Alyssa Larson. SECTION 1 – The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the Digestive System 4 Organs of the Digestive System 4-24

Alyssa Larson

SECTION 1 The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the Digestive System 4 Organs of the Digestive System 4-24 Digestion of Large Food Molecules 25 Role of Enzymes in Digestion 26 Physical and Chemical Digestion 27-28 Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids 29-31 Lactose Intolerance 32 Stomach Ulcers 33-34 Digestive System Reference Pages 35-36 *Page numbers are located on bottom right corner of each slide

SECTION 2 The Circulatory System Circulatory System Introduction 37-38 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 39-42 Drawing of the Heart 43 Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 44-48 Composition of Blood 49-50 Erythrocyte Structure and Function 51 Open and Closed Circulatory Systems 52-53 Variations of the Circulatory System 54-57 Sickle Cell Disease 58-59 Atherosclerosis 60-61 Circulatory System Reference Pages 62-63

SECTION 3 The Respiratory System Respiratory System Introduction 64-65 Drawing of the Ventilation System 66 Alveoli 67 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transportation in the Blood 68-69 The Path of Oxygen Into the Bloodstream 70-72 Inhalation and Exhalation 73-75 Asthma 76-77 Pneumonia 78-79 Respiratory System Reference Pages 80-81

SECTION 4 The Immune System Immune System Introduction 82-83 Recognition of Pathogens 84-85 Innate and Acquired Immunity 86 Active and Passive Immunity 87 Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immunity 88 B and T Lymphocytes 89 Antibiotics and Bacteria 90 Allergies 91-92 HIV/AIDS 93-94 Immune System Reference Pages 95-96

SECTION 5 The Excretory System Excretory System Introduction 97-98 Types of Nitrogenous Wastes 99-101 Drawing of the Kidney 102 Drawing of the Nephron 103 The Nephron 104-109 Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, and Excretion 110-112 Gout 113-114 Urinary Tract Infection 115-116 Excretory System Reference Pages 117-118

Digestive System The digestive systems function is to break food down into molecules the body can absorb Allows us to absorb nutrients and use food as fuel for ATP production Digestive System 2

Organs of the Digestive System Alimentary Canal Organs Accessory Organs Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anus Salivary glands Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Digestive System 3

Alimentary Organs Organs in the alimentary canal include the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus The alimentary organs form the alimentary canal, which extends from the mouth to the anus Food passes through organs in the alimentary canal Digestive System 5

Accessory Organs Includes the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas The accessory organs of the digestive system are not a part of the alimentary canal (food does not pass through them), but they assist the alimentary organs in the process of digestion Digestive System 6

The Mouth The first portion of the alimentary canal The mouth is surrounded by the lips, cheeks, tongue, and palate Receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up solid particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva (mastication) Digestive System 7

Salivary Glands The salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food particles, helps bind them, and begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates Saliva is also a solvent, dissolving foods so that they can be tasted Saliva helps cleanse the mouth and teeth Digestive System 8

Major Salivary Glands The three major salivary glands are the parotid glands, the submandibular glands, and the sublingual glands Parotid glands the largest of the major salivary glands, located anterior to the ear Submandibular glands located in the floor of the mouth on the inside surface of the lower jaw Sublingual glands the smallest of the major salivary glands, located on the floor of the mouth inferior to the tongue Digestive System 9

Pharynx The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and esophagus The muscular walls of the pharynx and esophagus function in swallowing The pharynx can be divided into three parts Nasopharynx located superior to the soft palate, provides a passageway for air during breathing Oropharynx posterior to the mouth, the oropharynx is a passageway for food moving downward from the mouth and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) located inferior to the oropharynx, a passageway to the esophagus Digestive System 10

Digestive System 11

Esophagus A straight, collapsible tube about 25 centimeters long Provides a passageway for food Its muscular wall propels food from the pharynx to the stomach Penetrates the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus, and is continuous with the stomach The esophagus contains mucous glands which secrete mucous to moisten and lubricate the inner lining of the tube Muscle fibers at the entrance to the stomach remain contracted to prevent regurgitation of stomach contents into the esophagus. These muscle fibers relax briefly to allow swallowed food to enter the stomach. Digestive System 12

Stomach The stomach is a pouch- like organ with a capacity of about one liter Receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juice Initiates the digestion of proteins, carries on limited nutrient absorption, and moves food into the small intestine Digestive System 13

Pancreas Made primary of creatic acinar cells, cells that produce pancreatic juice Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids Pancreatic amylase splits molecules of starch or glycogen into disaccharides Pancreatic lipase breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and monoglycerides Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase each splits the bonds between particular combinations of amino acids in proteins Nucleases break down nucleic acid molecules into nucleotides Digestive System 14

Pancreas The hormone secretin stimulates the pancreas to secrete a large quantity of fluid Pancreatic juice has a high concentration of bicarbonate ions that neutralizes acidic materials arriving from the stomach The alkalinity created by the bicarbonate ions also provides a favorable environment for the digestive enzymes Digestive System 15

Liver The liver has many functions, including: Storing glycogen, iron, vitamins A, D, and B12 Removing toxic substances from the blood Maintaining iron homeostasis Synthesizing lipoproteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol Converting carbohydrate molecules into fat The livers function in the digestive system is to secrete bile, a yellowish green liquid Digestive System 16

Liver Bile secreted by the liver is made up of water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes Bile salts aid digestive enzymes They reduce surface tension and break fat globules (molecules of fats clumped together) into droplets, a process called emulsification Allows lipases to digest fat molecules more effectively Enhance absorption of fatty acids and cholesterol Allows for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K Digestive System 17

Gallbladder Stores bile between meals Concentrates bile by reabsorbing water Contracts to release bile into the duodenum when stimulated Digestive System 18

Sphincters Sphincters are bands of muscle under either voluntary or involuntary control that encircle the hollow organs of the body and contract to close the pathways The ileocecal sphincter joins the ileum of the small intestine to the cecum of the large intestine The anus has two sphincter muscles, one under voluntary control and the other under involuntary control The esophageal sphincter allows food to enter the stomach and prevents food from going up into the esophagus, while the pyloric sphincter controls gastric emptying Digestive System 19

Small Intestine Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver Completes digestion of nutrients in the substance arriving from the stomach Absorbs the products of digestion Transports the remaining residues into the large intestine Digestive System 20

Small Intestine Parts of the small intestine include: Duodenum the shortest and most fixed portion of the small intestine Jejunum the diameter of the jejunum is greater than that of the ilium, and its wall is thicker and more active Ilium has a higher bacterial population than the jejunum Digestive System 21

Enzymes in the Small Intestine Digestive enzymes found in the small intestine break down food molecules before absorption takes place. These enzymes include: Peptidases split peptides into amino acids Sucrase splits disaccharide sucrose into glucose and fructose Maltase splits disaccharide maltose into two glucose molecules Lactase splits disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose Intestinal lipase splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol Digestive System 22

Large Intestine, Rectum, and Anus Parts of the Large Intestine The large intestine absorbs ingested water and electrolytes remaining in the alimentary canal Reabsorbs and recycles water and remnants of digestive secretions Forms and stores feces Cecum the beginning of the large intestine, connected to the appendix Ascending colon begins at the cecum and extends upwards Transverse colon longest, most movable part of the large intestine Descending colon the transverse colon turns abruptly downward to become the descending colon Sigmoid colon the descending colon makes an S-shaped curve, where it becomes the sigmoid colon Digestive System 23

Rectum and Anus The rectum is continuous with the sigmoid colon. It is attached to the sacrum, and becomes the anal canal about five centimeters inferior to the tip of the coccyx bone At the distal end of the anal canal is the anus, which is where the anal canal opens to the outside of the body, the exit for feces Digestive System 24

Digestion of Large Food Molecules It is important to be able to break down the food we eat into small molecules that can be used by the body Ex: the body must convert starches into glucose before it can be used as an energy source, proteins must be broken down into amino acids, and fats must be broken down into their glycerol and fatty acid components Molecules must be small enough to travel through the wall of the small intestine by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport. Food molecules must be broken down for nutrient absorption to take place. Digestive System 25

Role of Enzymes in Digestion Enzymes in the digestive system are proteins molecules that break down a specific substance The enzymes mentioned under the description of the pancreas and small intestine are important in breaking down specific components of the human diet (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) In addition to the enzymes previously mentioned, enzymes involved in digestion include: Salivary amylase breaks down starch in the mouth Pepsin breaks down proteins in the stomach Gastric lipase breaks down fats in the stomach Trypsin and erepsin break down wholly and partially digested proteins into amino acids in the duodenum Without enzymes, we would not be able to break down food into smaller subunits, and therefore would be unable to absorb nutrients Digestive System 26

Physical Vs. Chemical Digestion Physical Digestion Chemical Digestion The breakdown of food by physical means, no chemical reactions involved Physical digestion can separate food molecules, but cannot break down the molecules Chewing food, using smooth muscle to move food down the digestive tract, and the churning of food within the stomach are all examples of physical digestion The breakdown of food by chemical means, requiring chemical reactions (enzymes) Breaks individual molecules apart Breaking down protein, carbohydrate, and fat molecules are all examples of chemical digestion Chemical digestion is needed to: Make molecules small enough to pass through a cell membrane Make nutrients soluble in water (blood) Changes food into a form that is usable by the body Digestive System 27

Physical and Chemical Digestion Though physical and chemical digestion differ on a molecular level, the principles are the same. In both physical and chemical digestion, food is broken down into smaller pieces to allow for more efficient digestion Physical digestion breaks apart food particles to increase the surface area for chemical digestion Chemical digestion breaks food molecules into smaller molecules to allow for nutrient absorption into the bloodstream and ultimately into body cells Digestive System 28

Carbohydrate Digestion Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth when the salivary glands secrete the enzyme salivary amylase Majority of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small intestine. As food moves into the duodenum, pancreatic amylase is released into the small intestine. Breaks down starch into disaccharides The small intestine also contains sucrase, maltase, and lactase Break the disaccharides into monosaccharides, which then enter the bloodstream and are transported to body cells Digestive System 29

Protein Digestion Digestion of protein begins in the stomach when the stomach secretes gastric juices containing pepsinogen As pepsinogen comes into contact with hydrochloric acid, it is converted into an active enzyme called pepsin When protein reaches the duodenum, a hormone called cholecytokinin is released from the intestinal walls, stimulating the release of pancreatic juice Pancreatic juice contains three inactive protein splitting enzymes In the presence of the enzyme trypsin, the inactive enzymes in the pancreatic juice become activated and are able to help break down protein Peptidase is released, which splits peptide bonds into amino acids, allowing for protein digestion Digestion is completed in the small intestine. From there the amino acids travel to body cells through the bloodstream Digestive System 30

Lipid Digestion Chemical digestion of lipids begins in the stomach Gastric juices in the stomach contain small amounts of gastric lipase, which begins to break down certain lipids As the lipids pass into the duodenum, the gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine via the common bile duct The function of bile is to emulsify fats to break them down into smaller droplets for more effective digestion At the same time, pancreatic juices are released, containing pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase initiates the breaking down of lipids. Intestinal lipase is released, which splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol Some fatty acids dissolve into the blood, while others are used by the liver in making lipoproteins Digestive System 31

Lactose Intolerance People with lactose intolerance lack lactase in the small intestine Lactase is the enzyme that breaks down lactose, the sugar found in milk products Can be caused by digestive diseases or injuries to the small intestine More than 50 million Americans are lactose intolerant Symptoms - symptoms worsen when larger portions of milk products are consumed, include: Cramping Bloating Gas Diarrhea Nausea People with lactose intolerance may avoid symptoms by avoiding milk products or taking lactase supplements or lactase drops Digestive System 32

Stomach Ulcers A stomach ulcer is a small erosion in the gastrointestinal tract. It most commonly occurs in the duodenum. Caused by the destruction of the gastric or intestinal lining of the stomach by hydrochloric acid Excess secretion of hydrochloric acid, genetic predisposition, and stress are all contributing factors Chronic use of anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin may cause ulcers Cigarette smoking can cause an ulcer formation and failure of ulcer treatment Symptoms: Burning or gnawing feeling in the stomach area Loss of appetite Weight loss or weight gain Vomiting Blood in the stool Anemia Digestive System 33

Stomach Ulcers Statistics About 20 million Americans develop at least one stomach ulcer during their lifetime. Stomach ulcers affect about 4 million Americans every year. More than 40,000 Americans have surgery because of persistent symptoms or problems from ulcers every year. About 6,000 Americans die of stomach ulcer-related complications every year. Treatment Medication to reduce stomach acid or to protect the lining of the stomach and duodenum Antibiotics In rare cases, surgery may be required to treat a peptic ulcer Digestive System 34

Digestive System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 17 Digestive System) http://www.colostrumresearch.org/Studys/SO54_The%20Neonate%20 and%20Colostrum.htm http://www.hyss.sg/escience2/filestorage/2E%20- %20%20Digestion%20-%20Introduction.htm http://www.foodallergysolutions.com/lactose-intolerance.html http://www.mamashealth.com/stomach.asp Digestive System 35

Reference Page (continued) Pictures: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=135514&ref=137320 http://automatedaccess.org/rada-describe-human-digestive-system-with-diagram/ http://www.empowher.com/condition/salivary-gland-infection http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/essentials/yourLiver/ http://health.allrefer.com/health/gallbladder-disease-gallbladder-anatomy.html http://www.gastroliverspecialist.com/pancreatic_disease.html http://www.thisismattjohnson.com/ http://www.subent.com/expertise/salivaryglanddisease.htm http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/cardshowall.php?title=respiratory-system_55 http://genericlook.com/anatomy/Stomach/ http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/pancreas.html http://whydetox.net/liver-detoxification http://www.gallbladderguy.com/gbfacts.html http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/small-intestine Digestive System 36

Circulatory System The circulatory system has multiple functions: Transporting materials Transports gases (O2 and Co2) Transports nutrients to cells Transports waste materials from cells Transports hormones Contains white blood cells that fight infection Maintains body temperature 38 Circulatory System

Blood Vessel Structure & Function Types of blood vessels: Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart Arterioles small finely branched arteries Capillaries smallest, most numerous blood vessels Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart Venules small branches of veins, merge to form veins 39 Circulatory System

Structure Defines Function Arteries Veins Function carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and maintain blood pressure Structure: Strong and elastic, designed for carrying blood away from the heart under high pressure Function carry deoxygenated blood to heart, not under pressure Structure: Have thinner walls than arteries Have a larger lumen than arteries (the lumen is the part of the blood vessel through which blood travels) 40 Circulatory System

Vein Structure Vs. Artery Structure 41 Circulatory System

Structure Defines Function Function allow for exchange of nutrients and oxygen from red blood cells to body cells and exchange of waste products and carbon dioxide from body cells to red blood cells Structure: The smallest blood vessels Have no smooth muscle fibers, unlike arteries and veins Have thin walls that form a semipermeable layer through which substances are exchanged Allow only one red blood cell through at a time to allow for efficient nutrient and gas exchange Capillaries 42 Circulatory System

43 Circulatory System

The Heart The heart has four chambers, two atria and two ventricles The atria are the smaller upper chambers The ventricles are the larger lower chambers The right atrium and ventricle are located on the right side of the body, or the left side when shown in diagrams. The left atrium and ventricles are on the right side in diagrams. RIGHT LEFT 44 Circulatory System

Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 1. Deoxygenated blood returns from the body to the heart in veins leading into the right atrium 2. Blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing back into the right atrium. 45 Circulatory System

Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 3. The ventricles contract, forcing blood out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery. The blood passes through the pulmonary valve, preventing the blood from flowing back into the right ventricle 4. Blood in the pulmonary artery goes to the lungs to receive oxygen. The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood Pulmonary artery 46 Circulatory System

Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 5. After receiving oxygen, blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins 6. The atria contract, forcing blood from the left atrium to the left ventricle. Blood passes through the Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve which prevents blood from flowing back into the left atrium. Pulmonary veins 47 Circulatory System

Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 7. The ventricles contract, forcing blood out of the left ventricle and into the aorta, the largest artery of the body. The aortic valve prevents backflow of blood into the left ventricle from the aorta 8. Blood travels to the rest of the body, returning through the veins to the right atrium (step 1) Aorta Overall pathway of the blood through the heart To left atrium 48 Circulatory System

Composition of Blood Plasma The Formed Elements Plasma the watery portion of the blood containing dissolved amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, hormones, electrolytes, and cellular wastes Makes up about 55% of a blood sample The formed elements of the blood include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets Blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets 49 Circulatory System

The Formed Elements Erythrocytes transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, make up approximately 45% of a blood sample Leukocytes protect against disease, make up less than 1% of a blood sample The five types of white blood cells are neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes Platelets cell fragments, less than half the size of an erythrocyte. Helps control blood loss from broken vessels 50 Circulatory System

Erythrocyte Structure and Function Function Structure Travel through the bloodstream and transport gases Erythrocytes are biconcave discs, meaning that they are thin near their centers and thicker around their rims. This adaptation increases the surface area through which gases can diffuse. Their shape allows them to squeeze through narrow capillaries Dont have nuclei, which provides more space in the cell for hemoglobin molecules 51 Circulatory System

Open & Closed Circulatory Systems Open Circulatory System Closed Circulatory System Blood is pumped from the heart and enters body cavities, where the tissues are bathed in the blood No network of blood vessels Blood flows slowly because there is no blood pressure. The animal must move in order to move the blood in its body Blood is contained within blood vessels, it is not free in a cavity Valves exist to prevent the backflow of blood 52 Circulatory System

Open & Closed Circulatory Systems Example: Open Circulatory System Example: Closed Circulatory System Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system Found in vertebrates and some invertebrates including annelids, squids, and octopuses 53 Circulatory System

Circulatory System in Fish Fish have a two- chambered heart, one atrium and one ventricle Deoxygenated blood enters the heart and is pumped to the gills. The newly oxygenated blood travels throughout the body before returning to the heart 54 Circulatory System

Circulatory System in Amphibians Amphibians have a three- chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle Blood coming from the lungs goes to the left atrium. Blood coming from the body goes to the right atrium Both atria empty into the ventricle, where some mixing occurs The advantage of this system is that there is high pressure in vessels that lead to both the lungs and body. 55 Circulatory System

Circulatory System in Reptiles Reptiles, like amphibians, have a three-chambered heart Two atria The ventricle is partially divided to reduce the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood 56 Circulatory System

Circulatory System in Birds and Mammals Four-chambered heart which acts as two separate pumps After passing through the body, blood is pumped under high pressure to the lungs After returning from the lungs, blood is pumped under high pressure to the body High rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the body enables birds and mammals to maintain high activity levels 57 Circulatory System

Sickle Cell Disease Hemoglobin crystallizes in a low oxygen environment due to an incorrect amino acid in the protein portion of hemoglobin The red blood cells bend into a sickle shape, blocking circulation in small vessels Symptoms: Joint pain Frequent infections Anemia Swelling in hands and feet Swelling of abdomen 58 Circulatory System

Sickle Cell Disease Statistics: Affects 90,000 to 100,000 Americans Occurs among about 1 in every 500 Black or African- American births Sickle cell trait occurs among about 1 in 12 Blacks or African Americans, provides resistance to malaria Treatment: A bone marrow transplant can completely cure sickle cell disease but has a 15% risk of causing death The drug hydroxyurea reactivates production of a slightly different form of hemoglobin, delays sickling 59 Circulatory System

Atherosclerosis Deposits of fatty materials, particularly cholesterol, form on the inner lining of the arterial walls The deposits, called plaque, protrude into the lumens of the vessels and interfere with blood flow Walls of affected arteries lose their elasticity and become hardened Signs and Symptoms: Chest pain and tightness during activity Numbness or weakness in arms or legs Shortness of breath 60 Circulatory System

Atherosclerosis Approximately 14 million Americans have Coronary Artery Disease (atherosclerosis is the main cause of Coronary Artery Disease) Treatment: Lifestyle changes such as eating a healthy diet and exercising Drugs that slow the effects of atherosclerosis Angioplasty (balloon treatment) Endarterectomy (surgical removal of fatty deposits) 61 Circulatory System

Circulatory System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 14 Blood, Chapter 15 Cardiovascular System) http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20 102/bio%20102%20lectures/circulatory%20system/circulat.htm http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/data.html http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/153647-overview 62 Circulatory System

Reference Page (continued) Pictures http://en.tcm-china.info/medical/human/75477_4.shtml http://biologiabm.wordpress.com/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiology http://www.beliefnet.com/healthandhealing/getcontent.aspx?cid=618443 http://adam.about.net/care/Step-2-The-components-of-blood.htm http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/blood/red.html http://www.netartsbaytoday.org/html/clams_.html http://www.deshow.net/animal/Insect_photography_art_464.html http://thefutureofthings.com/news/6276/frozen-organs-live-longer.html http://animal-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/09/octopus.html http://sharonapbio-taxonomy.wikispaces.com/Animalia-Chordata--Fishes http://dtc.pima.edu/~biology/182/lesson11/11step3/11step3page1.htm http://zeitzer.com/biologysite/ http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/articles/p198.htm http://www.meghmiller.com/the-adventure-continues-an-unexpected-chapter/ 63 Circulatory System

Respiratory System The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body Eliminates carbon dioxide from the body in order to maintain the pH of the blood Respiratory System 65

66 Respiratory System

Alveoli Alveoli have a structure specialized for efficient exchange of gases Walls are thin and made of epithelial cells Large surface area to volume ratio Surrounded by a network of capillaries. Oxygen diffuses through the walls of alveoli and enters into the capillaries. Respiratory System 67

Oxygen Transport in the Blood Oxygen enters the blood stream and is carried by red blood cells In RBCs, oxygen combines with hemoglobin to become oxyhemoglobin When the RBC reaches the capillaries of the body cells, the oxyhemoglobin breaks up and releases its oxygen, becoming deoxyhemoglobin Oxygen is transported to cells of the body Respiratory System 68

Carbon Dioxide Transport In Blood Carbon dioxide, a waste product created by cells, passes through a membrane and into the bloodstream Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as: Bicarbonate ions (70%) Bicarbonates of sodium and potassium Carbaminohemoglobin (15-25%) Carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream by diffusion before the blood leaves the lungs Respiratory System 69

Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream 1. Oxygen enters the body through the external nares of the nose Passes through the: 2. Nasopharynx 3. Oropharynx 4. Laryngopharynx 5. Larynx 6. Trachea OropharynxPassageway for air and food LaryngopharynxPassageway for air and food Respiratory System 70

Oxygen enters the bronchi 7. Primary bronchi 8. Secondary bronchi 9. Tertiary bronchi Passes through the: 10. Intralobular bronchioles 11. Terminal bronchioles 12. Respiratory bronchioles Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream Respiratory System 71

13. Oxygen enters the alveolar ducts 14. Passes into the alveolar sacs 15. Enters the alveoli Once oxygen enters the alveoli, it diffuses through the alveolar walls and enters the blood through nearby capillaries Oxygen reacts with hemoglobin in a red blood cell to form oxyhemoglobin Carried in the form of oxyhemoglobin to cells of the body Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream Respiratory System 72

Inhalation Atmospheric pressure is the force that moves air into the lungs When the respiratory muscles are at rest, the pressures on the inside of the lungs and on the outside of the thoracic wall are about the same The external intercostals are the skeletal muscle directly involved in breathing Respiratory System 73

Boyles Law and Breathing Boyles Law involves the inverse relationships between volume and pressure If the pressure inside the lungs and alveoli decreases, outside air will be pushed into the airways by atmospheric pressure This is what happens during normal breathing, also involves the action of the diaphragm The diaphragm contracts and move downward, while the external intercostal muscles contract, increasing the size of the thoracic cavity The pressure inside the lungs falls farther, and atmospheric pressure forces more air into the bodys airways Respiratory System 74

Exhalation As the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles relax, the elastic tissues cause the lungs to recoil and return to their original shapes The abdominal organs spring back into their previous shapes, pushing the diaphragm upward Surface tension causes the alveoli to shrink These actions cause the pressure inside the lungs to increase about 1 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure The air inside the lungs is forced out through the respiratory passages Normal resting expiration occurs without the contraction of skeletal muscles, considered a passive process Respiratory System 75

Asthma Asthma is a chronic disease that affects the airways The airways become swollen and narrowed Produce extra mucus, breathing becomes difficult Common symptoms: Coughing Wheezing Shortness of breath Asthma cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be controlled by: Avoiding situations that may trigger an asthma attack Using long-term control medications to prevent flare-ups Using a quick-relief inhaler to control symptoms once they start Respiratory System 76

Asthma Statistics An estimated 300 million people worldwide suffer from asthma 250,000 annual deaths caused by asthma Workplace conditions, such as exposure to fumes, gases, or dust, are responsible for 11% of asthma cases worldwide About 70% of people with asthma also have allergies Respiratory System 77

Pneumonia An inflammation of the lungs, caused by infection Caused by infection bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites Can range from mild to life-threatening Often is a complication of another condition, such as the flu Concern for people: Older than 65 With a chronic illness With a weak immune system Respiratory System 78

Pneumonia Symptoms: Fever Cough Shortness of breath Sweating Headache Fatigue Estimated 500,000 cases of pneumonia each year in the U.S. 40,000 deaths resulting from pneumonia Treatment: Most bacterial pneumonias can be treated with antibiotics, but antibiotic-resistant strains are a growing problem Best approach is to prevent infection Respiratory System 79

Respiratory System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 19 Respiratory System) http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/respiration.html http://www.preservearticles.com/201102264268/transport-of- oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide-through-blood-during- respiration.html http://www.ann.com.au/MedSci/oxygen.htm http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/asthma/DS00021 http://www.aaaai.org/about-the-aaaai/newsroom/asthma- statistics.aspx http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pneumonia/DS00135/DSECTI ON=symptoms https://www.askaamc.org/quality/quality_measures.php?cat=pneu Respiratory System 80

Reference Page (continued) Pictures: http://www.healthcentral.com/asthma/h/respiratory-system-of-asthma- diagram.html http://oac.med.jhmi.edu/res_phys/Encyclopedia/Alveoli/Alveoli.HTML http://home.comcast.net/~pegglestoncbsd/respiratory.htm http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_respiratory_system http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sac http://www.mediafreedominternational.org/2012/02/20/why-are-asthma-drugs- killing-more-people-than-asthma/ Respiratory System 81

Immune System Function: protects the body from bacterial, parasitic, fungal, and viral infections, as well as from the growth of tumor cells by recognizing and responding to antigens Body Parts Involved in Immunity Bone marrow Thymus Spleen Lymph nodes Immune System 83

Recognition of Pathogens Cells in our body recognize pathogens by their antigens Antigens are molecules (usually proteins) on the surface of cells and viruses. Nonliving substances such as toxins, chemicals, and drugs can also have antigens. The body has antigens that are seen as normal to the immune system. Therefore, the immune system usually doesnt react against the bodys own antigens. The immune system recognizes foreign antigens and destroys the substance that contains them Immune System 84

Recognition of Pathogens After exposure to a foreign antigen and destroying the substance, the body creates antibodies that will specifically recognize the foreign antigen it has been exposed to The antibodies will recognize the antigen and trigger the immune system to agglutinate and destroy the foreign substance with that particular antigen Immune System 85

Innate and Acquired Immunity Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity The defense system the body was born with Protects the body against all foreign antigens Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering the body Examples: Cough reflex Enzymes in tears and skin oils Mucus Skin Stomach acid If an antigen gets past these barriers, it is attacked and destroyed by other parts of the immune system Acquired immunity is immunity that develops with exposure to various antigens The immune system builds a defense that is specific to that antigen Examples: Immunity produced by a vaccination The body produces antigens after being exposed to a virus Immune System 86

Active and Passive Immunity Active Immunity Passive Immunity Occurs when a person is exposed to a pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune disease Can be caused by a vaccine Vaccines are used to expose the body to a particular antigen for health purposes Antigens are usually killed or severely weakened to decrease their potency The body stores T cells as memory cells Way of artificially acquiring immunity Example: vaccines The body has immunity to particular antigens as a result of genetic traits passed on from parents to offspring Offspring are immune to the particular pathogenic threat Example: pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are passed from the mother into the babys bloodstream Immune System 87

Humoral and Cell Mediated Immunity Humoral Immunity Cell Mediated Immunity Humoral immunity involves fighting infectious agents in the body tissues in the blood Managed by the B cells with the help of T cells Cell mediated immunity deals with the body cells that have been infected with some foreign bodies or antigens Managed by T cells Both humoral and cell mediated immunity feature impressive complexity and an interrelationship that enables them to modify the immune reactions to almost any kind of antigen or molecule Immune System 88

B and T Lymphocytes B Lymphocytes T Lymphocytes Used in the production of antibodies When they encounter a new antigen, the B Lymphocytes divide to form plasma cells and memory cells The memory cell remembers the antigen and which antibody to use for the specific antigen The plasma cell makes antibodies to fight a particular antigen Mainly used in identifying antigens and releasing chemicals that attract macrophages to destroy the antigen Immune System 89

Antibiotics and Bacteria Antibiotics work by interrupting metabolic pathways in prokaryotic cells. Some bacteria prevent the proper formation of a cell wall, while others prevent bacteria from completing cell division Antibiotics are not effective against viruses because viruses lack metabolic pathways. They reproduce by infecting eukaryotic cells and hijacking their metabolic pathways, which are not affected by antibiotics Immune System 90

Allergies Allergies occur when the immune system reacts to a foreign substance such as pollen, bee venom or pet dander In a person with allergies, the immune system makes antibodies that identify the allergen as something harmful, even though it isnt. When a person comes into contact with the allergen, the immune system reacts by inflaming the skin, sinuses, airways, or digestive system Allergies can range from minor irritation to anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening emergency Allergies can't be cured, but a number of treatments can help relieve allergy symptoms Immune System 91

Allergies Symptoms: Hay Fever Congestion Itchy, runny nose Food Allergy Swelling of the lips, tongue, face, or throat Insect Allergy Cough, chest tightness, wheezing, or shortness of breath Anaphylaxis Drug Allergy Hives Rash Statistics: 1 in 5 people have allergies Immune System 92

HIV/AIDS AIDS is a chronic, potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) HIV damages the immune system and interferes with the bodys ability to fight disease HIV is a sexually transmitted disease Can also be spread by: Contact with infected blood Mother to child during pregnancy Breastfeeding It can take years before HIV weakens the immune system enough to cause AIDS There is no cure for HIV/AIDS, but there are medications that can dramatically slow the progression of the disease These drugs have reduced AIDS deaths in many developed nations Immune System 93

HIV/AIDS Symptoms of AIDS: Heavy night sweats Shaking chills or high fever for several weeks Coughing and shortness of breath Chronic diarrhea White spots or unusual lesions on the tongue or in the mouth Headaches Persistent, unexplained fatigue Blurred and distorted vision Weight loss Skin rashes or bumps Statistics: An estimated 1,178,350 people age 13 and older were living with HIV infection in the United States at the end of 2008 20% had undiagnosed HIV infections Immune System 94

Immune System Reference Page http://www.thebody.com/content/art1788.html http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000821.htm http://www.biology-online.org/1/11_cell_defense_2.htm http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0858765.html http://cellmediatedimmunity.net/humoral-vs-cell-mediated- immunity-system http://ibbiology.wetpaint.com/page/Explain+why+antibiotics+a re+effective+against+bacteria+but+not+against+viruses http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergies/DS01118/DSECTIO N=symptoms http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hiv-aids/DS00005 http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/basic.htm#hivest Immune System 95

Reference Page (continued) Pictures http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Immune/Antigen.htm http://abrahame.wikispaces.com/08+Immunology http://www.sinusinfectionhelp.com/hay_fever.html http://www.personal.psu.edu/afr3/blogs/SIOW/2011/10/good-news-for-hiv- victims.html Immune System 96

Excretory System The excretory system functions in removing nitrogenous substances and other wastes from the blood in the form of urine Regulates certain metabolic processes Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Excretory System 98

Nitrogen Excretion - Ammonia Fish and amphibians excrete nitrogen in the form of ammonia Ammonia is very toxic, and would require a large amount of water to dilute in the body of mammals and reptiles, but.. Animals such as fish and amphibians have constant access to water Rather than breaking down nitrogenous waste to a less toxic form, fish and amphibians are able to flush their nitrogenous wastes frequently and primarily as ammonia Excretory System 99

Nitrogen Excretion - Urea Mammals metabolize ammonia into urea, a less toxic form of nitrogenous waste Requires energy to build urea, but mammals dont need as much water to dilute urea Allows mammals to conserve water, mammals often dont have constant access to water Less toxic for mammals to store Excretory System 100

Nitrogen Excretion Uric Acid Reptiles and birds excrete nitrogen in the form of uric acid Contains four nitrogen atoms per molecule Requires more energy to make than urea, but eliminates more nitrogen per molecule Less toxic than urea, requires very little water to dilute Allows birds and reptiles to conserve the greatest amount of water Excretory System 101

102 Excretory System

103 Excretory System

The Nephron The nephron is the functional unit of the kidneys Consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule Main function is to control the composition of body fluids and remove wastes from the blood Excretory System 104

The Nephron Parts of a nephron Glomerulus Bowmans capsule Proximal convoluted tubules Loop of Henl Distal convoluted tubules Collecting duct 105 Excretory System

Glomerulus and Bowmans Capsule Site where filtration takes place Blood from the renal artery is forced into the glomerulus under high pressure Most of the liquid is forced out into the surrounding Bowmans capsule This process wont work properly in people with extremely low blood pressure 106 Excretory System

Proximal Convoluted Tubule The site where glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate and put back into the bloodstream If glucose was not absorbed, it would end up in the urine Happens in people suffering from diabetes 107 Excretory System

Loop of Henl The Loop of Henl is the part of the nephron where water is reabsorbed The kidney cells in this region spend all of their time pumping sodium ions This causes the region of the kidney called the medulla to be very salty 108 Excretory System

Distal Convoluted Tubule The site of the nephron where most of the salts in the filtrate are reabsorbed Collecting Duct Collecting ducts run through the medulla and are surrounded by loops of Henl. In the collecting duct, filtrate is turned into urine as water and salts are removed from it Called a collecting duct because it collects the liquid produced by many nephrons. 109 Excretory System

Glomerular Filtration Urine formation begins with glomerular filtration The filtration of materials from blood plasma Filters water and other small dissolved molecules and ions out of the glomerular capillaries and into the glomerular capsules Large molecules, like proteins, are restricted because of their size The glomerular capsule receives the resulting glomerular filtrate Contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, and sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate ions Excretory System 110

Tubular Reabsorption Tubular reabsorption is the process by which filtrate is moved from the renal tubules back into the blood in response to the bodys needs Can occur by passive or active transport Usually all of the glucose in the filtrate is reabsorbed because there are enough carrier molecules to transport it As a result, normally no glucose found in urine Normally only a trace of amino acids in the urine because most amino acids are actively transported out of the glomerular filtrate About 70% of the filtered sodium, other ions, and water are reabsorbed Excretory System 111

Tubular Secretion and Excretion During tubular secretion, certain substances move from the plasma of the peritubular capillary into the fluid of the renal tubule Reverse process of tubular reabsorption Helps control blood pH Substances may include penicillin, histamine, phenobarbital, hydrogen ions, ammonia, and potassium ions Hydrogen ions are actively secreted throughout the renal tubule, causing urine to (usually) be acidic by the time it is excreted Excretion The process by which urine exits the body After substances have been secreted and entered the kidney tubules, they are eliminated from the body through the urethra Excretory System 112

Gout Occurs when high levels of uric acid in the blood cause crystals to build up in a joint or surrounding tissue Uric acid normally dissolves in the blood and passes through the kidneys into the urine Body produces too much uric acid, or the kidneys excrete too little uric acid Symptoms Intense joint pain, usually in the joint of the big toe Pain most severe within the first 12 to 24 hours of onset Lingering discomfort Inflammation and redness Excretory System 113

Gout Statistics: Occurs in approximately 840 out of every 100,000 people in the US 9 times more common in men than women Treatment: Usually involves medications to prevent future attacks and reduce the risk of complications from gout Non-steroidal anti- inflammatory drugs Corticosteroids Medications that block uric acid production Excretory System 114

Urinary Tract Infection A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that begins in the urinary system Most UTIs involve the lower urinary tract, the bladder and the urethra Can become serious if it spreads to the kidneys Symptoms: Strong, persistent urge to urinate A burning sensation when urinating Urine that appears cloudy Pelvic pain, in women Rectal pain, in men Excretory System 115

Urinary Tract Infection Statistics: Women are at greater risk of developing a urinary tract infection than are men 1 in 5 women will get a UTI during their lifetime Treatment: Antibiotics are the typical treatment for a urinary tract infections People can take steps to reduce the chance of getting a urinary tract infection Excretory System 116

Excretory System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 20 Urinary System) http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/dox/nitrogenouswaste.ht ml http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gout/DS00090 http://www.whathealth.com/gout/incidence.html http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/urinary-tract- infection/DS00286/DSECTION=symptoms http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/u/urinary_tract_infections /stats.htm http://www.purchon.com/biology/kidney.htm#bowmans Excretory System 117

Reference Page (continued) Pictures: http://home.roadrunner.com/~lubehawk/BioHELP!/hexcrsys.htm http://www.ehow.com/how_6613609_paint-zebra-decorated-room.html http://kieran4332.webs.com/coyotepack.htm http://true-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/02/desert-tortoise.html http://www.wellingtonpapers.com/2009/08/10-things-alex-kliment/ http://www.edu.pe.ca/threeoaks/teacherpages/higginbotham/Biology%20521%20W ebpage/resources/chapter12images/chapter12images.htm http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/nephron-function-kidney-definition.html Excretory System 118

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Alyssa Larson. SECTION 1 – The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the Digestive System 4 Organs of the Digestive System 4-24