. 2
3.2 Time of sowing
Early sowings maximise yield potential and oil content. Traditionally ANZAC day
(25 April) has been a commonly accepted ideal sowing date but growers can make
adjustments from this date in response to the maturity rating of the variety grown, the
respective frost risk of that paddock or climate of that location. For example, longer
season varieties could be planted earlier than this date, shorter ones after. Warmer
locations with less frost risk or greater chance of shorter springs might see midseason
maturities sown earlier than this date, or cold frosty climates may see mid seasons
sown later than this. Growers should seek local advice on variety choice and sowing
date. One thing for sure, delayed or late sowing of canola will have severe yield
penalties.
Frosting can occur in canola and can be quite severe in many cases but frosting in
canola is different to that experienced in wheat. Frost can destroy/damage canola
flowers but canola flowers over extended periods of up to 6 weeks or more so any
lost flowers from single frost events are easily replaced. Missing podding sites in
many cases will not have equated to much, if any, yield loss. Very little energy has
been spent to get to this stage and the future requirement is just redirected to newer
or remaining pods.
This is in contrast to wheat which flowers over 1-5 days across a paddock. One or
2 severe frosts can destroy up to 20-30% of kernels and this damage cannot be
compensated by remaining grains. Manipulating the sowing date of canola to avoid
flower frosts is not worthwhile unlike wheat. However canola is most sensitive to frost
during early pod fill. Heavy frosts at this stage can freeze the entire pod destroying
all the seed embryos. At this crop stage flowering is either finished or very close to
finishing and as such there is little chance for the crop to compensate for this loss.
Because this sensitive stage of the crop is later in the season the risk or such frosts is
reduced.
Frost damage in canola is often very severe and growers can have little direct
influence over their crops’ frost susceptibility because moisture availability (weeds,
fallow management, time of sowing), row spacing, stubble cover can all play a part.
2 L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5 In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
i More information
Assessment of
fungicide efficacy
against blackleg
disease
Evaluation of fungicides
for the control of downy
mildew
GRDC Update papers:
Turning sowing times
on their head with
winter habit canola and
wheat
Early sowing of canola
in southern NSW
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Figure 1: Early-stage canola in Central West NSW. (Photo: Penny Heuston)
In paddocks known to have high frost risk, sowing should be delayed further. Seek
guidance from experienced agronomists in your district, but in general, finish sowings
by about 1 June around Moree and 15 June south of Gunnedah at the very latest.
Within these guidelines, consider sowing several varieties with different maturities and
even several sowing times to spread the risks of unforeseen seasonal factors such as
moisture stress or frost.
Canola usually flowers for 3–5 weeks, and frost damage is greatest if it occurs
towards the end of flowering and through pod filling. Early-maturing varieties sown at
the beginning of May would be subject to frosts in the late flowering and pod-filling
stages, whereas midseason varieties will flower and fill pods later, reducing the risk of
frost damage.
NSW DPI have done heaps on time of sowing trials in the CW for canola. This has
been done in the VSAP program.
The small seeds of canola need to be sown ideally no more than 5 cm deep in self-
mulching clays (2–3 cm in red soils) into well-prepared, moist seedbeds.
Good seed–soil contact, to help ensure uniform establishment, is aided by the use of
rollers, cultipackers and press-wheels. The crop is suited to conventional and no-till
systems.
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Heavy stubble loads may reduce emergence, and should not be left over the sowing
row. Triazine-tolerant (TT) varieties are less vigorous; therefore, planting methods are
more critical for even establishment.
Aim to establish 30–50 plants/m in northern New South Wales (NSW) (Figure 1). This
can be achieved with 2–4 kg/ha of seed (provided it is good-quality seed). 3 Recent
work by DPI has seen them review this numbe back to 20 plants, but stands down to
10 plants have shown little negative yield impact.
Table 1: Recommended sowing times for canola in New South Wales (source: Winter crop variety guide NSW DPI 2011)
1–4 are weeks of the month. , Best sowing time; , earlier or later than desirable (earlier—too vegetative, lodging, disease and/or frost risk; later—spring moisture and heat stress); , too late for good yields unless favourable spring
Region Week April May June
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Northern West
East
Central West
East
Southern West
East
Irrigation
Figure 2:
Northern
Central
Southern
Lockhart
West Wyalong
Leeton
Finley
Albury
Wagga WaggaCootamundra
East zone
Cowra
Orange
Dubbo
Young
Wellington
Parkes
Temora
ForbesCondobolin
NynganWarren
Coonabarabran
Narrabri
CoonambleTamworth
InverellMoree
Newell Highway
Hillston
Deniliquin
West zone
Cropping regions of NSW. Canola needs to be planted early to maximise grain potential. See Table 1 for regional planting time recommendations.
3 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
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3.2.1 Northern NSWIn the western zone, commence sowing mid-maturing varieties in late April. Sow
early-maturing varieties about 2 weeks later than mid-maturing varieties to minimise
the risk of frost damage. In the eastern zone, commence from the first week of May
and finish by the end of May.
3.2.2 Central and southern NSWHave paddocks ready to sow by mid–late April. An early break, allowing sowing to
occur mid–late April maximises yield potential and oil content. Sowing before mid-
April may lead to crops becoming too vegetative, increasing their susceptibility to
lodging, disease and moisture stress during podfill. They can also be at greater risk of
frost damage. For these reasons, longer season varieties should be chosen for early
sowings so that flowering and pod filling occur in a period of lower frost risk and lower
risk of spring moisture and heat stress.
Where there is a low risk of frost damage at early podfill, early-maturing varieties can
be planted from the second week of April in the western zone. In the eastern zone of
central and southern NSW, sow mid–late-maturing varieties at the start of the sowing
window and early-maturing varieties towards the end of the sowing window. Aim to
finish sowing by mid-May in the better rainfall areas. Yields can fall by 10% per week
after this period.
3.2.3 Southern NSW irrigation areasSowing time is often determined by the close to the irrigation season. The risk of
winter waterlogging, spring water availability and high spring temperatures are other
considerations. These factors need to be taken into account when choosing a variety
with suitable maturity. For most situations, mid-maturing to early–mid-maturing
varieties are preferred. 4
To maximise grain yield potential, canola needs to be planted early. This requires
careful attention to detail in relation to crop establishment. Because the soil surface
dries out more rapidly in early–mid April than mid-May, seed may need to be planted
slightly deeper than optimal (up to 5–6 cm deep). In this early-planting situation, pay
strict attention to seed quality.
Research in the southern region has almost universally shown a negative correlation
between canola later sowing date and grain yield. The challenge is that earlier sowing
of canola is generally (but not always) more risky for successful crop establishment.
Recent GRDC-funded NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) research aimed
not to improve canola establishment per se, but rather to increase the likelihood of
achieving an adequate plant stand from sowing canola on time or early. The results
4 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
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have greatest relevance for an early planting opportunity and a lesser relevance for
canola that is dry-sown or planted into moisture in May. 5
3.3 NSW DPI research. Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice
• In western NSW, the practice of moisture seeking (sowing seed deeper than 3 cm)
of canola in early–mid April into marginal moisture conditions may result in lower
plant establishment rates than sowing just prior to or just after a rainfall event.
• Waiting until there was adequate moisture for sowing (early May), or dry sowing
(late April) with a reliable forecast of follow-up rain, achieved higher yields than
sowing in mid-April in 2012. However, the yield loss from early sowing in 2012
was assumed to be due to factors in addition to lower establishment rates.
• A high number of frost events contributed to the reduced yield potential of early-
planted (mid-April) canola in 2012 in this trial in western NSW. 6
3.3.1 BackgroundCanola is an important winter crop-rotation option in western NSW. The advent of new
varieties in all four herbicide groups has enabled widespread adoption over recent
years. As in all areas where canola is produced, timely and uniform establishment
is critical to the success of the crop. Sowing date is known to be an important
management strategy to optimise yield of canola in all canola-growing regions.
Time of sowing is a balance between ideal sowing conditions and the appropriate
maturity cultivar. Early sowing maximises vegetative growth (biomass) and the length
of the flowering period but can predispose the crop to yield-damaging frosts at
flowering and early grainfill. Later sowing may reduce frost risk but can result in poor
vigour due to cold and/or wet soils at planting time, and an inability to complete seed
maturity before the onset of high temperatures and moisture stress, reducing both
yield and oil content.
NSW DPI recommends sowing canola from early-mid April to early May in the central-
west zone (Condobolin–Nyngan), regardless of soil type (Figure 3). For western NSW
regions, warm soil conditions in April, which can enable more vigorous establishment
of current varieties, are often offset by lack of soil moisture in the seedbed at planting
time. A trial was conducted in 2012 to investigate the effect of three times of sowing
5 R Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter? GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
6 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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on yield and oil content of seven canola varieties (hybrid and open-pollinated) and
evaluate the impact on length of flowering. For two varieties, a seeding-rate component
was also included to determine interactions between sowing time and plant population,
especially to investigate whether early-sown, low-density crops (<15 plants/m) show
yield comparable to early-sown, higher density crops (>20 plants/m). 7
Figure 3: NSW DPI recommends sowing canola from early-mid April to early May in the central-west zone. (Photo: Penny Heuston)
3.3.2 2012 trial detailsThe 2012 canola time-of-sowing trial was conducted at Trangie Agricultural Research
Centre on a Grey Vertosol (cracking clay) soil (Colwell phosphorus (P), 22 µg/g, 0–10
cm). The trial was sown with 80 kg/ha of Granulock Supreme Z (11% nitrogen (N),
22% P, 4% sulfur (S) and 1% zinc (Zn)), by using a Morris Contour drill planter with
the fertiliser placed directly with the seed. The trial was topdressed with 100 kg/ha of
GranAm (21% N, 24% S) on 1 June, ahead of 9 mm rain on 2 June.
Table 2 indicates the dates and respective conditions at each time of sowing. Dates
and conditions were chosen to reflect typical risk scenarios experienced by growers
across the region. Table 3 shows the variety treatments. The seven varieties were
chosen to compare a range of canola types, including early and midseason maturity,
hybrid and open-pollinated, and herbicide tolerance type: conventional, TT and
imidazolinone-tolerant (CLF). All seed was sourced from seed suppliers for this trial.
7 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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Table 2: Sowing dates, sowing depth and conditions for canola time-of-sowing trial, Trangie, 2012
Time of sowing Sowing depth and conditions Prior and/or follow-up rainfall1. 13 April Moisture seeking into marginal
moisture, sown 5 cm deep119 mm, March 2012 (pre-sow)
2. 26 April Dry-sown, sown 2 cm deep 14 mm, 2 May (post-sow)
3. 14 May Moderately moist soil, sown 3–4 cm deep
14 mm, 2 May (pre-sow); plus 21 mm, 24 May (post-sow)
Table 3: Variety characteristics, target plant population, number of seeds planted, seed size and actual sowing rate for canola time-of-sowing trial, Trangie, 2012
Variety Characteristics
Target plant population (plants/m)
No. of seeds planted per m
Seed weight (g/1000 seeds)
Actual sowing rate (kg/ha)
43C80 (CL) Open-pollinated, Clearfield®, early maturity
40 80 3.68 2.94
43Y85 (CL) Hybrid, Clearfield®, early maturity
40 80 5.03 4.02
44Y84 (CL) Hybrid, Clearfield®, early to early–mid maturity
40 80 5.38 4.30
AV-Garnet Open-pollinated, conventional, mid to mid–early maturity
40 80 3.47 2.78
Hyola 555TT Hybrid, triazine-tolerant, mid–early maturity
40 80 4.26 3.41
Jackpot TT Open-pollinated, triazine-tolerant, mid–early maturity
40 80 3.76 3.01
ATR-Stingray Open-pollinated, triazine-tolerant, early maturity
40 80 3.44 2.75
44Y84 (CL)_Low As per 44Y84 (CL), low seed rate
15 30 5.38 1.61
AV-Garnet_Low As per AV-Garnet, low seed rate
15 30 3.47 1.04
Total establishment was assumed to be 48% (rounded up to 50%) based on
germination of 80% and field establishment of 60% (industry standard figures).
Hence, where 40 plants/m was the target density, sowing rate was 80 seeds/m, and
for 15 plants/m, sowing rate was 30 seeds/m.
The canola varieties used in this trial were chosen as representative of particular
herbicide, plant-type and maturity groups; seed companies may market other varieties
with potential similar to or better than the varieties used in this trial. 8
8 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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3.3.3 2012 trial results
Effect of time of sowing on establishment
Date and days to emergence (as an average for all varieties) were recorded for the
three times of sowing (TOS): 1 (24 April), 11 days; 2 (4 May), 8 days; 3 (28 May), 14
days. Plant counts (Figure 4) were conducted progressively for each time of sowing
once there was no recorded change in emergence scores (conducted three times per
week).
Figure 4:
40
50
60
70
80
30
20
10
0
esta
blis
hmen
t (p
lant
s/m
2 )
variety x sowing date
43C80
CL
AV-G
arne
t
Jack
pot T
T
ATR-S
tringr
ay
Hyola5
55TT
43Y85
CL
44Y84
CL
44Y84
CL_
Low
AV-G
arne
t_Low
13 April 26 April 14 May
Establishment of seven canola varieties with two target plant populations (40 or 15 plants/m) at three sowing dates (13 April, 26 April, 14 May), Trangie, 2012.
All varieties had reduced establishment from TOS 1, regardless of type (open-
pollinated or hybrid) or seed size. For TOS 1, moisture seeking was used to a depth of
5 cm into marginal moisture because there was no rainfall event in early April to plant
on. Depth of sowing at TOS 1 may have had a greater effect on establishment than
lack of moisture at sowing. For the standard target plant population (40 plants/m),
the average of all varieties was 16 plants/m, with only two hybrids (Hyola 555TT and
43Y85 (CL)) achieving >25% establishment (i.e. plant count >20 plants/m from 80
seeds/m planted). For the low seeding rate (target 15 plants/m), the average was <7
plants/m (i.e. <25% target establishment from 30 seeds/m planted). AV-Garnet had
the lowest plant count at both seeding rates.
Establishment for all varieties at TOS 2 and TOS 3 exceeded the target plant
population, because plant establishment was greater than the assumed 50% on
which seed rates were calculated. This could be due to either the shallower sowing
depth and/or the follow-up rainfall received post-sowing. TOS 2, with dry sowing at
2 cm depth, showed quicker emergence than either TOS 1 or TOS 3, once follow-
up rain was received. The average plant counts for the standard sowing rate (target
40 plants/m) was 48 plants/m (60%) for both TOS 2 and TOS 3, whereas for the
low sowing rate (target 15 plants/m), TOS 2 achieved 18 plants/m (60%) and TOS 3
achieved 20 plants/m (67%).
In terms of variety effect, the three hybrids, with seed size >4 g/1000 seeds (Hyola
555TT, 43Y85 (CL) and 44Y84 (CL)), averaged 74% establishment, compared with the
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four open-pollinated varieties, with seed size <4 g/1000 seeds, which averaged 61%
establishment. 9
Effect of time of sowing on length of flowering
Previous time-of-sowing trials with canola have suggested that late sowing shortens
both the vegetative and reproductive phases through temperature and photoperiodic
effects, as well as increased water stress during the grain-filling period. Weekly
observations of flowering were conducted to assess the impact of time of sowing on
length of flowering. The summary in Figure 5 highlights 10% start flower, 100% full
flower and 10% end flower, defined as follows:
• 10% start flower: the date when 10% of plants in the crop (plot) have commenced
flowering.
• 100% full flower: the date when 100% of plants in the crop (plot) are in full
(maximum) flower. The crop is bright yellow with all branches flowering. Some
early pods may be visible in the lower section of branches.
• 10% end flower: the date when 10% of plants in the crop (plot) have flowers
remaining at the top of the branch. The lower 90% of the branch will have pods
formed or forming.
Figure 5:
30 Jul
29 Aug
14 Aug
28 Sep
30 Jun
31 May
1 May
1 Apr
dat
e
variety x sowing date43C80 CL AV-GarnetJackpot TTATR-StringrayHyola555TT43Y85 CL 44Y84CL
vegetative period 10% start - 100% full flower 100% full - 10% end flower
13Apr
26Apr
14May
13Apr
26Apr
14May
13Apr
26Apr
14May
13Apr
26Apr
14May
13Apr
26Apr
14May
13Apr
26Apr
14May
13Apr
26Apr
14May
Length of flowering of seven canola varieties with three sowing dates, Trangie, 2012.
The observations presented below are based on calendar days, which do not take into
account the difference in thermal time (accumulated day-degrees) between each TOS
treatment. Temperature effects are a major driver of plant growth and development
in canola. As an example, TOS 1 would have accumulated more day-degrees in May
than TOS 3. In addition, these data have not been statistically analysed.
For each canola variety, the length (calendar days) of the vegetative period was
reasonably consistent regardless of time of sowing, within a range of ~10 days of
variation between TOS treatments. There were differences between varieties for
average length of vegetative period. Longer season varieties Jackpot TT and AV-
Garnet averaged >100 days. Short-season varieties 43Y85 CL and ATR-Stingray
9 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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averaged 90 and 92 days, respectively. The lower seeding rate lengthened the
vegetative period of 44Y84 (CL) for TOS 1 only (by 4 days). The lower seeding rate
shortened the vegetative period of AV-Garnet by 4 days for TOS 1 and lengthened it
by 5 days for TOS 2.
There were differences in the total length (calendar days) of flowering period as a time-
of-sowing effect. For each canola variety (including those planted at lower seeding
rates), total length of the flowering period was shortened as sowing was delayed.
Lengths of flowering period averaged for all varieties were 62 days (TOS 1), 55 days
(TOS 2) and 47 days (TOS 3). Some varieties showed a greater difference between
TOS 1 and TOS 2 (e.g. 43Y85 (CL), 13 days; 44Y84 (CL), 11 days), whereas other
varieties were more affected by the delay from TOS 2 to TOS 3 (e.g. AV-Garnet, 12
days; Jackpot TT, 10 days). The Pioneer Clearfield® varieties appeared more affected
than the TT varieties (shorter flowering period by up to 20 days). The lower seeding
rate had opposite effects on the two varieties tested. In 44Y84 (CL)_Low, flowering
period was 1.5 days shorter for TOS 1 but 2–3 days longer for TOS 2 and TOS 3 than
in 44Y84 (CL). In AV-Garnet_Low, flowering period was 4 days longer for TOS 1 but up
to 5 days shorter for TOS 2 and TOS 3 than in AV-Garnet. 10
Effect of time of sowing on yield
There were significant differences in yield (Figure 6) with regard to both variety and
time of sowing. However, there was no significant variety x sowing time interaction,
meaning that varieties performed relatively consistently regardless of when they were
planted.
Figure 6:
013 April 26 April 9 May
1.5
1.25
1.0
1.75
2.0
Yie
ld (t
/ha)
sowing date
43C80 CL
AV-Garnet
Jackpot TTATR-Stringray
Hyola555TT
43Y85 CL44Y84CL
Grain yield (t/ha) of seven canola varieties sown with three sowing dates, Trangie, 2012. For statistical comparisons, l.s.d. (P = 0.05) is 0.16 t/ha for varieties and 0.1 t/ha for sowing dates.
Analysis of the effect of time of sowing, averaged for all varieties, showed that yield
for TOS 3 was significantly higher than for TOS 2 (by 0.11 t/ha) and, in turn, yield for
TOS 2 was significantly higher than for TOS 1 (by 0.43 t/ha). The lower yield of TOS 1
was likely due to a combination of factors including reduced plant establishment, frost
damage from early flowering, and potentially higher rates of vegetative water use.
The hybrids 44Y84 (CL) and 43Y85 (CL) were the highest yielding varieties in the
trial, with an average yield across all sowing times of 1.72 and 1.62 t/ha, respectively.
10 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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Jackpot TT and ATR-Stingray were the lowest yielding varieties, with an average yield
across all sowing times of 1.15 and 1.07 t/ha, respectively.
Seeding-rate treatment had a significant effect on yield (P = 0.002). Averaged over the
two varieties (44Y84 (CL) and AV-Garnet), the high seeding rate targeting 40 plants/m
yielded 0.24 t/ha more than the low seeding rate targeting 15 plants/m (l.s.d. (P =
0.05), 0.14 t/ha). There was no seeding rate x sowing time interaction, meaning that
the advantage of the higher seeding rate was observed for all sowing times. 11
Effect of time of sowing on oil content
There were significant differences in oil content between varieties (Figure 7), but no
significant difference due to time of sowing. Jackpot TT had the highest average oil
content (43.2%), followed by 44Y84 (CL) (42.1%). All other varieties averaged less
than the minimum base oil content of 42%, meaning that discounts would apply at
delivery. The lowest of these were 43Y85 (CL) (40.8%) and Hyola 555TT (40.6%)
There was no significant effect of seeding-rate treatment on oil content. 12
Figure 7:
41
42
43
44
45
40
39
36
35
37
38
Oil
conc
entr
atio
n (%
)
variety43
C80 C
L
AV-G
arne
t
Jack
pot T
T
ATR-S
tringr
ay
Hyola5
55TT
43Y85
CL
44Y84
CL
Oil concentration at 6% moisture of seven canola varieties averaged across three sowing dates, Trangie, 2012. For statistical comparison between varieties, l.s.d. (P = 0.05) is 0.6%.
3.3.4 DiscussionPreviously published time-of-sowing trial data suggest that, generally, early sowing
(early–mid April) predisposes the crop to greater frost risk during flowering, whereas
delayed sowing (late May–late June in southern grain zones) can result in reduced
yield potential. This reduced potential is due to a combination of factors, including
a shortened vegetative period (reduced crop biomass), reduced length of flowering
period, and moisture and high temperature stress at grainfill.
11 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
12 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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The present trial was focused on the early sowing period for western NSW, from mid-April
to early May. TOS 1 (13 April) involved moisture seeking into marginal moisture at 5 cm
depth, resulting in an average of <25% establishment of target plant densities. TOS 2 (26
April) showed that dry sowing can be a viable option for canola if there is a reliable forecast
of follow-up rain (15–20 mm). TOS 2 received 14 mm rain on 2 May and the crop had begun
emerging by 4 May. TOS 3 (14 May) was sown into good moisture and received 21 mm
follow-up rainfall. Both TOS 2 and TOS 3 achieved plant densities higher than the target
because the field establishment percentage was greater than the assumed 50%.
The 2012 Trangie trial confirmed previous studies that the length of the flowering period is
reduced as time of sowing is delayed, regardless of variety maturity. However, the shorter
flowering period for TOS 2 and TOS 3 compared with TOS 1 did not translate into reduced
yield or oil content. Both TOS 2 and TOS 3 resulted in significantly higher yields (as an
average for all varieties) than TOS 1, and there was no significant difference in oil content.
The most likely contributing factor to the reduced yields for TOS 1 was greater frost
damage. Frost-impact data (number of aborted pods) were collected at the end of flowering
but the data are not yet analysed. Meteorological data from Trangie Agricultural Research
Centre weather station support grower observations that 2012 had an unusually high
number of frosts during late winter–early spring. There were 59 frosts (defined as <2°C
recorded in Stevenson screen) from 1 May to 30 September in 2012. Several periods
of consecutive frosts occurred from late July to early September. Some of these frost
events were severe, e.g. 3 days below –3.0°C recorded 31 July–2 August. Because TOS
1 commenced flowering earlier (average for all varieties 17 July) and flowered for a longer
period than TOS 2 or TOS 3, which commenced flowering on average 2 August and 16
August, respectively, it is assumed that TOS 1 was more affected by frosts during flowering.
Further research is required to investigate the effect of early sowing on vegetative water use.
The early sowing date resulted in plants growing in May, in relatively warm temperatures;
therefore, water use may also have been higher, leaving less water available for grainfill. 13
3.3.5 ConclusionConditions at sowing can affect crop establishment rates. Moisture seeking early (mid-April)
into marginal moisture conditions may reduce establishment. Delaying sowing until moisture
conditions are better after an autumn break (early May), and even dry sowing (at a shallow
depth) prior to the autumn break, can be acceptable for canola, provided adequate rainfall
(15–20 mm) is received soon after sowing. In this 2012 trial, if May had remained dry, the
early deep-sown treatment may still have had a better outcome than not planting canola at
all. Seeding rates that target a lower plant population may reduce yield potential. However,
the greatest risk associated with early sowing is the impact of frost, which may significantly
reduce the yield potential of early-planted (mid-April) canola in western NSW. 14
13 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
14 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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3.4 Targeted plant population
Plant population, which is determined by sowing rate, germination percentage and
establishment percentage, is an important determinant of biomass at flowering and
therefore yield.
Crops with low plant densities tend to yield poorly. Low-density crops can
compensate with increased pod and seed production per plant; however, they are
more vulnerable to disease, pests, weed competition and environmental stress.
Aim for 40–60 plants/m (20–40 plants/m in northern and western NSW) which can
normally be achieved with 2–4 kg/ha of seed. Plant densities as low as 15 plants/m, if
consistent across a paddock, can still result in profitable crops when sown early and
plants have time to compensate. Seed size varies between and within varieties and
hybrids. Check seed size to calculate the correct number of seeds per square metre
to be sown (see NSW DPI Winter crop variety sowing guide). 15
Increasing the sowing rate increases competition between plants, creating thinner
main stems and fewer, less productive branches.
Reducing the sowing rate creates plants with thicker main stems and more branches,
delays leaf-area development, reduces biomass at flowering, and ultimately reduces
yield.
3.4.1 Calculating seed requirementsCorrect seed rates are critical in ensuring that target plant density is reached.
Calculation of seeding rates for canola is different from that for wheat.
Suppliers usually supply canola seed by number of seeds per kg, e.g. 200,000 seeds/
kg. To determine the seeding rate based on this, the formula below assumes that
plant density and germination are known.
Sowing rate (kg/ha) = (target plant density x 1,000,000)/(seeds/kg x expected
germination)
Example
44Y84 has a seed count of 211,400 seeds/kg. We want to achieve a target plant
density of 40 plants/m and assume that 85% of the seeds will germinate.
Thus, the seeding rate = (40 x 1,000,000)/(211,400 x 85)
= 40,000,000/17,969,000
= 2.23 kg/ha 16
15 P.Matthews, D. McCaffery and L. Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
16 BCG (2015) Calculating canola seeding rates. News article. Birchip Cropping Group, http://www.bcg.org.au/cb_pages/news/Thetimeforsowingcanolaisuponusmakingitimportanttorevisitourunderstandingonseedingrates.Gettingthisri.php
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Seeding rate calculators
Pacific Seeds: canola seed planting rate calculators
Pioneer canola seed rate calculator
3.4.2 Row spacingCanola has traditionally been sown at 15 cm row spacing, but the adoption of stubble
retention and no-till farming systems has resulted in a trend to wider row spacing and
the possibility of inter-row sowing using GPS guidance systems.
Experiments in southern NSW have shown that widening row spacing in canola does
appear to reduce yield when the row space is increased to 35 cm. 17 Aim for 40–60
plants/m (20–40 plants/m in northern and western NSW), which can normally be
achieved with 2–4 kg/ha of seed. Plant densities as low as 15 plants/m, if consistent
across a paddock, can still result in profitable crops when sown early and plants
have time to compensate. Seed size varies between and within varieties and hybrids.
Check seed size to calculate the correct number of seeds to be sown per m.
Establishment can be significantly reduced by sowing too deep, sowing late into cold,
wet soils, and no-till sowing into dense stubble. Use the higher seed rate, consider
sowing the seed at a shallower depth, or select a variety or hybrid with high vigour in
these situations. Hybrids are generally more vigorous than open-pollinated varieties,
primarily because of larger seed size. Where seed is retained on-farm, grade the seed
and keep the largest seed for sowing.
High plant densities, combined with suitable environmental conditions, can increase
the risk of Sclerotinia stem rot during flowering. High plant densities can also increase
the risk of moisture deficit during grainfill in dry spring conditions, potentially reducing
yields. 18
3.5 Sowing depth
Where conditions allow, aim to drill seed through the main seed box to 1.5–3 cm deep
and up to 5 cm in self-mulching clays. Where there is moisture below 1.5–3 cm, a
reduced but viable establishment may still be achieved by sowing deeper, provided
large seed is sown. This strategy can be used to sow some of the crop on time in
seasons of good summer rainfall followed by drying surface seedbeds in autumn.
Success with this strategy depends on soil type, soil structure and the amount and
timing of follow-up rainfall. 19
17 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
18 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
19 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
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Sowing depth has a major influence on seedling vigour, which subsequently affects
seedling establishment and crop performance. A sowing depth of 1.2–2.5 cm is ideal.
Deep seed placement increases the risk of failed emergence. Deeper sowing reduces
light availability, and the hypocotyl (the shoot that emerges from the seed) responds
to this by elongating, reducing the chance of seedling emergence. Seeds planted >2
cm deep or into >5 t/ha of stubble develop elongated hypocotyls. This elongation
depletes the seed reserves more quickly than in seeds with shorter hypocotyls.
The longer hypocotyls are also thinner, with decreased tissue density, and are more
susceptible to mechanical damage and collapse.
Plants with longer hypocotyls have smaller root systems, less leaf area from an early
stage, and less leaf and root biomass. Leaves are slower to expand, which reduces
dry matter. As a result, plants that allocate more resources to the hypocotyls at the
expense of leaves and roots have lower relative growth rates. 20
This effect can contribute to slower growth of plants in surface-mulch treatments, and
the slower growth can be compounded by low temperatures.
3.5.1 Canola establishment research Sowing depth trials were conducted at Coonamble, Nyngan and Trangie in 2012 and
at Nyngan and Trangie in 2013. Each trial had six common varieties with a range in
seed size (Table 4). Target seeding depths were 2.5, 5 and 7.5 cm.
Table 4: Seed size and number of seeds sown in three canola variety–sowing depth trials in 2012
Variety
Seed weight (g/1000 seeds)
No. of seeds sown per m2012 2013
AV-Garnet 3.78 3.27 60
ATR-Stingray 3.06 2.97 60
Pioneer 43C80 (CL) 3.68 4.11 60
Pioneer 43Y85 (CL) 5.03 4.77 60
Pioneer 44Y84 (CL) 5.34 5.20 60
Hyola 555TT 4.26 4.00 60
In 2012, averaged across all trials and varieties, establishment (as a percentage of
seeds sown) at the target depth of 2.5 cm was ~66%, with no difference between
varieties. All varieties had reduced establishment at 5 cm sowing depth relative
to 2.5 cm sowing depth, with the exception of Pioneer 44Y84 (CL), which had the
largest seed (Figure 8). At 7.5 cm sowing depth, the differences between varieties,
and seed size, became more marked, with the largest seeded variety achieving 50%
establishment compared with 20% for the smallest seeded variety.
20 L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
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Figure 8:
20
30
40
50
60
10
0
Est
ablis
hmen
t (p
lant
s/m
2 )
variety
Hyola
555T
T
Pionee
r 438
Y85 (C
L)
Pionee
r 44Y
84 (C
L)
Pionee
r 43c
80 (C
L)
AV G
arne
t
ATR S
tingr
ay
l.s.d. p=0.05
2.5 cm5.0 cm7.5 cm
Establishment of six canola varieties at three sowing depths, averaged across three trials at Coonamble, Nyngan and Trangie in 2012.
The effect of sowing depth on grain yield in 2012 was less marked than the effect on
establishment. At Nyngan and Coonamble, the target depth of 7.5 cm yielded ~250
kg/ha less grain than the target depths of 2.5 and 5 cm. At Nyngan, Pioneer 44Y84
(CL) showed no grain-yield reduction at 7.5 cm sowing depth compared with the
shallower sowing depths; however, all other varieties showed a significant grain-yield
reduction as a result of deep sowing. There was no effect of sowing depth on grain
yield at Trangie.
In 2013, the overall establishment achieved was less than in 2012. At 2.5 cm sowing
depth, establishment was approximately 50%, with no significant difference between
varieties (Figure 9). All varieties showed reduced establishment at 5 cm sowing depth
compared with 2.5 cm; however, the reduction was less severe for the hybrids than
for the open-pollinated varieties. Establishment was further reduced at 7.5 cm sowing
depth, with a hybrid advantage similar to that at 5 cm sowing depth.
Figure 9:
20
30
40
50
60
10
0
Est
ablis
hmen
t (p
lant
s/m
2 )
variety
Hyola
555T
T
Pionee
r 438
Y85 (C
L)
Pionee
r 44Y
84 (C
L)
Pionee
r 43c
80 (C
L)
AV G
arne
t
ATR S
tingr
ay
l.s.d. p=0.05
2.5 cm5.0 cm7.5 cm
Establishment of six canola varieties at three sowing depths, averaged across two trials at Nyngan and Trangie in 2013.
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The effect of sowing depth on grain yield was greater in 2013 than in 2012 but was
still of a lesser magnitude than the effect of sowing depth on establishment. At
Nyngan, the grain yields of Pioneer 44Y84 (CL), AV-Garnet and Hyola 555TT were
similar for 2.5 cm sowing depth. However, AV-Garnet and Hyola 555TT both had a
significant grain-yield reduction at 5 and 7.5 cm sowing depths, whereas Pioneer
44Y84 (CL) did not suffer a yield penalty from deeper sowing. At Trangie, all varieties
suffered a grain-yield penalty with increasing sowing depth, but this reduction in grain
yield was less severe for the larger seeded varieties.
At each trial site in 2012, a P rate trial was also sown. The P product used was triple
superphosphate, which does not supply any N with the P. The P rates applied were 0,
5, 10 and 20 kg/ha, the fertiliser being placed directly with the seed.
There was no effect of P rate on canola establishment on the cracking clay (Grey
Vertosol) soil at Trangie. By contrast, increasing P rate significantly reduced the
establishment of all varieties on the lighter textured soils at Nyngan (Red Chromosol)
and Coonamble (Brown Chromosol) (Figure 10). All varieties experienced a similar
reduction in establishment, regardless of seed size or plant type.
Figure 10:
0
10
5
15
20
25
30
35
45
50 2010
Est
ablis
hmen
t (p
lant
s/m
2 )
P rate (kg/ha)
n.s.d.
l.s.d. (p=0.05)
l.s.d. (p=0.05)Trangie
NynganCoonamble
Average establishment of four canola varieties sown with four rates of phosphorus at Trangie, Nyngan and Coonamble in 2012.
Grain yield responded positively to P application at Trangie and Nyngan, which
highlighted that the complete exclusion of P in order to improve crop establishment is
not reasonable.
Two further P trials were conducted in 2013, with the Trangie trial planted on a lighter
textured soil (Red Chromosol) rather than the heavy (Grey Vertosol) soil used in 2012.
There was a significant establishment reduction at both sites as P rate (applied as
triple superphosphate) increased (Figure 11). Further product comparisons at a
common P rate showed that all major phosphate fertilisers (mono- and di-ammonium
phosphate, single and triple superphosphate, Supreme Z) affected establishment
to a similar degree. Despite the effect on establishment, grain yield still responded
positively to P at Nyngan, with the 5 kg P/ha rate yielding 0.25 t/ha more than the nil P
treatment but with no further yield increase beyond this rate.
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Figure 11:
0
10
5
15
20
25
30
35
45
50 2010
Est
ablis
hmen
t (p
lant
s/m
2 )
Phosphorus (kg/ha)
Nyngan l.s.d. (p=0.05)
Trangie l.s.d. (p=0.05)
NynganTrangie
Average establishment of two canola varieties sown with four rates of phosphorus at Trangie and Nyngan in 2013.
For growers using a tine seeder, it is generally possible (and recommended) to
separate seed and fertiliser to avoid the negative effects of starter fertiliser. For
growers with a disc seeder (or considering a disc seeder), several management
options are available, such as:
• Plant on relatively narrow crop rows to reduce fertiliser concentration in the
furrow.
• Plant canola early to allow greater root exploration, with potentially less P
application required.
• Pay strict attention to closing devices; the firmer or heavier the closing device, the
greater the negative effects of P fertiliser. 21
Conclusion
To maximise grain-yield potential, canola needs to be planted early. This requires
careful attention to the details of crop establishment. Because the soil surface dries
out more rapidly in early-mid April than mid-May, seed may need to be planted slightly
deeper than optimal (up to 5–6 cm deep). In this early planting situation, pay attention
to seed quality. Sowing large seeds (> 5 g/1000 seeds) increases the likelihood of
achieving an adequate establishment. For growers who wish to purchase seed, hybrid
seed is generally larger than open-pollinated seed. For growers who retain open-
pollinated seed on farm for their own use, aim to clean seed with a 2-mm screen.
Phosphorus is essential for canola growth, but starter fertiliser may have an effect on
crop establishment. Avoid high rates of P in direct contact with canola seed at sowing.
Further research is required on P nutrition of canola, especially on the interactions
between P application and sowing time and the effect that liquid P products may have
on canola establishment. 22
21 R Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter? GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
22 R Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter? GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
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3.6 Sowing equipment
Canola can be sown by using no-till techniques or sown into a well-prepared,
cultivated seedbed. When sowing into cereal stubble, ensure that straw and header
trash is pushed away from the sowing row. Stubble covering the row can reduce
canola emergence and early plant growth to reduce yield significantly. Use rollers,
cultipackers or press-wheels to improve seed–soil contact where appropriate,
ensuring that the pressure applied by these devices is low. 23
Sow seed through the main seed box or small seed box of standard wheat-sowing
equipment. The air-seeder or combine should be in good condition and the level
adjusted (from side to side, front to back, and tine to tine) to ensure sowing at a
uniform depth. Regulate ground speed to avoid tine bounce, which will cause an
uneven sowing depth. Diffusers are fitted to the sowing tines of air-seeders to stop
seed from being blown from the seed row. A maximum sowing speed of 8–10 km/h is
suggested for most soils.
Several options are available to level the seedbed and help compact moist soil around
the seed. These include the use of press-wheels or a rubber-tyred roller, coil packers
(flexi-coil roller), or trailing light harrows or mesh behind the planter. Knifepoints with
press-wheels are the preferred option. Avoid heavy harrows with long tines because
they can disturb seed placement.
The seed box on most modern air-seeders and combines can be calibrated for low
seeding rates. Check calibrations from year to year, because seed size can change
and affect actual sowing rate.
Checklist for sowing equipment:
• Ensure accurate calibration for sowing rate.
• Ensure even wear of points for accurate seed placement.
• Use narrow points to reduce ridging.
• Keep front and rear rows of tines level.
• Sow slower rather than faster, to avoid overly shallow depth, seed bounce, or
increased soil throw by tines, which effectively result in front-tine seed being sown
too deep.
• Ensure level ridges behind the seeder. If using harrows, heavy harrows may be too
severe and finger harrows too light.
• Avoid seed–superphosphate mixes that contain excess rates of N (see above). 24
23 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
24 L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5 In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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3.6.1 Alternate sowing techniquesThe use of wider row spacing to conserve moisture in low-rainfall areas has seen
an expansion of the areas in which canola is grown. Other techniques, such as dry
sowing, aerial sowing and the use of raised beds, have been further refined, which
can reduce sowing delays caused by unseasonably dry or wet conditions. 25
25 L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5 In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
4.1 Canola types
4.1.1 Conventional The first rapeseed varieties were introduced into Australia from Europe and Canada
in 1969. Under Australian conditions these varieties were late flowering (and so
restricted to the higher rainfall zones) and very susceptible to blackleg.
From 1970 to 1988, conventional breeding techniques were used to improve yield,
adaptation, blackleg resistance and seed quality (low erucic acid, low glucosinolates).
These varieties were based on B. rapa (formerly known as B. campestris). They had
earlier maturity and tolerance to pod shattering.
In 1988 the first varieties were released that combined blackleg resistance with higher
yield. These varieties were based on B. napus material from Asia and Europe. From
this time, there was a complete swing to breeding B. napus varieties.
Brassica napus is thought to have formed originally from natural crosses
(hybridisation) of B. rapa and B. oleracea. It is distinguished from other species by the
shape of the upper leaves: the lower part of the leaf blade half-grasps the stalk. 1
4.1.2 Triazine-tolerant canola Triazine-tolerant (TT) varieties were first commercialised in 1993, with the release of
the variety Siren. Genes for tolerance to the triazine group of herbicides were bred into
conventional canola varieties. This enabled the control of Brassica weeds, which were
previously unable to be controlled in standard canola varieties.
The triazine-tolerant trait is associated with reduced conversion of sunlight into
biomass (i.e. reduced radiation-use efficiency). Triazine-tolerant varieties are therefore
generally less vigorous as seedlings and produce less biomass than conventional
varieties. This results in 10% to 15% lower yields and 1% to 3% lower oil contents
than in conventional varieties. However the effective weed control available in these
1 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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varieties means actual yield is often higher then conventional varieties competing with
weeds. Another effect of the triazine-tolerant trait is a delay in plant development. 2
4.1.3 HybridsHybrids were first released in 1988. Hybrid varieties are produced using controlled
pollination of a female parent by a male parent (the source of pollen). The progeny (the
F1 hybrid) contain the best characteristics of both parents, known as hybrid vigour.
Hybrid varieties are typically associated with larger seeds, strong seedling vigour and
greater biomass production. 3
4.1.4 Specialty canola – high oleic/low linolenic (Holl)Specialty canolas were bred by traditional means to increase the content of the
monounsaturated fat oleic acid and decrease the level of the polyunsaturated fat
linolenic acid in the oil. This type of oil is more stable at higher temperatures and more
suited for deep frying. This gave a high oleic/low linolenic (HOLL) canola. 4
4.1.5 IMI-tolerant canola IMI-tolerant varieties are tolerant to imidazolinones (IMIs), the active ingredients
of herbicides such as OnDuty® and Intervix®. They are grown as part of the
CLEARFIELD® production system. IMI-tolerant canola varieties were developed by
selection of naturally occurring mutations from conventional canola varieties. Unlike
the TT gene, the gene for IMI tolerance is not associated with a yield penalty. 5
4.1.6 Condiment (Indian) mustardCondiment mustards are varieties of Brassica juncea grown for their hot, peppery
taste. Although related to juncea canola, condiment mustards have different meal and
oil qualities. The level of glucosinolates in the meal after crushing is much higher in
condiment mustard and is responsible for the hot and spicy taste of table mustard.
The oil has a distinct ‘nutty’ flavour, but the erucic acid level is sufficiently low to
make it suitable for human consumption. Indian mustard is the preferred oilseed in
many parts of South Asia, northern and western China and eastern Russia. It has a
reputation for having greater drought and shattering tolerance than canola. 6
2 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
3 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
4 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
5 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
6 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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4.1.7 Junecea canola – Brassica juncea Juncea canola is the name given to plants bred from Brassica juncea to have all the
oil and meal quality specifications of canola. The oil has high levels of oleic acid and
low levels of erucic acid, and there are low levels of glucosinolates in the meal (Table
1). The meal can be substituted for canola meal in animal diets. Juncea canola has the
same market end-use as canola.
Juncea canola is being developed as a drought- and heat-tolerant alternative to
canola for the low rainfall zone. It also has excellent seedling vigour (similar to that of
hybrid canola) and is more tolerant of shattering than canola. Because it is a relatively
new crop, breeding, selection and agronomic research have not progressed as far as
with canola. The first commercial varieties were grown in 2007.
4.1.8 Roundup Ready® Roundup Ready® (RR) varieties have been bred by genetic modification technology
to be tolerant of the herbicide glyphosate. This allows glyphosate to be sprayed over
canola in the early stages of growth without affecting the development of the crop.
The first varieties were grown commercially in 2008.
4.1.9 Industrial mustard Industrial mustard is a B. juncea type that is not suitable for either of the edible
markets because of its high levels of erucic acid and/or glucosinolates. Industrial
mustard is grown for use in a number of industrial products, including biodiesel.
4.1.10 Winter types for grazing Unlike the other canola varieties, which are spring types, winter types require a period
of cold (vernalisation) before they will flower. This makes them suitable for a dual-
purpose role. They can be grazed during winter, then locked up for harvest in late
spring. In 2015 there are four winter types commercially available. 7
Table 1: Typical seed quality characteristics for canola, juncea canola and condiment mustard when grown in the low rainfall zone.
Characteristic Canola Juncea canola Condiment mustardOil % 36–42 34–40 34–40
Oleic acid % 57–63 57–63 variable
Linoleic acid % 18–25 18–25 variable
Linolenic acid % 8–13 8–13 variable
Erucic acid % <1 < 1 1–20
Glucosinolate in meal (µmol/g – 10% MC)
< 30 < 30 110–160
Allyl glucosinolate in meal (µmol/g – 10% MC)
0 < 1 NA
Source: NSW DPI
7 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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All canola grown commercially in Australia is the Swede rape type Brassica napus.
Brassica juncea (brown or Indian mustard), which has the same quality as canola, is
also grown but in much smaller quantities.
The 10 oilseed rape types grown throughout the world are mainly annual and biennial
forms of B. napus and B. campestris. In Canada, both species are important; in
Europe and the Indian subcontinent, B. napus is the dominant species. Each species
has an optimum set of environmental and growing conditions.
The life cycle of the canola plant is divided into seven principal stages. By recognising
the beginning of each stage, growers can make more accurate management
decisions on timing of weed-control operations, introduction and removal of grazing
livestock in crops managed as dual-purpose, timing of fertiliser applications, timing of
irrigation, and timing of pest-control measures.
Each growth stage covers a developmental phase of the plant. However, the
beginning of each stage is not dependent on the preceding stage being finished,
which means growth stages can overlap.
The beginning of each growth stage from budding is determined by looking at the
main (terminal) stem. In the literature, it is referred to as a decimal code, similar to the
Zadoks code for wheat growth stages. (Figure 1.) 8
Figure 1: Canola growth stages
8 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
Stage 0Germination
and emergence
Stage 1Leaf
production
Stage 2Stem
extension
Stage 3Flower bud
development
Stage 4Flowering
Stage 5Pod
development
Stage 6Seed
development
Vegetative Reproductive
24 weeks
April May June July August September October
6 weeks
4 weeks
Flowering
Podfill
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4.2 Why know about canola development?
• Understanding the drivers behind canola development will help to improve canola
management and variety selection.
• Varietal maturity ratings do not always correlate with varietal phenology.
• Early sowing opportunities may provide a means to maximise canola yield, but
selection of the correct variety is important.
Despite the success of canola in Australian cropping systems, significant gaps
remain in the underlying knowledge of canola physiology and agronomy, a situation
exacerbated by its expansion into new areas and the release of new technologies,
including vigorous hybrid varieties with herbicide tolerance.
Although growers recognise the high profit potential and the farming-system benefits
of canola, a perceived risk of growing canola remains, largely due to the high level of
input required (e.g. seed, nitrogen (N) fertiliser, sulfur fertiliser, herbicides, windrowing).
There is a need to determine the level of investment appropriate for these inputs on
a regional scale and the agronomic management practices (for example sowing date
decisions) that reduce the overall risk and increase the profitability of canola.
Sound, tactical agronomic decisions require improved understanding of the
physiology of yield and oil formation in canola, and of how they are affected by variety,
environment and management, and the interaction (G x E x M).
Maximising canola yield and profit will be achieved through an increased
understanding of canola physiology. This will occur by taking the following steps:
1. Identify the optimum flowering window to minimise heat and frost risk at
specific sites.
2. Identify the variety–sowing date combinations that achieve the optimum
flowering window.
3. Manage the trajectory of biomass accumulation (of specific varieties) to
maximise water-use efficiency, optimise N-use efficiency and minimise the
risk of high-input costs (e.g. seed costs, N fertiliser, herbicide types, harvest
strategies).
Having optimised these steps, further investigation may reveal specific varietal
adaptations that provide yield advantage under specific stress (heat, drought, frost) or
provide further G x E x M synergies.
As a first step to improve the understanding of G x E x M interactions in current
varieties, CSIRO conducted pre-field-experiment modeling by using the best available
information on variety development prior to 2014 trials, and the APSIM model. This
modeling explored the potential for planting canola early at locations across Australia
and the potential yields to be achieved by planting cultivars with differing maturity
at a range of sowing times. The results show that potential exists for longer season
cusin
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varieties to be planted in locations such as Cummins, South Australia, and to have
improved yield potential. However, the opportunity for successful sowing of these
varieties occurs in only 15% of years (when sufficient summer rainfall occurs).
The manner in which each canola variety develops can have a large influence on
yield, when planted at different times and in different environments. The challenge
for researchers is to develop and deliver information on new varieties in a way that is
timely and relevant to growers and advisers. Growers and advisers will be able to use
this information when selecting a set of varieties suited to the sowing opportunities
that most often occur in their district and to capitalise on early or delayed sowing
opportunities as the seasons dictate. 9
4.3 Plant growth stages
4.3.1 Germination and emergence (stage 0 [0.0–0.8])Emergence occurs after the seed absorbs moisture and the root (radicle) splits the
seed coat and the shoot (hypocotyl) pushes through the soil, pulling the cotyledon
leaves upward and in the process shedding the seed coat (Figure 2). When exposed
to light, the cotyledons part and become green. 10
Figure 2: Canola germination and emergence, stage 0–0.8.
4.3.2 leaf production (stage 1 [1.00–1.20])A well-grown canola plant normally produces 10–15 leaves. Each leaf is counted
when most of its surface is exposed to light (Figure 3). Early leaves may drop from the
base of the stem before leaf production is complete. 11
9 A Ware et al. (2015) Canola growth and development—impact of time of sowing (TOS) and seasonal conditions. GRDC Update Papers, 10 February 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Canola-growth-and-development-impact-of-time-of-sowing-TOS-and-seasonal-conditions
10 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
11 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
i More information
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development—impact
of time of sowing
(TOS) and seasonal
conditions
Improved
understanding
of thresholds of
armyworm in barley and
aphids in canola
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Figure 3: Canola leaf production, stage 1.
4.3.3 Stem elongation (stage 2 [2.00–2.20]) Stages of stem elongation are defined according to how many detectable internodes
(minimum length 5–10 mm) are found on the stem (Figure 4). A leaf is attached to the
stem at each node. Each internode is counted. A well-grown canola plant normally
produces about 15 internodes. 12
Figure 4: Stem elongation, stage 2.
4.3.4 Flower bud development (stage 3 [3.0–3.9])Initially, flower buds remain enclosed during early stem elongation and they can only
be seen by peeling back young leaves. As the stem emerges, they can be easily seen
from above but are still not free of the leaves; this is described as the green bud stage
(Figure 5). As the stem grows, the buds become free of leaves and the lowest flower
stalks extend so that the buds assume a flattened shape. The lower flower buds are
the first to become yellow, signaling the yellowing bud stage. 13
12 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
13 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Figure 5: Canola flower bud development, stage 3.
4.3.5 Flowering (stage 4 [4.1–4.9])Flowering starts when one flower has opened on the main stem and finishes when no
viable buds are left to flower (Figure 6). 14
Figure 6: Flowering, stage 4.
4.3.6 Pod development (stage 5 [5.1–5.9])Podding development starts on the lowest one-third of the branches on the main stem
and is defined by the proportion of potential pods that have extended to >2 cm long
(Figure 7). 15
14 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
15 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Figure 7: Pod development, stage 5.
4.3.7 Seed development (stage 6 [6.1–6.9])Seed development is also seen on the lowest one-third of branches on the main stem
(Figures 8, 9). The stages are assessed by seed colour as follows:
• 6.1, seeds present
• 6.2, most seeds translucent but full size
• 6.3, most seeds green
• 6.4, most seeds green–brown mottled
• 6.5, most seeds brown
• 6.6, most seeds dark brown
• 6.7, most seeds black but soft
• 6.8, most seeds black but hard
• 6.9, all seeds black and hard
Seed oil concentration in Australian crops increases through seed development
following an ‘S’-curve pattern, which starts 20 days after flowering and reaches a
plateau ~60 days after flowering, the time when seed dry weight is ~70% of its final
value (Figure 10). Final seed oil concentrations usually vary between 30% and 50%
(as received). In general, high temperatures during grain filling, terminal water stress,
and high N supply depress final seed oil concentration. Variety has a significant
impact, with triazine-tolerant (TT) varieties typically having lower oil concentrations
than conventional varieties because of their less efficient photosynthetic system.
The growth stage when the crop is physiologically mature is important and one that
growers should learn to recognise. It occurs when the seeds have reached their
maximum dry weight and the crop can be windrowed. At this time, 50–70% of seeds
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have started to change from green to their mature colour (growth stage 6.4–6.5). Seed
moisture content is 35–40% and most seeds are firm enough to roll between the
thumb and forefinger without being squashed. It is a period of rapid change, when all
seeds can develop from translucent to black over a 12-day period. It is important not
to windrow too early; windrowing before physiological maturity will reduce yields by
3–4% for each day too early, because of incomplete seed development. Oil content
will also be reduced. Canola can be harvested when the moisture content of mature
seed is 8%. 16
Figure 8: Seed development, stage 6.
Figure 9: Seed pods.
16 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Figure 10:
See
d o
il co
ncen
trat
ion
(%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
0 20 40 60 80 100
Age of fruit (days after anthesis)
Seed oil concentration in Australian crops increases throughout seed development and reaches a plateau at ~60 days after flowering. (Source: P. Hocking and L. Mason)
4.3.8 Environmental stresses impacting yield and oil content
Frost, moisture stress and heat stress can all have an impact on grain yield, oil
content and oil quality. Frost can occur at any time during the growth of the canola
plant, but frosts are most damaging when pods are small. Pods affected at this time
have a green to yellowish discoloration, then shrivel and eventually drop off. Pods
affected later may appear blistered on the outside of the pod and usually have missing
seeds (Figure 11).
Figure 11: Frost damage before the watery seed stage results in either missing seeds or very shrivelled seeds. Frost damage at this time may or may not affect oil content. (Photo: T. Potter, SARDI)
Moisture and heat stress are linked, in that the plant will suffer heat stress at a lower
temperature if it is also under moisture stress. Flower abortion, shorter flowering
period, fewer pods, fewer seeds per pod and lighter seed weight are the main effects,
occurring either independently or in combination (Figure 12). 17 Hail damage to pods
can also affect seed development (Figure 13).
17 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Figure 12: Severe moisture stress during pod filling results in seeds being underdeveloped and small. (Photo: D. McCaffery, NSW DPI)
Figure 13: Hail damage may penetrate through the pod wall and affect seed development. (Photo: D. McCaffery, NSW DPI)
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
5.1 New nutrition thinking for the northern region
Canola best management recommendations from the southern region have been
a useful starting point; however, they are now being fine-tuned and adapted for
conditions and soil types in the northern region.
Research into optimal fertiliser rates, particularly for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
sulfur (S), has generated useful data. The relationship between crop nutrition and
production of consistent oil content is also under investigation (see Section 5.6 Sulfur)
Previous recommendations considered S to be non-negotiable and N applications
more seasonally dependent. New research indicates this approach needs to be
reversed; S application may not be needed and attention should be refocused and
effort redirected to getting N rates right.
Trials over 3 years in the central and northern regions of New South Wales (NSW)
indicate that the previous recommendation of 20–25 kg S/ha independent of soil
nutritional status is unwarranted, with no trial demonstrating a response.
Sulfur deficiency in canola, if it occurs, can be severe but this is not always the
case. The frequency of such deficiency is most likely lower than thought and can be
rectified early in-crop without ongoing penalty.
Canola has abundant fine roots with the ability to branch and proliferate in zones of
higher nutrient content, such as around fertiliser bands or granules. In addition, canola
roots can increase their root hair number and length in response to low P conditions.
Strong responses to N have been observed. Savings in S fertiliser costs may be better
used to increase N rates. 1
5.2 Crop removal rates
Canola requires high inputs per tonne of grain for the major (macro-) nutrients N, P and S
compared with other crops (Table 1). However, on a per-hectare basis, canola’s nutritional
requirements are similar to cereals, because yields are usually about 50% of wheat. 2
1 GRDC (2014) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, 28 April 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region
2 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
i More information
Economics and
management of P
nutrition and multiple
nutrient decline
Nitrogen and sulfur for
wheat and canola—
protein and oil.
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Table 1: Comparison of the average amount of major nutrients removed (kg/ha) per tonne of grain and stubble for a range of crops, including canola and wheat
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium SulfurGrain Stubble Grain Stubble Grain Stubble Grain Stubble
Canola 40 10 7 2 9 26 3.5-5 3.2
Wheat 21 8 3 0.7 5 21 1.5 1.5
Barley 20 7 2.5 0.7 4.5 18 1.5 1.5
Oats 20 7 2.5 0.6 4.5 18 2 1
Lupins 51 10 4.5 0.4 9 16 3 2.5
5.3 Soil testing
In Australia, canola is not recommended for soils of pHCaCl <4.5, and preferably not
<4.7 if exchangeable aluminium (Al) levels exceed 3%. Many soils where canola is
grown have a pH <5.0, with some as low as 4.0. Although most of these soils were
naturally acidic, their acidity has been increased by agricultural activities. The acidity
may occur in the surface soil or subsoil, or in both. Soil tests for pH are recommended
before growing canola. Samples are taken from the surface (0–10 cm), as well as at
depth (10–30 cm) to check for subsoil acidity.
Where the soil is pH is ≤5, Al and manganese (Mn) toxicities can be a problem for
canola. Aluminium is much more detrimental than Mn because it kills root tips, the
sites of root growth. Plants with Al toxicity have a shallow, stunted root system that
is unable to exploit soil moisture at depth. The crop does not respond to available
nutrients, and seed yield is drastically reduced. Severe Mn toxicity reduces yield
because entire leaves become chlorotic and distorted. Mild to severe Mn toxicity is
often seen sporadically or in patches and often associated with waterlogged parts of
fields. 3
NSW DPI soil testing
5.4 Nitrogen
Canola has a high N demand, twice that per ton of wheat. One ton per Ha of canola
will remove approximately 40Kg/ha of N but the crop will require at least twice this
amount. For a crop with a targeted yield of around 2t/ha the crop will require around
160kg/ha of N. This can be supplied through soil reserves but additional N fertilizer
will be needed in many cases. Depending on the amount of soil N available to the
crop, ~80–100 kg/ha of fertiliser N would be needed. In general, a canola crop
requires an amount of N similar to a high-protein wheat crop.
Deep soil testing for N and S is recommended for all growers, particularly first-time
growers. This will allow N budgeting.
Canola seed is very sensitive to fertiliser burn. No more than 10 kg/ha of N should be
in direct contact with the seed at sowing in narrow (18-cm) rows and proportionally
less at wider row spacings. The majority of the N should be either drilled in before
3 P Hocking, R Norton, A Good (1999) Crop nutrition. 10th International Rapeseed Congress, http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/canola/p-05.htm
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sowing or banded 2-3cm below and beside the seed at sowing (Figure 1). An
alternative is to apply N to the growing crop. Application timing should aim to
minimise losses from volatilisation, that is, time the topdressing for when the crop has
good groundcover and before a rain event. Losses can be high on dry, alkaline soils. 4
Figure 1:
Soil surface
Seed Seed Seed
FertiliserFertiliserFertiliser
Soil surface Soil surface
A. Single outlet with centre bandingPros: Sub-seed soil disturbance, fertiliser separation banded at depth.Cons: High draft and breakout force required compared with tillage at seeding depth, seed placement quality variable.
B. Single outlet with side bandingPros: Sub-seed soil disturbance, fertiliser separation banded at depth, improved seed placement, good moisture transfer to seed.Cons: High draft and breakout force required, potentially higher soil and residue disturbance.
C. Dual outlet paired row and ribbon sowing systemsPros: Sub-seed soil disturbance, fertiliser separation, good seed placement except over centre section, higher seed-bed utilisation.Cons: High draft and breakout force required, higher soil and residue disturbance influencing seeding depth uniformity.
Three arrangements of split seed and fertiliser banding with tillage below the seeding point that illustrate the different types of seed and fertiliser separation achieved.
The N content of a canola plant (expressed as a percentage of dry matter) is highest
at the full rosette stage, when deficiency symptoms are often visible.
Generally, the older leaves become pale green to yellow, and may develop red, pink
or purple colours (Figure 2). Plants will be stunted and the crop will not achieve full
groundcover by 8–10 weeks after sowing. Once stem elongation commences, a
deficiency is then characterised by a thin main stem and restricted branching. This
results in a thin and open crop. Flowering will occur over a shorter period, reducing
the number of pods per unit area.
4 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
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Figure 2: Nitrogen deficiency symptoms show as smaller leaves, which are more erect, and leaf colours from pale green to yellow on older leaves and pinkish red on others. (Photo: S. Marcroft, MGP)
Unfortunately, some visual symptoms are similar to other nutrient deficiencies (e.g. P
and S), which can result in incorrect diagnosis. 5
N deficiency affects older leaves first, while sulfur deficiency affects younger leaves
first. 6
Tissue tests combined with a good knowledge of the paddock’s history (including
past fertiliser use and crop yields) will assist in a more accurate assessment of the
most likely deficiency. 7
Diagnosing nitrogen efficiency in canola
5.4.1 Estimating nitrogen requirementsCanola is ideally grown in soils of high N fertility; for example, as the first or second
crop following several years of legume-dominant pasture. However, paddock fertility
is often inadequate, so additional N is required to produce both high yields and good
seed quality.
Canola removes 40 kg N/t grain, but the crop requires up to three times this amount
of N to produce this yield (referred to as the efficiency factor). This is because the
plants must compete for N with soil microorganisms, and some of the N taken up by
the plants is retained in the stubble, and senesced leaves and roots. A good canola
crop will produce twice as much stubble as grain (by weight), giving a harvest index
(HI) of about 33%.
5 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
6 Diagnosing nitrogen deficiency in canola, https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/mycrop/diagnosing-nitrogen-deficiency-canola
7 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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The best way to determine a crop’s potential N requirement is through a combination
of N removal (total N in the estimated grain yield x efficiency factor) and the amount of
N estimated to be available in the soil. Deep soil tests (to a depth of 60 or 90 cm) can
be taken prior to sowing. Most deep soil tests are taken to 60 cm in the major canola-
producing areas. They can also be done during the growing season to determine
whether topdressing is required.
Example
Available soil N (calculated from deep N test + estimate of in-crop mineralisation) =
125 kg/ha
As a rough ‘rule of thumb’, the in-crop mineralisation is calculated as:
Growing season rainfall (mm) x organic carbon (%) x 0.15
Fertiliser N required for crop = total N required – available soil N (kg N/ha)
= 200 – 125 kg N/ha
= 75 kg N/ha
Nitrogen requirement calculator
Nitrogen removed in grain = target yield x 40 (kg N/t grain)
Total N required = N removed in grain x 2.5 (efficiency factor of 40%)
In the example:
Estimated target yield = 2 t/ha
N removal in grain 2 x 40 kg N/t = 80 kg N/ha
Total N required = 80 x 2.5 kg N/ha
=200 kg N/ha 8
Nitrogen fertiliser rates
Fertiliser N required for crop = total N required – available soil N (kg N/ha)
Using the example:
Available soil N (calculated from deep N test + in-crop mineralisation) = 125 kg/ha
Fertiliser N required for crop = 200 – 125 kg N/ha
= 75 kg N/ha (or 163 kg/ha of urea)
As the above calculations indicate, about 75 kg/ha of additional N is required
as fertiliser to achieve the anticipated yield. The N can be applied in several
combinations pre-sowing, at sowing or as topdressing(s) before stem elongation
during the season.
Other formulae are available for calculating N requirements; however, these need
more detailed inputs, which can be provided by consultants or agronomists. 9
8 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
9 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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5.4.2 Northern Grower Alliance trials
Recent GRDC-funded Northern Grower Alliance (NGA) research has demonstrated
strong yield responses to N in situations with ~25–70 kg N/ha available from soil
testing (excluding any mineralised N). Nitrogen removal in grain was ~60–80 kg N/ha
at yields of ~1.5–2.0 t/ha. This supports a total crop-available N target of ~120–160 kg
N/ha where yield targets are in the range of 1.5–2.0 t/ha. It also corresponds to a total
crop-available N target of ~80 kg N/ha for each tonne of grain. 10
Other key findings included:
• Nitrogen was the key nutrient limiting grain yield, with significant yield responses
at all sites and net returns of $120–200/ha compared with nil N applied.
• Oil content significantly decreased (by 1–3%) with additional N at three of the four
sites, but financial impact was more than compensated by yield increases.
• No interaction between N and S was detected at any site. 11
Yield
Key points:
• Significant yield response to N was found at all sites.
• Yield response to N had plateaued at Yallaroi and Bellata but not at Moree and
Blackville.
• No yield response to addition of S was detected at any site.
• There was a yield response to P at both Yallaroi and Bellata.
There was no significant N x S interaction for yield at any trial. The results presented
in Tables 2 and 3 show the main effects of N or S. The factorial experimental design
means that each result for a single rate of N or S is based on 32 individual plots
at Moree and Blackville and 12 plots at Yallaroi and Bellata. The results for yield
response to P (Table 4) and oil content (Tables 5–7) are based on a smaller subset
of treatments at Yallaroi and Bellata with a factorial of two rates of P and three
combinations of N and S. 12
10 GRDC (2014) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, 28 April 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region
11 R Daniel, M Gardner, A Mitchell, R Norton (2013) Canola nutrition: what were the benefits from N, S and P in 2012? GRDC Update Papers, 5 March 2013, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/03/Canola-nutrition-what-were-the-benefits-from-N-S-and-P-in-2012
12 R Daniel, M Gardner, A Mitchell, R Norton (2013) Canola nutrition: what were the benefits from N, S and P in 2012? GRDC Update Papers, 5 March 2013, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/03/Canola-nutrition-what-were-the-benefits-from-N-S-and-P-in-2012
cusin
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Table 2: Grain yield response to different rates of nitrogen addition at four sites
CV, Coefficient of variation. Within columns, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05
Moree Blackville Yallaroi BellataN added (kg N/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
N added (kg N/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
N added (kg N/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
N added (kg N/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
0 0.73d 0 0.99c 34 1.58b 34 1.25b
40 1.08c 50 1.51b 84 1.89a 84 1.40a
80 1.31b 100 1.69b 134 1.91a 134 1.45a
120 1.47a 200 1.99a
l.s.d. (P = 0.05):
0.14 0.19 0.21 0.12
CV 6.4 % 4.8% 14.0% 10.7%
Table 3: Grain yield at different rates of sulfur addition at four sites
There were no significant differences
Moree Blackville Yallaroi BellataS added (kg S/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
S added (kg S/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
S added (kg S/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
S added (kg S/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
1 1.16 1 1.53 1 1.75 1 1.32
11 1.14 11 1.52 16 1.77 16 1.40
21 1.12 21 1.56 31 1.85 31 1.38
41 1.16 41 1.54
Table 4: Grain yield response to different rates of phosphorus addition at two sites
CV, Coefficient of variation. Within columns, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05
Yallaroi BellataP added (kg P/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
P added (kg P/ha)
Grain yield (t/ha)
0 1.54b 0 1.26b20 1.83a 20 1.43a
l.s.d. (P =0.05)
0.19 0.12
CV 12.2% 12.0%
Oil content
Key points:
• Significant reduction in oil content occurred with increasing N rates at three of the
four sites.
• No oil content response was detected to addition of S at any site.
• There was no significant oil content response to addition of P at either site.
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Table 5: Oil content response to different rates of nitrogen application at four sites
Within columns, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
Moree Blackville Yallaroi BellataN added (kg N/ha)
oil content (%)
N added (kg N/ha)
oil content (%)
N added (kg N/ha)
oil content (%)
N added (kg N/ha)
oil content (%)
0 43.9a 0 45.5b 34 44.5 34 47.3a
40 44.3a 50 46.2a 84 44.4 84 46.0b
80 43.2b 100 45.8b 134 44.6 134 44.5c
120 42.3c 200 44.7c
l.s.d. (P = 0.05)
0.5 0.4 n.s. 0.8
Table 6: Oil content at different rates of sulfur at four sites
There were no significant differences
Moree Blackville Yallaroi BellataS added (kg S/ha)
oil content (%)
S added (kg S/ha)
oil content (%)
S added (kg S/ha)
oil content (%)
S added (kg S/ha)
oil content (%)
1 43.6 1 45.5 1 44.4 1 46.0
11 43.6 11 45.6 16 44.6 16 46.0
21 43.7 21 45.6 31 44.5 31 45.7
41 43.7 41 45.6
Table 7: Oil content at different rates of phosphorus addition at two sites
There were no significant differences
Yallaroi BellataP added (kg P/ha)
oil content (%)
P added (kg P/ha)
oil content (%)
0 44.8 0 45.4
20 44.4 20 46.1
Although the Bellata result in Table 7 was not significant (P = 0.11) with respect to
P addition, there was an apparent trend to improved oil content, particularly when
combined with lower N rates (~0.7–0.9% oil content). This may be experimental noise
but appears worthy of further investigation. 13
For more details about the trial sites and experimental design, read the 2013 Update
Paper: Canola nutrition: what were the benefits from N S and P in 2012?
http://www.farmtrials.com.au/
5.4.3 Diagnosing nitrogen deficiency in canolaNitrogen deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency in canola, especially
during cold, wet conditions and in sandy soils in high-rainfall areas. Hybrid varieties
can display leaf purpling with adequate nutrient levels (Figure 3).
13 R Daniel, M Gardner, A Mitchell, R Norton (2013) Canola nutrition: what were the benefits from N, S and P in 2012? GRDC Update Papers, 5 March 2013, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/03/Canola-nutrition-what-were-the-benefits-from-N-S-and-P-in-2012
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Figure 3: Images of nitrogen deficiency in canola.
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What to look for
Paddock
• Plants are smaller and less branched with red to purple or yellow leaves.
• Symptoms are worse in wetter seasons, on lighter soil areas and sometimes on
non-legume header rows.
Plant
• Mildly deficient plants are smaller with paler green and more erect leaves.
Deficient seedlings have reddened cotyledons.
• Oldest leaves develop whitish purple veins and mild purple pigmentation that
starts at the end of the leaf and progresses to the base on both sides of the leaf.
(See Table 8 for conditions with similar leaf symptoms.)
• The whole leaf then turns yellow or pinkish purple. Developing leaves are narrow
and more erect.
• Established plants that become N-deficient develop yellowing on leaf margins that
spreads in toward the midrib between the veins. The midrib becomes discoloured
then the leaf dies.
• From stem elongation, the main stem is thinner and branching is restricted.
Flowering time and pod numbers are reduced.
What else could it be?Table 8: Conditions that result in symptoms similar to nitrogen deficiency
Condition Similarities DifferencesBeet western yellow virus in canola
Purple-red colours spreading from end of oldest leaves
Affected plants are stunted rather than smaller and thinner
Damping off in canola Reddened cotyledons and seedling older leaves
Damping off causes stunted plants with pinched roots or hypocotyls. Often plant death occurs
Sulfur deficiency in canola Purple leaves Sulfur deficiency affects younger leaves the most
Phosphorus deficiency in canola Purplish older leaves Phosphorus-deficient plants have purpling on leaf margin, then the leaf turns bronze
Where does it occur?
Nitrogen deficiency can occur on most soils but is most common in the following
situations:
• cold, wet conditions that slow N mineralisation and uptake of N
• soils with very low organic matter
• after high rainfall on sandy soils, which can result in nitrogen leaching
Management strategies
• Nitrogen fertiliser or foliar spray can be applied. However only N can be absorbed
through the leaf so you will still be reliant on rainfall to move the nitrogen into the
root zone, economics of liquid vs solid fertilisers should be taken into account.
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• There is a risk of volatilisation loss from urea or nitrate sources of N. Loss is
greatest from dry alkaline soils with dewy conditions, but new GRDC-funded
research shows this may not be as high as traditionally thought. 14
• The yield potential for canola is established during stem elongation and the
budding stage, so all N should be applied before this stage of growth (8–10
weeks).
• Unlike cereals, canola does not ‘hay off’ when too much N has been applied, but
N reduces oil content, particularly with late application.
Nitrogen volatilisation: Factors affecting how much N is lost and how much is left over
time
How can it be monitored? Tissue test
• Use whole top-of-plant test to diagnose suspected deficiency. Critical N levels
vary with plant age and size, but as a rough guide, 2.7% (seedling) to 3.2%
(rosette) indicates deficiency.
• Nitrogen soil testing by itself is of little value for most soils.
• Models that combine Nitrate, Ammonium, soil organic carbon, soil type and
legume history are valuable for N fertiliser calculation.
• Leaf-colour symptoms are not a reliable guide for hybrid varieties. 15
5.5 Phosphorus
Research in northern NSW has shown that P application is more critical for canola
than for wheat grown under the same conditions. Results have consistently shown
greater responses to P in canola than wheat, and responses have occurred in
situations where wheat has not responded. Hence, it is critical that P be applied to
canola unless soil tests indicate that the soil is well supplied with this nutrient. 16
With grain removal of ~10 kg P/ha, application of ~15–20 kg P/ha appears warranted
from both an agronomic and a financial viewpoint. 17
For more details about the trial sites and experimental design, read the 2013 Update
Paper: Canola nutrition: what were the benefits from N S and P in 2012?
14 G. Schwenke, Nitrogen volatilisation: Factors affecting how much N is lost and how much is left over time (2014), http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/07/Factors-affecting-how-much-N-is-lost-and-how-much-is-left-over-time
15 DAFWA (2015) Diagnosing nitrogen deficiency in canola. Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia, https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/mycrop/diagnosing-nitrogen-deficiency-canola
16 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: Northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
17 GRDC (2014) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, 28 April 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region/Details
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Figure 4: Severe phosphorus deficiency showing plant stunting and delayed maturity. (Photo: R. Colton, NSW DPI)
5.5.1 Role and deficiency symptomsPhosphorus plays an important role in the storage and use of energy within the plant.
Lack of P restricts root development (resulting in weaker plants) and delays maturity
(Figure 4), both of which affect yield potential and seed oil content, particularly in dry
spring conditions. Low P levels also restrict the plant’s ability to respond to N. Even a
mild deficiency can significantly reduce plant growth without any symptoms. In cases
of severe deficiency, the older leaves will often appear dull blue or purple (Figure 5).
Phosphorus is a very mobile nutrient within the plant, and if a deficiency occurs, it
moves rapidly from older leaves to the young leaves or developing pods.
Figure 5: Phosphorus deficiency shows as distinct pink purpling of the tips and margins of older leaves. (Photo: P. Hocking, CSIRO)
Fertiliser placement
In the soil, P is immobile, so fertiliser should be banded close to the seed at sowing.
This ensures that the developing seedling is able to take up a good supply during the
early growth stage when requirement for P is at its highest. Many soils (particularly
if exchangeable Al is present) are able to tie up P, making it unavailable to plants.
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Banding the fertiliser can reduce the amount of P tied up because less fertiliser is in
contact with the soil than occurs with broadcasting.
Phosphorus fertiliser banded above and below the seed gives better yield responses
than P broadcast before sowing. In sandy soils, which are prone to drying in the
surface layer, banding some of the fertiliser below the seed at sowing may improve
the efficiency of P uptake.
Phosphorus requirements
If a wheat crop responds to P, then a rate at least equivalent should be used when
sowing canola at that site. Topdressing is ineffective, so it is important to get the P
rate right at sowing. A maintenance application of 7–8 kg P/ha is needed for every
tonne of canola you expect to harvest.
If a soil-test indicates a high soil P level, then lower rates of P could be applied. In
some situations, where soil P levels are very high, it may be uneconomic to apply
P. If more is applied than is removed by the grain, it will be added to the soil P bank
and may be available for following crops or pastures to utilise. However, a significant
proportion (up to 50%) of applied fertiliser P can ultimately become ‘fixed’ into organic
and inorganic forms that are largely unavailable for crop uptake in the short-medium
term but can add to the P pool in the longer term with a proportion of the P becoming
available over time.
Depending on your location there are a few laboratory analysis available for P. The
Olsen P test (Bicarb) is often recommended on acid soils. The Colwell P test is more
useful on alkaline clay soils, however each of these tests only measures a proportion
of the P status of a soil. The Phosphorus Buffering Index is also important as it can
indicate how available the phosphorus in the soil is to plants, whilst the BSES-P
is recommended as a baseline of the pool P status. Using a qualified soil nutrition
advisor will help you decide which tests are applicable on your soil type.
If tests indicate <20 mg/kg, then P is considered low (depending on soil type and
rainfall) and a response is likely. If the soil P level is high (>40 mg/kg P) a response to
P is less likely, unless the soil is acidic (pHCa <4.8) and has a low cation exchange
capacity (<5 cmol(+)/kg); in such cases, significant yield responses have been
obtained in southern NSW. Soil P tests are less reliable in low-rainfall zones or on
alkaline soils, and so a nutrient budget is better for making P fertiliser decisions. A
Colwell P level of ~40 mg/kg provides opportunity for some seasonal adjustment to
fertiliser rates. 18
18 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
i More information
Economics and
management of P
nutrition and multiple
nutrient decline
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5.6 Sulfur
Traditional thought was that canola requires about 10 kg sulfate-S/t grain. The
standard recommendation in southern NSW is to apply 25–30 kg sulfate-S/ha.
However, while the standard ‘rule of thumb’ has been commonly extended on
northern clay soils as early as 1992, commercial trials indicated a lower requirement
on soil types that have naturally occurring gypsum at depth, typically the grey and
black clay soils. This was identified in a deep (60–90 cm) soil test.
Under these conditions it was still recommended that 10 kg sulfate-S/ha was
required to supply crop requirements until the crop roots accessed deep soil S.
Sulfate-S is best applied before or at planting. Sulfur-deficient canola responds well to
topdressing and economic responses have been recorded up to the flowering stage in
salvage situations. 19
Unwarranted applications of ≥20 kg S/ha are reducing the profitability of some canola
crops, and rates should be reviewed to maintenance levels of 4 kg S/t grain removed.
If soil levels are adequate, this may be reduced even further. 20
5.6.1 The new paradigm in canola nutritionNGA and Grain Orana Alliance (GOA) Researchers: ‘Current recommendations
consider S to be non-negotiable and N applications more seasonally dependent. This
approach needs to be reversed; S application needs to be more prescriptive in it use
and refocus our attentions and redirect our expenditure on getting our N rates right.’
Key points:
• Five years of trials by GOA failed to demonstrate a consistent response to the
addition of S for yield or oil content. Numerous recent trials by other organisations
have also failed to demonstrate responses to S in canola.
• Sulfur deficiency occurs in canola and can be quite severe, but the frequency of
such deficiency is most likely lower than thought and it can be rectified early in
the crop without ongoing penalty.
• Unwarranted applications of 20 kg S/ha are reducing the profitability of some
canola crops and rates should be reviewed to maintenance levels of 4 kg S/t grain
removed. If soil levels are adequate, this may be reduced even further.
• Canola is more frequently responsive to N applications and at least some
expenditure on fertiliser may be better redirected from S to N applications.
• Soil-test critical levels for S are uncalibrated, are most likely too high, and should
be reviewed. 21
19 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
20 GRDC (2014) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, 28 April 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region/Details
21 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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Reducing rates of sulfur fertiliser
When considering fertilising canola, its requirement for S distinguishes it from most
other field crops. As such, S is often the first nutrient addressed after starter P
fertiliser applications in fertiliser programs, and the requirement for N then follows.
More than 20 trials run over three seasons, mentioned above, have failed to
demonstrate responses to added S in either yield or oil percentage. Average crop
removal rates do not support the requirement of 20 kg S/ha universally.
Given this scenario, reducing the current recommended practice (CRP) of 20 kg S/ha
to rates that more closely match crop yields and subsequent removal rates would be
a more economical approach, whilst being sustainable in the longer term.
However, the lack of response to S in recent trials raises the possibility of completely
removing intended S applications, as it is done in wheat. Because there is often no
yield or oil percentage response, profitability in the short term will only decline with
any additions of S.
If growers are to take this approach, soil tests may be still useful to predict potential
responsiveness when using removal rates. If soil levels and subsequent calculations
of soil-available S outstrip the predicted conservative crop requirements of 4–5 kg S/t
crop potential, the likelihood of crop responses or a deficient situation developing is
low.
In situations where no S is applied, growers do risk deficiencies developing despite
prediction to the contrary. The frequency of such a deficiency based on recent trial
work is low but not zero. If deficiency is identified prior to stem elongation and S
is applied, research by Hocking et al. (1996) has shown that both final yield and oil
percentage will not be penalised. 22
5.6.2 GRDC Grain orana Alliance (GoA) researchCanola has been generally accepted as having high requirements for S, much higher
than wheat. Sulfur deficiency was first identified in 1988 and 1989, but was only noted
as a significant problem in 1990 (Coulton and Sykes 1992). Deficient situations lead to
significant yield and oil penalties where it occurred.
In 2010, GOA established four trial sites to investigate the effect of S fertiliser form
and timing on canola performance, in particular, on final seed oil percentage. None of
the trials demonstrated any response to S fertiliser in terms of yield or oil percentage,
regardless of form or timing.
Following this result, GOA questioned why responses were not seen despite
prediction that three of the sites would respond. Was it because of changes in our
22 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
cusin
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farming systems, a consequence of the trial season being one of the wettest on
record, or because our understanding of S nutrition of canola and its occurrence was
incorrect?
In 2011 and 2012, GOA established eight and four trials, respectively, to improve
our understanding and better identify situations where S deficiency or responses will
occur. None of these trials showed any responses to S in yield or oil percentage.
During this period, several other agencies also conducted trials investigating S
nutrition in canola. These trials too have failed to realise any responses to S.
The results from these recent trials should challenge our understanding and approach
to S nutrition in canola, in particular:
• the frequency and likelihood of deficiencies in the Central West of NSW
• critical soil test levels
• grain removal rates and nutrient budgeting
• new approaches to S nutrition in canola 23
Background
Unreliable yields and crop failures of canola in the late 1980s and early 1990s
were suspected to be due to S deficiency. Consequently, a series of 14 trials was
established in 1992 in collaboration with CSIRO, University of New England, Incitec
and NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI). These trials investigated whether
there was an interaction of N and S, and whether higher N rates were exacerbating S
deficiency (Sykes 1990).
A report by ACIL Consulting (1998) states that the trials’ responses in 1992–93 were
‘dramatic’, particularly when following pasture. It also states that the trial collaborators
reported from the series of trials that ‘applying 20–30 kg/ha is sufficient to achieve
maximum yields’ and is ‘the best practice for maximising yield with the least risk
versus cost trade off’. Probably, all subsequent recommendations for S application to
canola in most industry resources are sourced from this statement.
This recommendation was widely adopted and is still accepted, as quoted in the 2009
Canola best management practice guide for south-eastern Australia:
‘All paddocks sown to canola should receive 20 kg/ha of sulfur in the form of available
sulfate. On lighter soil with a history of deficiency symptoms, increase rates to 30 kg/ha.’
This practice will be referred to as the CRP. The adoption of this recommendation
was rapid; it was estimated that even before the completion of the trials, 90% of
canola was receiving the additional levels of S recommended. A key factor supporting
this rate of adoption was that the relatively low cost of S fertilisers at the time was
outweighed by the risk of penalty in deficient situations (ACIL Consulting 1998).
23 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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During the same period in the early 1990s, the KCl-40 soil test for S was introduced
and was adopted as a more appropriate test method than the existing MCP (mono-
calcium phosphate) method; however, this superiority was demonstrated primarily on
pasture sites (ACIL Consulting 1998)
The KCl-40 test was then widely used for estimating soil S levels, particularly for
canola. Very little literature was available for NSW until Anderson et al. (2013) reviewed
past trial yield performance against soil tests. Presumably, soil critical levels were
based upon values extrapolated from critical levels for pasture situations and/or
simply on the base blanket recommendations of 20–30 kg S/ha.
Trials conducted by CL Mullen and SJ Druce between 1993 and 1998 demonstrated
that responses to S were not common on heavy grey soils of upper central NSW,
owing to S contained in the subsoil. Because of this work, S fertiliser is not commonly
applied on these soil types, but all other soils in the GOA region commonly still receive
the standard 20 kg S/ha.
More recently, research by Khan et al. (2011) has questioned the suitability of gypsum
as a source of S for growing of canola compared with sulfate of ammonia (SOA).
Gypsum is a commonly used fertiliser in the GOA region, and perhaps this was
contributing to lower oil percentages in the region’s crops and/or suppressing yields
because of S deficiencies.
This was the basis of four trials run by GOA in 2010 investigating sources of S and
timing of applications. None of the trials showed response to S in any form or with any
timing despite predictions by soil analysis and experience to the contrary. This work is
briefed in Sulfur nutrition in canola—gypsum vs. sulphate of ammonia and application
timings (Street 2011).
Following this outcome and other questions raised in above-mentioned paper,
GOA continued the research. Trial design was revised to replicate better the earlier
trials, with the simple aims of quantifying a response and helping to build on the
predictability of response. 24
24 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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Recent findings
Tables 9–15 summarise the findings from recent trials investigating S responses in
canola. 25
GOA trials
2010
Four sites were selected in winter 2010 across the GOA region. Three sites were
identified through recent KCl-40 soil tests as being low–moderate in S. The fourth site
was deemed adequate in S by way of KCl-40 soil tests.
Table 9: Canola yield and oil percentage in response to applied sulfur fertiliser, GOA 2010
Calculated S total = (KCl-40 x bulk density x depth). Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
Site Total S 0–60 cm (kg/ha)
Site av. yield (t/ha)
Yield response to S
oil % response to S
Nyngan 1.4 kg 2.5 n.s. n.s. .
Narromine 85 kg 2.2 n.s n.s
Curban 39 kg 2.8 n.s n.s
Wellington 23 kg 2.2 n.s n.s
Treatments addressed three rates of S applied: 0, 15 or 30 kg/ha, in two forms
(gypsum or SOA), applied at five different timings from pre-seeding to early flowering.
There was no significant difference between any treatment and the untreated control
for yield or oil percentage as assessed by ANOVA (Table 9).
2011
Four plot-sown sites and four farmer-sown replicated trials were established in 2011.
All sites were selected for low soil S.
The small-plot trial protocol was changed in 2011 to a full factorial trial design with
two N rates (50 and 100 kg N/ha) and five S rates (0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 kg S/ha). All
fertiliser treatments were predrilled immediately prior to sowing. The S was supplied in
the form of granular SOA (20% N, 24% S) and the N rates adjusted using urea (46%
N).
Oil percentage was not available for this set of trials. Yield results were analysed by
factorial analysis (Table 10).
25 M Street (2013) Sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 26 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Sulfur-strategy-to-improve-profitability-in-canola-in-the-central-west-of-NSW
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Table 10: Canola yield response to increasing applied sulfur or nitrogen fertiliser, GOA 2011
Calculated N or S total = (soil test value x bulk density x depth). Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
SiteTotal N 0–70 cm
(kg/ha)Total S 0–70 cm
(kg/ha)Trial av.
yield
Yield response
N S
Geurie 62 35 1.68 +0.28 t/ha n.s.
Curban 37 40.4 0.84 +0.3t/Ha n.s.
Warren 39 30.1 0.97 +0.26 t/ha n.s.
Narromine 44 42 2.03 n.s.
There was no response to added S in yield or oil percentage. Three of the sites
demonstrated strong positive, statistically significant responses to increased N rates
from 50 to 100 kg/ha. Yield responses were an increase of 18% at Geurie, 32% at
Warren and 42% at Curban.
The four farmer-sown trials were small-plot replicated trials. The trials were
established on farmer-sown paddocks on soils of low S background. These trials were
designed only to provide further support to the more comprehensive, plot-sown trials,
and treatments were reduced to plus and minus S.
The treatments were broadcast ahead of rain during the vegetative stage and
comprised: no N or S added (control); S added in the form of SOA at 100 kg/ha (21 kg
N and 24 kg S/ha); N added as urea at 45 kg/ha (21 kg N/ha) to supply the equivalent
amount of N contained in the SOA treatment. The outcomes analysed by ANOVA are
presented in Table 11.
Table 11: Canola yield and oil percentage in response to applied sulfur or nitrogen fertiliser, GOA 2011
Calculated S total = (soil test value x bulk density x depth). SOA, Sulfate of ammonia. Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
SiteTotal soil S
(kg/ha)Trial average
yield (t/ha) Yield effect oil effectWongarbon No S applied in
14 years1.7 n.s. n.s.
Coolah Black 33 0.9 Urea or SOA suppressed yield
over control
n.s.
Coolah Red 31 1.06 n.s. n.s.
Arthurville 24 2.3 n.s. n.s.
The only interaction achieved in these trials was a reduction in yield to applied S at
Coolah Black. This reduction, however, was achieved with both urea and SOA, so
it may have been primarily due to the added N in both treatments, not the S. The
resulting reduction in yield could be attributed to the dry conditions in late winter and
spring experienced in 2011 at this site and over-fertilisation with N, supported by the
low average trial yield.
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2012
GOA repeated the same plot-sown protocol employed in 2011 on a further four sites
in 2012. Yield and oil percentage results were analysed by factorial analysis (ANOVA)
with the outcome listed in Table 12.
Table 12: Yield and oil percentage in response to increasing applied sulfur or nitrogen fertiliser, GOA 2012
Calculated N or S total = (soil test value x bulk density x depth). Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
Site
Total N 0–70 cm (kg/ha)
Total S 0–70cm (kg/ha)
Trial average
yield (t/ha)
Yield responseoil %
response
N S N S
Narromine 75 18.3 2.79 n.s. n.s.
Curban 88 33.8 1.27 n.s. n.s.
Wellington N 32 37 0.61 + 0.13 t/ha n.s. n.s.
Wellington S 71 50 1.4 + 0.1 t/ha n.s. n.s.
In 2012, there was no response to added S in yield or oil percentage. In two of the
trials there was a significant yield response to increasing the N from 50 to 100 kg/ha.
At the Wellington N site, yield was increased by 24% with the increased N rate, and at
Wellington S, by 7%. 26
DPI collaborative trials 2012
In 2012, in collaboration with the NSW DPI, two trials were undertaken at Trangie and
Coonamble. The trials were a factorial design with four N rates (0, 25, 50 and 100 kg/
ha) and four S rates (0, 10, 20 and 30 kg/ha) and two canola varieties, Pioneer 43C80
and Pioneer 44Y84, sown at the Trangie site, but only Pioneer 44Y84 sown at the
Coonamble site. Yield and oil percentage results were analysed by factorial analysis
(ANOVA) with the outcome listed in Table 13.
Table 13: Canola yield and oil percentage in response to increasing applied sulfur or nitrogen fertiliser, NSW DPI/GOA 2012
Calculated N or S total = (soil test value x bulk density x depth). Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
Site
Total N 0–90 cm (kg/ha)
Total S 0–90 cm (kg/ha)
Trial average
yield (t/ha)
Yield response oil % responseN S N S
Coonamble 73 20 2.56 n.s. n.s.
Trangie 113 141 1.81 + 0.35 t/ha n.s. –1.60% n.s.
At the Coonamble site there was no response to the addition of N or S in either yield
or oil percentage. The Trangie site showed no significant response to S in yield or
oil percentage, but that would not be expected given the soil S levels. There were
significant responses to N in yield and oil percentage. Increasing N rates increased
26 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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yields but decreased oil percentage. There was a significant variety response, with
44Y84 outperforming 43C80 in both yield and oil percentage (data not presented). 27
DPI northern region trials 2012
NSW DPI established two trials in northern NSW investigating N and S interactions.
The trials were a factorial design with four N rates of 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha at Moree
and 0, 50, 100 and 200 kg/ha at Blackville, both with four S rates of 0, 11, 21 and
41 kg/ha and two canola varieties. Nitrogen was applied as urea with S applied as
granulated gypsum applied pre-sowing.
Yield and oil percentage results were analysed by factorial analysis (ANOVA) with the
outcome listed in Table 14.
Table 14: Canola yield and oil percentage in response to increasing applied sulfur or nitrogen fertiliser, DPI 2012
Calculated N or S total = (soil test value x bulk density x depth). Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
Site
Total N 0–90 cm (kg/ha)
Total S 0–90 cm (kg/ha)
Trial av. yield (t/ha)
Yield response oil % responseN S N S
Blackville 28 130 1.54 +1 t/ha n.s. –0.79% n.s.
Moree 46 94 1.15 +0.74 t/ha n.s. –1.60% n.s.
There was no response to added S at either site in yield or oil percentage, as would be
expected with such high levels of soil S. Both sites responded strongly to the addition
of N; the yield response was positive and the oil percentage response negative.
NGA trials 2012
NGA established two trials in 2012 to investigate nutrition of canola in the northern
region. The trials investigated the interaction of N and S as well as P. The trials were a
factorial design with three N rates of 34, 84 and 134 kg/ha and three S rates of 1, 16
and 31 kg/ha. Nitrogen was applied as urea with S applied as Gran Am (SOA) pre-
sowing.
Yield and oil percentage results were analysed by factorial analysis (ANOVA) with the
outcome listed in Table 15.
Table 15: Canola yield and oil percentage in response to increasing applied sulfur or nitrogen fertiliser, NGA 2012
Calculated N or S total = (soil test value x bulk density x depth). Statistical analyses are reported at P = 0.05; n.s., not significant
Site
Total N 0–90 cm (kg/ha)
Total S 0–90 cm (kg/ha)
Trial av. yield (t/ha)
Yield response oil % responseN S N S
Bellata 69 164 1.37 +0.15 t/ha n.s. –2.80% n.s.
Yallaroi 30 NA 1.79 +0.31 t/ha n.s. n.s.
27 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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There was no response to added S at either site in yield or oil percentage. At both
sites, there was a positive yield response to increasing N rates, 13% at Bellata and
20% at Yallaroi. At Bellata, there was a negative response to increased N rates in oil
percentage. The Bellata site responded to added P; at the Yallaroi site there was a
non-significant trend to increase with added P (data not presented). 28
Central West Farming Systems (CWFS)
CWFS have undertaken several trials at their regional sites investigating canola S
nutrition over a number of seasons. Unfortunately, individual trial data are not yet
available, but personal comments by John Small of CWFS regarding the trials over
recent seasons are as follows:
‘There has been no clear or statistically significant response to the addition of S in
terms of yield or oil performance in canola over a number of trials by CWFS over
recent seasons.’
Readers should seek further clarification and data from CWFS concerning these trials.
The outcomes will be valuable to farmers in the Central West because the trials were
generally undertaken on red soils of the region, which are more likely to respond than
the heavier soils of the northern regions. 29
http://cwfs.org.au/regional-sites/
Discussion
As indicated above, there has been no response to S in terms of yield or oil
percentage in recent trial work. This work has been undertaken by several agencies
across a range of soil types and three seasons. It should also be noted that all but one
of GOA’s trial sites were selected specifically for low soil S levels and were predicted
to be responsive.
Why have responses not been achieved?
The CRP is that all canola paddocks should receive S fertiliser. However, of the
original work that formed this recommendation, only six of the 14 sites showed a yield
response to S and only three an oil percentage response (Sykes 1990). Many of these
sites did not respond despite prediction by soil tests.
The most commonly reported trial was at the Wellington site, where yields increased
from 1 to 4 t/ha with the addition of S. At this site, 75% of the site maximum yield was
achieved at an application rate of 10 kg S/ha, and 92% at 20 kg S/ha. A similar result
was demonstrated at Baradine, but these could be described as the two most severe
documented cases of S deficiency.
28 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
29 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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Many of the other responsive sites did not realise such a magnitude of improvement.
At the Gollan site at the rate of 40 kg N/ha, increasing S from 0 to 20 kg/ha increased
yields by only 590 kg. At 80 kg N/ha, there was a 325 kg/ha improvement by
increasing the S rate from 0 to 20 kg/ha. At the Junee Reefs and Tamworth sites, a
maximum response was achieved of ~400 kg/ha. These would still be worthy and
economic responses at today’s fertiliser prices, but the penalties are nowhere near the
extent often promoted.
The ACIL Consulting (1998) report also mentions other previous work from 1990,
commenting, ‘A major field study of canola in NSW reported significant grain yield
increases from the addition of N but no significant responses to S (Sykes and Coulton,
1990)’.
The more recent work detailed above shows no response to the addition of S over 3
years and in a range of soils predicted to respond.
In summary, the frequency of response to added S is quite low; considering the trials
detailed above, <14% of trial sites were responsive (excluding the field study of 1990
and those of CWFS).
Industry-accepted grain-removal rates used in nutrient budgets may also lend support
to the CRP. Current industry references suggest that removal rates are 10 kg S/t grain
and that crop requirements of canola are much higher than of wheat (Coulton et al.
1992).
Analysis of grain samples from the GOA and NGA trial work has shown that grain
removal is much lower than these levels. Janzen and Bettany (1994), Pinkerton et
al. (1993) and Hocking et al. (1996) all measured grain S contents in their range of
experiments. Grain S levels no greater than ~0.5% or 5 kg S/t grain were measured,
even in treatments with adequate S. In many cases, the S levels were even lower,
resulting in them being less than half of the industry benchmarks.
When considering this information for formulating crop requirements and fertiliser
programs, there may be little difference in requirements between wheat and canola.
For example, an average wheat yield for the GOA region may be 3 t/ha, removing ~1.8
kg S/t or 5.4 kg S/ha. Canola generally performs at 50% of comparable wheat yields,
so 1.5 t/ha removing 3.6 kg S/t (critical threshold, Hocking et al. 1996) will remove
only 5.4 kg S/ha, or similar amounts to the wheat crop.
So, as a possible explanation of the lack of responsiveness in all of these trials, the
sites were simply predicted to respond when in fact that was not likely; there was
adequate S contained in the soil profile and subsequent mineralisation to satisfy crop
demands, a demand much lower than previously understood.
For example, using the highest achieved yield in the GOA trials of ~ 2.8 t/ha, the
crop removal rate would be 9.8 kg/ha. If we assumed an arbitrary uptake or transfer
efficiency of 50%, the crop would have a growing requirement of only 20 kg/ha. All of
the sites detailed in this paper would have satisfied this requirement with starting soil
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levels and only a minimal amount of mineralisation; no additional fertiliser would be
required.
So, what is the critical soil level to indicate when S addition may be required? To
supply this requirement of 20 kg S/ha, a soil KCl-40 test would have a critical level of
~2.3 mg/kg averaged in the top 60 cm of soil. If this were indeed the soil critical level,
few cropping soils would be lower. 30
Re-focus investment on nitrogen instead of sulfur
By contrast, the majority of all trials have demonstrated response to N. Twelve of the
14 trials undertaken in 1992 resulted in significant and economic responses, with an
average increase in response to 80 kg N/ha of 600 kg/ha (Sykes 1990). Of the two
trials that did not show a response, one was following 5 years of grass-free legume-
based pasture, and the other was compromised by frost, resulting in a high coefficient
of variation.
Three of four GOA trials in 2011 responded significantly to increasing N application
from 50 to 100 kg/ha. The average yield increase over the three sites was 280 kg/
ha, returning around 200% on investment. Two of GOA’s trials in 2012 also returned
a significant yield response to increasing N. Returns were much lower with the dry
spring conditions, with the yield increases only breaking even after additional costs.
Trials by NGA in 2012 demonstrated a 13% yield increase or ~150 kg/ha (break-even)
by increasing N from 34 to 84 kg/ha in one trial. The second site saw an increase yield
of 20% or ~310 kg/ha, resulting in approximately a 200% return on investment.
It should be noted that the GOA and NGA trials did not have nil N treatments, but they
were all clearly N-responsive sites.
In the NSW DPI–GOA trials in 2012, treatments of nil N were included, and this allows
a response curve to be generated. The Trangie site showed strong responses to N,
with yield increasing by 0.35 t/ha or 21% by increasing N from 0 to 100 kg/ha. The
economics of such applications are demonstrated in Figure 6.
30 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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Figure 6:
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200 200%
160%
120%
80%
40%
0%N-0 N-25 N-50 N-100
Gro
ss in
com
e $
RO
I
c bc b a
Canola yield performance in relation to applied nitrogen rate and the corresponding return on investment (ROI), Trangie. Columns headed by the same letter are not significantly different. (Source: NSW DPI–GOA 2012)
Although the starting soil N at this site was high at 113 kg/ha, yield and resultant
gross income increased almost in a linear response, and the treatments have not
demonstrated a clear upper limit. The responsiveness of canola to high rates of N is
reinforced at three other sites detailed in Figure 7; again there was no clear indication
of a yield plateau even up to 200 kg N/ha.
Therefore, although canola will tend to respond to increasing N, the return on
investment declined beyond the 25 kg/N rate but remained positive. This is only
one trial in a dry spring, but it demonstrates that the most economical rate is not
necessarily the point of yield maximisation. The economically optimum N rates may
be different for each situation.
Determining the optimal N rate for canola through deep soil tests coupled with yield
forecasting is one approach and probably the most reliable.
It is worth noting that increasing N rates may have the effect of reducing oil
percentage, as demonstrated in the Trangie, Bellata, Blackville and the Moree trials
(Figure 7). Many of the trials from 1992 also showed statistically significant reductions
in oil content from increased N rates. Increased N can lead to increased protein, and
the relationship of protein to oil percentage is inverse, which can result in depressed
levels of oil. However, in all cases the increased yield more than adequately offset this
loss. 31
31 M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
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Figure 7:
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
47
46
45
44
43
42N-0 N-50 N-100 N-200
Nitrogen rate
Yie
ld t
/ha
Blackville, 2012Yieldoil %
oil
%
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
45
44
43
42
41
38
39
40
N-0 N-25 N-50 N-100Nitrogen rate
Yie
ld t
/ha
Trangie, 2012Yieldoil %
oil
%
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
45
44
43
42N-0 N-40 N-80 N-120
Nitrogen rate
Yie
ld t
/ha
Moree, 2012Yieldoil %
oil
%
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
50
48
46
44
42N-34 N-84 N-134
Nitrogen rate
Yie
ld t
/ha
Bellata, 2012Yieldoil %
oil
%
Canola yield and oil percentage performance demonstrating the inverse relationship to applied nitrogen. (Source: NSW DPI/NGA/GOA 2012)
Summary
Twenty trials have recently been undertaken across several seasons and locations in
NSW. None has demonstrated S responses in yield or oil percentage. This does not
preclude deficiency and yield penalties from occurring but does highlight that the
frequency and the likelihood is not high.
The results from the trial work in 1992 and the ensuing extension message regarding
the need for S may have lost their original perspective. Within the original reports, the
data suggested that N was paramount to achieving maximum profitability for canola in
nearly all cases. The data also suggested that, in only some cases, canola responded
to S as well.
The one extension message that persisted was that all canola crops needed 20 kg
S/ha, and sometimes more. The then lower cost of S fertiliser and the significant
penalties seen in deficient situations meant that this recommendation was adopted
rapidly, needed or not. Declining terms of trade over the last 20 years do not allow for
such a potentially wasteful approach.
Through the efforts of GOA, several shortcomings in the understanding of canola
agronomy have been highlighted. Removal rates are over-estimated and the lack of
calibrated soil critical levels is a major problem. Rectification in both of these areas
may improve the predictability of S responsiveness.
With the reduced frequency of response and considering the reviewed S demand of
canola, the CRP may need revision to match more closely the S removal rates. This
will result in increased profitability and sustainability for growers.
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Removal of S from fertiliser programs may be risky but will prove most profitable in
many cases. However, wheat, which has a similar S requirement per hectare and
is predominantly fertilised with mono- or di-ammonium phosphate (containing only
minimal S), is not noted to suffer yield impacts through S deficiencies. It should also
be remembered that deficient situations are easily corrected by in-crop applications.
There is a strong case for the savings in expenditure on S to be redirected to N, where
a response is much more common. However, the optimal rate of N may need to be
revisited or targeted through soil tests and nutrient budgets to ensure that return on
investment is also maximised, not simply the yield. 32
5.7 Potassium
An adequate supply of potassium (K) is important to provide plants with increased
resistance to disease, frost and drought, as well as increased carbohydrate
production. Canola crops take up large amounts of K during growth but most of it
remains in the stubble, with only a small proportion removed in the grain.
Although soil tests, especially the balance of exchangeable cations, can provide a
guide to the K level, tissue tests are the most reliable method to determine whether
K fertiliser is needed. Avoid sowing potassium fertiliser with the seed; it could affect
germination. 33
32 M Street (2013) Sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 26 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Sulphur-strategy-to-improve-profitability-in-canola-in-the-central-west-of-NSW
33 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
i More information
Canola research insight
for Trangie farmer
Review of sulfur
strategy
Sulfur strategy to
improve profitability
in-canola in the Central
West of NSW
Sulfur nutrition in
canola—gypsum vs
sulphate of ammonia
and application timing
Sulphur in northern
Vertosols
i More information
Do we need to revisit
potassium
Economics and
management of P
nutrition and multiple
nutrient decline
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5.8 Micronutrients
5.8.1 ZincAlthough canola is a non-mycorrhizal crop, it requires zinc (Zn) on alkaline soils. The
precise level of response in northern NSW is not known, but in the absence of better
information, use wheat guidelines.
Zinc is best applied to the soil and thoroughly incorporated, but if this is not possible,
apply it with starter fertiliser and place 2.5 cm beside and below the seed at planting.
Zinc is highly competiative with soil moisture and the seed at planting so should not
be added in the seed line.
Foliar spraying of zinc sulfate heptahydrate at 1 kg/ha plus wetting agent is an
alternative application method if sprayed twice to deficient crops at 3 and 5 weeks
after emergence. Zinc sulfate is incompatible with most herbicides and insecticides.
Zinc seed treatments are not normally applied to canola, because insufficient Zn will
be applied with the low seeding rate used. 34
Deficiency symptoms
Zinc deficiency appears in crops as poor plant vigour, with areas of poorer growth
alongside healthy, apparently normal plants, giving the crop a patchy appearance
(Figure 8). Although there are few reports of Zn deficiency in canola, growers should
be cautious. Zinc is routinely applied to the clay soils of northern NSW.
Zinc deficiencies can occur in the following situations:
• in strongly alkaline soils, pHCa >7.0
• with high P levels
• after long periods of fallow
• following land-forming where alkaline subsoil is exposed
Other major and trace elements apart from Zn may also need special consideration in
land-formed paddocks. 35
Fertiliser strategies
Where responses to Zn are known to occur, incorporate Zn into the soil before sowing
canola. In northern NSW and irrigation areas, broadcast rates of 10–20 kg Zn/ha are
common where summer crops such as maize and sorghum are also grown. These
rates supply enough Zn for ≥5 years.
On alkaline soils in south-western NSW, Zn is applied at 2–3 kg/ha every 3–5 years,
usually as Zn-supplemented fertiliser at sowing.
34 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
35 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Zinc oxide is the cheapest and most concentrated form of Zn and it is usually
broadcast with fertiliser to ensure an even application. However, it is not water-
soluble and is not an effective means of adding Zn if a quick response is required.
When coated onto fertiliser, zinc oxide can flake off, resulting in problems with
distribution. Foliar sprays are a short-term correction only and need to be applied
before symptoms are obvious, soon after crop emergence or if Zn deficiency has been
identified through tissue analysis. 36
Figure 8: Zinc deficiency appears as bronzing on the upper leaf surface and may occur in neutral to alkaline soils. (Photo: B. Holloway, SARDI)
5.8.2 Molybdenum
Role and deficiency symptoms
Molybdenum (Mo) is important in enabling plants to convert nitrates from the soil
into a usable form within the plant. Deficiency is more common when soil acidity falls
(pHCa <5.5) but is difficult to diagnose other than by a tissue test. Deficiency can
be avoided by applying Mo at a rate of 50 g/ha every 5 years. The most common
practice is the application of 150 g/ha of the soluble form sodium molybdate (39%
Mo) sprayed onto the soil surface. Molybdenum is compatible with pre-emergent
herbicides and can be thoroughly incorporated into the soil before sowing. 37
Fertiliser requirements
Although fertilisers containing Mo can be used at sowing, the concentration of Mo
they contain is less than recommended and they are more expensive than using
sodium molybdate.
36 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
37 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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Molybdenum-treated single superphosphate applied during the pasture phase is cost-
effective and it should supply enough Mo for the canola crop. 38
5.8.3 MagnesiumIn recent years, magnesium (Mg) deficiency has been reported in a number of
seedling crops. As the crop grows and develops a deeper root system, the deficiency
symptoms disappear because most soils have adequate Mg deeper in the profile.
Low surface levels of Mg are probably due to low levels of sulfonylurea herbicide
residues and the harvesting of subterranean clover hay, where large quantities of Mg
are exported from the paddock.
Lime–dolomite blends can be used when liming acid soils if there is a history of
deficiency symptoms, and other dry and foliar applied fertilisers are available. 39
5.8.4 CalciumCalcium (Ca) is important in plants because it assists in strengthening cell walls,
thereby giving strength to plant tissues. Calcium is not readily transferred from
older to younger tissue within a plant, so if a deficiency occurs it is first seen in the
youngest stems, which wither and die, giving rise to the term ‘withertop’ to describe
Ca deficiency (Figure 9).
Calcium deficiency is not common but it can occur in acid soils, especially if the level
of exchangeable Ca is low. The use of lime (calcium carbonate) on acid soils and
gypsum on sodic soils has meant only an intermittent occurrence of ‘withertop’ in
canola. 40
Figure 9: Death of the canola flower head from calcium deficiency. (Photo: D. McCaffery, NSW DPI)
38 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
39 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
40 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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5.9 Toxicity
The most effective treatment for Al and Mn toxicity (Figure 10) is liming to raise the soil
pH to >5.0. Lime rates depend on the pH to depth and the cation exchange capacity
of the soil. Microfine lime is usually applied at 2.5–4.0 t/ha. Shallow incorporation
of lime is sufficient to ameliorate surface soil acidity, but deep ripping is required to
incorporate the lime, reduce soil strength and improve drainage where there is the
more serious problem of subsoil acidity.
In many respects, the sensitivity of canola to soil acidity has had beneficial spin-offs
in that it forced Australian growers to implement liming programs before their soils
became too acidic for less sensitive crop and pasture species.
There are breeding programs to improve the Al and Mn tolerance of Australian canola,
by using both conventional technology and genetic engineering. The rationale for
increasing the tolerance of canola to soil acidity is to broaden management options
for growers while they implement liming programs. 41
Figure 10: Symptoms of severe manganese toxicity in young canola on an acid soil.
5.10 Nutrition effects on following crop
Canola has provided the opportunity for more reliable responses to N in subsequent
cereals by reducing cereal root diseases. However, growers of grain sorghum and
cotton on alkaline soils in northern NSW have reported low yields and poor growth
following canola, particularly on the Liverpool Plains. 42
41 P Hocking, R Norton, A Good (1999) Crop nutrition. 10th International Rapeseed Congress, http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/canola/p-05.htm
42 R Norton, J Kirkegaard, J Angus, T Potter. Canola in rotations. Australian Oilseed Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/2705/Chapter_5_-_Canola_in_Rotations.pdf
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This is due to the depletion of soil microorganisms called arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(AMF; previously known as VAM fungi). They are beneficial soil fungi that assist the
uptake of P and Zn that would otherwise be unavailable to the crop. Canola does not
need these fungi to help it take up P and Zn, so under canola the fungal population
declines to a low level. To avoid this problem, follow canola with a short-fallow crop
such as wheat or another cereal crop rather than pulses or long-fallow crops such as
sorghum and cotton that depend on AMF. 43
43 P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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SECTION 6
Weed control
6.1 Key points:
• Choose paddocks relatively free of broadleaf weeds, especially charlock, wild
turnip, wild radish and other weeds of the Brassica family, because in-crop
herbicide options are limited. Grass weeds can be controlled in canola by using
trifluralin or post-emergent herbicides however Group A resistant grasses are still
of concern.
• Herbicide Resistant varieital syystems such as Triazine Tolerant (TT), Clearfields
(CF) and Roundup Ready (RR) can be of use in managing weeds in canola,
particularly broad leaf weeds however careful management is needed to avoid the
buildup of reistant weed populations.
• When choosing paddocks for canola be careful with those treated with residual
herbicides, especially Group B and triazine herbicides (for conventional varieties);
their residues can affect canola. Check labels for re-cropping intervals, some of
which are up to 36 months.
• Ensure that all spray equipment is thoroughly decontaminated before using
to spray canola. Apply chlorine if the spraying equipment has previously been
used to spray sulfonylureas, ammonia for hormone herbicides (salt and amine
formulations) such as 2,4-D amine and MCPA, and liquid alkali detergent for
Broadstrike® (flumetsulam) and Eclipse® (metosulam) decontamination. Where
possible, use separate spraying equipment for residual herbicides such as the
sulfonylureas.
• Imidazolinone-tolerant varieties are marketed as Clearfield® canola. These
varieties allow the use of the Group B herbicide Intervix® (imazamox and
imazapyr). Clearfield® varieties do not suffer from the yield and oil penalty that the
TT varieties exhibit. The use of Clearfield® varieties allows the rotation of herbicide
groups and broadens the spectrum of weeds controlled. 1
Weed management is strongly influenced by crop rotation sequence. Careful planning
of a five year rotation will enable targeted weed control through both cultural and
chemical methods as well as the ability to plan herbicide rotations. The widespread
occurrence of herbicide resistance in Australian weeds puts further emphasis on the
need for careful planning and resistance management strategies such as monitoring,
herbicide MOA rotation and cultural management techniques.
1 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
i More information
Weed control in winter
crops 2015
Integrated weed
management manual
Soil behaviour of pre-
emergent herbicides
in Australian farming
systems
What is Roundup
Ready® canola?
Clearfield Stewardship
Best Management
Practice 2014
Herbicide tolerant
canola in farming
systems: a guide for
growers
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The area sown to herbicide tolerant varieties of canola has increased dramatically
in recent years, however widespread use of these varieties without integrated weed
management techniques is likely to accelerate the development of resistance to the
herbicides.
The resistance to several of these herbicides that already occurs in Australian weeds
shows that these varieties are not a panacea for herbicide resistance management,
but they will add significantly to the options available to farmers in respect to
resistance management.
6.1.1 Weed spectrum and herbicide resistanceWhile there are inevitably large numbers of weed species that affect canola
production, those that feature consistently in Australia are listed in Table 1. Prior to the
introduction of herbicide resistant varieties, control of key broadleaf weeds was the
most important constraint to production of canola throughout Australia.
Table 1: Common weeds of Australian canola crops
Weed (common name) Scientific nameWild radish* (Figure 1) Raphanus raphanistrum
Indian hedge mustard* Sisymbrium orientale
Annual ryegrass Lolium rigidum
Shepherds purse* Capsella bursa-pastoris
Wild turnip* Brassica tournefortii
Charlock* Sinapsis arvensis
Patterson's curse* Echium plantagineum
Vulpia* Vulpia spp.
Wireweed Polygonum aviculare
Toad rush Juncus bufonius
Wild oat Avena spp.
Spiny emex Emex australis
Turnip weed* Rapistrum rugosum
Fumitory Fumaria spp.
Buchan weed Hirschfeldia incana
Capeweed Arctotheca calendula
Volunteer cereals
* Weeds species that have been particularly important in restricting canola production prior to the introduction of TT varieties.
The degree to which such weeds have restricted the canola area is reflected in the
rapid adoption of the triazine tolerant (TT) varieties across Australia. 2
2 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
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Figure 1: Wild radish is a common weed in canola crops.
6.1.2 Herbicide resistance in Australian weedsAustralian farmers have moved away from aggressive tillage practices because of
the extreme risk of soil erosion. Few farmers use inversion tillage as is practiced in
Europe, while the majority use reduced tillage methods. Significant proportions of the
crops are seeded using no-till. Therefore, crop sequences and seeding techniques are
highly dependent on herbicides.
Repetitious use of herbicides has selected for herbicide resistant weed biotypes.
Herbicide resistance now affects many species of Australian weeds, foremost among
them being annual ryegrass. Where canola production was restricted by weeds like
wild radish prior to the introduction of TT varieties, it is likely that herbicide resistant
weeds will also reimpose restrictions if not carefully managed.
This could be the case with multiple and or cross-resistance in single species as well
as mixed populations of resistant weed species.
Canola growers in Australia use a range of herbicides on canola crops from many
herbicide groups and the number of groups will increase with the commercial
production of additional herbicide resistant varieties in the next few years (Table 2).
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Table 2: Common herbicides in use in canola crops in Australia
Herbicide Groups
Herbicides
A Fluazifop, Haloxyfop, Diclofop-methyl, Sethoxydim, Quizalofop, Clethodim
B Intervix* (Clearfield varieties)
C Simazine, Atrazine, (TT varieties)
D Trifluralin
I Clopyralid
K Metolachlor
M Glyphosate (RR varieties)
www.apvma.gov.au
Many populations of annual ryegrass would now be classified as resistant to diclofop
methyl and on some farms the ryegrass is cross-resistant to both Group A and Group
B herbicides. There have been confirmed cases where annual ryegrass biotypes are
resistant to all selective herbicides that are currently available. For each paddock
monitoring and resistance testing is imperative to understand the control options open
to the grower.
While the major herbicide resistance problems in Australian weeds are with Groups
A and B herbicides, resistance to Groups C, D, F, L and M herbicides have also been
discovered.
Wild radish has now developed resistance to Group B, Group C and Group F
herbicides. Combined with the resistance in ryegrass, this has serious implications for
farmers in general but particularly to those wishing to use the IT and TT varieties.
Farmers across Australia are being encouraged to adopt IWM in order to address the
resistance problem. There are two essential components to IWM, namely the rotation
of herbicide groups to avoid repetitious use of the same or similar herbicides, and
the avoidance of treating large numbers of weeds with a single herbicide. Weed seed
contamination of the canola seed in excess of limits will lead to reduced prices. This is
especially the case with weeds from the family Brassicaceae, which lead to increased
erucic acid and glucosinolates and consequent reduction in canola quality. Weed seed
and other debris in the canola seed leads to direct penalties, based on the percentage
present. Weed competition can affect nutrient uptake by the canola plants and thus
affect yield. 3
6.1.3 Weed management in differing scenarios
Canola in a continuous cropping sequence
Weed control in these preceding crops consists of manipulating sowing time,
exploiting crop competitive effects and relying heavily on selective herbicides.
3 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
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Selection pressure for herbicide resistance is often high, especially to the Group A
and Group B herbicides, because of the need to use these herbicides in the preceding
crops.
Weed numbers tend to be higher as farmers do not have the range of non-selective
treatments available in the pasture. This increases the risk of resistant biotypes being
present in the crops when the herbicides are applied. Due to herbicide resistance,
continuous crop programs may include a forage / fodder or green manure crop so that
non selective weed control can be achieved.
In both the ley system and the continuous cropping system, a significant component
of weed management may be achieved through crop competition, although the
effectiveness will vary between environments. 4
Triazine Tolerant (TT) canola
In 1999, TT canola accounted for almost 50% of the Australian crop, even though the
varieties have a yield penalty relative to non-TT varieties. In the majority of cases, TT
canola is chosen because the weeds present cannot be controlled in the conventional
varieties. In some situations, TT canola may be chosen as part of a strategy to control
annual ryegrass resistant to Group A and Group B herbicides, in order to avoid
repetitious use of trifluralin. In addition, the TT varieties were initially grown without an
associated best management package, although this has now been rectified. All future
herbicide resistant crops will be introduced with a best management guide.
Some areas have a long history of triazine herbicide use, particularly in lupins. The
widespread production of TT canola and use of triazines will certainly lead to an
escalation in resistant populations of weeds, particularly annual ryegrass. There is
already evidence of triazine resistance in wild radish. 5
Imidazolinone Tolerant (IT) canola
IT canola varieties offer some significant benefits but there are important limitations.
These varieties are marketed along with an imidazolinone herbicide mix originally
called “On Duty” but this has been replaced with a mix called “Intervix”. This has
a wide spectrum of activity and does not suffer from extended plant back periods
on acid soils. Unlike the TT varieties, the IT varieties carry no yield or oil penalties.
The introduction of IT varieties has reduced the area of TT canola, which will have
herbicide resistance management and environmental benefits.
Of the disadvantages, Group B herbicides are “high risk” in terms of the development
of herbicide resistance. Group B herbicides (e.g. chlorsulfuron and triasulfuron) are
already used frequently in cropping sequences. Therefore, producers will have to plan
carefully on how to fit the IT varieties without increasing the frequency of Group B
herbicide use. The company is developing best management packages that will help
greatly in this regard. The Group B resistance problem is so severe already in some
4 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
5 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
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areas (particularly in Western Australia) that the IT varieties may have limited, if any,
scope for use. 6
Liberty Link® canola
Liberty Link® varieties are currently being developed for the Australian market. At
this time, there are problems with efficacy of glufosinate ammonium during the cool
growing season, particularly on wild radish and annual ryegrass. This may limit the
widespread application of Liberty Link® canola in some areas of southern Australia.
However, when Liberty Link® is combined into hybrids the additional seedling vigour
may enhance competition with weeds. 7
Roundup Ready® canola
Roundup Ready® canola (Figure 2) is now available to Australian producers.
Roundup has a wide spectrum of activity on weeds, has no soil residual problems
(in the great majority of situations) and belongs to a low risk group in terms of
herbicide resistance. Given these factors, Roundup Ready® canola will offer producers
a significant alternative to other varieties, herbicide resistant or otherwise. The
introduction of Roundup Ready® canola will lead to further reductions in the area of
TT canola, which will be good for management of triazine resistant weeds and the
environment.
A problem industry has to deal with is glyphosate resistance in annual ryegrass, for
which there are an increasing number of documented cases. If glyphosate is the
only herbicide used in Roundup Ready® canola, these biotypes will survive unless
some other intervention is used, such as alternative knockdown herbicides prior to
sowing, cultivation at or prior to planting, and/or in-crop herbicides. Therefore, best
management packages will need to include recommendations for minimising the risk
of increased selection for the glyphosate resistant biotypes. 8
Figure 2: Herbicide tolerant canola, including Roundup Ready varieties, growing at the NVT site at Forbes, NSW. Source: GRDC
6 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
7 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
8 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
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6.1.4 Future directionsCanola is set to remain a popular crop in Australia providing grain prices remain
satisfactory and blackleg is controlled with varietal tolerance. However, herbicide
resistance in weeds may force producers into less intensive rotations in order to
manage seed banks of resistant weeds.
Weed resistance is likely to restrict the useful life of the IT and TT varieties. This is
particularly the case with the IT varieties because the associated herbicides are “high
risk” for resistance development, but also because widespread resistance to these
herbicides already exists. 9
6.2 Clethodim damage
Clethodim damage in canola is particularly relevant in the northern region. The
application of clethodim at rates of product of 500mL/ha (for Select (240 g/L) this is
the maximum label rate in canola, but for Select Xtra (360 g/L) the maximum label
rate in canola is 330mL/ha) have been reported to cause the following symptoms on
canola:
• Delayed flowering
• Distorted flower buds
• Possible yield suppression
Recent research in the central west parts of NSW by the Grain Orana Alliance (GOA)
had resulted in variable results. Overall damage seemed to be light and it was
difficult to ascertain whether some damage was attributed to frost or other abnormal
conditions. Yield effects were negligible for most sites. It was concluded that more
field experiments could be completed over several sites and years, or some of this
work could be achieved under controlled climate conditions, but loses the realistic
conditions of field based research.
Clearly growers need to be aware of the main factor driving such drop damage. There
may also be varietal differences, about which little is known, however, farmers can
control the timing and rate of herbicide and should be able to avoid such issues. As
for controlling the conditions of canola at the time of application, spraying earlier may
avoid moisture stress issues particularly in seasons when rainfall is light. Spraying
early means late emerging grass weeds will not be controlled with in-crop sprays but
these plants are likely to be suppressed by a rapidly closing canola canopy. Seed
production from these weed could still be managed with non-chemical options such a
windrow burning. 10
Clethodim resistance in annual ryegrass is increasing. In the past clethodim resistance
was managed by increasing the rate of clethodim. Unfortunately it is no longer
9 S. Sutherland, Canola Weed Management. http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0012/2712/Chapter_12_-_Canola_Weed_Management.pdf
10 T. Cook, G. Brooke, M. Widderick, M. Street (2014) , Herbicides and weeds regional issues trials and developments https://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/03/Herbicides-and-weeds-regional-issues-trials-and-developments
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possible to do that. There are now populations of annual ryegrass that are resistant to
500 mL ha-1 clethodim and some will survive when treated with 2 L ha-1 of clethodim.
As there are no new post-emergent grass herbicides for canola in the pipeline,
pre-emergent herbicides will have to take a greater role in managing ryegrass post-
emergent. We examined the ability of some currently registered and potential products
for controlling annual ryegrass in canola in 2012 (Table 3). None of the pre-emergent
herbicides were particularly efficacious against clethodim resistant annual ryegrass
and none were better than using clethodim. Currently, the mix of clethodim plus
butroxydim (Factor®) applied after a pre-emergent herbicide offers the best control;
despite continuing to select for clethodim resistance. 11
Table 3: Control of clethodim-resistant annual ryegrass in canola at Roseworthy in 2012. POST herbicides were applied 8 weeks after sowing.
Herbicide program Annual ryegrass 8 weeks after sowing (plants m-2)
Annual ryegrass spikes at harvest (m-2)
Crop yield(T ha-1)
1.5 kg ha-1 Atrazine IBS + 500 mL ha-1 Select® POST
387ab 149cd 1.34a
1.5 kg ha-1 Atrazine IBS + 250 ml ha-1 Select® POST
262b 306c 1.13a
1.5 kg ha-1 Atrazine IBS + 500 mL ha-1 Select® + 80 g ha-1 Factor® POST
333b 92d 1.37a
Group K IBS 498a 1105a 0.46d
Group K + 2.0 L ha-1 Avadex® Xtra IBS
298b 775b 0.76c
Group K + 2.0 L ha-1 Avadex® Xtra IBS
235b 260cd 0.88bc
Group K + 250 mL ha-1 Dual Gold® IBS
350ab 802b 0.50cd
Group D IBS 108c 149cd 1.11ab
Abbreviations: IBS, incorporated by sowing; POST, post-emergence; CT, crop-topped
11 C. Preston, P. Boutsalis, S. Kleeman, R.K. Saini and G. Gill (2013), Maintaining the best options with herbicides http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/08/Maintaining-the-best-options-with-herbicides
i More information
Maintaining the best
options with herbicides
Options for using more
residual herbicides in
northern no-till systems
Herbicides and weeds
regional issues trials
and developments
Revisiting canola
management can lift
returns
For more information
on weed management
in winter crops, see the
Wheat GrowNotes.
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SECTION 7
Insect control
Insects that can pose a problem in canola in New South Wales (NSW) include blue
oat mites (Penthaleus spp.), redlegged earth mites (Halotydeus destructor), cutworms,
diamondback moth, Helicoverpa, aphids Rutherglen bugs, slugs, European earwigs,
Lucerne flea and wire worms.
The seed dressing Gaucho® (imidacloprid) protects emerging seedlings from
redlegged earth mite, blue oat mite and aphids for ~3–4 weeks after sowing. Another
seed dressing, Cosmos® (fipronil) protects seedlings from redlegged earth mites.
Viruses can also occur in canola, carried by aphids that suck sap from leaves,
transferring the virus and causing yield loss and sometimes plant death. Protection
against early aphid infestation in seedling canola may reduce the incidence of virus in
the crop.
Gaucho® (imidacloprid) is the only seed dressing registered for control of aphids in
emerging canola. Sowing canola into standing cereal stubble may help to reduce
aphid numbers and hence virus infection. 1
7.1 Integrated pest management
Pests are best managed using an integrated pest management (IPM) approach.
Careful planning prior to sowing, followed by regular monitoring of crops after sowing,
will ensure that potential problems are identified and, if necessary, treated early.
Monitoring may involve techniques and aids such as sweep nets, a beat sheet or
visual assessment.
Integrated pest management uses a range of control tactics to keep pest numbers
below the level where they cause economic damage. It is primarily based on
biological control of pests, by either encouraging natural enemies or release of
biocontrols.
Other methods of control support these biological controls and can include:
• cultural methods such as farm hygiene, weed control, strategic cultivation
(pupae busting), physical barriers, quarantine areas, different planting times, crop
rotations, trap crops, use of attractants for beneficials or repellants for pests, and
keeping plants healthy so they resist attack
1 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
i More information
Insect and mite control
in field crops
Viral diseases in canola
and winter pulses
Emerging insect pests
‘Serial pests’ wrap-
up—lessons from 2014
and 2015 and some
research updates
Canola disease update
2015 (NSW)
Insect pests of canola
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• host plant resistance such as genetically resistant varieties or physical features
that repel pests
• genetic control measures such as release of sterile male insects
• pheromones to confuse mating or aggregation
• use of microbial pesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), nuclear
polyhedrosis virus (NPV) or Metarhizium.
• manipulation of micro-environmental conditions (e.g. planting density, row
spacing, row orientation) to make them less suitable for pests or more suitable for
beneficials
• use of chemicals as a last resort
• use of ‘soft’ chemicals or pest-specific chemicals in preference to broad-
spectrum pesticides (especially early in the growing season when it is important
to preserve beneficials)
Integrated pest management relies on monitoring the crop regularly, having pests and
beneficial insects correctly identified and strategic control decisions made according
to established damage thresholds. 2
7.1.1 Area-wide management Area-wide management (AWM) is IPM that operates over a broad region and attacks
the pest when and where it is ecologically weakest, without regard to economic
thresholds. It is a system currently used in managing resistance in Helicoverpa
armigera in cotton. AWM coordinates farmers in implementing management strategies
on their own farms to control local populations of H. armigera and prevent numbers
building up later in the season. AWM strategies involve a detailed understanding of
the biology and life cycle of the pest and of how the pest moves around in a region.
Strategies can include coordinated timing of operations such as pupae busting,
sowing and destroying of trap crops, and spraying of certain chemical types including
‘soft’ or biological insecticides. 3
7.1.2 Biological control Biological control can be defined as the use of natural enemies to control pest
outbreaks. The pest is not usually eradicated, but brought down to levels where it
does not cause economic damage. Success with biological control has been varied
in many situations. Complete success, where the pests do not exceed the economic
thresholds, has occurred in only 19% of cases. Many releases of biocontrol agents
have had no significant effect. Success has been more common in long-term agro-
ecosystems such as orchards and forests, where pest and natural enemy populations
are more stable. In annual cropping systems, maintaining resources that favour
the buildup of natural enemies, for example greater biodiversity of plants, retaining
2 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
3 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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stubble and groundcover and limiting use of broad-spectrum insecticides, will help to
keep pests in check. 4
Figure 3: Beneficial insects can be help bring down insect pest incursions. Photo: Melina Miles, DAF
Types of biological control
• Natural. An existing control agent is encouraged to control pests. This means
avoiding the use of chemicals that may destroy these control agents.
• Single release (classical). The control agent is released with the aim of
establishing it as a permanent part of the ecosystem. This is usually carried out
for introduced pests.
• Multiple release. The control agent is not usually perfectly adapted to the
environment (e.g. drought- or frost-intolerant) and so needs to be re-released.
This may occur as a ‘top-up’ after unfavourable conditions, as a regular seasonal
release, or as an inundative release where the control agent does not survive well.
In this case, the agent is used as a ‘living insecticide’ that is released in large
numbers to reduce pest numbers before it dies.
4 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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Biological control agents for insect pests can include:
• Predators. These actively capture their prey. Beetles, lacewings, bugs, flies,
spiders and vertebrates are predators.
• Parasitoids. These are host-specific and need only one host to complete their
life cycle. They lay eggs in their host and emerge after using the host as a food
source. The host is nearly always killed. Parasitoids differ from parasites, which
will coexist with the host. Parasitoids include wasps—e.g. the parasitic wasp,
which will lay eggs inside lucerne aphids, white cabbage moth caterpillars and
scarab larvae—and flies such as the tachinid fly.
• Pathogens. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and nematodes.
A few of these organisms can enter and multiply rapidly within the host, e.g.
Metarhizium, Bt, NPV.
Parasitoid and pathogen control agents are usually more successful than predators
because they are more host-specific.
Trichogramma wasps
Trichogramma pretiosum wasps prey on the eggs of Helicoverpa spp., loopers,
cabbage moths and others, and are suitable for use in minimally sprayed field crops,
maize and vegetables, and for Helicoverpa in fruit crops. They are <0.5 mm in size
and lay their eggs into moth eggs. The wasp larvae develop into a fully formed wasp
inside the moth egg in the process killing the developing caterpillar. Trichogramma are
supplied as parasitised moth eggs in capsules. These are distributed around the crop
and can be applied with water. 5
Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)
Insect viruses are naturally occurring, insect-specific pathogens that have been part
of the environment for millions of years and play an important role in the natural
control of insect populations. Insects consume the virus from the leaves. The
virus then moves through the gut wall and invades the body of the insect, causing
the insect to stop feeding and die within 5 days because of the breakdown of its
internal organs. The body ruptures after death, releasing virus particles that infect
other caterpillars. Gemstar® and Vivus Gold® are commercial products that control
Helicoverpa punctigera and H. armigera with a liquid concentration of virus particles
in cotton and selected crops. Typically, they provide 60–90% control of larvae. Both
products fit best within an IPM program that uses natural enemies such as ladybeetles
and parasites, but can be alternated with synthetic insecticides. As a biological
insecticide, efficacy is dependent on environmental conditions for good performance.
It needs to be ingested; therefore, coverage of the target area is essential. 6
5 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
6 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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Bacillus thuringiensis
The Bt bacteria produce proteins that are characterised by their potency and
specificity to certain species, most of which are agronomically important pests.
Mixtures of protein crystals and spores have been sprayed in the same way as a
chemical pesticide for many years in horticultural industries, but with variable success
in broadacre field crops, Full-Bac® WDG being a notable exception. Full-Bac® WDG is
a dry flowable, more suited to application by boom spray than previous formulations.
The caterpillar ingests the protein, which then attacks the gut wall, causing holes,
and the insect stops feeding. The bacterial spores contained in the protein then leak
through the gut wall and cause bacterial infection. The insect will die, either from this
bacterial infection or from starvation. This is the process that makes the Bt protein
highly specific and environmentally desirable. Insertion of the Bt gene into cotton
plants has taken many years to develop, and breeding is ongoing of plants that
express higher levels of the Bt toxin. Resistance to Bt is being carefully monitored
and controlled with the development of management programs and new research
on multiple insect-resistance genes. Novel strains of Bt are being isolated for a wide
range of pest families, including beetles, flies and locusts. 7
7.2 Earth mites
Earth mites are the major pests of seedling canola, especially in central and southern
NSW. Damage can be caused by redlegged earth mites and blue oat mites, which
often occur in mixed populations. Bryobia mites are an increasing problem in some
areas. A good mite-control program starts with a population reduction treatment the
previous spring (Table 1). Learn to identify these three species of mites to ensure that
the correct insecticide and rate is applied to the correct species.
Bare earth treatments. Germinating and establishing crops can be protected by:
• boom spraying the soil surface of previous pasture or high-risk paddocks with a
residual insecticide immediately after sowing
• perimeter spraying bare ground in low-risk paddocks, not forgetting to spray
around trees, rocky outcrops and dams, and along water flow-lines
If you are unsure of the level of risk from mites, spray the whole paddock. Three
bare-earth sprays are registered that will give several weeks of residual protection.
Bifenthrin is registered for redlegged earth mite, blue oat mite and Bryobia mites,
but application rates vary according to the mite species being targeted. Alpha-
cypermethrin will control redlegged earth mite, while methidathion is registered for
both redlegged earth mite and blue oat mite.
Seed dressings. Imidacloprid (e.g. Gaucho®) and Poncho® Plus (clothianidin
+ imidacloprid) are registered for use on canola seed for protection against
redlegged earth mite, blue oat mite and aphids. Poncho® Plus is also registered to
control lucerne flea, wireworm and cutworm. A third seed dressing, Cruiser® Opti
(thiamethoxam + lambda-cyhalothrin) is registered for suppression of redlegged
7 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
i More information
Integrated Pest
Management Fact
Sheet
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earth mite and lucerne flea. These seed dressings will protect emerging seedlings for
3–5 weeks after sowing. Use treated seed following a pasture phase if a well-timed
spring spray of insecticide has been applied. Apply a bare-earth border spray where
untreated pastures border the canola crop. Seed companies can supply seed pre-
treated with imidacloprid, Poncho® Plus and Cruiser® Opti. Cosmos® Insecticidal Seed
Treatment (fipronil) is also registered for control of redlegged earth mite in canola.
Even where a seed-dressing or bare-earth treatment has been used, it is advisable to
check seedling canola regularly for mite damage. 8
Redlegged earth mite and blue oat mite (Penthaleus major) are two soil-dwelling
mites that damage crops in autumn, winter and spring. They are primarily pests of
seedlings but can also seriously injure older plants. Winter crops at establishment
may be severely damaged, particularly if growth during and following emergence is
slow. Damaged plants die or remain stunted and weak. Sometimes seedlings are
killed before they emerge. Both mites prefer light, sandy or loamy, well-drained soils
and often occur together in crops on the Tablelands, Slopes and Plains of New South
Wales. 9
8 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
9 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
i More information
Nutrient management
may double as pest
control
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Table 1: Recommended control strategies for earth mites 10
Pre-season (previous spring–summer)
Assess riskHigh-risk situations:
History of high mite pressure Pasture going into crop Susceptible crop being planted (e.g. canola, pasture, lucerne) Seasonal forecast is for dry or cool, wet conditions that slow crop growth
Actions if risk is high:
Ensure accurate identification of species Use Timerite® (redlegged earth mites only) Heavily graze pastures in early-mid spring
Pre-sowingActions if risk is high:
Use an insecticide seed dressing on susceptible cropsPlan to monitor more frequently until crop establishedUse higher sowing rate to compensate for seedling lossConsider scheduling a post-emergent insecticide treatment
Actions if risk is low:Avoid insecticide seed dressings (esp. cereal and pulse crops)Plan to monitor until crop establishment
EmergenceMonitor susceptible crops through to establishment using direct visual searches
Be aware of edge effects; mites move in from weeds around paddock edges
Actions if spraying:Ensure accurate identification of species before deciding on chemicalConsider border spraysSpray prior to the production of winter eggs to suppress populations and reduce risk in the following seasonFollow threshold guidelines
Crop establishmentAs the crop grows, it becomes less susceptible unless growth is slowed by dry or cool, wet conditions
Feeding
Mites feed by rasping the surface of the cotyledons and leaves and by sucking up
the sap. Feeding is normally from late afternoon until early morning, but continues
through the day in calm, cloudy weather. Mites are very active and, if disturbed on a
plant, will drop or descend to the ground and disperse to find shelter. Redlegged earth
mites usually remain clustered together on the soil or on parts of the leaves during the
day. Blue oat mites generally hide by day in the soil beneath damaged plants or under
plant debris on the ground. 11
10 P Umina (2014) Persistent pests; aphids, mites, millipedes and earwigs. GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Persistent-pests-aphids-mites-millipedes-and-earwigs
11 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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7.2.1 Redlegged earth miteThe redlegged earth mite is mainly a pest on the Southern and Central Tablelands,
Slopes and Plains. It is native to southern Africa and cape weed is its preferred host
plant. Other hosts include prickly paddy melon, wild turnip, common sowthistle,
Paterson’s curse and chickweed (weeds); and canola, lupins, field peas and linseed
(field crops). Sometimes mites may move into young winter cereals from a fence line
or adjoining pasture and cause damage along one or more of the crop edges.
Description
Adult mites are eight-legged and ~1 mm long with oval, flattened black bodies and
pinkish-orange legs and mouthparts.
Seasonal development
Three overlapping generations usually occur between mid-autumn and spring,
and adult populations are normally highest in May–June and September–October.
Redlegged earth mites oversummer as unlaid, aestivating eggs in the dead bodies
of spring-generation adult mites lying on or near the soil surface. The aestivating
eggs are highly resistant to desiccation and usually do not begin to develop until late
summer–early autumn. They hatch when favourable conditions of soil temperature
and moisture occur in the following mid-autumn to early winter.
TIMERITE® for management of redlegged earth mite
TIMERITE® is an information package that provides individual farmers with the
optimum spray date on their farm to control redlegged earth mites during spring.
Developed by CSIRO and Australian Wool Innovation, TIMERITE® predicts the
optimum date in spring to control redlegged earth mites, just after they have ceased
laying normal winter eggs on pasture and just before diapause. (Diapause is when
adult redlegged earth mites produce eggs that are retained in the body of the adult
female and are therefore protected from the effects of insecticide applications.)
The single, strategic spray has a two-fold effect, controlling redlegged earth mites
in spring and decreasing the summer population that emerges in the following
autumn. The package may form part of an integrated management strategy to control
redlegged earth mites.
Close attention should be paid to individual pesticide labels when controlling earth
mites. Application rates vary with situations, such as bare earth or post-crop–pasture
emergence. Correct identification of earth mite species is essential. Registrations
sometimes include redlegged earth mites only, not blue oat mites or Bryobia mites.
Application rates may vary with earth mite species. READ THE LABEL.
This strategic approach has little effect on non-target invertebrates, both pest and
beneficial, during the following autumn. Farmers need to identify geographically
the location to be sprayed. This can be done by a local feature, such as town or
mountain, or the longitude and latitude of the area. This information is used to find the
optimum date from the package. The spray date for each farm is the same date each
i More information
Persistent pests;
aphids, mites,
millipedes and earwigs
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year. For information, phone Australian Wool Innovation toll free on 1800 070 099 or
visit the website www.timerite.com.au. 12
7.2.2 Blue oat mite Blue oat mites are often confused with redlegged earth mites. There are four
recognised species of blue oat mites in Australia: Penthaleus major, P. falcatus, P.
minor and P. tectus. Accurate identification of the species requires examination by an
entomologist. The four species vary in their geographical distribution in Australia. With
the exception of P. minor, all species have been found in NSW, in some instances in
mixed populations. Damage to crops and pastures is incurred in the establishment
phase. Host-plant preferences vary with the species, as do their life cycles and
tolerances to various pesticides. Host plants include black thistle, chickweed, curled
dock, dandelion, deadnettle, prickly lettuce, shepherds purse, variegated thistle and
wild oat. Cultivated field-crop hosts include wheat, barley, oats, rye, canola, field
peas, lupins and linseed.
Description
Adult mites have eight legs and are ~1 mm long with oval, rounded, dark brown to
black bodies, bright red or pinkish red legs and mouthparts, and a red spot or streak
towards the hind end of the back.
Seasonal development
Overlapping generations of the blue oat mite usually occur between mid-autumn and
late spring. Blue oat mites oversummer as aestivating eggs laid in mid–late spring
by the second-generation adults. These aestivating eggs are highly resistant to
desiccation. They do not begin to develop until late summer–early autumn and they
do not hatch until favourable conditions of temperature and moisture occur in the
following mid-autumn to early winter. 13
7.3 Lucerne flea
Lucerne flea is an occasional pest of establishing canola crops. The pest is
identified by its action of jumping and hopping between plants rather than flying. It
is present across a range of soil types in southern NSW. Early-sown crops are more
at risk of attack. Frequent crop inspection from the time of emergence and early
control measures are important because of the impact of seedling vigour on crop
performance. Ensure that monitoring is sufficient to detect localised patches or ‘hot
spots’. Seek advice on management and spray strategies. 14
12 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
13 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
14 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
i More information
TIMERITE information
package
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7.4 Slugs
Slugs are a potential problem along the Northern, Central and Southern Slopes, and
occasionally adjacent to rivers on the Western Plains. Slugs kill plants at the seedling
and rosette stages and can leave large, bare-soil areas. Slugs are favoured by wet
springs and summers, where abundant growth and damp conditions provide an ideal
habitat. This allows slugs to breed and survive into autumn and winter, when they
attack newly sown crops.
Canola sown into dense stubble or adjacent to grassy fence lines, creek banks or
damp areas is at greatest risk because these areas provide an ideal habitat for slugs
to survive over summer. Heavy, cracking soils provide additional hiding places for
slugs. Closely monitor crops at risk for 6–8 weeks after sowing, so that any infestation
can be treated with slug pellets containing metaldehyde. 15
7.5 Diamondback moth
Diamondback moth has been observed in canola crops for many years in NSW.
The summer of 2001–02 favoured their build-up and they became a serious pest in
the drought of 2002. Few, if any, crops have required spraying since, despite major
drought in 2006 and 2009. Caterpillars of diamondback moth do most damage when
large numbers are present in seedling crops or when they move from leaves to graze
developing pods during crop ripening. Diamondback moth has developed resistance
to a range of insecticides. Future management will involve regular monitoring and
careful selection of control methods. 16
15 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
16 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
i More information
Diamondback moth in
canola. Fact Sheet
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Figure 4: Management of Diamondback moth involves regular monitoring and careful selection of control methods.
7.6 Aphids
Aphid flights can occur in autumn and winter in some years and can infest young
canola crops. Crops may need to be treated with insecticide to prevent transmission
of virus diseases, but also to reduce seedling damage and the risk of spring
infestations. The green peach aphid is the major vector of Beet western yellows virus,
which caused some crop damage in southern and central NSW in 2014. Seed treated
with imidacloprid (e.g. Gaucho®), Poncho® Plus and Cruiser® Opti will protect seedling
canola for up to 5 weeks. This is especially important in seasons and at sites where
early infestation with aphids occurs. 17
Green peach aphid has developed resistance to the synthetic pyrethroid, carbamate
and organophosphate groups of insecticides. Transform™ (sulfoxaflor) is a new
selective insecticide for control of early-season infestations of green peach aphid. 18
17 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
18 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
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Reducing aphid and
virus risk
Resistance
management strategy
for the green peach
aphid in Australian
grains
Unified attack on pests
and diseases
Insect pests—
resistance, virus vectors
and lessons from 2014
Crop aphids. Back
Pocket Guide
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Aphids can also infest crops in the spring, especially in years of moisture stress. Large
populations of aphids are more evident and potentially damaging in dry seasons.
Monitoring for beneficial insects is important, because control may not be justified
in some cases. If control is warranted, careful selection of an insecticide is essential
to ensure that damage is not caused to nearby beehives or to beneficial insects
within the crop. Ensure that the harvest-withholding period (WHP) of the insecticide
is adhered to. Seek advice on thresholds and product registrations or permits before
spraying.
Figure 5: Aphids can transmit damaging viruses to canola crops. Photo: Melina Miles, DAF
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7.6.1 Recent GRDC-funded research
Take home message
Compensatory capacity of canola supports the use of less conservative aphid
thresholds and increased consideration of natural enemies in controlling outbreaks.
Outcomes and recommendations—management of aphids in canola
1. Simulated damage through the removal of raceme terminals by cutting provides
an adequate way of simulating aphid damage.
2. Trials conducted on the Darling Downs in 2013 and the Liverpool Plains in
2014 show identical trends in terms of crop compensation for simulated aphid
damage. Consequently, we have some confidence that the conclusions drawn
from these trials will have application to canola crops across a wide range of
northern region growing conditions.
3. Removal of the flowering portion of podding racemes (23 days post first flower)
did not affect yield, probably because the flowers removed would not have set
harvestable pods.
4. Simulated damage to the raceme during the first weeks of flowering had only
minimal impact on final yield, except where extreme damage was enacted
(66% of, or the entire, raceme removed on every plant).
5. Compensatory capacity and minimal maturity delay following damage to
racemes suggests greater opportunity to harness the benefit of natural enemies
in controlling aphid outbreaks.
Aphid populations are extremely difficult to work with in the field. Manipulating
densities, frequency and persistence of infestations are major constraints to achieving
trial outcomes. Therefore, simulated aphid damage is the only viable way to apply
consistent treatments across a replicated trial (Figure 1).
The purpose of the simulated aphid trials reported here was to assess the impact of
differing levels of damage at different stages of crop development. The trials were
designed to evaluate the compensatory capacity of canola to recover yield if damaged
by aphids at different stages of crop development. Understanding when canola is
most susceptible to aphid-type damage is the first step in determining the need for,
and timing of, aphid control in canola.
Experiments 1–3 were conducted on the Darling Downs with dryland canola (43Y85).
Figure 1: The two methods of inflicting simulated aphid damage. Bagging racemes to prevent normal development, used in 2013 only (left), and cutting racemes (right).
cusin
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Experiment 1. Bagging canola racemes
Canola raceme development was inhibited by placing bags over the developing main
stem raceme to limit development. Three treatments and an untreated control were
applied to randomly assigned plots; the primary raceme on all plants was bagged
at first flower (treatment 1), 7 days later (treatment 2) and 14 days after first flower
(treatment 3), or not bagged (control).
Analysis of grain yields showed that all of the bagged treatments yielded significantly
less than the control but were not different from each other regardless of treatment
timing (Table 2). The maturity of the plots at the end of the season was very similar to
the control, possibly 3–4 days behind in terms of the rate of plant senescence. This
result shows that the later flowers (those prevented from developing at +7 and +14
days) contributed little to the final yield, or that soil moisture limited continued growth
or compensation in the treated plots.
Table 2: Plot yields (g/plot) from Experiment 1, Darling Downs, where canola raceme development was limited by bagging at 7-day intervals from first flower
SE, Standard error. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05, where l.s.d. = 146 g. Difference between control and treatments significant (P < 0.002)
Treatment Yield SEControl (unbagged) 1293a 63
Treatment 1.Raceme covered at first flower 988b 18
Treatment 2. Raceme covered at first flower +7 days 989b 62
Treatment 3. Raceme covered at first flower +14 days 949b 25
Experiment 2. Increasing severity of cutting flowering racemes
The experiment was laid out in the same canola field as used for Experiment 1 to test
the effects of damage at different intensities during early flowering. Four treatments
were applied with increasing severity at 14 days post first flower, and there was an
undamaged control (Table 3).
The damage applied to the plots at 14 days post first flower resulted in a significant
yield loss for only the most damaging treatment, in which all developing raceme
terminals were cut (top 7 nodes) (Table 3).
The rate of crop senescence was marginally delayed in the two most severe cutting
treatments. Crop maturity of treated plots was delayed by ~3–4 days compared with
the control.
Table 3: Plot yields (g/plot) from Experiment 2, Darling Downs, where canola racemes were cut with increasing severity at 14 days post first flower
SE, Standard error. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05, where l.s.d. = 242 g. Difference between most severe treatment and other treatments significant (P < 0.005)
Treatment Yield SEControl (undamaged) 1137a 108
Terminal of raceme cut 1173a 98
Top 3 nodes of raceme cut 1133a 65
Top 5 nodes of raceme cut 1102a 89
Top 7 nodes of raceme cut (nearly all) 841b 111
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Experiment 3. Damage to flowering racemes at late flowering-pod filling
In this experiment, just the flowering portion of filling racemes was removed at 23
days after first flower. There were three treated plots, in which the terminals of 10%,
50% or 90% of the racemes in the plot were damaged, and an undamaged control
(Table 4). These treatments were designed to simulate the late terminal infestations
commonly observed in late spring.
This damage to the flowering terminals during late flowering–podset had no significant
impact on grain yield (Table 4). There was no delay in crop maturity and no significant
difference in the rate of crop senescence between treatments.
Table 4: Plot yields (g/plot) from Experiment 3, Darling Downs, where increasing proportions of racemes were damaged during late flowering–pod set
SE, Standard error. There were no significant treatment differences (P > 0.05)
Treatment Yield SEControl 1246 70
10% of racemes terminal removed 1159 37
50% of racemes terminal removed 1193 65
90% of racemes terminal removed 1204 89
Experiment 4. Liverpool Plains 2014
The effects of simulated damage on flowering canola were further tested in a second
series of experiments at eight sites near Spring Ridge on the Liverpool Plains, NSW.
Three treatments were applied (one-third and two-thirds of raceme flowers and whole
of raceme removed), with an undamaged control at each site.
The damage was inflicted during the early stages of flowering (within 7–10 days of
first flower) at five sites during early August and at three sites where flowering began
during late August. An analysis of oil quality and seed characteristics remains to be
completed, but harvested grain weights indicated again that main treatment to suffer
significant damage was where the entire raceme was removed, leaving plants to
regrow completely new flowering structures (Figures 2, 3, 4).
The rate of crop senescence was marginally delayed in the more severe cutting
treatments, being 3–5 days behind the undamaged controls, even in the most severe
cutting treatment.
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Treatment where two-thirds of raceme flowers were removed (top), and 15 days later showing compensation (bottom).
Treatment where entire raceme is removed (top), and 15 days later showing compensation (bottom).
Figure 2: Images of treatments at time of treatment and compensation by the crops 15 days later, near Spring Ridge, Liverpool Plains.
Figure 3:
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
Control 1/3 Racemeflowers removed
2/3 Racemeflowers removed
Whole Racemeflowers removed
Gra
in y
ield
(T/h
a)
Flowering early August
Flowering late August
Mean canola yield for treatments applied soon after first flower during early August (five sites) and late August (three sites), near Spring Ridge, Liverpool Plains. Capped lines denote treatment standard error.
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Figure 4:
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Control(no damage)
1/3 Racemeflowers removed
2/3 Racemeflowers removed
Whole Racemeflowers removed
Mea
n yi
eld
(% o
f co
ntro
l)
Aggregate treatment yields across all sites near Spring Ridge, Liverpool Plains, expressed as a percentage of the control.
Conclusions and observations
The bagging of canola racemes during early flowering had a significant effect on
yield potential (Experiment 1). By contrast, cutting the racemes (Experiment 2) had
an impact on yield only for the most severely damaged treatment that had all raceme
terminals from the top seven nodes disrupted (essentially all flowering racemes on the
plants). The yield of the other treatments was not significantly affected, although the
second most severe treatment did tend towards a lower yield.
The difference in crop response to bagging and cutting is probably caused by the plants
continuing to develop racemes under the bag for a significant part of the flowering
period rather than deploying assimilates to newer, compensatory racemes from lower
down in the plant canopy. This contrasts with the plants where damage was inflicted
by cutting, in which compensatory growth of remaining racemes or the initiation of new
racemes from adjacent nodes occurred rapidly after damage was inflicted.
Late damage to flowering–podding racemes did not have any effect on crop yield. The
flowers removed from the racemes at this stage of flowering would not have set viable
pods, so their loss did not have an impact on yield.
Although the physical damage inflicted during these experiments is different from that
expected during an aphid infestation, the results suggest that canola has an excellent
capacity to compensate for crop damage and that current spray thresholds of ~10%
raceme infestation may be more stringent than necessary.
The capacity for compensation and the regular presence of effective natural enemies
of aphids in canola provide an excellent opportunity to rely on, and allow time
for, biological control by aphid parasitoids and ladybirds during the first weeks of
flowering. A delay in enacting a spray decision at the 10% infestation level could
be considered to hold low risk and would allow time for biological control. If natural
enemies were ineffective, spraying on an increasing level of infestation to the 20–
25% level would be unlikely to result in irrecoverable crop damage. Similarly, late
infestations of aphids are unlikely to pose a damage threat to canola because the
associated raceme disruption mainly affects flowers that contribute little to final yield.
Further study is planned for 2015 to determine a better linkage between the simulated
damage in these experiments and actual damage caused by aphids in highly
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controlled, small-plot experiments, so that a definitive recommendation can be made
on aphid thresholds. In the interim, the work suggests that the use of the 10% raceme
infestation as a spray threshold is very conservative. 19
7.7 Helicoverpa
Helicoverpa (also known as heliothis) caterpillars are an occasional pest of canola in
southern NSW and may require control measures if they are present in large numbers. In
central and northern NSW, they are a more frequent pest. Because of the seasonal variation
in incidence and timing of infestation relative to crop growth stage, growers should seek
advice and check the harvest WHP of the chosen insecticide before deciding to spray.
Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) and native budworm (H. punctigera) are the two pest
species of field crops and may be present from mid-September onward. Corn earworm is
likely to predominate between February and May.
Figure 5: Helicoverpa armigera (PHOTO: QDAFF)
Seasonal biology
There are generally three or four overlapping generations of caterpillars of the native
budworm and corn earworm between September and May in southern NSW, and four or
five in northern NSW. 20
19 M Miles, P Grundy, A Quade, R Lloyd (2015) Insect management in in fababeans and canola recent research. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Insect-management-in-fababeans-and-canola-recent-research
20 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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Insect management in
faba beans and canola
recent research
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Scout crops regularly
The amount of damage caused by native budworm and corn earworm varies considerably
from year to year. Moth activity alone cannot be taken as a guide for spraying. In some years
when moths are common, egg and caterpillar numbers are often limited by adverse cool
or cold, wet weather, parasitoids, predators and diseases, and damage may be restricted
or insignificant. In other years, a relatively small moth population may produce many
caterpillars and cause significant damage. Periodic outbreaks of caterpillars of both species
in summer are often associated with heavy rainfall. Check crops at least a week after heavy
rainfall. Look for moths, eggs and very small caterpillars, and treat if necessary. Spraying
thresholds are unlikely ever to be more than guidelines for timing sprays. Examine crops at
least twice a week during the various danger periods.
Before deciding to spray, consider the following:
• likely extent and severity of the infestation
• ability of the crop to tolerate caterpillar damage without any significant loss or to replace
leaves or fruiting parts lost to the caterpillars
• value or likely loss if the crop is left untreated
• cost of treatment 21
Spray eggs and very small caterpillars, particularly of the corn earworm
Corn earworm has developed resistance to many of the pesticides used against it, but
the eggs and very small caterpillars (up to 5 mm long) can still be killed if the correct
rate of pesticide is used. However, larger caterpillars are not likely to be controlled. 22
7.7.1 Corn earworm In NSW, corn earworm is largely restricted to within ~150 km of the coast and to
inland, irrigated summer-crop production areas. Unlike native budworm, it mainly
overwinters locally as pupae in the soil. These pupae are the source of the moths that
produce the spring and summer generations of caterpillars. The moths are not strong
fliers but can be carried for long distances by wind. They usually initiate infestations
locally—within ~100 km of where they developed as caterpillars. During summer, corn
earworm moths may be carried by wind into southern NSW from areas to the north (or
into northern NSW from southern Queensland) and initiate infestations in crops over
a wide area. Pheromone traps or lights do not always attract moths. There may be no
forewarning of a probable outbreak of corn earworm unless growers regularly inspect
crops to detect moths.
7.7.2 Native budworm Native budworm is widely distributed throughout mainland Australia and during
winter breeds in semi-arid parts of Western Australia, South Australia and south-west
21 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
22 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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Queensland. These vast inland areas are the sources of the moths that produce the
spring generation of caterpillars in NSW (local overwintering pupae in the ground
are of little concern). The moths are strong fliers and may be carried for very long
distances by wind, to initiate infestations in localities far from where they developed
as caterpillars.
7.7.3 Descriptions of corn earworm and native budworm eggs and caterpillars
Eggs
Newly laid eggs are white or yellowish white, dome-shaped, flattened at the base,
ribbed and 0.5 mm in diameter. Not all eggs are fertile. Fertile and infertile eggs are
laid at the same time, and sometimes all eggs laid are infertile. Fertile eggs change
to greenish yellow with an irregular brown or reddish brown ring around the middle.
Before hatching, the blackish head and grey body of the caterpillar shows through.
They hatch in 3–5 days in warm weather and 6–16 days in cooler weather. Infertile
eggs appear cylindrical within ~12 h of being laid and then shrivel to a pyramid shape.
Caterpillars
Newly hatched caterpillars are 1–1.5 mm long with dark heads and dark-spotted white
bodies. Young caterpillars up to about 15 mm long have dark heads and pale yellow,
greenish or brownish bodies with conspicuous upper body hairs in dark bases and,
often, narrow dark stripes down the back and along each side. Older caterpillars up to
50 mm long vary greatly in colour from yellow to almost black, often have a broad pale
stripe along each side, and their upper body hairs are usually on raised processes.
Egg laying
Egg laying is usually confined to the period from flower bud formation until flowering
ends. When moths are exceptionally abundant, infestation can be expected before
flowering commences. Eggs are laid, usually singly, on the upper parts of plants—
vegetative or floral growing points, young tender leaves, stems and flower buds,
flowers and fruits. The moths prefer the more advanced and succulent portions of
crops for egg laying and usually avoid poorly grown areas. Eggs may not be obvious
to the untrained eye because of their minuteness. However, moderate to heavy egg
lays should be obvious to trained observers. 23
7.7.4 Resistance-management strategy Corn earworm has developed resistance to the pyrethroid chemical group (e.g. Decis
Options®, Karate®), and the carbamate group (e.g. Lannate® L). However, very small
caterpillars (up to 5 mm long) can still be controlled with these and other pesticides.
New chemical groups are now available for the control of corn earworm, but often
control is slower.
23 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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Corn earworm caterpillars are found in all irrigation areas. Their main activity is
in summer and autumn. Local overwintering pupae are the main source of new
infestations each year.
The following strategies are recommended across all cotton and grain industries:
1. Destroying the overwintering pesticide resistant pupae
• Corn earworm overwinters as pupae in the soil under crop stubble and moths
emerge from the pupae in the following spring.
• Insecticide resistance is carried over between seasons in the pupae.
• Where large Helicoverpa caterpillars are present in crops during March, there is
a risk of carryover of resistance to the next season. Cultivate these paddocks to
destroy the pupae as soon after harvest as possible and complete by the end of
August.
• Check no-till, late-season crops for pupae. Consider busting if detectable
numbers (1 pupa/10 m) are present.
• Ensure that cultivation creates full disturbance to at least 10 cm deep as follows:
on hills, to 10 cm each side of the plant line; on beds, right across the bed to 20
cm beyond the outside rows; on the flat, the whole area.
2. Scout crops regularly
• Monitor crops twice weekly during danger periods to detect eggs and very small
(up to 5 mm long) caterpillars. Infestations are often associated with heavy rainfall.
• Use advisors for monitoring, because moth activity alone cannot be taken as a
guide for spraying and eggs are not readily seen with the naked eye—they are
small and often hidden.
• Pay closer attention to late season H. armigera activity on susceptible crops
(cotton, summer pulses, late sorghum and late sunflowers).
3. Spray eggs and very small caterpillars
• Spray to control the eggs and very small (up to 5 mm long) caterpillars. The
chemical must make contact with the eggs and caterpillars.
• Egg laying is usually confined to the period from flower bud formation until flowering
ends. At 25°C, it takes 8–10 days from egg lay to 5 mm long caterpillars. 24
4. Pesticide management
• Conserve beneficials by using the most selective pesticide available, including
appropriate use of NPV products (e.g. Vivus Gold®).
• Monitor natural enemies and be aware that their activity varies depending on crop
types (e.g. they are not very active in chickpeas).
• Delay the use of disruptive pesticides (pyrethroids, carbamates and
organophosphates) in all crops for as long as possible. Review spraying
thresholds as a guide to spray timing.
24 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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• Where Helicoverpa populations are present and above threshold, control them
within the limits of insect resistance and available registrations. Ensure that
spray applications are accurate and timely. Do not spray in the heat of the day.
Use an NPV product (e.g. Vivus Gold®) where appropriate to reduce selection for
insecticide resistance, but caterpillars must be small (5–10 mm), the product must
be applied in the evening, and there should be no rainfall within 24 h. Apply NPV
as high-volume spray (with a wetting agent) at 30 L/ha aerially and 100 L/ha by a
ground-rig.
• Rotate chemical groups when spraying crops. If more than one spray is needed,
use a pesticide from each of the three available groups (organochlorines,
synthetic pyrethroids and carbamates) in rotation. Never apply two consecutive
sprays from the same chemical group. For example, if a pyrethroid is used to
control sorghum midge do not use a pyrethroid to control Helicoverpa.
• Remove all farm vegetation likely to encourage the breeding of insect pests. For
example, destroy failed or abandoned crops by cultivation or by using herbicides
immediately the decision to abandon has been made. Avoid sowing commercial
chickpea crops after June. Late flowering crops are a known host for the next
generation of H. armigera.
• Use ovicide rates of pesticides only where crops are monitored regularly for eggs
and larvae and where eggs are targeted.
• Use larvicide (highest) rates where there is no regular crop monitoring and where
larvae are targeted. Use information from pheromone traps.
• During August, September and October, pheromone traps will be in place in
some districts. Information gained will indicate whether more detailed sampling of
spring host crops (e.g. winter cereals, pulses and weeds) is necessary.
• Advisers or growers wanting assurance on the numbers of corn earworm moths
laying eggs in their crops should catch moths in a sweep net and determine
their identity. (Moths collected in pheromone traps are a poor indicator of
which species of larvae will predominate in crops.) As a guide, catch at least 30
Helicoverpa spp. moths at random throughout the crop and on flowering weeds in
the paddock (ignore the other moths such as tobacco loopers, brown cutworms
and common armyworms that may fly in company with the native budworms). 25
7.8 other soil pests
As with slugs, there are increasing reports of European earwigs causing significant
damage to emerging crops, particularly in the South West Slopes region. Stubble
retention, in combination with wet springs and summers and an early autumn break,
appear to favour the buildup of these insects. The damage caused by earwigs can
be difficult to identify, and because control can also be difficult, growers should
seek advice if they suspect or see earwigs. Several soil-dwelling insect pests such
as cutworms, wireworms, bronzed field beetle, cockchafers and false wireworms
have caused damage to emerging canola seedlings in recent years. In severe cases,
plant stands can be thinned to such an extent that the paddock requires re-sowing.
25 K Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
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Occurrence of these pests is difficult to predict, so advice on their control should be
sought prior to sowing if any problems are foreseen. The most severe damage tends
to occur in crops following pasture, or if stubble has been retained. 26
26 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
SECTION 8 CANolA - Nematode management
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SECTION 8
Nematode management
8.1 Background
Root-lesion nematodes (RLN) can have an impact on canola growth (Figure 1). However,
following harvest, levels of the RLN Pratylenchus neglectus (Pn) have been found to
decline rapidly, due to the release of isothiocyanates from the decomposing root tissue.
Sulfur-deficient or stressed crops are more likely to host increasing nematode numbers
during the season and have less effect on their decline at the end of the season. 1
The hosting ability of canola is low–medium for P. thornei (Pt) and medium–high for Pn.
Testing soil is the only reliable way to determine whether RLN are present in a paddock.
Before planting, soil tests can be carried out by PreDicta B (SARDI Diagnostic Services)
through accredited agronomists to establish whether crops are at risk and whether
alternative crop types or varieties should be grown. Growing-season tests can be
carried out on affected plants and associated soil; contact local state departments of
agriculture and PreDicta B. 2
1 L. Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
2 GRDC (2015) Root-lesion nematodes. GRDC Tips and Tactics, February 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/TT-RootLesionNematodes
i More information
Managing root lesion
nematodes: how
important are crop and
variety choice?
Root-lesion nematodes
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Figure 1:
Nematodes rehydrate and become active following rain. They can invade growing plant roots, such as the next crop, weeds or volunteers.
Nematode invades the outer layers of the root (cortex)
Stele
Nematode feeding may cause cortical tissue to turn brown, collapse and breakdown
Eggs laid in rootsEggs laid in soil
Nematodes reproduce and migrate within the roots and soil
AdultStage 4 larvae
Stage 3 larvaeStage 2 larvae
Stage 1 larvae moults within eggs
There may be several generations of nematodes each growing season
All stages of nematodes can survive between crops within root pieces or in a desiccated state
Disease cycle of root-lesion nematode. Adapted from: GN Agrios (1997) Plant pathology, 5th edn. (Illustration by Kylie Fowler) 3
8.2 Impact of crop varieties on RlN multiplication
8.2.1 Take-home messages• Know your enemy—soil test to determine whether RLN are a problem, and which
species are present.
• Select wheat varieties with high tolerance ratings to minimise yield losses in RLN
infected paddocks.
• To manage RLN populations, it is important to increase the frequency of RLN-
resistant crops in the rotation.
• Multiple resistant crops in a rotation will be necessary for long-term management
of RLN populations.
• There are consistent varietal differences in Pt resistance within wheat and
chickpea varieties.
• Avoid crops or varieties that allow the build-up of large populations of RLN in
infected paddocks.
• Monitor the impact of your rotation. 4
3 GRDC (2015) Root-lesion nematodes. GRDC Tips and Tactics, February 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/TT-RootLesionNematodes
4 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
cusin
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8.2.2 What are nematodes?Nematodes (or roundworms) are one of the most abundant life forms on earth. They
are adapted to nearly all environments. In cropping situations, they can range from
beneficial to detrimental to plant health.
The RLN are a genus (Pratylenchus) of microscopic, plant-parasitic nematode that
are soil-borne, ~0.5–0.75 mm in length and will feed and reproduce inside roots of
susceptible crops or plants. Of the two common species of RLN in the northern grains
region, Pt and Pn, the former is often described as the cereal and legume RLN. 5
8.2.3 Why the focus on P. thornei?• The species is widespread in the northern grains region. Surveys conducted
within northern New South Wales (NSW) and southern Queensland cropping
areas consistently show Pt presence in ~60–70% of paddocks.
• The species frequently occurs at concerning levels; >2 Pt/g soil are found in
~30–40% of paddocks.
• Yield losses in wheat of up to 50% can occur when Pt-intolerant wheat varieties
are grown in paddocks infested with Pt.
• Yield losses in chickpeas of up to 20% have also been measured in Department
of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Queensland (DAFF) trials.
• There is no easy solution to RLN infestation. Variety and crop rotation are the
current major management tools.
Figure 2 is a simplified chart highlighting that the critical first step in the management
of RLN is to test the soil and determine whether there is a problem to manage. Where
RLN are present, growers should focus on planting tolerant wheat varieties and on
increasing the number of resistant crops or varieties in the rotation. 6
5 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
6 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
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Figure 2:
Soil test for RLN
No RLN detectedFocus on hygiene to
avoid incursions (NB flooding is a risk)
Plant tolerant wheat varieties
Increase number of resistant crops
or varieties
Crop and variety choices not limited by RLN characteristics
Ensure adequate crop nutrition
Monitor for effectiveness of
rotation
Focus on hygiene to avoid spread to clean paddocks
Increase fallow lengths
RLN detected
Management flow chart for root-lesion nematode.
8.2.4 Soil testingThe first step in the management of RLN is to test the soil and determine whether the
problem is present. Testing of soil samples is most commonly conducted via DNA
analysis (commercially available as the PreDicta B test from SARDI) with sampling to
depths of 0–15 or 0–30 cm.
Vertical distribution of Pt in soil is variable. Some paddocks have relatively uniform
populations down to 30 or 60 cm, some will have highest Pt counts in the 0–15 cm
layer, whereas other paddocks will have Pt populations increasing at greater depths
(e.g. 30–60 cm). Although detailed knowledge of the distribution may be of some
value, most on-farm management decisions will be based on the presence or absence
of Pt, with sampling at 0–15 or 0–30 cm depth providing that information. 7
To organise testing and sending of soil samples, visit the PreDicta B website.
For testing and interpretation of results contact:
Rob Long, Crown Analytical Services
0437 996 678
8.2.5 Management of RlN• Nematicides. There are no registered nematicides for RLN in broadacre cropping
in Australia. Screening of candidates continues, but RLN are a very difficult target
with populations frequently deep in the soil profile.
• Nutrition. Damage from RLN reduces the ability of cereal roots to access nutrients
and soil moisture and can induce nutrient deficiencies. Under-fertilising is likely
to exacerbate RLN yield impacts; however, over-fertilising is still unlikely to
compensate for a poor variety choice.
7 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
i More information
Variety choice and
crop rotation key to
managing root lesion
nematodes
Impact of crop varieties
on RLN multiplication
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• Variety choice and crop rotation. These are currently the most effective management
tools for RLN. Note that the focus is on two different characteristics: tolerance, which
is the ability of the variety to yield under RLN pressure; and resistance, which is the
impact of the variety on the build-up of RLN populations. Varieties and crops often
have different tolerance and resistance levels to Pt and Pn.
• Fallow. RLN populations will generally decrease during a ‘clean’ fallow, but the
process is slow and expensive in lost ‘potential’ income. Additionally, long fallows
may decrease levels of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and create more
cropping problems than they solve. 8
Resistance differences between winter crops
The primary method of managing RLN populations is to increase the number
of resistant crops in the rotation. Knowledge of the species of RLN present is
critical, because crops that are resistant to Pt may be susceptible to Pn. Canola is
generally considered resistant or moderately resistant to Pt, along with sorghum,
sunflowers, maize, canary seed, cotton and linseed. Wheat, barley, chickpeas, faba
beans, mungbeans and soybeans are generally susceptible, although the level of
susceptibility may vary between varieties. Field peas have been considered resistant;
however, many newer varieties appear more susceptible. Figure 3 shows the mean
Pt population remaining after a range of winter crops were grown near Weemelah in
2011. Crops were sown in individual trials to enable weed and pest control, and so
data cannot be directly compared; however, the data broadly indicate the magnitude
of differences in Pt resistance between these crops. Assessment of the risk of
buildup of Pt in different crops (or species susceptibility) shows canola has a low risk
of nematode build up. Results shown in Table 1 indicate both low and high starting
populations having reduced levels at the end of the season. 9
Figure 3:
Linseed (1) Canola (4) Field peas(3)
Faba beans(3)
Chickpeas(3)
Wheat (5)0
2
4
6
8
12
14
P t
hor
nei
/g s
oil
Low starting popn of PtHigh starting popn of Pt
Comparison of Pt populations remaining in March–April 2012 following different winter crop species near Weemelah 2011. Numbers of varieties within crops are in parentheses. The two horizontal lines indicate the respective ‘low’ and ‘high’ starting levels of Pt in March 2011. Soil sampling depth was 0–30 cm.
8 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
9 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
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Table 1: Comparison of crops for risk of Pt buildup and the frequency of significant variety differences 10
In crops with a range of buildup risk but a dominant category, the dominant category is in bold type
Crop Pt buildup risk Variety differencesSorghum Low None observed
Cotton Low None observed
SunflowersA Low None observed
LinseedA Low –
CanolaA Low to medium None observed
Field peasA Low to medium Low
Durum wheat Low to medium Moderate
Barley Low to medium Moderate
Bread wheat Low, medium to high Large
Chickpeas Medium to high Moderate to large
Faba beans Medium to high Low
MungbeansA Medium to high? Moderate to large?
AData from only one or two field trial locations for these crops
10 B Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
SECTION 9 CANolA - Diseases
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SECTION 9
Diseases
9.1 Two major canola diseases: blackleg and Sclerotinia stem rot
Blackleg (caused by Leptosphaeria maculans) and Sclerotinia stem rot (caused by
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) are two major diseases of canola. Blackleg is less prevalent
in northern NSW and Queensland; however, it is critical that blackleg be controlled by
growing resistant varieties and having a 3-year break between crops to allow all the
stubble to be broken down. Chemical treatment is available if considered necessary.
Several seed dressings only provide suppression of the blackleg fungus, for
example those with the active ingredient (a.i.) fluquinconazole (Jockey®, Quantum®,
Prowess™), whereas Maxim®XL (a.i.s fludioxonil + metalaxyl-M) provides suppression
of blackleg as well as control of Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani.
Impact®, Bayonet® and Jubilee® (a.i. flutriafol) are in-furrow treatments registered for
the control of blackleg.
Sclerotinia stem rot is favoured by wet springs that produce cool, humid conditions
in dense crops. Most broadleaf crops and many broadleaf weeds are hosts of
Sclerotinia, including sunflowers (Figure 1). 1 Growers are advised to incorporate
infected residues, maintain farm hygiene, control hosts and rotate with summer/winter
cereal crops. 2
Symptoms include fluffy external growth on the stems, in which numerous black
bodies (sclerotia) are found. A possible control measure is a rotation of at least 4 years
with no susceptible hosts. 3
1 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
2 L. Alexander, S. Thompson, M. Ryley, L. Serafin (2015), Sunflower Disease Management, Successful sunflower production using integrated disease management, http://www.grdc.com.au/TaT-SunflowerDiseaseManagement
3 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
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Figure 1: Sunflower crops can host sclerotinea. Photo: Sue Thompson, USQ.
Other fungal diseases reported in northern region canola crops include damping off.
These diseases are also hosted by other broadleaf crops and weeds.
In 2013, Sclerotinia stem rot affected about 50% of canola crops in northern New
South Wales (NSW). Outbreaks are dependent on the season, but the incidence of
outbreaks is increasing in high-risk areas such as the high-rainfall zones of northern
NSW, indicating that the level of residual inoculum is increasing, particularly under
short rotations. The environmental conditions for development of Sclerotinia stem rot
are very specific and will not occur every year, so even when the fungus is present,
the disease may fail to develop if conditions are dry.
Blackleg is the most important disease of canola and has been reported as present
in the northern region. Around 90% of the spores that infect a crop will originate from
the previous year’s stubble. Spores can travel 1–2 km on the wind, but a buffer of at
least 500 m from the previous year’s stubble is generally recommended. Two-year-old
stubble is an issue only if the seasons have been dry. Treating seed with fungicide can
protect seedlings from early infection.
Three virus species, Beet western yellows virus (BWYV, syn. Turnip yellows virus),
Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV), have been recorded
in canola in Australia. Of these, BWYV is the most common and has potential to cause
yield losses, particularly if infection occurs at seedling stage. Aphids spread these
diseases from a range of pasture, crop and weed host species. 4
4 GRDC (2014) Canola disease management in the northern region. GRDC Gound Cover, 21 March 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-disease-management-in-the-northern-region
i More information
Foliar fungal diseases
of pulses and oilseeds
Viral diseases in canola
and winter pulses
Canola diseases. The
Back Pocket Guide
Canola disease update
2015 (NSW)
Canola disease update
2015 (Vic.)
Sunflower Disease
Management
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Integrated disease management in canola relies on variety breeding and selection,
cultural practices and timely application of chemicals such as fungicides. Burning
stubble is not effective against blackleg or Sclerotinia stem rot. See more at: Canola
disease management in the northern region.
9.2 Managing blackleg
Blackleg is the most important disease of canola, and management of the disease
need not be complex. The most effective strategies to reduce the severity of blackleg
include growing varieties with an adequate level of resistance for the district,
separating the present year’s crop from last year’s canola stubble by at least 500 m,
and using a fungicide seed dressing or fungicide-amended fertiliser.
Typically, ~90% of spores that infect new-season crops originate from the previous
year’s stubble. However, significant numbers of spores from 2-year-old stubble may
be produced if seasonal conditions have been dry or the stubble is still largely intact.
Spores can travel 1–2 km on the wind, but most originate more locally. A buffer
distance of at least 500 m and up to 1 km is recommended. Use of fungicide seed
dressings containing fluquinconazole or fertiliser treated with flutriafol will also assist
in minimising the effects of blackleg and protect seedlings from early infection, which
later causes stem canker development. Although raking and burning can reduce
canola stubble by up to 60%, it is the least effective strategy in managing blackleg
and is therefore not generally recommended.
All current canola varieties are now assessed for the presence of resistance genes
and classified into resistance groups. If the same variety has been grown for two
or more seasons, consider changing varieties for this season. Consult the Blackleg
management guide, autumn 2015 Fact Sheet to determine the resistance group for
your current canola varieties and select future varieties that belong to a different
group. 5
5 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
i More information
Blackleg management
guide, autumn 2015
Fact Sheet
GRDC funding canola
stubble screening
for fungicide-tolerant
blackleg
2014—Revised spring
blackleg management
guide Fact Sheet
Managing blackleg and
Sclerotinia in canola.
The Back Pocket Guide
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Summary:
• Monitor your crops to determine yield losses in the current crop.
• Choose a cultivar with adequate blackleg resistance for your region.
• Never sow a canola crop into last year’s canola stubble.
• Reliance solely on fungicides to control blackleg poses a high risk of fungicide
resistance.
• If your monitoring has identified yield loss and you have grown the same cultivar
for ≥3 years, choose a cultivar from a different resistance group.
9.2.1 Four steps to beating blackleg
Step 1. Determine your farm’s risk
Use Table 1 to determine your farm’s blackleg risk. Combined high canola intensity
and adequate rainfall increase the probability of severe blackleg infection.
Table 1: Regional environmental factors that determine risk of severe blackleg infection
Environmental factors
Blackleg severity risk factorHigh risk Medium risk low risk
Regional canola intensity (% area sown to canola
>20 16–20 15 11–14 11–14 10 6–9 5 <5
Annual rainfall (mm) >600 551–600 501–550 451–500 401–450 351–400 301–350 251–300 <250
Total rainfall March–May prior to sowing (mm)
>100 >100 >100 >100 91–100 81–90 71–80 61–70 <60
Step 2. Determine each crop’s blackleg severity in spring
• Assess the level of disease in your current crop. Sample the crop any time from
the end of flowering to windrowing (swathing). Pull 60 randomly chosen stalks out
of the ground, cut off the roots with a pair of secateurs and, using the reference
photos in Figure 2 below, estimate the amount of disease in the stem cross-
section. Yield loss occurs when more than half of the cross-section is discoloured.
• A dark-coloured stem is a symptom of blackleg (Figure 2). Stem cankers are
clearly visible at the crown of the plant. Severe cankers may cause the plant to fall
over as the roots become separated from the stem.
• If you have identified that you are in a high-risk situation (steps 1 and 2), use steps
3 and 4 to reduce your risk of blackleg for future seasons.
• If you are in a low-risk situation and you have not identified yield loss due to
blackleg infection when you assessed your crop, continue with your current
management practices.
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Figure 2:
low risk
20% 0%
Medium risk
60% 40%
Cankered
High risk
100% 80%
Crop blackleg severity.
Step 3. Management practices can reduce the risk of blackleg infection
If your crop monitoring (see step 2) showed yield loss in the previous year, the
following practices can be used to reduce blackleg severity. Complete the following
process for each canola paddock to be sown.
For each of the seven management factors listed in Table 2 below (and in the Blackleg
risk management worksheet accompanying the Blackleg management guide, autumn
2015 Fact Sheet), circle where each canola paddock fits to determine the risk of
blackleg. For example, for ‘blackleg rating’, if your cultivar is ATR-Stingray, circle MR,
indicating a low risk of blackleg; or for ‘distance from last year’s canola stubble’, if
your proposed canola crop is 200 m away, high risk is indicated.
• Complete all seven management factors to determine which practices are causing
increased risk and how they can be reduced. For example, for ‘distance from last
year’s canola stubble’, choose a different paddock, at least 500 m away from last
year’s stubble, reducing the risk from high to low.
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Table 2: Management factors used to determine which practices are increasing the risk of blackleg infection
For blackleg rating of cultivar: VS, very susceptible; S, susceptible; MS, moderately susceptible; MR, moderately resistant; R, resistant; see text below (Blackleg rating) for further details
Blackleg rating of cultivar VS S–VS S MS–S MS MR–MS MR MR–R RDistance from last year's canola stubble
0 m 100 m 200 m 300 m 400 m 500 m >500 m >500 m >500 m
Fungicide use No fungicide
Foliar applied
fungicide
Seed dressing fungicide
Fertiliser applied
fungicide
Seed dressing +
fertiliser applied
fungicide
Seed dressing
or fertiliser applied + foliar
fungicide
Seed dressing
or fertiliser applied + foliar
fungicide
Years of same cultivar grown
Same cv. or
resistance group for >3 years
Same cv. or
resistance group for 3
years
Same cv. or
resistance group for 2
years
Same cv. or
resistance group for 2
years
Same cv. or
resistance group for 2
years
Distance from 2-year-old canola stubble
0 m 100 m 250 m 250 m 250 m
Canola stubble conservation
Inter-row sowing
Disc tillage
Knife- point tillage
Burning or burying tillage
Burning or burying tillage
Burning or burying
tillage
Month sown June–Aug. 15–31 May 1–14 May 15–30 April
15–30 April
15–30 April
Dual purpose grazing canola
Grazing canola
Step 4. Blackleg resistance groups
Canola cultivars have different combinations of blackleg resistance genes. Over
time, growing cultivars with the same blackleg resistance genes has led to changes
in the virulence of the blackleg pathogen, which has enabled it to overcome cultivar
resistance. By rotating between cultivars with different resistance genes, you can
reduce the probability of resistance breakdown and reduce disease severity.
Based on steps 1 to 3, are you in a high-risk region or have you observed increasing
blackleg severity and grown the same cultivar in close proximity for ≥3 years?
• No. Your current management practices should be sufficient to manage blackleg
resistance adequately.
• Yes. You may be at risk of the blackleg fungus overcoming the blackleg resistance
of your cultivar. It is recommended that you grow a cultivar with a different
combination of blackleg-resistance genes (see Table 3 in Blackleg management
guide, autumn 2015 Fact Sheet). You do not need to change resistance groups
(cultivars) every year. 6
6 GRDC (2015) Blackleg management guide, autumn 2015. GRDC Fact Sheet, 29 April 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-BlacklegManagementGuide
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9.2.2 Blackleg ratingAll varieties are rated according to the independent Australian National Blackleg
Resistance rating system, in which all canola-breeding companies are participants.
The ratings, based on relative differences between varieties, are as follows:
• resistant: R
• resistant to moderately resistant: R–MR
• moderately resistant: MR
• moderately resistant to moderately susceptible: MR–MS
• moderately susceptible: MS
• moderately susceptible to susceptible: MS–S
• susceptible: S
• susceptible to very susceptible: S–VS
• very susceptible: VS
Varieties with a rating of ‘resistant’ (R) in areas of high blackleg risk and at least
‘moderately resistant’ (MR) in areas of lower blackleg risk will normally give sufficient
disease protection. 7 The blackleg-resistance ratings for all varieties for 2015 are
available in the Blackleg management guide, autumn 2015 Fact Sheet (see Table 3
therein). 8
9.3 Managing Sclerotinia stem rot
Sclerotinia stem rot is a fungal disease that can infect a wide range of broadleaf
plants, including canola. Disease development is favoured by prolonged wet
conditions in late winter followed by periods of prolonged leaf wetness during
flowering.
Yield losses range from nil to 20% in some years, but losses have been as high as
35%. Districts with reliable spring rainfall and long flowering periods for canola appear
to develop the disease more frequently. Continual wheat–canola rotations are also
very effective at building up levels of soil-borne sclerotia.
Burning canola stubble will not control the disease effectively, because Sclerotinia
survives mainly on or in the soil. Crop rotation with cereals, following recommended
sowing times and ensuring that crops do not develop heavy vegetative growth, which
is likely to reduce air circulation, are the best means of reducing the impact of the
disease.
The inconsistent relationship between the level of stem infection and yield loss makes
it difficult to predict an economic response from using foliar fungicides in any one
year. The specific environmental conditions for development of Sclerotinia stem rot
7 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
8 GRDC (2015) Blackleg management guide, autumn 2015. GRDC Fact Sheet, 29 April 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-BlacklegManagementGuide
i More information
Blackleg management
guide, autumn 2015
Fact Sheet
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will not occur every year. For example, in dry conditions, even if the fungus is present,
the disease may fail to develop.
The fungicide Prosaro® (a.i.s prothioconazole + tebuconazole), and iprodione and some
procymidone products, are registered for the management of Sclerotinia stem rot.
Consult your farm adviser and refer to the Sclerotinia stem rot in canola Fact Sheet. 9
Key points for managing Sclerotinia stem rot:
• An outbreak of Sclerotinia stem rot is highly dependent on the season.
• Prolonged wet or humid conditions during flowering favour the disease.
• Consider past outbreaks of the disease as a guide to potential yield loss.
• Avoid growing canola in paddocks with a history of Sclerotinia stem rot over the
past 4 years, or in adjacent paddocks.
• Well-timed fungicide treatments, when canola crops are at 20–30% flowering
stage, can be highly effective in reducing the level of infection.
• No Australian canola varieties have known resistance to the disease. 10
9.4 Managing viruses
Managing viruses centres on implementing best agronomic practice:
• Retain standing stubble to deter migrant aphids from landing.
• Sow at the optimal seeding rate and sowing time, because earlier sown crops are
more prone to aphid attack.
• Control in-crop and fallow weeds to remove the in-crop and nearby sources of
virus infection. 11
Beet western yellows virus was found in most tested canola crops throughout NSW.
However, substantial yield losses appeared to be limited to a few paddocks where
early infection occurred. BWYV is a persistently transmitted virus that infects a wide
range of crops and weeds. Its main vector is the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae).
Virus control strategies should be based on preventing infection, because infected
plants cannot be cured. Preventive measures to avoid BWYV infection in canola
include seed treatment with systemic insecticides that are effective for green peach
aphid control and sowing in standing wheat stubble.
Growers are advised to check canola crops early in the season for aphid presence. If
aphids are found, an effective insecticide should be applied.
9 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
10 GRDC (2014) Canola disease management in the northern region. GRDC Gound Cover, 21 March 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-disease-management-in-the-northern-region
11 GRDC (2014) Canola disease management in the northern region—details. GRDC Gound Cover, 21 March 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-disease-management-in-the-northern-region/Details
i More information
Sclerotinia stem rot in
canola Fact Sheet
Canola diseases. The
Back Pocket Guide
Canola disease update
2015 (NSW)
Economics and timing
of fungicide application
to control Sclerotinia
stem rot in canola
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There is no indication that the occurrence of BWYV in canola poses a threat to
neighbouring pulse crops.
High infestations of aphid species other than green peach aphid were observed in
other broadacre crops in June–July 2014. Widespread infestations of cowpea aphid
throughout Queensland and NSW resulted in very high levels of infection of Bean
yellow mosaic virus in faba bean and, possibly, lupin crops. 12
Of the three virus species recorded in canola in Australia, BWYV is the most common
and has potential to cause yield losses in canola. Commercial canola varieties appear
resistant to TuMV. However, some lines of condiment mustard and juncea canola (both
Brassica juncea) have been severely affected by TuMV in trials in northern NSW. The
importance of CaMV in canola and B. juncea is not known.
All three viruses are spread by aphids from weeds, which act as hosts. BWYV can
come from a range of weed, pasture and crop species. Turnip weed, wild radish and
other Brassica weeds are important hosts of TuMV. Substantial yield losses from
viruses, particularly BWYV, can occur even when there are no obvious symptoms.
Seed treated with an imidacloprid product or Poncho® Plus (imidacloprid +
clothiandin) is recommended to protect crops from early infestation with aphids. 13
12 eXtensionAUS. Latest on canola disease—2015 GRDC Update Papers. eXtension, http://www.extensionaus.com.au/2015-grdc-update-canola-papers/
13 P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
i More information
Beet western yellows
virus (synonym: Turnip
yellows virus) and green
peach aphid in canola
Canola diseases. The
Back Pocket Guide
Watch for chickpea
viruses near canola
i More information
Virus diseases in canola
and mustard
Reducing aphid and
virus risk
Virus development in
canola crops during
2014 in New South
Wales and implications
for the oilseed and
pulse industry
SECTION 10 CANolA - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Not applicable for this crop.
SECTION 11 CANolA - Crop desiccation/spray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccation/spray out
(For information on windrowing, see Section 12. Harvest.)
Chemical desiccation is an alternative to windrowing and very effective where crops
have lodged or where weeds have emerged in maturing crops. The most commonly
used desiccant is diquat (Reglone®), which is registered for aerial application on
canola crops (refer to product label for application rates).
Desiccation can be a useful strategy on variable soil types; for example, where heavier
soil types or drainage lines keep the crop greener for longer, a desiccant can hasten
harvest of these areas and reduce the risk of problems arising from high moisture. It
can also be used where windrowing contractors are not available.
Desiccants have no detrimental effects on the seed or its oil quality if applied at the
correct time. They work through contact action and require almost complete coverage
of the plant to work effectively. An experienced aerial operator can apply a crop
desiccant to ensure uniform coverage with minimal spray drift.
The correct time for desiccation is when 70–80% of seeds have changed colour in
middle pods, which is when the crop has passed its optimal windrowing stage. The
crop will be ready to harvest within 4–7 days after the desiccant is applied, depending
on the size and density of the crop.
Desiccate only an area of crop that can be harvested over a period of 1–2 days. The
harvester must be ready within 4 days of a desiccant being applied to minimise the
potential of losses from shattering. Withholding periods should be adhered to.
Other products not registered for use in canola should not be used as desiccants as
issues with chemical residues can potentially affect markets and quality of the canola.
Desiccation is generally considered a special-purpose management aid to be used
when problems with windrowing, weeds or harvesting are anticipated. Specialist
agronomic advice should be sought. 1
Glyphosate (specifically Weedmaster) has recently been registered for pre harvest
application. It should be noted though that the intention is that it is only registered to
control weeds present in the crop at that timing not to manage canola maturity i.e.
bringing grain moisture down for harvest.
1 P Carmody (2009) Windrowing and harvesting. Ch. 14. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
i More information
Pre-harvest herbicide
use. Fact Sheet.
Harvest options for
canola—windrowing
timing, direct
heading, desiccation
with Reglone and
treatment with Pod-
Ceal. Effects on yield
and oil percentages.
Using paraquat in
canola, wheat or barley
warning: crops will
cause residue violations
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SECTION 12
Harvest
Canola crops can be either windrowed (Figure 1) or direct-harvested. The method
chosen depends on the availability and cost of contract windrowing, the type of
harvesters available and the relative risk of adverse weather in a particular locality.
Some of the advantages of windrowing are: uniform ripening, earlier harvesting (7–10
days), less exposure to spring storms and rain, reduced shattering losses during
harvest, and less hail and wind loss. Harvesting can usually continue ‘around the
clock’. 1 Some advantages of direct heading include cost, availability of headers on
farm and a higher harvest index on low yielding crops.
Figure 1: Windrowing prior to harvest is the more common practice. (Photo: Rebecca Jennings)
1 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
i More information
Direct heading canola.
Fact Sheet.
Harvest management.
Module 7. Better
canola.
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12.1 Windrowing
Key points:
• Physiological maturity occurs when the seed moisture content reaches 35–45%.
• Check the crop regularly from 14 days after the end of flowering (10% of plants
with flowers).
• Look for colour change across the whole plant, particularly in crops with lower
plant populations.
• Sample from representative areas of the paddock, and check all varieties for
change in seed colour; it will vary within a district.
• Book a contractor early in the season and contact again when the crop has
reached the end of flowering.
• Optimal windrowing stage lasts for 4–6 days in most areas.
• When seed losses are obvious on the windrower, stop and consider direct
harvesting. Planning is critical for a smooth harvest operation. Less experienced
growers are advised to organise a contractor or an experienced neighbour to
carry out the windrowing.
Figure 2: Windrowed canola near Binalong, NSW. (Photo: Gregory Heath)
Canola is an indeterminate plant, which means it flowers until limited by temperature,
water stress or nutrient availability. As a result, pod development can last over 3–5
weeks, with lower pods maturing before higher ones. Consequently, canola is often
windrowed to ensure that all pods are mature at harvest (Figure 2).
Older canola varieties had a lengthy flowering period, but growers now have access
to a greater range of varieties with differing maturities and more tolerance to pod-
shattering.
Some early-maturing varieties have been developed with shorter flowering and pod
maturity periods. Direct harvesting (instead of windrowing) is more of an option for
these shorter statured and earlier maturing varieties in some regions.
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Whether the crop is windrowed or direct-harvested will depend on the varieties grown,
soil types, seasonal conditions, availability of windrowers, and the size and variability
of the crop. Canola crops that are variable in their maturity or show significant
differences in the maturity of the top and bottom pods are ideally windrowed to
minimise shattering losses. The plant should be windrowed before the lower pods
approach shattering stage.
Like hay cutting, windrowing of canola hastens the maturity of the crop, allowing the
top pods to be harvested at the same time as the lower pods. By cutting the crop
and placing it in a windrow on the stubble, the pods and seeds can dry faster than a
standing crop (by as much as 8–10 days). Windrowed canola is much less susceptible
than a standing crop to wind, rain and hail damage. In the windrow, seeds will reach a
uniform harvest moisture content of 8% within 6–10 days of being cut.
Several harvester-front options are available for canola. A belt front, for example, can
be used to windrow or direct-head a crop, but with minor modifications, it can also be
used to harvest a windrowed crop. Various pick-up attachments or crop lifters can be
used on existing open-front headers to harvest canola windrows.
For most canola-production areas, windrowing has the advantages of:
• allowing earlier harvest (8–10 days) because seed matures more evenly;
• hastening maturity (in higher rainfall areas);
• evening maturity where soil types are variable in individual paddocks;
• reducing losses from hail and excessive winds;
• providing flexibility for the grower with large areas, because the timing of harvest
is not as critical;
• reducing shattering losses during harvest;
• around-the-clock operation to cover large areas; and
• helping to control escaped or herbicide-resistant weeds in some cases. 2
2 P Carmody (2009) Windrowing and harvesting. Ch. 14. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
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12.1.1 When to windrowWindrowing should start when 50–70% of seeds have changed colour to red, brown
or black (Figure 3). The crop is usually ready for windrowing 20–30 days after the end
of flowering, and should be regularly checked for changes in seed colour. The end of
flowering is considered to be when only ~10% of plants have any flowers left on them.
Windrowed crops should be ready to harvest 5–14 days after windrowing, depending
on the weather. The moisture content of the grain should be ≤8%. 3
In warmer, drier areas, windrowing is better done when seed reaches 50–60% seed-
colour change. Under higher temperatures, the windrowed plant dries too rapidly to
allow seeds to mature fully in the pods and oil content can be lower.
Figure 3: Seed-colour changes determine the optimum time for windrow timing. (Photo: DAFWA)
In summary, windrowing too early can result in lower yields and oil contents, and too
late will lead to shattering losses.
The optimum time for windrowing is when the top third of the plant has mostly
green seeds. These should be firm but pliable when rolled between the thumb and
forefinger. The middle section of the plant will have 80% of seed green or green-red
and be very firm but pliable; the other 20% may be red-brown to light brown. The
bottom third of the plant will have dark brown to black seeds.
The time from the end of flowering to windrowing will vary with season, paddock and
variety. Check each crop every year to determine the best windrowing time.
If using a contractor, ensure that they are booked well in advance. Noting the end of
flowering will help the grower and the contractor to determine approximately when the
crop will be ready to windrow. It is most important that a decision to windrow is made
based on assessment in a representative area of the paddock.
The optimal windrowing stage for canola lasts ~4–6 days, depending on temperature
and humidity. Each day that windrowing is delayed past the optimum time will make
the crop more susceptible to shattering losses. These can be minimised by operating
at night or when humidity is high after dew or rain. However, where shattering losses
3 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
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during windowing are obvious, growers are advised to change strategy to direct
harvesting or to desiccation followed by direct harvesting.
Windrowing too early, for example, by 4–5 days, can lead to yield losses of up to
10% and reduced oil content. A canola crop should never be windrowed before
seed colour has changed, because it will result in significant yield loss. Rollers can
be attached to the back of windrowers to help push the windrow down into the
stubble and minimise wind damage. Note: withholding periods of pesticides relate to
windrowing, not to harvest, if windrowing operations occur. 4
12.2 Direct heading
Direct harvesting is cheaper than windrowing and can be done with an open front with
an extended platform or with a belt-front attachment. Canola is ready to harvest when
almost all pods are dry and rattle when shaken, pods are pale brown, and the seeds
are dark brown to black and have <8% moisture content. 5
Direct heading canola can often be carried out sooner than people think because
although the crop stalks may still be green, crop delivery is based on grain moisture,
not plant moisture.
Most headers are capable of direct heading canola. Many machines come out of
Europe where they regularly direct head crops.
It is critically important to correctly set up the header front, according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
Common draper fronts can be used to direct harvest canola, but can be problematic
when there is an uneven flow of the crop into the machine. When canola is cut and
fed onto the mat, it tends to bounce and fluff up and feed in in lumps. To counter this,
a top cross auger that sits across the back of the header front above the belt can
be fitted. When the canola fluffs up it hits the auger which then flicks it towards the
centre to even out the feed into the header.
Conventional, “tin front” headers which have an auger at the bottom of the table are
also capable of direct heading canola.
The crop takes virtually no thrashing to get the grain out of the pods, so machines can
be set wide open to handle a significant amount of crop residue.
The incorrect setting up of the reel can cause significant losses in direct heading
canola. The reel on the header only comes into play when the crop isn’t feeding easily
into the machine, so it should be set high, well forward and only slightly faster than
the machine’s ground speed. The reel is not there to rake the crop into the header
4 P Carmody (2009) Windrowing and harvesting. Ch. 14. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
5 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf,_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
i More information
Revisiting canola
management can lift
returns.
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front because it will create losses from seed shatter. It should only be a backstop for
when the crop doesn’t feed into the machine.
Harvesters should have sharp cutter bars so they cleanly cut the crop rather than
“gnaw” it off.
TO ACCESS THE GRAIN ORANA ALLIANCE HARVEST LOSS CALCULATOR, VISIT:
http://www.grainorana.com.au/documents
12.3 Comparing windrowing and direct heading
Grains Orana Alliance (GOA) research, which was funded by the Grains Research
and Development Corporation, has examined the timing and adoption of pre-harvest
practices in the Central West of New South Wales (Table 1). Research findings include:
• Yield loss due to shattering with later windrowing has proved not as severe as
thought.
• Windrowing timing can have a significant positive effect on yield and profitability
of canola.
• Relatively short delays in windrowing of only 8 days can lead to yield increases of
up to 0.5 t/ha.
• Timing of windrowing has a limited effect on oil potential in canola.
• Direct heading is a viable option for harvesting canola and in many cases could
maximise profitability.
• An economic benefit of >$200/ha can be gained from choosing the best method
and timing of canola harvesting. 6
6 M Street (2013) Harvesting canola in 2013—to windrow or direct head. GRDC Update Papers, 22 August 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/08/Harvesting-canola-in-2013-to-windrow-or-direct-head
i More information
Direct heading canola.
Fact-Sheet.
Direct heading canola
delivers at Devenish.
The benefits of disc
seeders direct heading
canola and on-farm
storage.
Harvest options for
canola—windrowing
timing, direct heading,
desiccation with
Reglone and treatment
with Pod Ceal. Effects
on yield and oil
percentages.
Harvesting canola in
2013—to windrow or
direct head?
Canola harvest: is
direct heading a serious
option?
Early planning the
key to canola direct
harvesting.
The nuts and bolts of
efficient and effective
windrow burning
cusin
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Table 1: Canola harvest treatments, windrow timing and crop maturity 7
Treatment Windrowing timing
Assumptions of crop maturity
Proportion of crop physiologically mature
At risk of not reaching potential
Early windrow 10% seed-colour change in middle third of the main stem
Assume bottom third mature, plus 10% of middle third, nil top third
36% seed potentially already mature
64%
Ideal windrow 50% seed-colour change in middle third of main stem
Assume bottom third mature plus 50% of middle third, 10% of top third
53% seed potentially already mature
47%
Late windrow 70% seed-colour change in middle third of the main stem
Assume bottom third mature plus 70% of the middle main stem, 50% of top third
72% seed potentially already mature
28%
Reglone® 70% of all pods have changed colour
70% 70% 30%
Direct head All seeds mature 100% 100% 0%
From these trials, it could be concluded that timing of windrowing has limited effect
on oil percentages in canola. Delaying windrowing or direct heading resulted in
significant increases in yields of canola. These yield variations may be explained by
the proportion of immature seed present at cutting and the risk that this seed will not
fill its potential. For this seed to mature, it must draw on stored substrate, which may
be influenced by cutting height, time of day or even variability of the level of maturity
within the crop. These aspects require further investigation.
The differences in yield coupled with additional costs contribute to significant
increases in net returns for some treatments. Figure 4 depicts the relative benefits of
the treatments, taking into account average yields, additional costs, and oil penalties
or bonuses.
The limited nature of these trials does not allow a recommendation of ‘ideal’ timing
of windrowing. However, the trials do demonstrate the potential economic benefit
of making the right decision. Paddocks, seasons and risk-averseness of growers
will all differ. When formulating a time to windrow, remember that there are potential
advantages to allowing immature seed in the paddock to mature before windrowing
or desiccation. By ceasing the plant’s growth during the filling of these seeds, yields
could be reduced.
Therefore, a balance must be found between potential yield maximisation by delaying
windrowing or desiccation, and the potential increases in loss of yield through
shattering. This should be considered in view of the grower’s risk-averseness, or other
advantages offered through windrowing. Potential risk in terms of pod shattering may
be managed by use of products such as Pod Ceal™.
7 M Street (2010) Harvest options for canola—windrowing timing, direct heading, desiccation with Reglone™ and treatment with Pod Ceal™. Effects on yield and oil percentages. GRDC Update Papers, 30 September 2010, https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2010/09/Harvest-options-for-canola-windrowing-timing-direct-heading-desiccation-with-RegloneTM-and-treatment-with-Pod-CealTM-effects-on-yield-and-oil-percentages
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Further investigations may be warranted into:
• time of day of windrowing and its effect on maturation of immature seed
• windrowing height—more stem may leave more substrate available to facilitate
grainfill and hence reduce yield losses and variability
• quantifying potential sources of losses—standing crop, windrowing losses, losses
while in the windrow 8
Figure 4:
$200
$250
$300
$150
$100
0
$50Cha
nge
in g
ross
mar
gin
W128th Oct
W22nd Nov
W38th Nov
W17th Oct
W210th Oct
Dubbo site Coonamble site
W315th Oct
Regione Pod Ceal Directhead
$146
a b b z yz x xy x x
$166
$90
$208
$113
$147
$208
Relative cost–profit difference of various harvest options compared with W1 at the Dubbo and Coonamble canola harvest trials. Treatment values headed by the same letter are not significantly different (α = 0.05). 9
12.3.1 WindrowingThis technique is likely to be the most widely used. The majority of canola is currently
windrowed. The objective in windrowing is to lay the cut material on top of the lower
stem material to allow air movement under the windrow to assist in the drying process.
Advantages of cutting the crop and placing it in a windrow on the stubble:
• The pods and seeds will ripen faster than a standing crop (by as much as 8–10
days).
• Windrowed canola is much less susceptible to wind and hail damage than is a
thin, standing crop, especially if it has been desiccated with diquat (Reglone®).
• Seeds will reach a uniform harvest moisture content of 8% earlier than with
desiccation or direct heading.
• It can help in the management of uncontrolled or herbicide-resistant weeds.
• Even, well made windrows will speed up the harvest operation.
Disadvantages:
• There are additional costs.
• In very wet seasons, the crop can deteriorate in a windrow.
8 M Street (2010) Harvest options for canola—windrowing timing, direct heading, desiccation with Reglone™ and treatment with Pod Ceal™. Effects on yield and oil percentages. GRDC Update Papers, 30 September 2010, https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2010/09/Harvest-options-for-canola-windrowing-timing-direct-heading-desiccation-with-RegloneTM-and-treatment-with-Pod-CealTM-effects-on-yield-and-oil-percentages
9 M Street (2012) Windrow timing and direct heading in canola—effects on yield and oil. GRDC Update Papers, 12 April 2012, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/04/Windrow-timing-and-direct-heading-in-canola-effects-on-yield-and-oil
i More information
Harvesting canola in
2013-to-windrow or
direct head?
Harvest options for
canola—windrowing
timing, direct heading,
desiccation with
Reglone and treatment
with Pod Ceal. Effects
on yield and oil
percentages.
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• The optimum timing only lasts 4–6 days depending on the temperature and
humidity.
• The use of contractors may compromise timing.
• Timing of windrowing is determined by percentage change in seed colour, which
is a compromise to allow for variability in the weather post-windrowing.
• Windrowing too early can lead to yield losses of up to 30% and reduced oil
content, whereas too late makes the crop far more susceptible to shattering
losses.
• Poorly made windrows which are uneven resulting in “lumps” or “haystacks”
will slow the harvesting process and any blockages that occur can be time
consuming and costly to clear especially where contractors charge on a machine
hour basis.
• If the cut plants are “pushed” down onto the ground during the windrowing
operation the dry down time may be increased especially if moderate to heavy
rain is received before harvesting starts.
Figure 5: The majority of canola crops are windrowed prior to harvest.
Timing
Collect pods from the main stem of a number of plants and from different positions in
the canopy to determine the optimum timing for windrowing. The top third of the plant
will have mostly green seeds that are firm but pliable; the middle third, ~80% of seeds
green or green-red and very firm but pliable, and 20% red-brown to light brown; and
the bottom third, dark brown to black seeds.10
Check withholding periods when using Reglone. See www.apvma.gov.au
10 J Midwood (2013) Canola harvest: is direct heading a serious option. GRDC Update Papers, 6 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Canola-harvest-Is-direct-heading-a-serious-option
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12.3.2 Direct headingRecent research into direct cutting of canola has shown it to be a viable harvest
alternative to windrowing in some circumstances. Favourable conditions for direct
heading include having a crop canopy that is slightly lodged and knitted together,
even maturity across the paddock, and few, green weeds (or when sprayed with a
desiccant).
Advantages of direct heading:
• There are no windrowing or desiccation costs.
• Crops dry out faster after wet weather than windrowed crops.
• Crops are allowed to maximise yield potential and oil contents.
• It suits rocky areas, which can be a problem when windrowing, and reduces the
risk of harvester blockage that can occur with windrows.
Disadvantage:
• In crops that are variable, the wait for ripening can expose the crop to wind
damage, and thicker crops can take a considerable time to ripen evenly.
Timing
The general colour of the crop is a poor guide of when to harvest; use seed moisture
content. The addition of pod sealants is an extra management aid when direct
harvesting; it helps by reducing pod shattering and by allowing crops to achieve their
full yield potential but is an added cost. When sprayed onto the crop it provides a
unique elastic, semi-permeable membrane over the filling pods. Timing is earlier than
the optimum time for windrowing. 11
12.3.3 Desiccation followed by direct headingThe most common desiccant is diquat (Reglone®), which is registered for aerial
application.
Advantages:
• The technique is useful on variable soil types because it allows more even crop
ripening.
• It is ideal for weedy crops.
• Crops dry out faster after wet weather than a windrowed crop.
Disadvantages:
• There are shedding losses if a ground rig has to be used.
• Shattering losses can be very high in windy conditions.
• It is expensive, especially if the desiccant is applied by air.
11 J Midwood (2013) Canola harvest: is direct heading a serious option. GRDC Update Papers, 6 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Canola-harvest-Is-direct-heading-a-serious-option
i More information
AOF Harvest Clean
Down Guidelines
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Timing
The correct time for desiccation is when 70–80% of seeds have changed colour in the
middle pods; this is when the crop has passed its optimal windrowing stage. The crop
will be ready to harvest within 4–7 days after the desiccant is applied, depending on
the size and density of the crop.
Other desiccants such as glyphosate are regularly used pre-harvest on canola in
Canada and Europe. This provides far slower senescence of the plants, considerably
reducing pod shattering and providing superior end-of-season grass-weed control. 12
12.4 Wet harvest issues and management
Canola generally withstands extended wet harvest periods better than other crops
such as wheat. Severe windstorms can cause seed shatter more readily in canola;
however, newer varieties have been selected to improve this characteristic. 13
12.5 Receival standards
Canola receival standards are presented in Table 2. 14
Table 2: Commodity standards—canola (from AOF 2014)
Parameter SpecificationOil (%) 42.0 base level; 1.5% premium or deduction for each 1% above or
below 42
Free fatty acid (%) 1.0 base level; 2% deduction for each 1% over the base level, rejectable over 2.5
Moisture max. (%) 8.0; 2% deduction for each 1% over maximum
Test weight min. (kg/hL) 62.0; rejectable under this limit
Protein Unlimited
Seed retention Unlimited
Germination Unlimited
12 J Midwood (2013) Canola harvest: is direct heading a serious option. GRDC Update Papers, 6 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Canola-harvest-Is-direct-heading-a-serious-option
13 L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2009) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf,_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
14 AOF (2014) Quality standards, technical information and typical analysis. 2014/15. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.graintrade.org.au/sites/default/files/file/Commodity%20Standards/AOF_Standards_201415_Final.pdf
i More information
Quality standards,
technical information
and typical analysis,
2014/15.
GRDC’s Integrated
Weed Management
Hub.
Links to GRDC Update
papers and reports on
weed management are
available from the Grain
Orana Alliance.
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SECTION 13
Storage
13.1 Canola storage at a glance
• For safe storage and optimum quality, canola should be stored ‘cool and dry’.
• Aim to store canola seed with 42% oil content at <7.0% moisture content.
Samples with high oil content (50%) can be stored safely at <6.0% moisture
content.
• Clean out storage facilities, grain-handling equipment and headers to reduce
carryover of storage pests from one season to the next. This minimises early
infestation pressure.
• Aeration to promote uniform, cool storage conditions is a key strategy for
maintaining oil and seed quality. During summer, aim for stored canola
temperatures in the range 18°–23°C.
• For oilseeds, monitor storages fortnightly and keep records. Sieve grain and use
probe traps to detect insect pests. Make visual inspections and smell the canola.
Check canola temperature at a number of locations in the storage. 1
1 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
i More information
Storing oilseeds—Grain
Storage Fact Sheet
Cool and dry conditions
maintain canola
quality—Farming Ahead
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13.2 Storing oilseeds
Storage of oilseeds on-farm requires attention to detail, because limited tools are
available compared with cereal grain storage. Oilseeds are also more susceptible
to quality deterioration and have fewer insect-control options. To retain the canola’s
market value, care must be taken to maintain oil quality, visual appearance, and
freedom from moulds, insect pests and unregistered chemicals. 2
The decision to store oilseeds requires planning, careful management and a suitable
storage system. 3
Points to consider when storing oilseeds such as canola:
• Limited chemical control options for insect pests in stored oilseeds increase the
importance of careful management and planning.
• Aeration cooling is required when storing oilseeds to maintain seed and oil quality,
limit insect reproduction and reduce risk of mould development.
• Seek advice about the appropriate fan size to use to aerate canola. Canola’s small
seed size will reduce fan output by 40–50% or more. In some situations, the fan
may fail to produce any airflow.
• Moisture content in oilseeds must be much lower than in cereal grains. The high
oil content increases the risk of moulds and quality damage.
• Successful phosphine fumigation requires a gas-tight, sealable silo.
• To prevent residues on canola, do not use the standard chemical insecticide
structural treatments. Use diatomaceous earth (DE) products such as Dryacide®. 4
13.3 Seed quality and moisture content at storage
Windrowing canola may have advantages over direct harvesting of the standing crop.
It hastens and evens out the drying rate of ripe canola. If direct harvesting, harvest at
<7% moisture content to allow for paddock variability with respect to crop maturity.
Timing of harvest and header settings—drum speed, concave gap and fan speed—
have a significant impact on minimising trash and impurities and seed damage.
If admixture in the seed sample is high, fines can concentrate directly below the
storage fill-point, leading to heating and fire risk. Larger pieces of crop trash may also
concentrate along silo walls, leading to mould development.
The presence of damaged seeds is more attractive to storage pests such as the rust-
red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum).
2 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
3 GRDC (2014) Storing oilseeds. GRDC Stored Grain Information Hub, http://storedgrain.com.au/storing-oilseeds/
4 GRDC (2014) Storing oilseeds. GRDC Grain Storage Fact Sheet, July 2014, http://storedgrain.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/GSFS-9_Oil-Seed-July14.pdf
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Safe moisture content for storage depends on temperature and oil content. The higher
the oil content and storage temperature, the lower the moisture content must be for
safe storage. At 25°C, canola with an oil content of 45% is safe to store at <7.0%
moisture content. Canola with 50% oil content is safe at <6.0% moisture content (see
Figure 1).
The aim is to store the canola in conditions that achieve an equilibrium relative
humidity of <60% in the storage (see Figure 1). This reduces the risk of mould
development, canola self-heating and oil quality deterioration.
Use of aeration to cool seed temperatures to ≤20°C is a key aid to reliable canola
storage. 5
Figure 1:
35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
Seed oil content (% dry matter)
See
d m
ois
ture
co
nten
t (%
dry
mat
ter)
Safe storage conditions for canola at 60% equilibrium relative humidity. The relationship between seed moisture content and oil content is shown at 25°C (yellow line). Canola stored at conditions above the line is at potential risk of seed and oil quality loss. (Source: CSIRO Stored Grain Research Laboratory)
13.4 Types of storage
Ideal storage for canola is a well-designed, cone-based, sealable silo fitted with
aeration (Figure 2). The storage should be designed for minimum damage to seed,
ease of cleaning and hygiene for empty storages, and suitability for effective use of
aeration cooling.
If seed requires insect pest control, the silo is then sealed (gas-tight) for the required
period as stated on the product label (usually 7–10 days) to enable effective
phosphine fumigation. For all storage types, extra caution should be taken to prevent
rain/water ingress into storages. 6
5 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
6 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
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Figure 2: Aerated, sealable silos.
13.5 Hygiene—structural treatment
Most common insecticide treatments for storage surfaces are not to be used on
storages for holding canola. Warning: if unregistered chemical residues are detected
by grain buyers, it can have serious long-term consequences for domestic and export
markets.
Diatomaceous earth (amorphous silica) or inert dust is a naturally occurring, mined
product with insecticidal properties. Products such as Dryacide® can be applied as
a dust or slurry spray onto internal surfaces of storage areas and equipment. Once
old grain residues have been physically removed or washed out of storages and
equipment, Dryacide® can be applied as a non-chemical treatment to reduce insect
pest carryover.
Insect pests survive in any sheltered place with grain residues—in grain hoppers,
augers, field bins and inside headers. All of these attractive locations require attention.
Some products based on pyrethrin + piperonyl butoxide (e.g. Rentokil’s Pyrethrum
Insecticide Spray Mill Special® or Webcot SPY® natural pyrethrum Insecticide) are
registered for moth control in oilseed storage areas or storage sheds. They can be
used as a structural-surface spray or fogging–misting treatment. They are not to
be applied as a grain treatment. Use only as labels direct and only use products
registered for use in the state or territory as stipulated on the label. Discussion with
grain buyers and traders prior to use of any products is also important. 7
7 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
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13.6 Aeration
Aeration should be considered an essential storage tool for canola. Correctly
managed, it creates uniform, cool conditions in the seed bulk and slows most quality-
deterioration processes.
Aeration:
• helps maintains oil quality— low free fatty acid content / rancidity, good colour
and odour;
• reduces the risk of ‘hot spots’, moisture migration and mould development;
• slows or stops breeding cycles of storage insect pests (e.g. rust-red flour beetle)
by maintaining grain temperatures at <20°C; and
• maintains germination and seed vigour for longer when kept cool and dry. 8
Canola, being a much smaller seed than cereal grains, adds significantly more back-
pressure to the aeration fan. This means that an aeration cooling system set up to
produce airflows of 2–4 litres per second per tonne (L/s.t) in cereal grain will typically
produce only 40–60% of that when used in canola.
When setting up storages to cater for cereals and canola, seek advice about the fan
sizes and number required to achieve the 2–4 L/s.t.
Other factors that affect the amount of airflow through the grain:
• depth of the grain in storage
• amount of fine admixture and foreign plant material in the grain
• design and size of fan ducting and venting on top of the silo
The area and type of ducting must be adequate to disperse the air through the
storage and not to be blocked by the small canola seeds. Avoid splitting airflow
from one fan into multiple silos, because the back-pressure in each silo will vary
and incorrectly apportion the amount of airflow to each. This will be exacerbated if
different grains are stored in each silo, such as canola in one and a cereal in the other. 9
13.6.1 Aeration cooling Fans providing low airflow rates of ~2–4 L/s.t can both cool seed and provide uniform
seed temperature and moisture conditions in the storage. Always check that the fan’s
design and capacity is suitable for the small canola seed. In some cases, an aeration
fan may not be able to create any airflow through canola.
Well-managed cooling aeration typically makes seed temperature fall safely to
~≤20°C within days. Regular checking of canola in storage is essential. Make visual
8 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
9 GRDC (2014) Storing oilseeds. GRDC Stored Grain Information Hub, http://storedgrain.com.au/storing-oilseeds/
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inspections, check seed moisture, use a temperature probe to monitor bulk seed
temperature, and sieve for insects. 10
13.6.2 Automatic controllersOften, ‘aeration cooling’ fans are simply turned on and off manually or a timer clock
is used. However, much can be gained by investing $5000–7000 in an automatic
controller that selects the optimum run-times and ambient air conditions under which
to turn on the fans. The controller continually monitors air temperatures and relative
humidity and may select air from only 2 or 3 days in a week or fortnight. One unit has
the capacity to control fans on multiple silos. 11
13.6.3 operation of aeration fans• Run fans constantly during the first 4–5 days when grain is first put into the silo.
This removes the ‘harvest heat’. Smell the air coming from the silo top-hatch. It
should change from a warm, humid smell to a fresh, cool smell after 3–5 days.
The first cooling front has moved through.
• For the next 5–7 days, set the controller to the ‘rapid’ setting. This turns fans on
for the coolest 12 h of each day to reduce the seed temperature further.
• Finally, set the controller to the ‘normal’ mode. The fans are now turned on for
~100 hours per month, selecting the coolest air temperatures and avoiding high-
humidity air. 12
13.6.4 Aeration dryingWell-designed, purpose-built, high-flow-rate aeration-drying systems with airflow
rates of 15–20 L/s.t can dry seed reliably. During aeration drying, fans should force
large volumes of air through the grain bulk for many hours each day. This ensures that
drying fronts are pushed quickly through so that seed at the top of the silo is not left
sitting at excessively high moisture contents (Figure 3).
Seeds from oilseed crops are generally well suited to this form of drying when
correctly managed. Utilise all ambient air available with relative humidity <70% to
provide a low average relative humidity for each run time. This can reduce moisture
content without the risk of heat damage to seed oil quality. Monitor regularly and
take care that seed in the bottom of the silo is not over-dried. Seek advice when
undertaking aeration drying for the first time.
Do not use aeration fans with low airflow rates when attempting to dry high-moisture
seed.
10 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
11 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
12 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
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Automatic controllers for aeration drying are also available to run fans at optimum
ambient air conditions. Some controller models provide the option to switch to either
cooling or drying function. Ensure that the controller is fitted with a good-quality
relative humidity sensor. 13
Figure 3:
Air out
Air flows through silo
Aeration changes moistureand temperature as the air moves between the grains
Cooling/drying front
Air inAir in
Cooling–drying fronts in the aeration process. (Source: C. Newman, DAFWA)
13.6.5 Heated air drying For hot-air drying of canola seed, fixed-batch, recirculating-batch or continuous-flow
dryers are all suitable for reducing moisture content. Always consider the blending
option first if low-moisture canola seed is available. Canola seed dries very rapidly
compared with cereal grains, so close attention must be given to temperature control
and duration to ensure that seed is not over-dried. It is wise to use the minimum amount
of additional heat:
• Use air temperatures in the 40–45°C range.
• Stay nearby and monitor moisture content every 15 min. Over-drying of canola
seeds can occur rapidly. Seek advice if drying canola for first time.
• For batch-dryers when moisture content readings reach 8.5%, turn off the heat
source and move to the seed-cooling phase with fan only. Retest once cooled.
• Use belt conveyors or run the auger full when moving seed to reduce seed damage.
• Aim to make good use of storage aeration fans, before and after the drying process. 14
13 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
14 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
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13.6.6 Fire risk The dust and admixture associated with oilseeds presents a serious fire risk.
Harvesting and drying are high-risk operations where constant vigilance is required.
Good housekeeping in and around equipment and close observation of problem sites
will reduce the threat.
In case of fire, ensure that appropriate equipment is at hand and a plan of action
understood by operators. Without careful management, canola seeds in storage with
high moisture content and/or high levels of admixture pose a risk of mould formation,
heating and fire through spontaneous combustion. 15
13.7 Insect pest control
Several insect pests will infest stored oilseeds, usually favouring the grain surface.
These are the rust-red flour beetle (Figure 4), Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella)
(Figure 5), warehouse moths (Ephestia spp.) and psocids (Liposcelis spp.)
Figure 4: Rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum).
15 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
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Figure 5: Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella).
These pests multiply rapidly given food, shelter, and warm, moist conditions. They can
complete their full life cycle in about 4 weeks under optimum breeding temperatures
of ~30°C.
Only a few treatments are registered for insect control in oilseeds. Always check
labels prior to use and abide by use restrictions for different states and territories in
Australia. For most states, treatments include phosphine, pyrethrins, DE, and ethyl
formate as Vapormate®. Use of pyrethrins and DE should be limited to storage-area
treatments, and Vapormate® is restricted for use by licensed fumigators only. This
leaves phosphine as the key farm storage treatment for oilseed storage pests.
Phosphine fumigation must take place in a gas-tight, well-sealed silo. If the silo
passes the standard pressure test, it shows that there are no serious leakage points.
Given this, phosphine gas can be held in the silo at high enough concentrations for
sufficient time to kill all life stages of the pest (eggs, larvae, pupae, adults).
Several silo manufacturers make aeratable, sealable silos that pass the Australian
Standard Pressure Test—AS 2628. Like most oilseeds, canola seed has the ability to
adsorb phosphine gas, and so it is important to use the full, correct label dose rate.
By using phosphine bag-chains, belts or blankets, placement and removal of the
treatment is simplified. If using the standard phosphine tablets, ensure that tablets
are kept separate from the canola seed by using trays so the spent tablet dust can be
removed following fumigation.
If aeration cooling has been in use and the seed temperature is <25°C, ensure that the
fumigation exposure period is ≥10 days. See product label for details.
Once the fumigation is completed, release the seal, vent the gas, and return the
stored canola to aeration cooling. 16
16 P Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
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13.8 Further reading
Stored Grain Information Hub for Grain Storage, Quality Control, Insect & Pest
Management. GRDC, www.storedgrain.com.au
Storing oilseeds. Stored Grain Information Hub. GRDC, http://storedgrain.com.au/
storing-oilseeds/
Vigilant monitoring protects grain assets. Stored Grain Information Hub. GRDC, http://
storedgrain.com.au/monitoring-protects-grain/
Northern and Southern Regions. Stored grain pests—identification. Stored Grain
Information Hub. GRDC, http://storedgrain.com.au/stored-grain-pests-id-ns/
Hygiene & structural treatments for grain storage. Stored Grain Information Hub.
GRDC, http://storedgrain.com.au/hygiene-structural-treatments/
Aerating stored grain, cooling or drying for quality control. Stored Grain Information
Hub. GRDC, http://storedgrain.com.au/aerating-stored-grain/
Performance testing aeration systems. Stored Grain Information Hub. GRDC, http://
storedgrain.com.au/testing-aeration/
Fumigating with phosphine, other fumigants and controlled atmospheres. Stored
Grain Information Hub. GRDC, http://storedgrain.com.au/fumigating-with-phosphine-
and-ca/
Pressure testing sealable silos. Stored Grain Information Hub. GRDC, http://
storedgrain.com.au/pressure-testing/
Grain storage facilities: planning for efficiency and quality. Stored Grain Information
Hub. GRDC, http://storedgrain.com.au/grain-storage-facilities/
Phone enquiries: grain storage specialists: 1800 weevil (1800 933 845)
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SECTION 14
Environmental issues
Frost, moisture stress and heat stress can all have an impact on grain yield, oil
content and oil quality. Frost can occur at any time during the growth of the canola
plant, but the most damaging frosts occur when pods are small. Pods affected at
this time have a green to yellowish discoloration, then shrivel and eventually drop off.
Pods affected later may appear blistered on the outside of the pod and usually have
missing seeds.
Moisture stress and heat stress are linked; the plant will suffer heat stress at a lower
temperature if it is also under moisture stress. Flower abortion, shorter flowering
period, fewer pods, fewer seeds per pod and lower seed weight are the main effects,
occurring either independently or in combination. 1
14.1 Frost
Once established, canola is relatively frost-tolerant, but damage can occur during
the cotyledon stage and the seedlings can die if frosted. Plants become more frost-
tolerant as they develop.
Seedling growth and vigour are reduced at temperatures <7°C, and occasionally
seedlings will die.
Soluble carbohydrates accumulate when there is a rapid reduction in leaf temperature.
This accumulation suppresses photosynthesis, and therefore seedling growth rates,
during the cooler winter months. 2
Canola is least tolerant to frost damage from flowering to the clear watery stage
(~60% moisture).
Symptoms include:
• yellow-green discoloration of pods (Figure 1)
• scarring of external pod surfaces
• abortion of flowers (Figure 2)
• shrivelling of pods
1 T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
2 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
Phenology of canola
cultivars in the northern
region and implications
for frost risk
DAFWA: Frost and
cropping
GRDC Update papers:
What’s going on with
frost?
The GRDC National
Frost Initiative
Burnt stubble pre-
empts frost risk
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• pods eventually dropping off (Figure 3)
• shrivelling and absence of seeds (Figure 4)
Figure 1: Yellow-green discoloration of pods, compared with healthy green pods.
Figure 2: Canola plant showing various stages of pod loss and flower abortion.
i More information
Frost-damaged crops—
where to from here?
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Figure 3: Stunted pods that have dropped off.
Figure 4: Missing and shrivelled seeds.
Canola flowers for a 30–40-day period, allowing podset to continue after a frost. Open
flowers are most susceptible to frost damage, whereas pods and unopened buds
usually escape. If seed moisture content is <40% when frost occurs, oil quality will not
be affected. 3
14.1.1 Issues that can be confused with frost damageMany other problems can be confused with frost damage. The main ones are those
causing distortion of the plant, absence of the seeds or unusual colour (see examples
in Figures 5–7). Management and recent environmental conditions should be taken
into account when identifying any crop disorder.
3 C White (2000) Pulse and canola—frost identification. The Back Pocket Guide. Reprinted 2003. Department of Agriculture, Western Australia/GRDC, https://www.grdc.com.au/Resources/Bookshop/2012/01/Pulse-Canola-Frost-Identification-The-Back-Pocket-Guide-GRDC046
i More information
Diagnosing frost
damage in canola
Pulse and canola—frost
identification
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Figure 5: Aphids on canola flower stem.
Figure 6: Sulfur deficiency and aphids. Flower petals retained; pods stunted with yellowing-reddening.
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Figure 7: Herbicide damage in lupins.
It is important to remember that frost damage is random and sporadic, and not
all plants (or parts of plants) will be affected, whereas most disease, nutrient and
moisture-related symptoms will follow soil type. 4
The optimum temperature range for leaf development of canola is 13°–22°C. At higher
temperatures, growth is faster, and the period of leaf development is therefore shorter.
Lower temperatures do not reduce yield in early growth, except when heavy frosts
occur, but they do slow the rate of development. As temperatures increase to >20°C
in July and August, yields are reduced.
For frost injury, ice must form between or inside the cells. Water surrounding the plant
cells will freeze at 0°C, but water inside the cells needs to be a few degrees cooler to
freeze. The length of exposure of the plant to cold is another important factor. Plants
can be cold-hardened by repeated exposure over several days. They can survive
–8°C to –12°C in Canada, but exposure to warm weather will reverse this hardening,
making the plants susceptible to temperatures of –3°C to –4°C. 5
Crops that have been treated with herbicides before or immediately after frosts will
often show greater effect. Growers should delay herbicide applications until the crop
is actively growing.
4 C White (2000) Pulse and canola—frost identification. The Back Pocket Guide. Reprinted 2003. Department of Agriculture, Western Australia/GRDC, https://www.grdc.com.au/Resources/Bookshop/2012/01/Pulse-Canola-Frost-Identification-The-Back-Pocket-Guide-GRDC046
5 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
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14.2 Waterlogging and flooding
14.2.1 Symptoms of waterloggingPaddock symptoms:
• Poor germination or purple-yellow plants can occur in areas that collect water.
• Bare wet soil and/or water-loving weeds are present.
• Plant lodging and early death occur in waterlogging-prone areas.
• Saline areas are more affected.
Plant symptoms:
• Waterlogged seedlings can die before emergence or show symptoms similar to
nitrogen deficiency.
• Lower leaves turn purple-red to yellow, then die.
• Prolonged waterlogging causes root death and eventually death of the whole
plant; plants are more susceptible to root disease.
• Waterlogging of adult plants causes yellowing of lower leaves.
• Salinity magnifies waterlogging effects, with more marked stunting and oldest leaf
marginal necrosis and death. 6
14.2.2 Effect on yieldCanola roots need a good mix of water and air in the soil. When the amount of
water exceeds the soil’s water-holding capacity, waterlogging may occur. Canola is
susceptible to waterlogging and shows a yield reduction after only 3 days.
The severity of yield loss depends on the growth stage at the time of waterlogging,
the duration of waterlogging, and the temperature (Figure 8).
Figure 8:
Yie
ld (%
of
non-
wat
erlo
gg
ed c
ont
rol)
Waterlogging (days)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
00 3 7 14
Rosette
Seed filling
Effect of waterlogging on yield. (Source: Canola Council of Canada 2003)
6 DAFWA. Diagnosing waterlogging in canola. MyCrop. Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia, https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/mycrop/diagnosing-waterlogging-canola
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Wet soils will slow or prevent gas exchange between the soil and atmosphere,
causing oxygen deficiency. High temperatures cause high respiration rates in roots
and soil microorganisms, so soil oxygen is consumed more quickly.
Soil texture also affects the time at which critical levels of soil oxygen are reached.
This is due to the oxygen-carrying capacity of soils. Coarser textured soils can hold
more oxygen, increasing the amount of time before oxygen levels are reduced to a
critical point.
The other effects of waterlogging are reductions in root growth, plant growth, plant
height, dry matter production and nutrient uptake. 7
14.2.3 GerminationCanola is sensitive to waterlogging during germination. When soils become
waterlogged, the oxygen supply in the soil solution rapidly decreases. Oxygen
is essential for seed germination. Without oxygen, seeds cannot continue their
metabolic processes, and germination ceases. Prolonged waterlogging can kill canola
seeds and seedlings. 8
14.2.4 SeedfillDuring seed-filling, waterlogging for >7 days decreases individual seed weight and oil
content. High temperatures exacerbate the effects of waterlogging on canola yield.
The impact of waterlogging is greater if it occurs at the rosette stage. The longer the
period of waterlogging, the greater the impact. 9
7 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
8 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
9 J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
i More information
Should waterlogged
crops be topdressed
with N fertiliser?
Over the bar with better
canola agronomy
Diagnosing
waterlogging in canola.
Alleviation of
waterlogging damage
by foliar application of
nitrogen compounds
and tricyclazole in
canola.
Growing canola on
raised beds in south-
west Victoria.
Nitrogen and sulfur for
wheat and canola—
protein and oil.
APSIM Canola.
Waterlogging and
canola.
Waterlogging in
Australian agricultural
landscapes: a review
of plant responses and
crop models.
Crop production
potential and
constraints in the
high rainfall zone of
southwestern Australia:
Yield and yield
components.
Improving canola
establishment to reduce
wind erosion.
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SECTION 15
Marketing
The final step in generating farm income is converting the tonnes of grain produced
per hectare into dollars at the farm gate. This section provides best-in-class marketing
guidelines for managing price variability to protect income and cash flow.
15.1 Selling principles
The aim of a selling program is to achieve a profitable average price (the target price)
across the entire business. This requires managing several factors that are difficult to
quantify, in order to establish the target price, and then working towards achieving
that target price.
These factors include the amount of grain available to sell (production variability),
the final cost of that production, and the future prices that may result. Australian
farm-gate prices are subject to volatility caused by a range of global factors that are
beyond our control and difficult to predict (Figure 1).
The skills that growers have developed to manage production variability and costs
can be used to manage and overcome price uncertainty.
Figure 1: Annual price variation (season average and range) for Newcastle canola.
15.1.1 Be preparedBeing prepared and having a selling plan are essential for managing uncertainty. The
steps involve forming a selling strategy, and having a plan for effective execution of
sales. A selling strategy consists of when and how to sell.
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When to sell
This requires an understanding of the farm’s internal business factors including:
• production risk
• a target price based on cost of production and a desired profit margin
• business cash-flow requirements
How to sell?
This depends more on external market factors including:
• time of year, which determines the pricing method
• market access, which determines where to sell
• relative value, which determine what to sell
The key selling principles when considering sales during the growing season are
described in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Grower commodity selling principles timeline.
15.1.2 Establishing the business risk profile—when to sellEstablishing your business risk profile allows the development of target price ranges
for each commodity and provides confidence to sell when the opportunity arises.
Typical business circumstances of a cropping enterprise, and how the risks may be
quantified during the production cycle, are described in Figure 3.
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Figure 3: Typical business circumstances and risk.
Production risk profile of the farm
Production risk is the level of certainty around producing a crop and is influenced by
location (climate and soil type), crop type, crop management, and time of the year.
Principle: ‘You can’t sell what you don’t have’. Do not increase business risk by over
committing production.
Establish a production risk profile (Figure 4) by:
• collating historical average yields for each crop type and a below-average and
above-average range
• assessing the likelihood of achieving average based on recent seasonal
conditions and seasonal outlook
• revising production outlooks as the season progresses
Figure 4: Typical production risk profile of a farm operation.
Farm costs in their entirety, variable and fixed costs (establishing a target price)
A profitable commodity target price is the cost of production per tonne plus a desired
profit margin. It is essential to know the cost of production per tonne for the farm
business.
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Principle: ‘Don’t lock in a loss.’ If committing production ahead of harvest, ensure the
price is profitable.
Steps to calculate an estimated profitable price based on total cost of production and
a range of yield scenarios are provided in Figure 5.
Estimating cost of production - CanolaPlanted Area 1,200 ha
Estimate Yield 1.45 t/ha
Estimated Production 1,740 t
Fixed costs
Insurance and General Expenses $100,000
Finance $80,000
Depreciation/Capital Replacement $70,000
Drawings $60,000
Other $30,000
Variable costs
Seed and sowing $48,000
Fertiliser and application $168,000
Herbicide and application $84,000
Insect/fungicide and application $36,000
Harvest costs $48,000
Crop insurance $18,000
Total fixed and variable costs $742,000
Per Tonne Equivalent (Total costs + Estimated production)
$426 /t
Per tonne costs
Levies $3 /t
Cartage $12 /t
Freight to Port $22 /t
Total per tonne costs $37 /t
Cost of production Port track equiv $463.44
Target profit (ie 20%) $93.00
Target price (port equiv) $556.44
Figure 5: Steps to calculate an estimated profitable price for canola.
The GRDC manual ‘Farming the business’ also provides a cost-of-production
template and tips on skills required for grain selling, as opposed to grain marketing. 1
Income requirements
Understanding farm business cash-flow requirements and peak cash debt enables
grain sales to be timed so that cash is available when required. This prevents having
to sell grain below the target price to satisfy a need for cash.
Principle: ‘Don’t be a forced seller.’ Be ahead of cash requirements to avoid selling in
unfavourable markets.
1 M Krause (2014) Farming the business. Sowing for your future. GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/FarmingTheBusiness
Step 1: Estimate your production potential. The more uncertain your production is, the more conservative the yield estimate should be. As yield falls, your cost of production per tonne will rise.
Step 2: Attribute your fixed farm business costs. In this instance if 1,200 ha reflects 1/3 of the farm enterprise, we have attributed 1/3 fixed costs. There are a number of methods for doing this (see M Klause “Farming your Business”) but the most important thing is that in the end all costs are accounted for.
Step 3: Calculate all the variable costs attributed to producing that crop. This can also be expressed as $ per ha x planted area.
Step 4: Add together fixed and variable costs and divide by estimated production
Step 5: Add on the “per tonne” costs like levies and freight.
Step 6: Add the “per tonne” costs to the fixed and variable per tonne costs calculated at step 4.
Step 7: Add a desired profit margin to arrive at the port equivalent target profitable price.
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A typical cash flow to grow a crop is illustrated in Figure 6. Costs are incurred upfront
and during the growing season, with peak working capital debt incurred at or before
harvest. This will vary depending on circumstances and enterprise mix. Figure 7
demonstrates how managing sales can change the farm’s cash balance.
Figure 6: Typical farm operating cash balance, assuming harvest cash sales.
Figure 7: Typical farm operating cash balance, with cash sales spread throughout the year.
Summary
The when-to-sell steps above result in an estimated production tonnage and the risk
associated with that tonnage, a target price range for each commodity, and the time
of year when cash is most needed.
15.1.3 Managing your price—how to sellThis is the second part of the selling strategy.
Methods of price management
The pricing methods for products provide varying levels of price risk coverage (Table 1).
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Table 1: Pricing methods and how they are used for various crops
Description Wheat Barley Canola Sorghum Maize Faba beans
Chick peas
Fixed price products
Provides the most price certainty
Cash, futures, bank swaps
Cash, futures, bank swaps
Cash, futures, bank swaps
Cash, futures, bank swaps
Cash, futures, bank swaps
Cash Cash
Floor price products
Limits price downside but provides exposure to future price upside
Options on futures, floor price pools
Options on futures
Options on futures
Options on futures
Options on futures
none none
Floating price products
Subject to both price upside and downside
Pools Pools Pools Pools Pools Pools Pools
Figure 8 below provides a summary of when different methods of price management
are suited for the majority of farm businesses.
Figure 8: Price strategy timeline through the growing season.
Principle: ‘If increasing production risk, take price risk off the table.’ When committing
unknown production, price certainty should be achieved to avoid increasing overall
business risk.
Principle: ‘Separate the pricing decision from the delivery decision.’ Most
commodities can be sold at any time with delivery timeframes negotiable; hence,
price management is not determined by delivery.
Fixed price
A fixed price is achieved via cash sales and/or selling a futures position (swaps)
(Figure 9). It provides some certainty around expected revenue from a sale because
the price is largely known, except when there is a floating component in the price.
For example, a multi-grade cash contract with floating spreads or a floating basis
component on futures positions.
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Figure 9: Fixed-price strategy.
Floor price
Floor price strategies can be achieved by utilising ‘options’ on a relevant futures
exchange (if one exists), or via a managed sales program product by a third party
(i.e. a pool with a defined floor-price strategy). This pricing method protects against
potential future downside whilst capturing any upside (Figure 10). The disadvantage
is that the price ‘insurance’ has a cost, which adds to the farm business’s cost of
production.
Figure 10: Floor-price strategy.
Floating price
Many of the pools or managed sales programs are a floating price where the net price
received will move both up and down with the future movement in price (Figure 11).
Floating-price products provide the least price certainty and are best suited for use at
or after harvest rather than pre-harvest.
Figure 11: Floating-price strategy.
Summary
Fixed-price strategies include physical cash sales or futures products and provide the
most price certainty; however, production risk must be considered.
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Floor-price strategies include options or floor price pools. They provide a minimum
price with upside potential and rely less on production certainty; however, they cost
more.
Floating-price strategies provide minimal price certainty and they are best used after
harvest.
15.1.4 Ensuring access to marketsOnce the selling strategy is organised, the storage and delivery of commodities must
be planned to ensure timely access to markets and execution of sales. At some point,
growers need to deliver the commodity to market; hence, planning where to store
the commodity is important in ensuring access to the market that is likely to yield the
highest return (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Effective storage decisions.
Storage and logistics
Return on investment from grain handling and storage expenses is optimised when
storage is considered in light of market access to maximise returns, as well as harvest
logistics.
Storage alternatives include variations around the bulk-handling system, private
off-farm storage, and on-farm storage. Delivery and quality management are key
considerations in deciding where to store your commodity (Figure 13).
Principle: ‘Harvest is the first priority.’ Getting the crop into the bin is most critical to
business success during harvest; hence, selling should be planned to allow focus on
harvest.
Bulk export commodities requiring significant quality management are best suited to
the bulk handling system. Commodities destined for the domestic end user market
(e.g. feedlot, processor, or container packer) may be more suited to on-farm or private
storage to increase delivery flexibility.
Storing commodities on-farm requires prudent quality management to ensure delivery
at agreed specifications and can expose the business to high risk if this aspect
is not well planned. Penalties for out-of-specification grain on arrival at a buyer’s
weighbridge can be expensive. The buyer has no obligation to accept delivery of an
out-of-specification load. This means that the grower may have to suffer the cost of
taking the load elsewhere, while also potentially finding a new buyer. Hence, there is
potential for a distressed sale, which can be costly.
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On-farm storage also requires prudent delivery management to ensure that
commodities are received by the buyer on time with appropriate weighbridge and
sampling tickets.
Principle: ‘Storage is all about market access.’ Storage decisions depend on quality
management and expected markets.
For more information about on-farm storage alternatives and economics, refer to
GrowNotes Canola Northern Region, Section 13. Grain storage.
Figure 13: Grain storage decision making.
Cost of carrying grain
Storing grain to access sales opportunities post-harvest invokes a cost to ‘carry’
grain. Price targets for carried grain need to account for the cost of carry.
Carry costs per month are typically $3–4/t, consisting of:
• monthly storage fee charged by a commercial provider (typically ~$1.50–2.00/t)
• monthly interest associated with having wealth tied up in grain rather than cash
or against debt (~$1.50–$2.00/t, depending on the price of the commodity and
interest rates)
The price of carried grain therefore needs to be $3–4/t per month higher than was
offered at harvest. The cost of carry applies to storing grain on-farm because there
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is a cost of capital invested in the farm storage plus the interest component. A
reasonable assumption is $3–4/t per month for on-farm storage.
Principle: ‘Carrying grain is not free.’ The cost of carrying grain needs to be accounted for
if holding grain and selling it after harvest is part of the selling strategy (see Figure 14).
Figure 14: Newcastle canola cash v. net present value (NPV).
Summary
Optimising farm gate returns involves planning the appropriate storage strategy for
each commodity to improve market access and cover carry costs in pricing decisions.
15.1.5 Executing tonnes into cashBelow are guidelines for converting the selling and storage strategy into cash by
effective execution of sales.
Set up the toolbox
Selling opportunities can be captured when they arise by assembling the necessary
tools in advance. The toolbox includes:
1. Timely information. This is critical for awareness of selling opportunities and
includes: market information provided by independent parties; effective price
discovery including indicative bids, firm bids, and trade prices; and other
market information pertinent to the particular commodity.
2. Professional services. Grain-selling professional service offerings and cost
structures vary considerably. An effective grain-selling professional will put their
clients’ best interest first, by not having conflicts of interest and by investing
time in the relationship. Return on investment for the farm business through
improved farm-gate prices is obtained by accessing timely information, greater
market knowledge and greater market access from the professional service.
3. Futures account and bank-swap facility. These accounts provide access to
global futures markets. Hedging futures markets is not for everyone; however,
strategies that utilise exchanges such as CBOT can add significant value.
For current financial members of Grain Trade Australia, including buyers, independent
information providers, brokers, agents, and banks providing over-the-counter grain
derivative products (swaps), go to: http://www.graintrade.org.au/membership.
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For a list of commodity futures brokers, go to: http://www.asx.com.au/prices/find-a-
futures-broker.htm.
How to sell for cash
Like any market transaction, a cash grain transaction occurs when a bid by the buyer
is matched by an offer from the seller. Cash contracts are made up of the following
components, with each component requiring a level of risk management (Figure 15):
• Price. Future price is largely unpredictable; hence, devising a selling plan to put
current prices into the context of the farm business is critical to manage price risk.
• Quantity and quality. When entering a cash contract, you are committing to
delivery of the nominated amount of grain at the quality specified. Hence,
production and quality risk must be managed.
• Delivery terms. Timing of title transfer from the grower to the buyer is agreed at
time of contracting. If this requires delivery direct to end users, it relies on prudent
execution management to ensure delivery within the contracted period.
• Payment terms. In Australia, the traditional method of contracting requires title
of grain to be transferred ahead of payment; hence, counterparty risk must be
managed.
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Figure 15: Typical cash contracting as per Grain trade Australia standards.
The price point within a cash contract will depend on where the transfer of grain title
will occur along the supply chain. Figure 16 depicts the terminology used to describe
pricing points along the grain supply chain and the associated costs to come out of
each price before growers receive their net farm-gate return.
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Figure 16: Costs and pricing points throughout the supply chain.
On ship at customer wharf
On board ship
In port terminalOn truck/train at port terminal
On truck/train ex siteIn local silo
At weighbridge
Farm gate
Bulk seafreight
FOB costs
Freight toPort
(GTA LD)
Receival fee
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Out-turn fee
FOB costs
Freight toPort
(GTA LD)
Receival fee
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Freight toPort
(GTA LD)
Receival fee
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Receival fee
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Receival fee
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Farm gatereturns
Farm gatereturns
Net farmgate return
Ex-farmprice
Free in store.
Price at commercial
storage.
Free on truck. Price
Post truck price
Port FIS price
Free on board price.
Carry and freight price.
Up countrydelivered silo
price. Delivered
domestic to end
user price.Delivered container
packer price.
Levies & EPRs
Freight toPort
(GTA LD)
Cartage
Farm gatereturns
Levies & EPRs
Out-turn fee
Out-turn fee
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Cash sales generally occur through three methods:
1. Negotiation via personal contact. Traditionally prices are posted as a ‘public
indicative bid’. The bid is then accepted or negotiated by a grower with
the merchant or via an intermediary. This method is the most common and
available for all commodities.
2. Accepting a ‘public firm bid’. Cash prices in the form of public firm bids are
posted during harvest and for warehoused grain by merchants on a site basis.
Growers can sell their parcel of grain immediately, by accepting the price on
offer via an online facility and then transfering the grain online to the buyer. The
availability of this depends on location and commodity.
3. Placing an ‘anonymous firm offer’. Growers can place a firm offer price on
a parcel of grain anonymously and expose it to the entire market of buyers,
who then bid on it anonymously using the Clear Grain Exchange, which is an
independent online exchange. If the firm offer and firm bid match, the parcel
transacts via a secure settlement facility where title of grain does not transfer
from the grower until funds are received from the buyer. The availability of
this depends on location and commodity. Anonymous firm offers can also be
placed to buyers by an intermediary acting on behalf of the grower. If the grain
sells, the buyer and seller are disclosed to each counterparty.
Counterparty risk
Most sales involve transferring title of grain prior to being paid. The risk of a
counterparty defaulting when selling grain is very real and must be managed.
Conducting business in a commercial and professional manner minimises this risk.
Principle: ‘Seller beware.’ Selling for an extra $5/t is not a good deal if you do not get
paid.
Counterparty risk management includes the following principles:
• Deal only with known and trusted counterparties.
• Conduct a credit check (banks will do this) before dealing with a buyer you are
unsure of.
• Only sell a small amount of grain to unknown counterparties.
• Consider credit insurance or letter of credit from the buyer.
• Never deliver a second load of grain if payment has not been received for the first.
• Do not part with title of grain before payment or request a cash deposit of part of
the value ahead of delivery. Payment terms are negotiable at time of contracting;
alternatively, the Clear Grain Exchange provides secure settlement whereby the
grower maintains title of grain until payment is received by the buyer, and then
title and payment are settled simultaneously.
Above all, act commercially to ensure that the time invested in a selling strategy is not
wasted by poor counterparty risk management. Achieving $5/t more and not receiving
payment is a disastrous outcome.
i More information
GTA Guide to taking out
contracts
GTA Contracts and
vendor declarations
GTA Trading standards
GrainTransact Resource
Centre
GrainFlow Network
Emerald Grain
customer and grower
logins
Clear Grain Exchange
terms and conditions
Clear Grain Exchange—
getting started
i More information
GTA Grain contracts—
managing counterparty
risk
Clear Grain Exchange
title transfer model
GrainGrowers Guide to
managing contract risk
Counterparty risk: A
producer perspective—
Leo Delahunty
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Relative commodity values
Grain sales revenue is optimised when selling decisions are made in the context of the
whole farming business. The aim is to sell each commodity when it is priced well and
to hold commodities that are not well priced at any given time; that is, give preference
to the commodities of the highest relative value. This achieves price protection for
the overall farm business revenue and enables more flexibility to a grower’s selling
program while achieving the business goals of reducing overall risk.
Principle: ‘Sell valued commodities, not undervalued commodities.’ If one commodity
is priced strongly relative to another, focus sales there. Do not sell the cheaper
commodity for a discount.
An example based on wheat and canola production system is provided in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Newcastle canola v. Australian Premium White No. 1 wheat.
If the decision has been made to sell canola, ICE (Intercontinental Exchange®) canola
may be the better alternative if the futures market is showing better value than the
cash market (Figure 18).
Figure 18: vNewcastle canola v. Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) canola (AU$/t).
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Contract allocation
Contract allocation means choosing which contracts to allocate your grain against at
delivery time. Different contracts will have different characteristics (price, premiums–
discounts, oil bonuses, etc.), and optimising your allocation reflects immediately on
your bottom line (Figure 19).
Principle: ‘Don’t leave money on the table.’ Contract allocation decisions do not take
long, and can be worth thousands of dollars to your bottom line.
Because the majority of Australian canola cash contracts pay price premiums and
discounts based on oil for clean seed tonnes, to achieve the best average canola
price, growers should:
• Allocate their worst loads (lowest oil and highest admix) to their lower priced
contracts.
• Allocate their best loads (highest oil and lowest admix) to their higher priced
contracts.
Figure 19: Examples of contract allocation of grain.
Read market signals
The appetite of buyers to buy a particular commodity will differ over time depending
on market circumstances. Ideally, growers should aim to sell their commodity when
buyer appetite is strong and stand aside from the market when buyers are not as
interested in buying the commodity.
Principle: ‘Sell when there is buyer appetite.’ When buyers are chasing grain, growers
have more market power to demand a price when selling.
Buyer appetite can be monitored by:
1. The number of buyers at or near the best bid in a public bid line-up. If there are
many buyers, it could indicate buyer appetite is strong. However, if there is one
buyer $5/t above the next best bid, it may mean cash prices are susceptible to
falling $5/t if that buyer satisfies their buying appetite.
2. Monitoring actual trades against public indicative bids. When trades are
occurring above indicative public bids it may indicate strong appetite from
merchants and the ability for growers to offer their grain at price premiums
to public bids. The chart below plots actual trade prices on the Clear Grain
Exchange against the best public indicative bid on the day.
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Summary
The selling strategy is converted to maximum business revenue by:
• ensuring timely access to information, advice and trading facilities
• using different cash-market mechanisms when appropriate
• minimising counterparty risk by effective due diligence
• understanding relative value and selling commodities when they are priced well
• thoughtful contract allocation
• reading market signals to extract value from the market or prevent selling at a
discount
15.2 Northern canola market dynamics and execution
Price determinants
Australia is a relatively small player in terms of world oilseed production, contributing
about 5% to global canola production. However, in terms of world trade, Australia is
a major player, exporting ~75% of the national canola crop, which accounts for ~23%
of global canola trade.
Given this dynamic, Australian farm-gate prices are influenced by global price
volatility. This makes offshore markets such as the ICE canola contract and Euronext
(often referred to as Matif) rapeseed useful indicators of where the Australian canola
price will trade.
In addition, global canola values are influenced by supply and demand of other global
oilseeds such as soybeans and palm oil. This is because the different oilseed types
can be substituted for various uses (Figure 20).
Figure 20: Newcastle canola v. offshore markets.
Figure 21 below highlights some of the seasonal factors influencing global canola
prices throughout each year. Because of Australia’s export focus, the timing of harvest
in major exporting and importing countries is a considerable influencer of prices.
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Figure 21: Upper panel: seasonal factors influencing global canola prices; lower panel, Newcastle canola price distribution.
Ensuring market access
A large proportion of canola grown in the northern region of Australia is exported in
bulk for human consumption (Figure 22); therefore, a bulk handling system is often the
most cost-effective pathway to get canola to offshore customers. The bulk storage
provider should gain scale efficiencies when moving the bulk commodity grade CAN1.
New South Wales (NSW) also has a prominent domestic canola market that can
generate premiums to the bulk export markets and provide a return to on-farm
storage for growers well positioned to service these crushers. In addition, Victorian
demand is greater than production in most years; hence, canola from NSW is
transported over the border to service the relatively large domestic Victorian market.
As a result, private commercial and on-farm storage should play a much larger
role to access domestic end-user markets. Australian canola crushers are located
at Newcastle and Manildra to the north, and then Cootamundra, Wagga Wagga,
Numurkah and Melbourne in the south.
The level of canola exports in containers from NSW remains very low at ~1% of
production; however, it can provide price premiums for specific grades because a
container can access niche offshore markets; this particularly applies to off-spec (i.e.
low oil, high admix) or genetically modified (GM) canola.
The supply-chain flow options are illustrated in Figure 23.
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New South Wales National totalImplied tonnes
% of production
Implied tonnes
% of production
Bulk 360,000 40% 2,300,000 74%
Container 6,000 2% 90,000 2%
Domestic use 340,000 38% 750,000 24%
Figure 22: Market destinations for canola—New South Wales and national 5-year averages.
Figure 23: Australian supply chain flow for canola.
Executing tonnes into cash
The key to effectively executing sales is determining which grades to sell and which
to hold. Niche canola grades such as GM canola are often best sold during harvest
or shortly after, given that buyer appetite often drops away post-harvest, there being
fewer buyers for GM canola then conventional. For example, the EU, a major offshore
market for Australian canola, does not accept GM product. Hence, once buyers with a
specific use for these canola grades have filled their requirements, price discounts to
conventional CAN1 can increase (Figure 24).
Export pace is strongest shortly after harvest (Figure 25). Storing canola for domestic
markets can provide premium returns, although it is important to monitor buyer
appetite. Selling for a future delivery date with a per-month carry built into price
can be effective in capturing existing market premiums, generating a return on farm
infrastructure without running the risk of the domestic buyers adequately covering
their requirements.
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Figure 24: Melbourne non-GM v. GM canola price.
Figure 25: Monthly export pace of canola.
Risk-management tools
An Australian cash price has three components: futures, foreign exchange, and basis
(Figure 26). Each component affects price. A higher futures and basis and a lower
exchange rate will create a higher Australian grain price.
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Figure 26: Components of pricing.
Table 2 outlines products available to manage canola prices; the major difference in
products is the ability to manage the individual components of price.
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Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of the products available to manage canola prices
Description Advantages DisadvantagesSpot cash contracts
Futures, foreign exchange, basis all locked at time of contracting
Simple to use.
Locks in all components of price.
Cash is received almost immediately (within payment terms).
Immediate grain delivery required.
Sales after harvest require storage which incur costs.
Locks away three pricing components at the same time.
Risk of counterparty default between transfer and payment.
Forward cash contracts
Futures, foreign exchange, basis all locked at time of contracting
Simple to use.
Locks in all components of price (no uncovered price risk).
No storage costs.
Cash income is a known ahead of harvest
Often inflexible and difficult to exit.
Locks away the three pricing components at the same time.
Future delivery is required resulting in production risk.
Counterparty default risk must be managed.
Futures contracts
Futures, foreign exchange, basis are able to be managed individually
Liquid markets enable easy entry and exit from the marketplace.
Locks in only some components of price, hence more flexible than cash contracts.
Price determined by the market, and is completely transparent.
No counterparty risk due to daily clearing of the contracts.
Requires constant management and monitoring.
Margin calls occur with market movements creating cash-flow implications.
Grain is required to offset the futures position, hence production risk exists.
Cash prices may not move inline with futures, hence some price risk.
You still have to sell the underlying physical grain.
Over-the-counter bank swaps on futures contracts
Futures, foreign exchange, basis are able to be managed individually
Based off an underlying futures market so reasonable price transparency.
Liquid markets enable easy entry and exit from the marketplace.
Locks in only some components of price, hence more flexible than cash contracts.
Counter party risk is with the Bank, hence it is low.
The bank will manage some of the complexity on behalf of the grower, including day to day margin calls.
Costs vary between $5-10/t at the providers discretion.
Requires constant management and monitoring.
Grain is required to offset the futures position, hence production risk exists.
Cash prices may not move inline with futures, hence some price risk.
You still have to sell the underlying physical grain.
Options on futures contracts
Futures, foreign exchange, basis are able to be managed individually
No counterparty risk due to daily clearing of the contracts.
No margin calls.
Protects against negative price moves but can provide some exposure to positive moves if they eventuate.
Liquid markets enable easy entry and exit from the marketplace.
Price risk can be reduced without increasing production risk.
Price determined by the market, and is completely transparent.
Options can be costly and require payment upfront.
The value of options erode overtime as expiry approaches - depreciating asset.
Perceived to be complicated by growers.
Move in option value may not completely offset move in cash markets.
You still have to sell the underlying physical grain.
For more information and worked examples on how each pricing component affects
canola price, refer to the GRDC publication: Grain market lingo—what does it all
mean?
i More information
Oilseeds industry—
delivering high quality
products to local and
global markets
Grain market lingo—
what does it all mean?
SECTION 16 CANolA - Current projects
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SECTION 16
Current projects
Project Summaries of GRDC- supported projects in 2013-14
Each year the GRDC supports several hundred research and development, and capacity building projects.
In the interests of improving awareness of these investments among growers, advisers and other stakeholders, the GRDC has assembled summaries of projects active in 2013-14.
These summaries are written by our research partners as part of the Project Specification for each project, and are intended to communicate a useful summary of the research activities for each project investment.
The review expands our existing communication products where we summarise the R&D portfolio in publications such as the Five-year Strategic Research and Development Plan, the Annual Operating Plan, the Annual Report and the Growers Report.
GRDC’s project portfolio is dynamic with projects concluding and new projects commencing on a regular basis. Project Summaries are proposed to become a regular publication, available to everyone from the GRDC website.
Projects are assembled by GRDC R&D investment Theme area, as shown in the PDF documents available. For each Theme a Table of Contents of what is contained in the full PDF is also provided, so users can see a list of project titles that are covered. The GRDC investment Theme areas are:
• Meeting market requirements;
• Improving crop yield;
• Protecting your crop;
• Advancing profitable farming systems;
• Maintaining the resource base; and
• Building skills and capacity.
The GRDC values the input and feedback it receives from its stakeholders and so would welcome your feedback on any aspect of this first review. This way we can continue to improve and extend this summary.
To send us your feedback please email us at [email protected]
A review of Research Projects supported by the GRDC in 2013-14
SECTION 17 CANolA - Key contacts
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SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel. He has been a member of the panel since
2005 and chairman since 2008. James says the panel’s role
is to capture and invest in growers’ priorities and empower
them to adopt new production gain opportunities. He strongly
believes the grains industry needs to continue building RD&E
capacity to ensure growers remain competitive.
M 0427 545 212
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 years’ experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth. She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers,
industry and agronomists in the production of summer crops.
She has a passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency
and sees her role as a conduit between advisers, growers and
the GRDC to ensure that growers’ needs are being met.
M 0427 311 819
John Sheppard
John, a panel member since 2006, has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breeder’s perspective
to the panel. He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry, and develop best management practices, as well
as new varieties and products. He is particularly interested in
genotype-by-environment interaction and the preservation of
genetic resources.
M 0418 746 628
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Jack Williamson
Jack, a private agricultural consultant, runs a broadacre
commodity production farm in Goondiwindi. Previous roles
as a territory sales manager for Nufarm and as a commercial
agronomist for McGregor Gourlay Agricultural Services have
given Jack extensive farming systems knowledge, and diverse
crop management and field work experience. Jack is a member
of the Northern Grower Alliance (NGA) local consultative
committe and Crop Consultants Australia, and was previously
president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field Day Committee.
M 0438 907 820
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate
agronomy consultant, communicator and industry advocate.
Her role involves the development and expansion of self-
funded, privatised research, development and extension. Her
experience in project management and strategic development
extends across all facets of an integrated grains business. She
has an established network in eastern Australia and Western
Australia, including researchers, leading growers, agronomy
consultants and commercial industry.
M 0429 494 067
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 years’ experience in property management.
Keith, based on the Liverpool Plains, NSW, consults to Romani
Pastoral Company on the management of its historic holdings
‘Windy Station’ and ‘Warrah’, near Quirindi. He sees the main
aim of the panel as representing growers and conducting
research that provides growers with the tools they need to
maximise property performance and minimise risk.
M 0428 157 754
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Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore, Queensland, Kelly is a certified mungbean
and chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat,
corn and sorghum crop production. She has been involved
with variety trials on a commercial basis and industry farm
practice trials as an agronomist. She strives to be proactive
within the industry and aims to assist growers to improve
farming operations by ensuring that they are up to date with
new practices and technology.
M 0409 974 007
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on
the Northern Panel. She is committed to maximising the
profitability of grain production in a low-rainfall environment
through increased productivity and good risk management
practices. She was principal in a farm advisory business in
central west NSW and worked with growers across north-west
NSW before joining Delta Agribusiness, where her main focus
is the Warren, Nyngan, Tottenham and Gilgandra areas.
M 0428 474 845
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queensland’s Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize, sorghum, wheat,
barley and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain. Rob is currently
chair of the Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs
Regional Council area. Rob views his role on the panel as
taking information and feedback from growers, advisers and
researchers to the GRDC to ensure research is targeted.
M 0427 622 203
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011. Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance, focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins. His main role on the
panel is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to
remain economic and environmentally sustainable.
M 0427 466 245
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Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the
NSW Department of Primary Industries at Orange. In early
2009 he was appointed executive manager practices at the
GRDC and in 2011 was appointed executive manager research
programs. Currently Steve holds the position of executive
manager commercial. He sees the GRDC’s role is to interact
with growers regularly to determine their needs and focus on
the big picture across entire farming systems.
T 02 6166 4500
Sharon o’Keeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC), based in
Boggabri NSW. Sharon’s role is to identify and oversee regional
research, development and extension (RD&E) needs, manage
the regional delivery of information and promote the GRDC’s
products and services. Her role strengthens links between
GRDC panels, researchers, industry, advisors and growers.
Sharon holds a Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural
Science (hons).
M 0409 279 328
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting.
For the past four years he has worked as a project officer for
Independent Consultants Australia Network (ICAN), which
has given him a good understanding of the issues growers
are facing in the northern grains region. David’s new role is
Northern Panel and Regional Grower Services support officer.
M 0422 082 105
SECTION 18 CANolA - References
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SECTION 18
References
A: IntroductionAEGIC. Australian grain note: canola. Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre, http://www.
australianoilseeds.com/oilseeds_industry/quality_of_australian_canola
Canola. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canola
CanolaInfo (2015) Where does canola come from? CanolaInfo, http://www.canolainfo.org/canola/where.php
B Colton, T Potter. History. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/2701/Chapter_1_-_History.pdf
GRDC (2004) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, Hot Topics, 28 April 2004, http://www.grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region
GRDC (2010) Growing hybrid canola. GRDC Canola Fact Sheet, August 2010, https://www.grdc.com.au/~/media/D4B939DB8790453FB2D6CBD04CA11B78.pdf
JF Holland, MJ Robertson, S Cawley, G Thomas, T Dale, R Bambach, B Cocks. Canola in the northern region: where are we up to? Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/4446/CANOLA_IN_THE_NORTHERN_REGION_WHERE_ARE_WE_UP_TO.pdf
D McCaffrey (2009) Introduction. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
OGTR (2002) The biology and ecology of canola (Brassica napus). Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, http://www.ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/content/canola-3/$FILE/brassica.pdf
Section 1: Planning and paddock preparationC Borger, V Stewart, A Storrie. Double knockdown or ‘double knock’. Department of Agriculture
and Food Western Australia.
R Daniel (2013) Weeds and resistance—considerations for awnless barnyard grass, Chloris spp. and fleabane management. Northern Grower Alliance, http://www.nga.org.au/module/documents/download/225
J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
SECTION 18 CANolA - References
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August 2015
FeedbackTable of Contents
GRDC (2012) Make summer weed control a priority. Southern Region. Summer Fallow Management Fact Sheet, GRDC January 2012, https://www.grdc.com.au/Downloads.ashx?q=/~/media/8F16BE33A0DC4460B17317AA266F3FF4.pdf
GRDC (2015) Root-lesion nematodes. GRDC Tips and Tactics, February 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/TT-RootLesionNematodes
D Grey (1998) Water-use efficiency of canola in Victoria. 9th Australian Agronomy Conference, http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/1998/5/181grey.htm
B Haskins (2012) Using pre-emergent herbicides in conservation farming systems. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/431247/Using-pre-emergent-herbicides-in-conservation-farming-systems.pdf
P Hocking, R Norton, A Good (1999) Crop nutrition. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/2704/Chapter_4_-_Canola_Nutrition.pdf
L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
A Mead, K Hertel, C Cole, H Nicol. Constraints to canola yield in central and southern NSW. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/4580/Constraints_to_canola_yield_in_NSW.pdf
P Parker (2009) Crop rotation and paddock selection. Ch. 4. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
A Riar, G McDonald, G Gill (2013) Nitrogen and water use efficiency of canola and mustard in Mediterranean environment of South Australia. GRDC Update Papers, 13 February 2013, https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Nitrogen-and-water-use-efficiency-of-canola-and-mustard-in-South-Australia
V Sadras, G McDonald (2012) Water use efficiency of grain crops in Australia: principles, benchmarks and management. GRDC Integrated Weed Management Hub, http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-Booklet-WUE
L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
M Widderick, H Wu. Fleabane. Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia.
Section 2: Pre-plantingR Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter? GRDC Update
Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
R Mailer (2009) Grain quality. In Canola best practice management guide for eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard)) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
SECTION 18 CANolA - References
3Know more. Grow more.
August 2015
FeedbackTable of Contents
P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.nvtonline.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Crop-Guide-Canola-Northern-NSW-Planting-Guide.pdf
Section 3: PlantingBCG (2015) Calculating canola seeding rates. News article. Birchip
Cropping Group, http://www.bcg.org.au/cb_pages/news/Thetimeforsowingcanolaisuponusmakingitimportanttorevisitourunderstandingonseedingrates.Gettingthisri.php
R Brill, L Jenkins, M Gardner (2014) Canola establishment; does size matter? GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Canola-establishment-does-size-matter
L Jenkins (2009) Crop establishment. Ch. 5 In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
L Jenkins, R Brill (2013) Improving canola profit in central NSW: effect of time of sowing and variety choice. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Improving-canola-profit-in-central-NSW-effect-of-time-of-sowing-and-variety-choice
P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
Section 4: Plant growth and physiologyT Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management
guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
A Ware, R Brill, J Kirkegaard, S Noack, A Pearce, L Davis (2015) Canola growth and development—impact of time of sowing (TOS) and seasonal conditions. GRDC Update Papers, 10 February 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Canola-growth-and-development-impact-of-time-of-sowing-TOS-and-seasonal-conditions
Section 5: Nutrition and fertiliserDAFWA (2015) Diagnosing nitrogen deficiency in canola. Department of Agriculture and Food,
Western Australia, https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/mycrop/diagnosing-nitrogen-deficiency-canola
R Daniel, M Gardner, A Mitchell, R Norton (2013) Canola nutrition: what were the benefits from N, S and P in 2012? GRDC Update Papers, 5 March 2013, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/03/Canola-nutrition-what-were-the-benefits-from-N-S-and-P-in-2012
GRDC (2014) Canola nutrition in the northern region. GRDC Media Centre, 28 April 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-nutrition-in-the-northern-region
P Hocking, R Norton, A Good (1999) Crop nutrition. 10th International Rapeseed Congress, http://www.regional.org.au/au/gcirc/canola/p-05.htm
SECTION 18 CANolA - References
4Know more. Grow more.
August 2015
FeedbackTable of Contents
R Norton, J Kirkegaard, J Angus, T Potter. Canola in rotations. Australian Oilseed Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/2705/Chapter_5_-_Canola_in_Rotations.pdf
P Parker (2009) Nutrition and soil fertility. Ch. 7. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
M Street (2011) Sulfur nutrition in canola—gypsum vs. sulphate of ammonia and application timing. GRDC Update Papers, 20 April 2011, https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2011/04/Sulfur-nutrition-in-canola-gypsum-vs-sulphate-of-ammonia-and-application-timing
M Street (2013) Sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 26 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Sulfur-strategy-to-improve-profitability-in-canola-in-the-central-west-of-NSW
M Street (2014) Review of sulfur strategy to improve profitability in canola in the central west of NSW. GRDC Update Papers, 18 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Review-of-sulfur-strategy
Section 6: Weed controlL Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide.
NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
Section 7: Insect controlK Hertel, K Roberts, P Bowden (2013) Insect and mite control in field crops. NSW DPI Management
Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/284576/Insect-and-mite-control-in-field-crops-2013.pdf
P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
M Miles, P Grundy, A Quade, R Lloyd (2015) Insect management in in fababeans and canola recent research. GRDC Update Papers 25 February 2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/02/Insect-management-in-fababeans-and-canola-recent-research
L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
P Umina (2014) Persistent pests; aphids, mites, millipedes and earwigs. GRDC Update Papers, 5 February 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/02/Persistent-pests-aphids-mites-millipedes-and-earwigs
SECTION 18 CANolA - References
5Know more. Grow more.
August 2015
FeedbackTable of Contents
Section 8: NematodesB Burton (2015) Impact of crop varieties on RLN multiplication. GRDC Update Papers, 1 March
2015, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2015/03/Impact-of-crop-varieties-on-RLN-multiplication
GRDC (2015) Root-lesion nematodes. GRDC Tips and Tactics, February 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/TT-RootLesionNematodes
L. Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
Section 9: DiseaseseXtensionAUS. Latest on canola disease—2015 GRDC Update Papers. eXtension, http://www.
extensionaus.com.au/2015-grdc-update-canola-papers/
GRDC (2014) Canola disease management in the northern region. GRDC Gound Cover, 21 March 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Hot-Topics/Canola-disease-management-in-the-northern-region
GRDC (2015) Blackleg management guide, autumn 2015. GRDC Fact Sheet, 29 April 2015, http://www.grdc.com.au/GRDC-FS-BlacklegManagementGuide
P Matthews, D McCaffery, L Jenkins (2015) Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015. NSW DPI Management Guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/272945/winter-crop-variety-sowing-guide-2015.pdf
L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
Section 11: DesiccationP Carmody (2009) Windrowing and harvesting. Ch. 14. In Canola best practice management guide
for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
Section 12: HarvestAOF (2014) Quality standards, technical information and typical analysis. 2014/15. Australian
Oilseeds Federation, http://www.graintrade.org.au/sites/default/files/file/Commodity%20Standards/AOF_Standards_201415_Final.pdf
P Carmody (2009) Windrowing and harvesting. Ch. 14. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
S Jeffrey (2014) Growers encourage to drive down weed seed banks at harvest. GRDC Media Centre, 29 October 2014, http://grdc.com.au/Media-Centre/Media-News/North/2014/10/Growers-encouraged-to-drive-down-weed-seed-banks-at-harvest
J Midwood (2013) Canola harvest: is direct heading a serious option. GRDC Update Papers, 6 February 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/02/Canola-harvest-Is-direct-heading-a-serious-option
SECTION 18 CANolA - References
6Know more. Grow more.
August 2015
FeedbackTable of Contents
L Serafin, J Holland, R Bambach, D McCaffery (2005) Canola: northern NSW planting guide. NSW Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/148300/canola-northern-NSW-planting-guide.pdf
M Street (2010) Harvest options for canola—windrowing timing, direct heading, desiccation with Reglone™ and treatment with Pod Ceal™. Effects on yield and oil percentages. GRDC Update Papers, 30 September 2010, https://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2010/09/Harvest-options-for-canola-windrowing-timing-direct-heading-desiccation-with-RegloneTM-and-treatment-with-Pod-CealTM-effects-on-yield-and-oil-percentages
M Street (2012) Windrow timing and direct heading in canola—effects on yield and oil. GRDC Update Papers, 12 April 2012, http://grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2012/04/Windrow-timing-and-direct-heading-in-canola-effects-on-yield-and-oil
M Street (2013) Harvesting canola in 2013—to windrow or direct head. GRDC Update Papers, 22 August 2013, http://www.grdc.com.au/Research-and-Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2013/08/Harvesting-canola-in-2013-to-windrow-or-direct-head
Section 13: StorageP Burrill (2012) Safe storage. Module 8. In Better canola—canola technology update for growers
and advisors. Australian Oilseeds Federation, http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/9082/MODULE_8_-_Safe_Storage_of_Canola_Philip_Burrill_-_V2_Sep_2012.pdf
GRDC (2014) Storing oilseeds. GRDC Stored Grain Information Hub, http://storedgrain.com.au/storing-oilseeds/
GRDC (2014) Storing oilseeds. GRDC Grain Storage Fact Sheet, July 2014, http://storedgrain.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/GSFS-9_Oil-Seed-July14.pdf
Section 14: Environmental issuesDAFWA. Diagnosing waterlogging in canola. MyCrop. Department of Agriculture and Food Western
Australia, https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/mycrop/diagnosing-waterlogging-canola
J Edwards, K Hertel (2011) Canola growth and development. PROCROP Series. New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/516181/Procrop-canola-growth-and-development.pdf
T Potter (2009) The canola plant and how it grows. Ch. 3. In Canola best practice management guide for south-eastern Australia. (Eds D McCaffrey, T Potter, S Marcroft, F Pritchard) GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/uploads/documents/GRDC_Canola_Guide_All_1308091.pdf
C White (2000) Pulse and canola—frost identification. The Back Pocket Guide. Reprinted 2003. Department of Agriculture, Western Australia/GRDC, https://www.grdc.com.au/Resources/Bookshop/2012/01/Pulse-Canola-Frost-Identification-The-Back-Pocket-Guide-GRDC046
Section 15: MarketingM Krause (2014) Farming the business. Sowing for your future. GRDC, http://www.grdc.com.au/
FarmingTheBusiness
