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Know more. Grow more.
DURUM -
iKnow more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
DurumKnow more Grow more
planningpaddock preparation bull pre-planting bull planting bull
plant growth and physiology bull nutrition and fertiliser bull weed control bull
insect control bull nematode control bull diseases bull plant growth
regulators and canopy management bull harvest bull storage bull
environmental issues bull marketing bull current research
March 2014
March 2014
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Feedback
The GRDC GrowNotes are an entirely new initiative for GRDC and for the first time provide
a one-stop shop for northern region trial results and best practice recommendations
Having said that the GrowNotes build on extension media of past and present from crop
notes to YouTube
The GrowNotes are digital documents available online so they are able to use the very
best e-publishing technology available to make the information easy to find and navigate
The GrowNotes constantly link to further information In the wheat GrowNotes alone there
are 900 hypertext links
We hope ready access to information will help growers adopt best practices and increase
production and profit
The notes are a dynamic document that will be regularly updated as new research and
agronomic information come to light and growers and agronomists provide feedback
The three modules wheat barley and durum are effectively pilot
projects for the entire 17 crops grown in the northern region
We urge you to test them and give us your feedback There is a
feedback button on every page that sends your comments good
or bad directly back to GRDC
Access the GRDC GrowNotes via wwwgrdccomaugrownotes
James Clark
GRDC Northern Panel Chair
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March 2014
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Foreword
It is my pleasure to welcome you to the GRDC GrowNotes a new and exciting information
product range providing you with regional trial results and best practice recommendations on
the crops you grow A good example of your levy at work
The GRDC has been investing in grains RDampE for more than 20 years During this time together
with our partners we have generated a mass of information from research outputs and findings
most of which remains relevant today
Typically this research has been communicated to industry through GRDC Grower Updates
GRDC Adviser Updates Ground Cover fact sheets media releases communication
campaigns and the GRDC website While these remain important communication channels
new information technologies such as digital publishing and mobile device applications provide
an opportunity to communicate the results of GRDC-funded research more effectively
The Regional Grower Services business group was established within GRDC to actively listen
service and deliver results to growers Through Regional Grower Services we have heard your
feedback loud and clear Our Regional Cropping Solutions networks and Grower Solutions
Groups have told us that growers now need more specific information tailored to their
environment and in a format they can access when they need it most Having this all in one
location so they donrsquot have to go trawling through the internet is another critical feature
So whatrsquos special about GRDC GrowNotes It really comes down to actively listening to
growers and the intense collaboration between our Regional Grower Services group and our
science writers Comments and observations from growers about GRDC publications and
products and what theyrsquod like to see improved and the feedback received from the growers and
advisers who first tested GrowNotes have come together in a very unique blend
The GRDCrsquos GrowNotes are a direct result of your GRDC listening to what you need and
presenting it in a way that best informs the cropping decisions you make
Yoursquoll see a feedback button at the top of every page I encourage you to use this to provide us
with any comments or feedback so we can continue to improve and extend the
GRDC GrowNotes I want to thank all of those who have already provided
input and feedback on the various beta versions Theyrsquove given us insights
that have allowed us to develop GrowNotes to a whole new level
We will continue to make improvements to GrowNotes so stay tuned as
other crop modules are progressively rolled out
I hope you find the GRDC GrowNotes useful
Stuart Kearns
GRDC Executive Manager Regional Grower Services
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March 2014
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SECTION A
Introduction
A1 Crop overview
Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L var durum) or pasta wheat (Photo 1) is known for its
hardness protein intense yellow colour nutty flavour and excellent cooking qualities In
2005ndash06 production was ~500000 tonnes (t) with New South Wales (NSW) accounting
for around 56 and South Australia (SA) 41 of current production The balance is
produced in Queensland Victoria and Western Australia (WA) 1
Durum wheat should only be grown on highly fertile soils where high-protein grain can be
produced as protein levels gt13 are required to meet premium market grades Protein
levels below 10 can be marketed only as feed 2
A2 Keywords
Durum northern grains region winter cereals crop rotation fallow weed control cereal
diseases root-lesion nematodes water use efficiency nitrogen use efficiency soil testing
crown rot Fusarium head blight protein pasta crop nutrition and fertiliser
Photo 1 Durum wheat
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section A DURUM - Introduction
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
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SECTION 1
Planning and paddock preparation
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 1
Planning and paddock preparation
11 Paddock selection
Select paddocks that are fertile and store good levels of stored water or receive reliable in-
crop rainfall or have access to supplementary irrigation Durum wheat must only be grown
where a reliable harvest of high protein (13+) plump hard vitreous grain can be produced
The highest grade of durum (ADR1) must have a minimum protein level of 13 and ADR2
gt115 Careful management of soil nitrogen (N) is essential to achieve this 1
Durum wheats and bread wheats should not be sown into paddocks known to carry high
levels of crown rot inoculum Ground preparation is the same as that for bread wheat
Adequate weed control should eliminate all weeds and volunteer plants of bread wheat
barley or other crop species 2
12 Paddock rotation and history
Photo 1 Rotations with non-cereal species including canola are important for durum paddocks
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
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Crop rotations using pulses canola sorghum sunflower and pasture legumes are essential
to control disease and also to provide opportunities for weed control A robust crop
rotation must be planned over a number of seasons if successful crops of durum wheat are
to be produced 3
Rotations with non-cereal species including pulses canola sorghum pasture legumes
(especially lucerne) and sunflowers are essential in order to
bull control root disease especially crown rot
bull provide for the biological fixation of N2 through legumes
bull control weeds and contaminant crop species and aid in herbicide group rotation
Durum should be the first cereal crop after a non-cereal species Avoid successive durum
crops 4
13 Benefits of crop as a rotation crop
Generally durums are relatively resistant to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei
compared with other winter cereal crops
14 Disadvantages of crop as a rotation crop
Durum will more rapidly build up crown rot inoculum that can negatively affect subsequent
winter cereal crops
15 Fallow weed control
Good weed control can be achieved effectively by controlling weeds in preceding crops
and fallow rotating crops growing competitive durum crops and the judicious use of
herbicides It is important to control weeds such as New Zealand spinach climbing
buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy as their small black seeds can be difficult
to remove from the grain affecting consumer acceptance 5 Controlling these winter weeds
in both preceding crops and winter fallows is important for subsequent durum crop quality
16 Seedbed requirements
Quality seed for planting is essential Only use seed that has a high germination is large
and plump is genetically pure and is free of all contaminants such as weed seeds and
impurities of other winter cereals in particular bread wheat and barley Seed must be
treated with an appropriate fungicide to avoid head disease (smuts and bunts) and leaf
diseases (stripe rust)
Plant seed into a cultivated or chemically prepared seedbed at around 4ndash6 cm depth
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2102) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
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and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
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() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
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durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
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Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
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SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
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64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
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SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
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Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
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SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
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SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
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Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
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SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
March 2014
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Feedback
The GRDC GrowNotes are an entirely new initiative for GRDC and for the first time provide
a one-stop shop for northern region trial results and best practice recommendations
Having said that the GrowNotes build on extension media of past and present from crop
notes to YouTube
The GrowNotes are digital documents available online so they are able to use the very
best e-publishing technology available to make the information easy to find and navigate
The GrowNotes constantly link to further information In the wheat GrowNotes alone there
are 900 hypertext links
We hope ready access to information will help growers adopt best practices and increase
production and profit
The notes are a dynamic document that will be regularly updated as new research and
agronomic information come to light and growers and agronomists provide feedback
The three modules wheat barley and durum are effectively pilot
projects for the entire 17 crops grown in the northern region
We urge you to test them and give us your feedback There is a
feedback button on every page that sends your comments good
or bad directly back to GRDC
Access the GRDC GrowNotes via wwwgrdccomaugrownotes
James Clark
GRDC Northern Panel Chair
Know more Grow more
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March 2014
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FeedbackDURUM - Foreword
Foreword
It is my pleasure to welcome you to the GRDC GrowNotes a new and exciting information
product range providing you with regional trial results and best practice recommendations on
the crops you grow A good example of your levy at work
The GRDC has been investing in grains RDampE for more than 20 years During this time together
with our partners we have generated a mass of information from research outputs and findings
most of which remains relevant today
Typically this research has been communicated to industry through GRDC Grower Updates
GRDC Adviser Updates Ground Cover fact sheets media releases communication
campaigns and the GRDC website While these remain important communication channels
new information technologies such as digital publishing and mobile device applications provide
an opportunity to communicate the results of GRDC-funded research more effectively
The Regional Grower Services business group was established within GRDC to actively listen
service and deliver results to growers Through Regional Grower Services we have heard your
feedback loud and clear Our Regional Cropping Solutions networks and Grower Solutions
Groups have told us that growers now need more specific information tailored to their
environment and in a format they can access when they need it most Having this all in one
location so they donrsquot have to go trawling through the internet is another critical feature
So whatrsquos special about GRDC GrowNotes It really comes down to actively listening to
growers and the intense collaboration between our Regional Grower Services group and our
science writers Comments and observations from growers about GRDC publications and
products and what theyrsquod like to see improved and the feedback received from the growers and
advisers who first tested GrowNotes have come together in a very unique blend
The GRDCrsquos GrowNotes are a direct result of your GRDC listening to what you need and
presenting it in a way that best informs the cropping decisions you make
Yoursquoll see a feedback button at the top of every page I encourage you to use this to provide us
with any comments or feedback so we can continue to improve and extend the
GRDC GrowNotes I want to thank all of those who have already provided
input and feedback on the various beta versions Theyrsquove given us insights
that have allowed us to develop GrowNotes to a whole new level
We will continue to make improvements to GrowNotes so stay tuned as
other crop modules are progressively rolled out
I hope you find the GRDC GrowNotes useful
Stuart Kearns
GRDC Executive Manager Regional Grower Services
iiiKnow more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION A
Introduction
A1 Crop overview
Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L var durum) or pasta wheat (Photo 1) is known for its
hardness protein intense yellow colour nutty flavour and excellent cooking qualities In
2005ndash06 production was ~500000 tonnes (t) with New South Wales (NSW) accounting
for around 56 and South Australia (SA) 41 of current production The balance is
produced in Queensland Victoria and Western Australia (WA) 1
Durum wheat should only be grown on highly fertile soils where high-protein grain can be
produced as protein levels gt13 are required to meet premium market grades Protein
levels below 10 can be marketed only as feed 2
A2 Keywords
Durum northern grains region winter cereals crop rotation fallow weed control cereal
diseases root-lesion nematodes water use efficiency nitrogen use efficiency soil testing
crown rot Fusarium head blight protein pasta crop nutrition and fertiliser
Photo 1 Durum wheat
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section A DURUM - Introduction
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 1
Planning and paddock preparation
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 1
Planning and paddock preparation
11 Paddock selection
Select paddocks that are fertile and store good levels of stored water or receive reliable in-
crop rainfall or have access to supplementary irrigation Durum wheat must only be grown
where a reliable harvest of high protein (13+) plump hard vitreous grain can be produced
The highest grade of durum (ADR1) must have a minimum protein level of 13 and ADR2
gt115 Careful management of soil nitrogen (N) is essential to achieve this 1
Durum wheats and bread wheats should not be sown into paddocks known to carry high
levels of crown rot inoculum Ground preparation is the same as that for bread wheat
Adequate weed control should eliminate all weeds and volunteer plants of bread wheat
barley or other crop species 2
12 Paddock rotation and history
Photo 1 Rotations with non-cereal species including canola are important for durum paddocks
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
2Know more Grow more
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Crop rotations using pulses canola sorghum sunflower and pasture legumes are essential
to control disease and also to provide opportunities for weed control A robust crop
rotation must be planned over a number of seasons if successful crops of durum wheat are
to be produced 3
Rotations with non-cereal species including pulses canola sorghum pasture legumes
(especially lucerne) and sunflowers are essential in order to
bull control root disease especially crown rot
bull provide for the biological fixation of N2 through legumes
bull control weeds and contaminant crop species and aid in herbicide group rotation
Durum should be the first cereal crop after a non-cereal species Avoid successive durum
crops 4
13 Benefits of crop as a rotation crop
Generally durums are relatively resistant to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei
compared with other winter cereal crops
14 Disadvantages of crop as a rotation crop
Durum will more rapidly build up crown rot inoculum that can negatively affect subsequent
winter cereal crops
15 Fallow weed control
Good weed control can be achieved effectively by controlling weeds in preceding crops
and fallow rotating crops growing competitive durum crops and the judicious use of
herbicides It is important to control weeds such as New Zealand spinach climbing
buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy as their small black seeds can be difficult
to remove from the grain affecting consumer acceptance 5 Controlling these winter weeds
in both preceding crops and winter fallows is important for subsequent durum crop quality
16 Seedbed requirements
Quality seed for planting is essential Only use seed that has a high germination is large
and plump is genetically pure and is free of all contaminants such as weed seeds and
impurities of other winter cereals in particular bread wheat and barley Seed must be
treated with an appropriate fungicide to avoid head disease (smuts and bunts) and leaf
diseases (stripe rust)
Plant seed into a cultivated or chemically prepared seedbed at around 4ndash6 cm depth
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2102) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
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and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
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() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
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Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
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SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
2Know more Grow more
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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Feedback
spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
5Know more Grow more
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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Know more Grow more
Feedback
shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
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world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
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SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
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Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
March 2014
Know more Grow more
FeedbackDURUM - Foreword
Foreword
It is my pleasure to welcome you to the GRDC GrowNotes a new and exciting information
product range providing you with regional trial results and best practice recommendations on
the crops you grow A good example of your levy at work
The GRDC has been investing in grains RDampE for more than 20 years During this time together
with our partners we have generated a mass of information from research outputs and findings
most of which remains relevant today
Typically this research has been communicated to industry through GRDC Grower Updates
GRDC Adviser Updates Ground Cover fact sheets media releases communication
campaigns and the GRDC website While these remain important communication channels
new information technologies such as digital publishing and mobile device applications provide
an opportunity to communicate the results of GRDC-funded research more effectively
The Regional Grower Services business group was established within GRDC to actively listen
service and deliver results to growers Through Regional Grower Services we have heard your
feedback loud and clear Our Regional Cropping Solutions networks and Grower Solutions
Groups have told us that growers now need more specific information tailored to their
environment and in a format they can access when they need it most Having this all in one
location so they donrsquot have to go trawling through the internet is another critical feature
So whatrsquos special about GRDC GrowNotes It really comes down to actively listening to
growers and the intense collaboration between our Regional Grower Services group and our
science writers Comments and observations from growers about GRDC publications and
products and what theyrsquod like to see improved and the feedback received from the growers and
advisers who first tested GrowNotes have come together in a very unique blend
The GRDCrsquos GrowNotes are a direct result of your GRDC listening to what you need and
presenting it in a way that best informs the cropping decisions you make
Yoursquoll see a feedback button at the top of every page I encourage you to use this to provide us
with any comments or feedback so we can continue to improve and extend the
GRDC GrowNotes I want to thank all of those who have already provided
input and feedback on the various beta versions Theyrsquove given us insights
that have allowed us to develop GrowNotes to a whole new level
We will continue to make improvements to GrowNotes so stay tuned as
other crop modules are progressively rolled out
I hope you find the GRDC GrowNotes useful
Stuart Kearns
GRDC Executive Manager Regional Grower Services
iiiKnow more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION A
Introduction
A1 Crop overview
Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L var durum) or pasta wheat (Photo 1) is known for its
hardness protein intense yellow colour nutty flavour and excellent cooking qualities In
2005ndash06 production was ~500000 tonnes (t) with New South Wales (NSW) accounting
for around 56 and South Australia (SA) 41 of current production The balance is
produced in Queensland Victoria and Western Australia (WA) 1
Durum wheat should only be grown on highly fertile soils where high-protein grain can be
produced as protein levels gt13 are required to meet premium market grades Protein
levels below 10 can be marketed only as feed 2
A2 Keywords
Durum northern grains region winter cereals crop rotation fallow weed control cereal
diseases root-lesion nematodes water use efficiency nitrogen use efficiency soil testing
crown rot Fusarium head blight protein pasta crop nutrition and fertiliser
Photo 1 Durum wheat
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section A DURUM - Introduction
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 1
Planning and paddock preparation
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 1
Planning and paddock preparation
11 Paddock selection
Select paddocks that are fertile and store good levels of stored water or receive reliable in-
crop rainfall or have access to supplementary irrigation Durum wheat must only be grown
where a reliable harvest of high protein (13+) plump hard vitreous grain can be produced
The highest grade of durum (ADR1) must have a minimum protein level of 13 and ADR2
gt115 Careful management of soil nitrogen (N) is essential to achieve this 1
Durum wheats and bread wheats should not be sown into paddocks known to carry high
levels of crown rot inoculum Ground preparation is the same as that for bread wheat
Adequate weed control should eliminate all weeds and volunteer plants of bread wheat
barley or other crop species 2
12 Paddock rotation and history
Photo 1 Rotations with non-cereal species including canola are important for durum paddocks
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
2Know more Grow more
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Crop rotations using pulses canola sorghum sunflower and pasture legumes are essential
to control disease and also to provide opportunities for weed control A robust crop
rotation must be planned over a number of seasons if successful crops of durum wheat are
to be produced 3
Rotations with non-cereal species including pulses canola sorghum pasture legumes
(especially lucerne) and sunflowers are essential in order to
bull control root disease especially crown rot
bull provide for the biological fixation of N2 through legumes
bull control weeds and contaminant crop species and aid in herbicide group rotation
Durum should be the first cereal crop after a non-cereal species Avoid successive durum
crops 4
13 Benefits of crop as a rotation crop
Generally durums are relatively resistant to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei
compared with other winter cereal crops
14 Disadvantages of crop as a rotation crop
Durum will more rapidly build up crown rot inoculum that can negatively affect subsequent
winter cereal crops
15 Fallow weed control
Good weed control can be achieved effectively by controlling weeds in preceding crops
and fallow rotating crops growing competitive durum crops and the judicious use of
herbicides It is important to control weeds such as New Zealand spinach climbing
buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy as their small black seeds can be difficult
to remove from the grain affecting consumer acceptance 5 Controlling these winter weeds
in both preceding crops and winter fallows is important for subsequent durum crop quality
16 Seedbed requirements
Quality seed for planting is essential Only use seed that has a high germination is large
and plump is genetically pure and is free of all contaminants such as weed seeds and
impurities of other winter cereals in particular bread wheat and barley Seed must be
treated with an appropriate fungicide to avoid head disease (smuts and bunts) and leaf
diseases (stripe rust)
Plant seed into a cultivated or chemically prepared seedbed at around 4ndash6 cm depth
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2102) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
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transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
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() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
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durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
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but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
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Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
4Know more Grow more
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Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
5Know more Grow more
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
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SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
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SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
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SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
5Know more Grow more
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
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varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
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SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
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SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
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SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
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world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
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SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
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Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
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Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
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Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
iiiKnow more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION A
Introduction
A1 Crop overview
Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L var durum) or pasta wheat (Photo 1) is known for its
hardness protein intense yellow colour nutty flavour and excellent cooking qualities In
2005ndash06 production was ~500000 tonnes (t) with New South Wales (NSW) accounting
for around 56 and South Australia (SA) 41 of current production The balance is
produced in Queensland Victoria and Western Australia (WA) 1
Durum wheat should only be grown on highly fertile soils where high-protein grain can be
produced as protein levels gt13 are required to meet premium market grades Protein
levels below 10 can be marketed only as feed 2
A2 Keywords
Durum northern grains region winter cereals crop rotation fallow weed control cereal
diseases root-lesion nematodes water use efficiency nitrogen use efficiency soil testing
crown rot Fusarium head blight protein pasta crop nutrition and fertiliser
Photo 1 Durum wheat
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section A DURUM - Introduction
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 1
Planning and paddock preparation
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 1
Planning and paddock preparation
11 Paddock selection
Select paddocks that are fertile and store good levels of stored water or receive reliable in-
crop rainfall or have access to supplementary irrigation Durum wheat must only be grown
where a reliable harvest of high protein (13+) plump hard vitreous grain can be produced
The highest grade of durum (ADR1) must have a minimum protein level of 13 and ADR2
gt115 Careful management of soil nitrogen (N) is essential to achieve this 1
Durum wheats and bread wheats should not be sown into paddocks known to carry high
levels of crown rot inoculum Ground preparation is the same as that for bread wheat
Adequate weed control should eliminate all weeds and volunteer plants of bread wheat
barley or other crop species 2
12 Paddock rotation and history
Photo 1 Rotations with non-cereal species including canola are important for durum paddocks
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
2Know more Grow more
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Crop rotations using pulses canola sorghum sunflower and pasture legumes are essential
to control disease and also to provide opportunities for weed control A robust crop
rotation must be planned over a number of seasons if successful crops of durum wheat are
to be produced 3
Rotations with non-cereal species including pulses canola sorghum pasture legumes
(especially lucerne) and sunflowers are essential in order to
bull control root disease especially crown rot
bull provide for the biological fixation of N2 through legumes
bull control weeds and contaminant crop species and aid in herbicide group rotation
Durum should be the first cereal crop after a non-cereal species Avoid successive durum
crops 4
13 Benefits of crop as a rotation crop
Generally durums are relatively resistant to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei
compared with other winter cereal crops
14 Disadvantages of crop as a rotation crop
Durum will more rapidly build up crown rot inoculum that can negatively affect subsequent
winter cereal crops
15 Fallow weed control
Good weed control can be achieved effectively by controlling weeds in preceding crops
and fallow rotating crops growing competitive durum crops and the judicious use of
herbicides It is important to control weeds such as New Zealand spinach climbing
buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy as their small black seeds can be difficult
to remove from the grain affecting consumer acceptance 5 Controlling these winter weeds
in both preceding crops and winter fallows is important for subsequent durum crop quality
16 Seedbed requirements
Quality seed for planting is essential Only use seed that has a high germination is large
and plump is genetically pure and is free of all contaminants such as weed seeds and
impurities of other winter cereals in particular bread wheat and barley Seed must be
treated with an appropriate fungicide to avoid head disease (smuts and bunts) and leaf
diseases (stripe rust)
Plant seed into a cultivated or chemically prepared seedbed at around 4ndash6 cm depth
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2102) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
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transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
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() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
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but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
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Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Feedback
Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
5Know more Grow more
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Feedback
opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
3Know more Grow more
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
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SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
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Feedback
SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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Feedback
93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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Feedback
spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
5Know more Grow more
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Feedback
stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 1
Planning and paddock preparation
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 1
Planning and paddock preparation
11 Paddock selection
Select paddocks that are fertile and store good levels of stored water or receive reliable in-
crop rainfall or have access to supplementary irrigation Durum wheat must only be grown
where a reliable harvest of high protein (13+) plump hard vitreous grain can be produced
The highest grade of durum (ADR1) must have a minimum protein level of 13 and ADR2
gt115 Careful management of soil nitrogen (N) is essential to achieve this 1
Durum wheats and bread wheats should not be sown into paddocks known to carry high
levels of crown rot inoculum Ground preparation is the same as that for bread wheat
Adequate weed control should eliminate all weeds and volunteer plants of bread wheat
barley or other crop species 2
12 Paddock rotation and history
Photo 1 Rotations with non-cereal species including canola are important for durum paddocks
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
2Know more Grow more
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Crop rotations using pulses canola sorghum sunflower and pasture legumes are essential
to control disease and also to provide opportunities for weed control A robust crop
rotation must be planned over a number of seasons if successful crops of durum wheat are
to be produced 3
Rotations with non-cereal species including pulses canola sorghum pasture legumes
(especially lucerne) and sunflowers are essential in order to
bull control root disease especially crown rot
bull provide for the biological fixation of N2 through legumes
bull control weeds and contaminant crop species and aid in herbicide group rotation
Durum should be the first cereal crop after a non-cereal species Avoid successive durum
crops 4
13 Benefits of crop as a rotation crop
Generally durums are relatively resistant to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei
compared with other winter cereal crops
14 Disadvantages of crop as a rotation crop
Durum will more rapidly build up crown rot inoculum that can negatively affect subsequent
winter cereal crops
15 Fallow weed control
Good weed control can be achieved effectively by controlling weeds in preceding crops
and fallow rotating crops growing competitive durum crops and the judicious use of
herbicides It is important to control weeds such as New Zealand spinach climbing
buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy as their small black seeds can be difficult
to remove from the grain affecting consumer acceptance 5 Controlling these winter weeds
in both preceding crops and winter fallows is important for subsequent durum crop quality
16 Seedbed requirements
Quality seed for planting is essential Only use seed that has a high germination is large
and plump is genetically pure and is free of all contaminants such as weed seeds and
impurities of other winter cereals in particular bread wheat and barley Seed must be
treated with an appropriate fungicide to avoid head disease (smuts and bunts) and leaf
diseases (stripe rust)
Plant seed into a cultivated or chemically prepared seedbed at around 4ndash6 cm depth
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2102) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
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() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
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3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Feedback
Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
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SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
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Feedback
SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
4Know more Grow more
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spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
5Know more Grow more
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
2Know more Grow more
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resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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Feedback
shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
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SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
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Feedback
SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
Crop rotations using pulses canola sorghum sunflower and pasture legumes are essential
to control disease and also to provide opportunities for weed control A robust crop
rotation must be planned over a number of seasons if successful crops of durum wheat are
to be produced 3
Rotations with non-cereal species including pulses canola sorghum pasture legumes
(especially lucerne) and sunflowers are essential in order to
bull control root disease especially crown rot
bull provide for the biological fixation of N2 through legumes
bull control weeds and contaminant crop species and aid in herbicide group rotation
Durum should be the first cereal crop after a non-cereal species Avoid successive durum
crops 4
13 Benefits of crop as a rotation crop
Generally durums are relatively resistant to the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus thornei
compared with other winter cereal crops
14 Disadvantages of crop as a rotation crop
Durum will more rapidly build up crown rot inoculum that can negatively affect subsequent
winter cereal crops
15 Fallow weed control
Good weed control can be achieved effectively by controlling weeds in preceding crops
and fallow rotating crops growing competitive durum crops and the judicious use of
herbicides It is important to control weeds such as New Zealand spinach climbing
buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy as their small black seeds can be difficult
to remove from the grain affecting consumer acceptance 5 Controlling these winter weeds
in both preceding crops and winter fallows is important for subsequent durum crop quality
16 Seedbed requirements
Quality seed for planting is essential Only use seed that has a high germination is large
and plump is genetically pure and is free of all contaminants such as weed seeds and
impurities of other winter cereals in particular bread wheat and barley Seed must be
treated with an appropriate fungicide to avoid head disease (smuts and bunts) and leaf
diseases (stripe rust)
Plant seed into a cultivated or chemically prepared seedbed at around 4ndash6 cm depth
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2102) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
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and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
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Feedback
transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
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() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
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Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
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but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
5Know more Grow more
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
3Know more Grow more
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
2Know more Grow more
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
4Know more Grow more
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spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
2Know more Grow more
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resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
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Feedback
SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
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Feedback
SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
and preferably use minimum disturbance equipment with a press wheel adjusted to soil
and moisture conditions Seeding rates and sowing times will vary from state to state so
consult local information 6
17 Soil moisture
171 DrylandIn NSW the major production is in the north and in Queensland it is the Darling Downs
and central Queensland Northern NSW and southern Queensland share similar summer-
dominant rainfall conditions The Vertosol soils of both the Darling Downs and the Liverpool
Plains are typically deep friable black clays capable of storing plant-available water to the
depth of 1 m+ Most fallows are no-tilled to maximise the storage of summer rainfall 7
172 IrrigationDurum wheat is grown successfully under irrigated conditions in most of the production
areas using both surface and overhead irrigation systems Both water and N management
are crucial if high-yielding crops of high-quality grain are to be achieved In northern NSW
irrigated crops have yielded 8ndash10 tha with ~35 megalitres (ML) waterha 8
18 Yield and targets
Eight commercial durum crops were monitored in 1999 in the Liverpool Plains (northern
NSW) to identify the factors limiting durum wheat yields and the levels for target yields
WHEATMAN-generated values for critical plant and soil parameters for durum production
were used as benchmarks Low plant population (42ndash91 plantsm2) resulting from poor
seed quality (60ndash95) combined with insufficient nitrate supply (3ndash27 kg Nha at harvest
at four of five sites) appeared to be major factors limiting durum yields in the monitored
crops (range 43ndash53 tha) Disease management was also likely to be a contributing factor
as crown rot levels in the wheat paddocks were lt5 following sorghum and 15ndash30
following wheat 9
181 Water-use efficiencyResearchers at CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra are developing water-use-efficient and
salt-tolerant durum wheats to increase durum yields in current production areas as well as
new environments
Researchers are improving water-use efficiency by trying to combine several traits high
6 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
7 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
8 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
9 GJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-yielding durum wheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
5Know more Grow more
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
2Know more Grow more
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
3Know more Grow more
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
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Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
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SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
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Feedback
SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
transpiration efficiency long coleoptiles and early vigour They have found using 50 years of
climate data and computer simulation that combining high transpiration efficiency and early
vigour is likely to make durum wheat much more suitable for growing in both southern and
northern cropping areas
Elite durum varieties have low transpiration efficiency but the research team has found a
highly transpiration-efficient durum to cross with them This will give the plants a water-use
efficiency trait similar to that of the new bread wheats Drysdale and Rees
The team is also introducing alternative dwarfing genes from European durum wheats into
commercial varieties These genes restrict plant height but allow the expression of long
coleoptiles (about 15 cm compared with 9cm for Tamaroi )
Longer coleoptiles provide insurance that the shoot will reach the soil surface even when
deep sowing is required because of receding topsoil moisture or when there is uneven
sowing depth due to stubble or direct drilling Durum lines combining the high transpiration
efficiency and long coleoptiles may be available within 4ndash5 years
CSIRO is developing salt-tolerant durum wheats to allow durum to be grown in areas
affected by subsoil salinity This follows a search of the Australian Winter Cereal Collection in
Tamworth that revealed ancient Persian durum wheats with the ability to exclude salt from
their roots Elite lines derived from crosses between Tamaroi and the sodium-excluding
ancestors were grown in saline and non-saline soils for the first time in the 2004 season
The team has identified two major genes that confer the salt tolerance and a molecular
marker has been found for one There is ongoing research to find a marker for the
other The research is being conducted through the AUSGRAINZ joint venture between
CSIRO and NZ Crop and Food Research (GRDC Research Codes CSP344 CSP298
CSP00058)10
182 Nitrogen-use efficiencyNitrogen-use efficiency is a term that is rarely understood It aims to quantify the amount of
N fertiliser applied that is available to the crop In GRDC-funded benchmarking trials carried
out by NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) in 2009 this value ranged from 25 to
95 in the benchmarked crops which varies dramatically from the figure of 50 commonly
used for N-budgeting purposes
The major reason for the variation is the level of N that is tied up by trash and the amount
released by mineralisation In the crops benchmarked crops following cotton tended to
have lower N-use efficiency as the cotton trash that is incorporated into the soil requires
large amounts of N to feed the bugs that break the trash down In addition there is minimal
short-term in-crop mineralisation Crops following maize or fallow however had very little
N tied up and released much more N through mineralisation and hence had higher N-use
efficiency
The amount of N removed was calculated by N in grain (kgha) = yield (tha) x 175 x protein
10 GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
5Know more Grow more
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
2Know more Grow more
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
3Know more Grow more
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
1Know more Grow more
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
3Know more Grow more
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Feedback
N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the starch granules and a shortage of protein will give a mottled grain Grain
protein is a function of available soil N hence adequate soil N is essential to produce vitreous
grain The application of nitrogenous fertiliser may be necessary but this cost should be offset by
the higher premium payments and yield 8
Photo 1 As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 6
Weed control
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 6
Weed control
61 Pre-emergent herbicides
Durum wheats can compete well with weeds but strong weed competition reduces yield
Good weed control is essential to make full use of stored summer rainfall minimise yield
losses and prevent weed seed contamination at harvest This can be achieved effectively
by controlling weeds well in preceding crops and fallow rotating crops growing competitive
durum crops and the judicious use of herbicides It is important to control weeds such
as New Zealand spinach climbing buckwheat (black bindweed) and Mexican poppy
as their small black seeds can be difficult to remove from the grain affecting consumer
acceptance1
62 Post-plant pre-emergent herbicides
When selecting a herbicide it is important to know the weeds present the crop growth
stage the recommended growth stage for herbicide application and the herbicide history
of the paddock Weeds should be sprayed while they are small and actively growing It
is important to rotate between herbicide groups to prevent weeds developing herbicide
resistance Herbicide labels should be read carefully before use Research has found that
durum cultivars differ in their tolerance to herbicides registered for use in durum wheats 2
63 Herbicide tolerance ratings National Variety Trials (NVT)
Durum wheats can be more sensitive to some herbicides commonly used safely in bread
wheat Refer to the latest information on varietal tolerances and the product label
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
i More information
wwwapvmagovau
Section 6 DURUM - Weed control
2Know more Grow more
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Feedback
64 Potential herbicide damage effect
Timely and correct application of herbicides is essential Seek local advice from advisers
agronomists and follow label directions Good weed control is essential as strong weed
growth will compete with the crop for available moisture and nutrients causing yield
reduction3
A range of broadleaf and grass herbicides is available for weed control in durum wheat
crops as are listed in the recent publication from NSW DPI lsquoWeed control in winter cropsrsquo
This publication together with advice from your agronomistadviser will assist the choice
of the most appropriate and safe products and their respective application procedures
The law requires that all chemical labels be read carefully before the product is used New
products and product formulations may have changed safety margins Manufacturers
or their representatives should be consulted for the latest usage information especially
if mixing chemicals or other products (eg zinc sulfate heptahydrate) The effectiveness
of certain chemicals can be adversely affected when mixed with other compounds Zinc
sulfate heptahydrate can coagulate certain chemicals with the coagulant causing major
blockages in spray equipment which can be difficult to clear 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 7 DURUM - Insect control
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 7
Insect control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 7 Insect control
Section 8 DURUM - Nematode control
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 8
Nematode control
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 8 Nematode control
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 9
Diseases
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 9
Diseases
The major diseases of durum wheat are controlled by genetic traits that have been crossed
into current varieties These include tolerance to the major diseases such as stem leaf and
stripe rust The changing pattern of behaviour of leaf and stem diseases of all cereal crops
requires careful monitoring It is most important to report any irregularities in the behaviour
of these diseases to an adviseragronomist or plant breeder Yellow leaf spot another
significant disease of winter crops is largely avoided by not planting cereal crops into
previous cereal crop residues hence crop rotation is important Currently the five major
wheat diseases in the northern region based on loss estimates are yellow spot ($52 million)
stripe rust ($47 million) root lesion nematode ($38 million) crown rot ($37 million) and
Fusarium head blight (FHB) ($9 million) 1
91 Crown rot
Crown rot caused by Fusarium pseudograminearum is a major constraint to winter cereal
production in Australia Although it is generally more common in the northern cropping belt
it can occur throughout all mainland cereal-growing areas Infection of winter cereals can
occur through the crown sub-crown internode basal internode andor lower leaf sheaths
This can occur at any growth stage from seedling emergence through to maturity Crown
rot infection is characterised by a light honey-brown to dark brown discoloration of the base
of infected tillers The fungus survives in cereal and grass weed residues while yield loss
from the production of whiteheads is related to moisture stress post-flowering (see Figure
1) 2
Rotation to non-host pulses (chickpea faba bean) oilseeds (canola mustard) or
summer crops (sorghum sunflower mungbean cotton) essentially reduces crown rot
inoculum levels by starving the fungus of a suitable host and allowing natural decline of
cereal residues that harbour the pathogen The length of rotation needed for effective
management of crown rot depends on the rate of decomposition of the infested residues
In particular canola and mustard provide an effective break crop for crown rot in northern
1 Primary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
2 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
2Know more Grow more
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NSW Furthermore brassicas would provide an excellent alternative rotation crop to
chickpea in areas where adapted varieties are available as they appear to have an
improved capacity to reduce the severity of crown rot in subsequent wheat crops 3
Resistance to crown rot must continue to be a major breeding objective if the industry is to
expand There appears very little genetic tolerance to crown rot within the tetraploid (durum)
population This means that durable resistance will most likely have to be bred into durum
from the hexaploid (bread wheat) population as a matter of high priority 4 In 2012 crosses
of bread and durum wheat lines were produced showing partial resistance equal to or
better than the bread wheat parent 5 Work is under way to boost crown rot resistance in
durum wheat
Figure 1 lsquoWhiteheadsrsquo (left) associated with crown rot infection in a highly susceptible durum variety and a breeding line with partial resistance to the disease (right)
92 Common root rot
Common root rot caused by the fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana is often found in association
with crown rot Symptoms are a dark brown to black discoloration of whole or part of the
sub-crown internode Severely affected plants are stunted have fewer tillers and produce
smaller heads Rotation to non-host break crops is essential to the successful management
of both of these diseases
3 S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
5 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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93 Fusarium head blight
Fusarium head blight is a fungal disease that can occur on many grass species including
both crop and weeds Where it occurs in crops it is most commonly in wheat durum and
barley Durum is more susceptible to the disease than bread wheat and barley
Durum crops should be avoided in areas where there is a likelihood of the disease
developing While FHB can be caused by several species of Fusarium the most common
species causing the disease is Fusarium graminearum It can cause significant yield losses
and quality reductions Major yield losses occur mainly from floret sterility
Additional yield and quality losses can occur when damaged and shrivelled lightweight
grains are produced as a result of infection Quality reductions may also occur from seed
discoloration varying from whitish-grey and pink to brown Fungal infection can sometimes
be associated with the production of a toxin (mycotoxins)
If fungal toxins are produced in infected seed the grain is often unacceptable for certain
end uses and downgraded in the marketplace depending on the concentration of toxin
present Toxin levels and fungal infection cannot be accurately estimated from visual
appearance
Crop rotation is effective in reducing levels of FHB Corn is a major alternative host for F
graminearum and planting durum in and around corn residues will increase the risk of head
blight The best rotational crops for reducing the inoculum level include any non-grass
species (eg sunflower cotton soybean chickpea mungbean faba bean canola field
peas) Currently no seed dressings are registered for control of seedling blight caused by
the FHB pathogens 6
94 Varietal resistance or tolerance
New wheat lines are offering hope for providing partial resistance to crown rot disease in
durum wheat The finding is important because durum wheat is particularly susceptible to
crown rot The pathogen causes annual crop losses in Australia estimated at $79 million or
$663ha
Research funded by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) shows
that partial crown rot resistance in bread wheat lines could be transferred into durum
wheats Crosses of bread (hexaploid) and durum wheat lines have been produced that
show levels of partial resistance equal to or better than the bread wheat parent Sunco
Development of new durum varieties with partial resistance to crown rot could increase
yields and quality and ultimately allow for expansion of Australiarsquos durum industry
Partial resistance needs to be coupled with an integrated approach to managing the
disease as there is no total resistance to crown rot fungus infection in durum or other
cereals The genes involved provide partial resistance which appears to slow the rate of it
6 DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
i More information
httpwwwdaffqldgov
auplantshealth-pests-
diseasesa-z-significant
fusarium-head-blight
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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spreading through tissue 7
Stem rust
Caparoi exhibits an excellent foliar disease resistance package It has also been observed
to be genetically diverse from EGA Bellaroi and Jandaroi This broadening of the genetic
base of durum varieties is important for long-term sustainable crop production Kamilaroi
Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are fully resistant to all existing field strains of stem rust
While stem rust infection is not expected a new virulent strain may occur 8
Leaf rust
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi possess slow rusting resistance to all field
strains of leaf rust A small level of infection may be evident as the plant approaches
maturity however this disease level will not affect yield 9
Stripe rust
The current durum varieties all express adequate resistance to field strains of this disease
at present The breeding program endeavours to predict virulence changes in all three
rust organisms and incorporate appropriate resistance genes into future varietal releases
to remain one or two virulence changes ahead of the rust The earliest possible detection
of new virulent strains in the unlikely event that they arise will greatly assist disease-
resistance breeding activities When such a strain is found steps can be taken to warn
growers of a new virulence change and suggest changes to variety recommendations It is
crucial to maintain effective resistance to all field strains of each rust organism in each of the
released varieties Such a comprehensive effective resistance will significantly reduce the
build-up of inoculum leading to less disease both within and between growing seasons
In addition and more importantly the likelihood that a new virulent strain will arise is greatly
reduced By reducing the chance of the development of a new virulence the life of the
current resistances is greatly prolonged This amounts to effective conservation of our
valuable genetic resources If breeders are not required to spend considerable breeding
resources on developing improved resistant varieties those resources can be redirected to
the improvement of other economically important traits 10
Yellow leaf spot
Yallaroi and Wollaroi are moderately resistant to yellow leaf spot (caused by the fungus
Pyrenophora tritici-repentis) however Kamilaroi is susceptible EGA Bellaroi shows high
levels of adult resistance to yellow leaf spot As yellow leaf spot inoculum is carried over
on wheat straw Yallaroi Wollaroi and particularly EGA Bellaroi are a better proposition in
7 R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crown-rot
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 9 DURUM - Diseases
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stubble-retained situations 11
95 Management of disease
951 In-crop fungicides and timingA NSW DPI study into fungicide use in durum to control FHB shows that timing of fungicide
application is critical to efficacy Although Folicurreg still provided measurable suppression
of FHB Prosaroreg clearly provided superior levels of control Prosaro application at GS61
reduced FHB severity by 81 compared with only 56 control with the application of
Folicur at the same timing This translated into a 130 yield benefit (237 tha) with Prosaro and 66 (120 tha) with Folicur compared with the nil fungicide control treatment
The timing of fungicide application was critical to the efficacy of both fungicides Spraying
7 days before flowering (flowering GS61) reduced control levels and the associated yield
benefit compared with application at GS61 (+0 days) The anthers (flowers) are the primary
infection site for F graminearum so spraying before flowering provides reduced protection
of these plant structures
Although not examined in that study overseas research has demonstrated the importance
of spray coverage in FHB control with twin nozzles (forward and backward facing) angled
to cover both sides of a wheat head and high volumes of water (ge100 Lha) being critical
to efficacy Aerial application has reduced efficacy for FHB control based on overseas
studies12
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
i More information
See the NSW DPI
publication lsquoNorthern
grains region trial results
2013rsquo pp 132ndash136
httpwwwdpinsw
govau__dataassets
pdf_file0004468328
Northern-grains-
region-trial-results-
autumn-2013pdf
wwwapvmagovau
Section 10 DURUM - Plant growth regulators and canopy management
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SECTION 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 10
Plant growth regulators and canopy management
Section 11 DURUM - Crop desiccationspray out
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SECTION 11
Crop desiccationspray out
Not applicable to this crop
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
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SECTION 12
Harvest
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12
Harvest
121 Dry harvest issues and management
Attention to detail at harvest is required for durum wheat Premiums are only paid when
grain is large and undamaged not mottled or bleached and most importantly not
contaminated by other grains and meets all other delivery specifications Therefore
issues of grain-harvester machine settings careful segregation and clean insect-free grain
storage must receive attention Damaged contaminated or insect-infested grain will be
downgraded Durum wheat is a high-quality product trading into a high-quality food market
and attention to detail at harvest is critical 1
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are marginally more difficult to thresh
than Hartog and Sunco but easier than Sunlin consequently concave adjustments may
be necessary These durum varieties are not prone to shelling a factor of significance when
wind and rain prevail at harvest All grain should be retained in the head despite these
weather conditions Care needs to be exercised when threshing the crop as the very hard
grain has a greater tendency to fracture than grain of bread wheats The crop should be
stripped as soon as the grain reaches dead ripe maturity Buyers of durum grain consider
grain appearance important and pay premiums for large well-filled hard vitreous grain with
a low percentage of mottled and bleached seeds 2
Black point is a dark discoloration at the germ end of otherwise healthy grain In wheat
the discoloration occurs in the outer portions of the seed and in some severe cases may
extend along the groove on the underside of the grain 3 Kamilaroi is moderately susceptible
to black point Small percentages of infected discoloured seeds will be present following
a wet pre-harvest when the problem is most severe This level of incidence should be
below minimum dockage limits in most seasons however prolonged wet weather during
grain-filling will increase the incidence of black point Bread wheat varieties will be similarly
affected depending on their level of resistance Yallaroi Wollaroi Jandaroi Tamaroi
and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more resistant to the problem than Kamilaroi but this
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
2 Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
2Know more Grow more
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resistance may not offer sufficient protection in prolonged wet seasons Ensure that all grain
handling equipment eg headers bins augers silos etc are free of contaminant grain as
the presence of foreign seeds (maximum 3 bread wheat seed) can downgrade the crop
grain 4
Although durums have slightly better resistance to pre-harvest sprouting than current bread
wheats they may be downgraded to feed due to bleaching and softening of the grain 5
122 Receival standards
Six aspects of grain and pasta quality are considered at receival
1 Grain size and shape
2 Pre-harvest sprouting resistance
3 Black point
4 Weed seed contamination
5 Protein
6 Colour
The endosperm section of the grain is the important part as it is this fraction that is
processed into semolina (a coarse flour) and in turn mixed with a little water to form a stiff
dough under vacuum and extruded under pressure into pasta forming various shapesmdash
both long and short goods The endosperm is the food supply or life-support system for
the developing embryo The endosperm and embryo are lsquowrapped uprsquo in several layers
of tissue called the aleurone pericarp and testa The embryo and outer grain layers are
removed during milling into the bran and pollard fractions while the endosperm is reduced
to semolina The endosperm is composed of numerous constituents including starch
sugars proteins amino acids minerals fats vitamins enzymes pigments and fibre A
large well-filled grain with bright amber colour and oval shape with minimal crease length is
required at receival 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi express a satisfactory level of resistance
to pre-harvest sprouting compared with current bread wheat varieties Weather-affected
grain is soft which reduces the semolina extraction in the mill Weathered semolina gives
weak pasta-dough strength due to the partial enzymatic breakdown of starches and
proteins These small protein and starch molecules have reduced cohesive properties
Weak doughs make inferior pasta High-protein durum grain with a bright amber bloom is
certain to attract the best available premium price It is not advisable to leave your durum
harvest until last relying on its weathering resistance Its resistance is only relative to other
varieties and will eventually fail Weathered durum is not valuable and may be received as
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
3Know more Grow more
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feed grain 7
Black point is a discoloration of sections of the external layers of the grain (ie pericarp
testa) A small percentage of discoloured seeds will be present following a wet pre-harvest
period when the problem is most active This level of incidence should be below the
minimum dockage limits in most seasons Black point tolerances are 3 for ADR1 and
3ndash5 for ADR2 and ADR3 Because small fragments of bran are included in semolina
discoloured grain will leave small black specks which can be seen in the vitreous
(translucent) pasta The overall appearance of pasta with black specks is diminished
and there is some consumer reluctance to purchase the product Black specks can be
perceived as contaminants (eg soil insect parts) If sown grain with black point will
germinate satisfactorily Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are significantly more
resistant to black point than Kamilaroi and many of the current bread wheats Research
findings suggest that black point is not a disease caused by fungi but a physiological
character resulting from the formation of dark compounds in the outer layers of the grain
Some varieties are more prone to develop these dark compounds when appropriate
conditions prevail eg warm and moist 8
Protein content is an important factor in grain classification at receival with classifications
and premiums as follows
bull ADR1 gt130 protein on an 11 moisture basis
bull ADR2 gt115
bull ADR3 gt100
bull Below 100 received into feed usually
bull ADR1 attracts a premium around APH or better
bull ADR2 attracts a premium around AH or better 9
Grain with adequate protein is very hard vitreous and free from mottling For milling a small
percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion will
result in downgrading and a reduced premium Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein to
combine all the starch granules however a shortage of protein will give a mottled softer
grain Protein can be envisaged as the equivalent of cement which binds the starch granules
or the aggregate together With insufficient cement the aggregate will not all bind and thus
the concrete will be weak and break down readily The same is the case with mottled sectors
in grain The degree of mottling in individual grains together with the percentage of mottled
grains in the seed lot both contribute to the lsquoflourrsquo formation and consequent milling losses
lsquoFlourrsquo or lsquofinesrsquo has a lower economic value than that of semolina Hard vitreous grains
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
9 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
4Know more Grow more
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shatter into rough aggregates and produce a high semolina yield 10
For pasta making the canning industry specifies high-protein semolina for canned pasta
High-protein pasta withstands the high pressuretemperature cooking and retorting
processes in acidic tomato pasta Further this pasta retains its consistency on warming
and serving by the consumer Dry pasta manufacturers require acceptable levels of
protein but not as high as those required by the canning industry Low-protein semolina
is unsuitable for pasta making as it has insufficient protein to give the product acceptable
keeping cooking and eating consistency The pasta quality of EGA Bellaroi exceeds that
of Wollaroi which is regarded by many Italian manufacturers as equivalent to the best in
the world EGA Bellaroi is suitable for pasta and couscous production 11
The protein content of grain is largely under environmental control Plants growing in soils
with adequate nitrogenous fertility will lay down acceptable protein levels in the grain
Kamilaroi and Wollaroi usually yield grain with a higher protein content than Yallaroi
EGA Bellaroi has the genetic capability to achieve higher protein content (up to 1) at a
grain yield similar to or slightly higher than Wollaroi 12
The grain protein comprises a large number and complex range of protein types The
proteins range from short molecules to long folding molecules The long molecules adhere
to each other and form an interlocking network which prevents the starch and other
components from moving freely The degree of interlocking (chemical bonds) between
these long-chained proteins determines the mobility of the pasta dough which is called
the lsquodough strengthrsquo Pasta dough strength or the resistance of the dough to move under
work (force) is mainly under genetic control Cultivars that offer strong to very strong
pasta doughs have been released EGA Bellaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi have a stronger
protein than Kamilaroi The dough strength which is equivalent to protein strength is a
key determinant of pasta quality through its effect on the internal consistency of extruded
products Pastas made from strong protein doughs retain their shape and consistency
on cooking and eating Weaker pastas tend to break down during cooking to a rather
unpalatable mess Bread wheat pastas are of this undesirable type 13
The colour of pasta is a factor in consumer acceptance Pale to white or brown pastas
do not have a pleasing appearance and they are passed over for the bright clear yellow
pasta by the consumer Only durum wheat can provide this colour without the addition of
expensive synthetic pigments or egg products The addition of artificial colours is banned
in Italy and France Law dictates that durum wheat must be used for dry pasta in these
countries Pasta colour is principally under genetic control therefore only highly coloured
10 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
11 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
12 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 12 DURUM - Harvest
5Know more Grow more
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Feedback
varieties are released ie EGA Bellaroi Kamilaroi Yallaroi and Wollaroi EGA
Bellaroi is able to achieve a higher yellow pigment colour than the other released durum
varieties in particular Wollaroi 14
123 Harvest weed-seed management
It is most important to control weeds in the crop as some weed species such as
bindweed and New Zealand spinach have small black seeds that can be difficult to remove
from the grain These seeds have the same effect on consumer acceptance as black
point contamination The black seeds shatter during milling to leave numerous small black
fragments mixed in the semolina 15
For more information about the growing area of weed seed control see the GRDC
GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 12 Harvest
14 R Hare (2006Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 13 DURUM - Storage
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SECTION 13
Storage
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 13
Storage
Section 14 DURUM - Environmental issues
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Feedback
SECTION 14
Environmental issues
See GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 14 Environmental issues
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
SECTION 15
Marketing
The Australian durum wheat industry is highly competitive internationally and Italian durum
millers and processors regard Australian durum quality as amongst the worldrsquos best NSW
produces ~55 of national production and SA 40 Domestic durum requirement is
~300000 t
Marketers would like a consistent supply of 1 million t for export This will require
considerable expansion in area andor productivity There is potential for production
expansion in NSW and Queensland 1
151 Links to industry boards
In order to protect their sales durum growers should look to organisations such as
the National Agricultural Commodities Marketing Association Ltd (NACMA) which was
formed in 1991 with the aim to standardise grain criteria and trade rulescontracts across
the Australian grain industry Over 95 of the Australian grain crop is stored in facilities
operated by NACMA members with 90 of the grain contracts executed in Australia each
year referring to NACMA grain standards andor trade rules NACMA has gt300 member
organisations from grain producers to domestic end users and grain exporters 2
152 How to plan marketing for your crop
All durum growers are advised to become members of their local grower association as the
group provides a forum for the exchange of information such as marketing prices of mutual
benefit to growers of this crop Meetings are held regularly and grower associations are
active in northern NSW SA and WA
153 Other relevant marketing issues
Due to a combination of strong international prices very high-quality grain and improved
export marketing facilities Australian durum wheat production has made impressive
growth from around 8000 t produced in northern NSW and SA in the late 1970s to
current domestic production of ~500000 t The Australian durum wheat industry is highly
competitive with the leading overseas producers (ie Canada USA EU Turkey and Syria)
Australian durum quality is now regarded by Italian millersproducers as the best in the
1 GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
2 JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 DURUM - Marketing
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
world especially grain shipped from the port of Newcastle Italy is the main and most
discerning export market for Australian durum (50 of exports) Australia has displaced
Canada in this high-quality high-value market When the lsquosingle deskrsquo was in place the
Australian Wheat Board actively pursued sales in a range of diverse markets (eg North
Africa South Africa South America Middle East and East Asia) to reduce Australian
reliance on the Italian market This has continued since the deregulation of the market in
Australia 3
The Australian Durum Industry Association is advocating a production increase to provide
for a reliable supply of 1 million t for export in the next 5 years A considerable expansion in
production would be required to achieve this outcome There is potential for expansion of
production in the traditional areas of NSW Qld SA and WA as well as other areas such as
southern NSW and Victoria 4
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
4 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 16 DURUM - 16Current research
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 16
Current research
Soon to be populated
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
1Know more Grow more
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Feedback
SECTION 17
Key contacts
James Clark - Chair
Hunter Valley grower James brings extensive knowledge and
experience in dryland and irrigated farming systems to the
Northern Panel He has been a member of the panel since 2005
and chairman since 2008 James says the panelrsquos role is to
capture and invest in growersrsquo priorities and empower them to
adopt new production gain opportunities He strongly believes
the grains industry needs to continue building RDampE capacity to
ensure growers remain competitive
M 0427 545 212
E colanebigpondcom
Loretta Serafin - Deputy Chair
Loretta has more than 12 yearsrsquo experience as an agronomist
in north-west NSW and currently works with the NSW DPI in
Tamworth She is a technical specialist for northern farming
systems and provides expertise and support to growers industry
and agronomists in the production of summer crops She has a
passion for helping growers improve farm efficiency and sees her
role as a conduit between advisers growers and the GRDC to
ensure that growersrsquo needs are being met
M 0427 311 819
E lorettaserafindpinswgovau
John Sheppard
John a panel member since 2006 has a wealth of practical
farming experience and brings a wheat breederrsquos perspective
to the panel He views the panel as an opportunity for growers
and professionals to work together to shape the future of the
industry and develop best management practices as well as new
varieties and products He is particularly interested in genotype-by-
environment interaction and the preservation of genetic resources
M 0418 746 628
E moorkullagmailcom
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Jack Williamson
Jack a private agricultural consultant runs a broadacre commodity
production farm in Goondiwindi Previous roles as a territory sales
manager for Nufarm and as a commercial agronomist for McGregor
Gourlay Agricultural Services have given Jack extensive farming
systems knowledge and diverse crop management and field work
experience Jack is a member of the Northern Grower Alliance
(NGA) local consultative committe and Crop Consultants Australia
and was previously president of the MacIntyre Valley Cotton Field
Day Committee
M 0438 907 820
E jackwilliamson1bigpondcom
Julianne Dixon
Jules is manager of AMPS Research and a passionate agronomy
consultant communicator and industry advocate Her role
involves the development and expansion of self-funded privatised
research development and extension Her experience in project
management and strategic development extends across all facets
of an integrated grains business She has an established network
in eastern Australia and Western Australia including researchers
leading growers agronomy consultants and commercial industry
M 0429 494 067
E juliannedixonbigpondcom
Keith Harris
Keith has served on the Northern Panel since 2011 and brings
more than 30 yearsrsquo experience in property management Keith
based on the Liverpool Plains NSW consults to Romani Pastoral
Company on the management of its historic holdings lsquoWindy
Stationrsquo and lsquoWarrahrsquo near Quirindi He sees the main aim of
the panel as representing growers and conducting research that
provides growers with the tools they need to maximise property
performance and minimise risk
M 0428 157 754
E kharrisromanipastcocomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Kelly Becker
Based at Theodore Queensland Kelly is a certified mungbean and
chickpea agronomist and also advises growers on wheat corn
and sorghum crop production She has been involved with variety
trials on a commercial basis and industry farm practice trials as
an agronomist She strives to be proactive within the industry and
aims to assist growers to improve farming operations by ensuring
that they are up to date with new practices and technology
M 0409 974 007
E kbecker19bluemaxxcomau
Penny Heuston
Penny brings extensive experience to her second term on the
Northern Panel She is committed to maximising the profitability of
grain production in a low-rainfall environment through increased
productivity and good risk management practices She was
principal in a farm advisory business in centralwest NSW and
worked with growers across north-west NSW before joining
Delta Agribusiness where her main focus is the Warren Nyngan
Tottenham and Gilgandra areas
M 0428 474 845
E pennyheustondeltaagcomau
Rob Taylor
Rob is a grain grower at Macalister on Queenslandrsquos Darling
Downs and farms 2300 hectares of maize sorghum wheat barley
and chickpeas on the Jimbour Plain Rob is currently chair of the
Agrifood Skills Initiative for the Western Downs Regional Council
area Rob views his role on the panel as taking information and
feedback from growers advisers and researchers to the GRDC to
ensure research is targeted
M 0427 622 203
E currfarmozxpresscomau
Will Martel
Central NSW grower Will has served on the Northern Panel since
2011 Previously he worked in a Quirindi grain trading company
and with Brisbane-based Resource Consulting Services (RCS)
where he benchmarked more than 400 growers across Australia
on their performance focusing on whole-farm profitability rather
than individual enterprise gross margins His main role on the panel
is identifying investment areas that will enable growers to remain
economic and environmentally sustainable
M 0427 466 245
E wandgmartelbigpondcomau
Section 17 DURUM - 18Key contacts
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
Dr Stephen Thomas - GRDC Executive Manager Commercial
Before joining the GRDC Steve held a senior position with the NSW
Department of Primary Industries at Orange In early 2009 he was
appointed executive manager practices at the GRDC and in 2011
was appointed executive manager research programs Currently
Steve holds the position of executive manager commercial He
sees the GRDCrsquos role is to interact with growers regularly to
determine their needs and focus on the big picture across entire
farming systems
T 02 6166 4500
E stevethomasgrdccomau
Sharon OrsquoKeeffe - GRDC Northern Regional Manager
Sharon is the Northern Regional Manager for the Grains
Research Development Corporation (GRDC) based in Boggabri
NSW Sharonrsquos role is to identify and oversee regional research
development and extension (RDampE) needs manage the regional
delivery of information and promote the GRDCrsquos products and
services Her role strengthens links between GRDC panels
researchers industry advisors and growers Sharon holds a
Masters in Agriculture and a Bachelor of Rural Science (hons)
M 0409 279 328
E sharonokeeffegrdccomau
David Lord - Panel Support Officer
David operates agricultural consultancy Lord Ag Consulting For the
past four years he has worked as a project officer for Independent
Consultants Australia Network (ICAN) which has given him a good
understanding of the issues growers are facing in the northern
grains region Davidrsquos new role is Northern Panel and Regional
Grower Services support officer
M 0422 082 105
E northernpanelgmailcom
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
1Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 18
References
A IntroductionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 Planning and paddock preparationGJ Butler PT Hayman DF Herridge T Christian (2001) Working with farmers to benchmark high-
yielding durumwheat on the Liverpool Plains 10th Australian Agronomy Conference Australian Society of AgronomyThe Regional Institute Ltd httpwwwregionalorgauauasa20014bbutlerhtm
DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
GRDC (2005) Tracking water-use efficiency GRDC Groundcover Issue 54 Feb 2005 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-54Tracking-wateruse-efficiency
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
DR Woodruff (1992) lsquoWHEATMANrsquo a decision support system for wheat management in tropical Australia Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43 1483ndash1499
Section 2 Pre-plantingDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 3 PlantingGRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July
2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANTPOPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 4 Plant growth and physiologyR Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts
140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 NutritionDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 6 Weed controlDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 9 DiseasesPrimary Industries Science and Research Tamworth Agricultural InstitutemdashResearch projects
Australian durum wheat improvement Program (ADWIP) NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovauresearchcentrestamworthresearch-projects
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
S SimpfendorferJ Kirkegaard J Holland A Verrell R Bambach K Moore (2004) Managing soil-borne and stubble-borne cereal pathogens in the northern grains belt In Proceedings Soil Biology in Agriculture Workshop pp 112ndash119 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0005166919soil-biology-agriculturepdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrotsthash2xvPfsnBdpuf
DAFF (2012) Fusarium head blight or head scab Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantshealth-pests-diseasesa-z-significantfusarium-head-blight
R Bowman (2012) Durum to partially resist crown rot GRDC Ground Cover Issue 96 httpwwwgrdccomauMedia-CentreGround-CoverGround-Cover-Issue-96-January-February-2012Durum-to-partially-resist-crownrot
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
S Simpfendorfer (2013) Control of Fusarium head blight in durum wheat using the fungicide Prosaroreg In Northern grains region trial results pp 132ndash136 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0004468328Northern-grains-region-trial-results-autumn-2013pdf
Section 18 DURUM - 1References
4Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Section 12 HarvestDAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and
Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Hare R (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 15 Marketing GRDC Australian Durum Wheat Improvement Project DAN00118 GRDC Research amp Development Meeting Market Requirements httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentMeeting-market-requirements
JKneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
5Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
() and crop N requirement = N in grain (kgha) x N uptake efficiency factor So if we know
the starting soil N the yield and the protein percentage we can then estimate the N uptake
efficiency factor 11
For more information download lsquoGrowing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009rsquo
httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108
Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
19 Disease status of paddock
Paddocks that carry even moderate levels of the crown rot fungus (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) must be carefully managed The crown rot fungus enters the plant
through the roots disrupting plant water supply and hence grain yield Moisture stress will
exacerbate these conditions resulting in the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop which
produce small shrivelled grain It is therefore recommended that durum crops not be grown
following a previous wheat crop or maize which is also a carrier of the Fusarium head blight
(FHB) fungus (F graminearum)12
191 Crown rotThe ground should contain very little crown rot inoculum The most conspicuous broadacre
symptom of crown rot is the appearance of lsquowhiteheadsrsquo in the crop However not all
whiteheads are due to crown rot infection Insect attack on stem tissues frost and moisture
stress damage can lead to whiteheads
Stems that exhibit a brown (honey) discoloration on the lower internodes are a good
indicator of crown rot infection and a more reliable indicator of inoculum than whiteheads
which may not always be expressed in the crop On severely affected plants pink fungal
growth is often present on the lower part of the stem and crown New ground out of natural
pasture should not be used as the native grass species harbour the crown rot fungus
These precautions are the same as those observed in bread wheat cultivation Ground
known to carry high levels of crown rot inoculum should be sown to an alternative crop
such as sorghum or the broadleaf crops (eg chickpea faba bean mungbean canola
sunflower) over a period of 2 years before replanting durum The sowing of a durum
crop following bread wheat is not recommended as inoculum will be increased by both
susceptible species 13
192 Fusarium head blightMaize should not be planted in the rotation prior to durum as maize is a susceptible host of
the FHB fungus Inoculum carried by the maize trash may pass the disease to the following
11 B Haskins M Sissons (2011) Growing wheat after cottonmdashDurum benchmarking 2009 GRDC Update Papers 10 August 2011 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201108Growing-wheat-after-cotton-Durum-benchmarking-2009
12 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
13 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 1 DURUM - Planning and paddock preparation
6Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
durum crop if suitable weather conditions for infection such as an extended wet period
prevail during and following flowering Significant FHB infection can lead to serious losses of
grain yield and downgrading of grain quality 14
193 Soil testing for diseaseA survey to detect and quantify a range of important cereal pathogens of central and
northern NSW in 2011 was carried out using PreDicta B a soil-based DNA test developed
by the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) The results confirmed
that the root-lesion nematode (RLN) Pratylenchus thornei is widespread detected in 70
of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in intolerant varieties in 33
of the 248 paddocks surveyed The RLN P neglectus has a more restricted distribution
detected in 38 of paddocks and at populations representing a risk of yield loss in
intolerant varieties in only 5 of the random paddocks surveyed Fungal pathogen Bipolaris
sorokiniana was present in 69 of paddocks and at levels that presented a mediumndashhigh
risk of common root rot in 2011 in 16 of the surveyed paddocks Fungal root pathogen
Pythium was detected in 67 of paddocks but was at low levels presenting a risk of yield
loss in lt2 of paddocks The crown rot pathogen F pseudograminearum was detected in
63 of paddocks and was at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in
23 of paddocks The FHB pathogen F graminearum was detected in 28 of paddocks
and at high enough levels to present a mediumndashhigh disease risk in 8 of paddocks 15
194 Cropping history effectsIrrigated durum wheat must not follow maize in the rotation as significant outbreaks of
FHB can occur causing both yield and quality losses In severe outbreaks of FHB toxic
fungi or mycotoxins may contaminate the grain making it unfit for human or livestock
consumption16
14 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
15 S Simpfendorfer A Alston A McKay G Poole (2011) Cereal pathogen survey of Central and Northern NSWmdash2011 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file0003431265Cereal-pathogen-surveypdf
16 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
1Know more Grow more
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Know more Grow more
Feedback
SECTION 2
Pre-planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 2
Preplanting
21 Varietal performance and yield ratings
Photo 1 Durum in the paddock
Eight durum wheat cultivars released by NSW Department of Primary Industries continue to
dominate the industry Australia wide (95 market share in 2004) 1
Saintly 2008 Derived from an awnless Kalka sister line crossed twice to Tamori Saintly is
an early-maturing line suited to both short- and medium-season production environments
It is well suited to production zones that are at risk of experiencing a sharp finish to the
growing season Saintly has an APDR classification in SA It produces high-quality semolina
with higher yellow pigment colour than the current dominant SA varieties Tamaroi and
Kalka Saintly offers an excellent disease package with high levels of resistance to stem
stripe and leaf rust
Hyperno 2008 High yield potential mid-season variety with excellent potential in northern
NSW Queensland and SA It has a good resistance to stem rust leaf rust and stripe rust
1 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
2Know more Grow more
March 2014
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Feedback
but is moderately susceptible to yellow spot Hyperno is moderately resistantndashmoderately
susceptible to black point and shattering It may lodge under irrigation or high-yielding
conditions
Caparoi 2008 High-yielding (similar to Jandaroi) mid-season semi-dwarf variety suitable
for production across Australia with high yield performance noted in southern Queensland
Grain quality is similar to EGA Jandaroi and superior to Wollaroi but slightly lower than EGA
Bellaroi Caparoi has improved dough strength relative to EGA Bellaroi It has a high level
of resistance to stem rust stripe rust and yellow leaf spot Caparoi is moderately resistantndash
moderately susceptible to leaf rust It is moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and
very susceptible to crown rot Caparoi has good resistance to lodging and shattering
Jandaroi 2007 Jandaroi has superior semolina and pasta quality with bright clean yellow
appearance and no discoloration It has a high level of resistance to stem rust leaf rust
and stripe rust It is moderately resistantndashmoderately susceptible to yellow spot but is
very susceptible to crown rot It is expected to replace Yallaroi and Wollaroi in NSW and
Queensland and also to suit central Queensland SA and possibly WA
Kalka 2003 Developed by the University of Adelaide and released by Australian Grain
Technologies Kalka is derived from Yallaroi with improved tolerance to high levels of soil
boron During 2000 and 2001 seasons generally free of boron toxicity its yields were on
average 2ndash3 above Tamaroi but in recent seasons this margin has narrowed The grain
of Kalka is slightly lighter but has less screenings than Tamaroi and features improved
semolina colour and hence better marketability
Bellaroi 2003 Grain yield similar to or better than Yallaroi and Wollaroi in northern NSW
Grain protein is consistently higher than other current commercial varieties Bellaroi has
exceptional pasta-making quality Bellaroi is resistantndashmoderately resistant to stem and leaf
rust It is resistant to yellow leaf spot and common root rot Bellaroi is moderately tolerant to
root lesion nematodes but very susceptible to crown rot It has very good black point and
lodging resistance Current major market shareholder
Gundaroi 1999 Another cultivar having more specific adaption to SA Gundaroi id
slightly better yielding than Yallaroi in SA but similar to Tamaroi Wollaroi and Yallaroi in
NSW Gundaroi offers the SA durum wheat industry a cultivar with specific superior site
adaptation while maintaining the pasta quality and disease resistance characteristics of
Yallaroi and Tamaroi
Tamaroi 1998 Released as being a better adapted cultivar in the SA environment Tamaroi
yields ~15 higher than Yallaroi and is marginally quicker to maturity This variety has also
produced higher protein levels than Wollaroi and Yallaroi
Wollaroi 1993 Medium height strong straw with good lodging resistance Grain protein
content is ~05 higher than Yallaroi Pasta made from Wollaroi has a superior bright
clean yellow appearance and has been popular with manufacturers Wollaroi has good
resistance to black point but is only moderately tolerant to root lesion nematodes and is
not recommended for nematode infested soils Wollaroi has largely been superseded by
new varieties
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
3Know more Grow more
March 2014
Know more Grow more
Feedback
Yallaroi 1987 Released to complement Kamilaroi and should be sown slightly earlier
Yallaroi consistently outyields Kamilaroi but may produce grain of lower protein content It
has excellent colour dough strength and resistance to black point Yallaroi is slightly less
tolerant of weather damage than Kamilaroi but still satisfactory by current standards
Kamilaroi 1982 The first significant breakthrough in improved quality and yield Kamilaroi
set the benchmark for what was to follow possessing good dough properties high protein
and good tolerances to all of the then-current rust strains
The durum breeding program has now restructured to create one national program
between GRDC NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide called the Australian Durum
Wheat Improvement Program (ADWIP) 2 See Table 1 for resistance ratings of some durum
cultivars Information about varieties is also available at National Variety Trials on http
wwwnvtonlinecomaunvt-results-reports
The following additional varieties are included in SARDIrsquos 2014 wheat variety sowing guide3
Tjilkuri Tjilkuri (WID801) has a similar maturity adaptation and disease resistance profile to
Tamaroi but generally offers greater yields like Hyperno together with improved semolina
colour Tjilkuri is eligible for APDR grade in SA and was released from the University of
Adelaide in 2010 with seed available from the Durum Growers Association
WID802 WID802 has just been released from the University of Adelaide with seed available
from the Durum Growers Association WID802 is targeted for the South-East of SA (Tatiara
districts) and has a similar maturity adaptation and diseas- resistance profile to Tamaroi but
offers high yields albeit with sometimes small grain size WID802 is eligible for APDR grade
in SA
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Wheeler (2014) Wheat variety sowing guide 2014 South Australian Research and Development Institute httpwwwsardisagovau__dataassetspdf_file001045955Wheat_variety_sowing_guide_2014pdf
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
4Know more Grow more
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Know more Grow more
Feedback
Table 1 Levels of resistance to diseases and other conditions 4
Durum wheats Bread wheat
Jandaroi Wollaroi Caparoi Hyperno EGA Bellaroi
Kennedy
Disease
Yellow spot MRndashMS MRndashMS MR MS MR MR
Crown rot VS SndashVS VS VS VS MSndashS
Common root rot MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR MR MS
RLN toleranceA MI MI MTndashMI MTndashMI MI MI
RLN resistanceA MSndashS MRndashMS MS MR MRndashMS SndashVS
Stem rust R RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR MS
Leaf rust MR RndashMR MRndashMS RndashMR MRndashMS MS
Stripe rust MR RndashMR MR MR MR MS
Agronomy
Resistance to black pointB
MRndashR MR MRndashMS MRndashMS RndashMR R
Resistance to lodging
MR MR MR MRndashMS R MR
Resistance to shattering
MR RndashMR RndashMR RndashMR R RndashMR
Resistance to sprouting
RndashMR MS MRndashMS MRndashMS MS S
R Resistant MR moderately resistant MS moderately susceptible S susceptible VS very susceptible T tolerant MT moderately tolerant MI moderately intolerant I intolerant VI very intolerant
ARoot-lesion nematode (RLN) tolerance applies to Pratylenchus thornei and not P neglectus tolerant varieties yield well in the presence of RLN resistant varieties prevent RLN reproduction
BBlack point will not cause a reduction in yield but may result in grain receiving a lower quality classification
211 Quality traitsGrain quality is very important for obtaining premium prices with durum wheat Downgrading
may occur if grain contains mottling black point or weather damage (see Table 2)
Table 2 Major durum wheat quality classes5
Protein Vitreous kernels
Falling number Screenings Stained grainsA
ADR1 130 gt90 gt300 lt5 lt3
ADR2 115ndash129 gt80 gt300 lt5 lt5
ADR3 100ndash114 gt75 gt250 lt10 lt20
Feed lt 100
AIncludes black point
212 MaturityThere is currently a relatively small range in maturity length in durum varieties compared
with bread wheat varieties Durums are generally similar in maturity to the quickest bread
wheat varieties This is an important consideration when managing frost risk and can limit
4 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
Section 2 DURUM - Pre-planting
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opportunities to exploit early-planting opportunities
Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or extended
moist weather The time difference in reaching full maturity between the early-flowering and
late-flowering tillers is normally fairly small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe
for many days ahead of the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly
The maturity ranking of the current durum varieties is as follows sow EGA Bellaroi first
(longer season) followed by Yallaroi then the quick-maturing Kamilaroi and Wollaroi
Durum wheats will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal
conditions especially during the flowering and grain-filling stages 6
22 Planting-seed quality
221 Seed sizeDurum seed is on average 20 larger than bread wheat seed The usual planting rate
is 40ndash50 kgha however a higher planting rate may be beneficial in some situations (eg
seed with a low germination irrigated crops or earlylate sowings) Conventional sowing
equipment can be used but the larger seed size may necessitate adjustments
222 Seed germination and vigourUse sound seed that is true to type (varietal purity)mdashfree of diseased seed and weed seeds
cracked and small grain and barley and bread wheat grain Ensure that the initial seed of a
purchased variety is of high quality preferably from certified seed stocks with a germination
percentage gt80 Before harvesting seed stocks for the following season rogue all off-
types and contaminant crop and weed plants 7
Seed grain kept for sowing in subsequent seasons must be stored in clean silos capable
of aeration sealing for insect control and keeping grain dry and as cool as possible Such
storage conditions will assist the maintenance of high-viability seed for the following season
Treat seed with an appropriately registered product just prior to sowing if required Some
chemical constituents can reduce viability and seedling vigour if they remain in contact with
the seed for any length of time All current durum varieties are highly resistant to loose smut
flag smut and stinking bunt
Seed treatment will offer protection to the establishing seedlings from damping-off diseases
and insect attack such as armyworms cutworms false wireworms and wireworms Ground
preparation is the same as for bread wheat Adequate cultivation andor spraying should
eliminate all volunteer plants of bread wheat barley and other cropweed species 8
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
8 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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SECTION 3
Planting
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 3
Planting
31 Seed treatments
Research is under way to establish whether it is of economic benefit to use seed treatments
(such as imidacloprid) to prevent aphids in durum The cost of around AU$33ha was
considered worthwhile during times of high grain prices Northern Grower Alliance (NGA)
research over two seasons found yield increases averaged ~11 in barley and durum and
5 in wheat One of the challenges of electing to use a prophylactic treatment such as a
seed dressing is that aphids are a sporadic pest and will not reach damaging levels every
year 1
For more information download httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_
CerealAphids1pdf
For details of registered seed treatments visit wwwapvmagovau
32 Time of sowing
The optimum sowing date will depend on the maturity rank of the variety latitude of the
sowing site and topographic aspect (eg northsouth facing slope elevation) Durum wheats
will perform well if sown later but grain yields will depend on seasonal conditions especially
during the flowering and grain-filling stages
The sowing time of a variety is a critical factor in crop risk management Growers should aim
for a balanced minimisation of the combined risks of frost damage around floweringgrain-
filling moisture stress at this time and rain or storm damage just prior to harvest
Crops sown earlier than optimal will be exposed to an elevated frost risk whereas those sown
later than the optimal period could encounter high moisture stress and harvest spoilage None
of these risks can be eliminated but minimisation is possible
The sowing of several varieties of different maturity ranks over several weeks should spread
the risks associated with flowering grain-filling and harvest Given differing rates of growth
development each variety should not be exposed to the same degree of risk at any specific
1 GRDC (2010) Cereal aphidsmdashaphid control in cereals can pay GRDC Fact Sheet Northern Region July 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauuploadsdocumentsGRDC_FS_CerealAphids1pdf
i More information
Winter Cereal Planting
Guides
httpwwwdpinswgov
auagriculturebroadacre
guideswinter-crop-
variety-sowing-guide
httpwwwgrdc
comauResources
Bookshop201302
NVT-Queensland-Wheat-
Variety-Guide-2013
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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critical stage eg at flowering 2
33 Targeted plant population
Commonly used seeding rates are 45ndash50 kgha (northern NSW) and the standard planting
times are MayndashJune Planting should be adjusted to suit the local seasonal conditions to
avoid frost damage to the heads and stems at head emergence and during flowering 3
Durum wheat remains the most susceptible of the winter cereal crops to crown rot infection
and yield loss Management strategies such as rotation fallowstubble management
inter-row sowing and planting time have been investigated with demonstrated benefits
However little work has focused on the effect of varying plant population and the carryover
effect on soil water available for the critical crop development stages of flowering and grain-
fill which dictates the extent of yield loss to crown rot
In 2009 five replicated trials were conducted across northern NSW using the four
main durum varieties in the region to assess whether the impact of crown rot could be
minimised by varying plant populations and using different varieties
Varying plant populations at sowing did not reduce the impact of crown rot in the four
durum varieties examined In fact at lower plant populations there appeared to be a higher
risk of lodging associated with crown rot infection which usually results in lower yields
High loads of crown rot reduced plant establishment as well as reducing tiller and head
production However there were significant varietal differences in yield and tiller production
(see Figure 1)
Figure 1
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bellaro
i -
Bellaro
i +
Caparo
i -
Capari
o +
Hyper
no -
Hyper
no +
Jand
aroi -
Jand
aroi +
lod
gin
g s
core
(1
=st
and
ing
9=
lod
ged
)
f
ab
ef
c
de
b
d
a
Yield loss due to crown rot in northern NSW
The greatest impact on durum yield remains crown rot inoculum level with the disease
having a greater impact on yield in the more western environments which tend to have
hotterdrier conditions during grain-fill Analysis of the soil water and plant pathology data
should provide additional insight into the impact of crown rot on soil water use However
2 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
3 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
Section 3 DURUM - Planting
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it is clear that under high crown rot pressure yield losses in durum cannot be managed
by manipulating the plant population at sowing Given the extreme susceptibility of durum
wheat to crown rot it remains critical to target durum production only in paddocks known
to have low levels of inoculum 4
For more information download the GRDC Update paper lsquoImpact of plant population on
crown rot in durum wheatrsquo httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-
Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-
WHEAT
34 Calculating seed requirements
A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers may consider a
variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination percentage or a
late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 5
35 Sowing depth
In a well-prepared seedbed the sowing depth should be about 3ndash6 cm and not exceed
8 cm As the current durum cultivars are semi-dwarf cultivars the length of the coleoptile
is reduced and so it cannot penetrate greater soil depths Sowing rate can be considered
a risk-management tool Dense stands of plants tend to produce few tillers per plant (ie
the primary and a few secondary) whereas stands at a reduced density have plants that
produce a larger number of tillers per plant Such reduced-density stands have greater
flexibility in response to changing growing conditions For example if moisture is limiting
fewer tillers are initiated however if seasonal conditions improve additional tillers may
develop 6
36 Sowing equipment
Use conventional sowing equipment the larger grain size may need appropriate
adjustments A sowing rate of 45 kgha is given as a general guide However growers
may consider a variation higher or lower to benefit their situation A reduced germination
percentage or a late sowing will make it necessary to increase this rate 7
4 GRDC (2010) Impact of plant population on crown rot in durum wheat GRDC Update Papers 24 Sept 2010 httpwwwgrdccomauResearch-and-DevelopmentGRDC-Update-Papers201009IMPACT-OF-PLANT-POPULATION-ON-CROWN-ROT-IN-DURUM-WHEAT
5 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
6 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 4 DURUM - Plant growth and physiology
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SECTION 4
Plant growth and physiology
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 4 Plant
growth and physiology
41 Germination and emergence
Durum crops grow to about 80 cm at maturity (15ndash20 cm shorter than bread wheat)
Low-density crops tend to have heads flowering over a longer interval Such a prolonged
flowering period may reduce the impact of a frost around flowering Protracted moist
weather at flowering can have an adverse effect on pollination by inhibiting the release of
pollen from the anthers If the female part of the flower (the stigma and ovule) is not fertilised
while in its receptive phase a grain will not develop
Low-density crops are likely to use available soil moisture reserves at a slower rate than the
higher density crops
Avoidance of moisture stress before and at flowering is critical for satisfactory grain set
as pollen will abort during periods of stress as part of a natural survival mechanism of the
plant Extended flowering could reduce the risk of pollination failure caused by frost or
extended moist weather
The time difference in reaching full maturity between early-flowering and late-flowering tillers
is usually small therefore the early heads are not likely to be ripe for many days ahead of
the later heads Harvesting should not be delayed significantly 1
Photo 1 Early durum heads are not likely to ripen well ahead of later heads
1 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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SECTION 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
For more information see the GRDC GrowNotes WHEAT (Northern region) Section 5
Nutrition and fertiliser
51 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for nitrogen
Paddocks with deep soil and high natural N fertility would be suitable for growing dryland
durum wheat Soil sampling to the full depth of root exploration prior to sowing should be
a good guide to the available soil N supply For the production of a 30 tha crop with 13
protein access to 140 kg Nha is necessary 1
Crop nutrition is critical to the durum crop to achieve a high-quality product To obtain high
protein levels (13+) soil N management requires careful planning Ideally durum should be
planted into a rotation following a grain or pasture legume phase Alternatively use cropping
history in conjunction with soil tests to calculate an N budget It is important to soil-test for N to
the effective rooting depth of the crop Nitrogen fertiliser is now an expensive input in our farming
systems and so it pays dividends to get the critical levels correct Depending on location other
nutrients such as phosphorus (P) sulfur (S) and on highly alkaline soils zinc (Zn) requirements
should be met The variety Kalka in SA shows some tolerance to boron toxic soils 2
As durum wheat is a high-quality product appropriate nutrient management will help to
reduce the risk of producing grain that does not meet the strict quality receival standards
for durum grain including low grain-protein content mottled grain and small grain Ideally
durum should be placed in a rotation following a legume after a significant break from a
cereal crop to avoid problems of crown rot A well-nodulated legume croppasture ley
will provide an adjunct source of biologically fixed N while the break period following the
previous cereal crop will allow for the remineralisation of stubble-bound N 3
Fertiliser rates should be aimed at producing a finished protein level at ADR1 (ge13) This
may necessitate soil tests to establish base N levels As a rule of thumb for every tonne
per hectare of high-protein grain harvested about 50 kg of N is removed in the grain This
amount of N must be replaced together with other N losses such as from leaching and de-
1 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
2 J Kneipp (2008) Durum wheat production NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwnvtonlinecomauwp-contentuploads201303Crop-Guide-NSW-Durum-Wheat-Productionpdf
3 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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nitrification The amount of N fertiliser required can be calculated when the percentage of
elemental N is known for the fertiliser product eg urea N 46 anhydrous NH3 82 4
For general information on N crop nutrition and application see httpwwwdaffqldgovau
plantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropsnutrition-managementnitrogen
52 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for phosphorus
Phosphorus is important in growing tissue where cells are actively dividing ie seedling
root development flowering and seed formation Use a soil test to determine phosphorus
status Long fallows due to crop rotation or drought may accentuate P deficiency through
absence of mycorrhizae P fertiliser should be used in this situation Where needed apply P
with the seed at planting 5
53 Current general pre-plant nutritional levels for micronutrients
Compared with bread wheats durums can be sensitive to low Zn levels Elongated necrotic
lesions (small dead patches) on the lower leaves may indicate the onset of Zn deficiency If
the soil is known to be low in Zn a 1 aqueous solution of zinc sulfate heptahydrate should
be applied as a foliar spray 2ndash4 weeks after emergence at about 1 kgha Zinc sulfate
monohydrate applications can provide 4ndash5 years supply of this essential micronutrient Apply
at 15 kgha on sandy and sandy-loam soils or 30 kgha for clay and clay-loam soils and
incorporate some months before sowing Where P fertilisers are required products that are
coated with Zn provide a very efficient method of increasing crop recovery of applied Zn
Several Zn-fortified fertilisers are now available 6
Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi are usually not sensitive to low Zn levels
when grown on very heavy self-mulching black earth (pH 8ndash85) When a crop is growing in
a very wet high-phosphate soil for several weeks Zn deficiency symptoms may be evident
Note that zinc oxide (5 kg Znha) applications can be spread with N fertilisers but not with
phosphate fertilisers as the phosphate can bind with the Zn and could render it unavailable7
54 Paddock nutrition
Where possible ground should be selected that consistently produces high-protein grain of
ge130 It is recommended that soil tests be conducted to establish N availability and that an
4 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
5 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
6 DAFF (2012) Durum wheat in Queensland Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry httpwwwdaffqldgovauplantsfield-crops-and-pasturesbroadacre-field-cropswheatdurum-wheat
7 R Hare (2006) Agronomy of the durum wheats Kamilaroi Yallaroi Wollaroi and EGA Bellaroi Primefacts 140 NSW Department of Primary Industries httpwwwdpinswgovau__dataassetspdf_file000763646Agronomy-of-the-durum-wheats---Primefact-140-finalpdf
Section 5 DURUM - Nutrition and fertiliser
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N budget for the crop be calculated
Nitrogen-budgeting packages are available from NSW DPI other state departments of
agriculture or your local agronomist When the requirements and levels available are known
an application of nitrogenous fertiliser will most likely be needed Highest premiums are paid for
plump hard vitreous grain that is free from mottling
A small percentage of mottled grains can be tolerated in top grades but a greater proportion
of mottled grain is undesirable and it will result in downgrading and a reduced premium Top-
grade ADR1 must have ge130 protein (minimum 90 vitreous kernels) while ADR2 must
have ge115 protein (minimum 80 vitreous kernels) Vitreous grain contains sufficient protein
to combine all of the st