Alyssa Larson. SECTION 1 – The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the...
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Human Body Systems Alyssa Larson
Alyssa Larson. SECTION 1 – The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the Digestive System 4 Organs of the Digestive System 4-24
Text of Alyssa Larson. SECTION 1 – The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the...
Slide 1
Alyssa Larson
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SECTION 1 The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction
1-3 Drawing of the Digestive System 4 Organs of the Digestive
System 4-24 Digestion of Large Food Molecules 25 Role of Enzymes in
Digestion 26 Physical and Chemical Digestion 27-28 Digestion of
Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids 29-31 Lactose Intolerance 32
Stomach Ulcers 33-34 Digestive System Reference Pages 35-36 *Page
numbers are located on bottom right corner of each slide
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SECTION 2 The Circulatory System Circulatory System
Introduction 37-38 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 39-42
Drawing of the Heart 43 Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 44-48
Composition of Blood 49-50 Erythrocyte Structure and Function 51
Open and Closed Circulatory Systems 52-53 Variations of the
Circulatory System 54-57 Sickle Cell Disease 58-59 Atherosclerosis
60-61 Circulatory System Reference Pages 62-63
Slide 4
SECTION 3 The Respiratory System Respiratory System
Introduction 64-65 Drawing of the Ventilation System 66 Alveoli 67
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transportation in the Blood 68-69 The
Path of Oxygen Into the Bloodstream 70-72 Inhalation and Exhalation
73-75 Asthma 76-77 Pneumonia 78-79 Respiratory System Reference
Pages 80-81
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SECTION 4 The Immune System Immune System Introduction 82-83
Recognition of Pathogens 84-85 Innate and Acquired Immunity 86
Active and Passive Immunity 87 Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immunity
88 B and T Lymphocytes 89 Antibiotics and Bacteria 90 Allergies
91-92 HIV/AIDS 93-94 Immune System Reference Pages 95-96
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SECTION 5 The Excretory System Excretory System Introduction
97-98 Types of Nitrogenous Wastes 99-101 Drawing of the Kidney 102
Drawing of the Nephron 103 The Nephron 104-109 Filtration,
Reabsorption, Secretion, and Excretion 110-112 Gout 113-114 Urinary
Tract Infection 115-116 Excretory System Reference Pages
117-118
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1
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Digestive System The digestive systems function is to break
food down into molecules the body can absorb Allows us to absorb
nutrients and use food as fuel for ATP production Digestive System
2
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Organs of the Digestive System Alimentary Canal Organs
Accessory Organs Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine
Large intestine Rectum Anus Salivary glands Liver Gallbladder
Pancreas Digestive System 3
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4
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Alimentary Organs Organs in the alimentary canal include the
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and anus The alimentary organs form the
alimentary canal, which extends from the mouth to the anus Food
passes through organs in the alimentary canal Digestive System
5
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Accessory Organs Includes the salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas The accessory organs of the digestive
system are not a part of the alimentary canal (food does not pass
through them), but they assist the alimentary organs in the process
of digestion Digestive System 6
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The Mouth The first portion of the alimentary canal The mouth
is surrounded by the lips, cheeks, tongue, and palate Receives food
and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up solid particles
into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva (mastication)
Digestive System 7
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Salivary Glands The salivary glands secrete saliva, which
moistens food particles, helps bind them, and begins the chemical
digestion of carbohydrates Saliva is also a solvent, dissolving
foods so that they can be tasted Saliva helps cleanse the mouth and
teeth Digestive System 8
Slide 15
Major Salivary Glands The three major salivary glands are the
parotid glands, the submandibular glands, and the sublingual glands
Parotid glands the largest of the major salivary glands, located
anterior to the ear Submandibular glands located in the floor of
the mouth on the inside surface of the lower jaw Sublingual glands
the smallest of the major salivary glands, located on the floor of
the mouth inferior to the tongue Digestive System 9
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Pharynx The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with
the larynx and esophagus The muscular walls of the pharynx and
esophagus function in swallowing The pharynx can be divided into
three parts Nasopharynx located superior to the soft palate,
provides a passageway for air during breathing Oropharynx posterior
to the mouth, the oropharynx is a passageway for food moving
downward from the mouth and for air moving to and from the nasal
cavity Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) located inferior to the
oropharynx, a passageway to the esophagus Digestive System 10
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Digestive System 11
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Esophagus A straight, collapsible tube about 25 centimeters
long Provides a passageway for food Its muscular wall propels food
from the pharynx to the stomach Penetrates the diaphragm through
the esophageal hiatus, and is continuous with the stomach The
esophagus contains mucous glands which secrete mucous to moisten
and lubricate the inner lining of the tube Muscle fibers at the
entrance to the stomach remain contracted to prevent regurgitation
of stomach contents into the esophagus. These muscle fibers relax
briefly to allow swallowed food to enter the stomach. Digestive
System 12
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Stomach The stomach is a pouch- like organ with a capacity of
about one liter Receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with
gastric juice Initiates the digestion of proteins, carries on
limited nutrient absorption, and moves food into the small
intestine Digestive System 13
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Pancreas Made primary of creatic acinar cells, cells that
produce pancreatic juice Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that
digest carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids Pancreatic
amylase splits molecules of starch or glycogen into disaccharides
Pancreatic lipase breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty acids
and monoglycerides Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase each
splits the bonds between particular combinations of amino acids in
proteins Nucleases break down nucleic acid molecules into
nucleotides Digestive System 14
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Pancreas The hormone secretin stimulates the pancreas to
secrete a large quantity of fluid Pancreatic juice has a high
concentration of bicarbonate ions that neutralizes acidic materials
arriving from the stomach The alkalinity created by the bicarbonate
ions also provides a favorable environment for the digestive
enzymes Digestive System 15
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Liver The liver has many functions, including: Storing
glycogen, iron, vitamins A, D, and B12 Removing toxic substances
from the blood Maintaining iron homeostasis Synthesizing
lipoproteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol Converting
carbohydrate molecules into fat The livers function in the
digestive system is to secrete bile, a yellowish green liquid
Digestive System 16
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Liver Bile secreted by the liver is made up of water, bile
salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes Bile salts aid
digestive enzymes They reduce surface tension and break fat
globules (molecules of fats clumped together) into droplets, a
process called emulsification Allows lipases to digest fat
molecules more effectively Enhance absorption of fatty acids and
cholesterol Allows for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E,
and K Digestive System 17
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Gallbladder Stores bile between meals Concentrates bile by
reabsorbing water Contracts to release bile into the duodenum when
stimulated Digestive System 18
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Sphincters Sphincters are bands of muscle under either
voluntary or involuntary control that encircle the hollow organs of
the body and contract to close the pathways The ileocecal sphincter
joins the ileum of the small intestine to the cecum of the large
intestine The anus has two sphincter muscles, one under voluntary
control and the other under involuntary control The esophageal
sphincter allows food to enter the stomach and prevents food from
going up into the esophagus, while the pyloric sphincter controls
gastric emptying Digestive System 19
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Small Intestine Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver
Completes digestion of nutrients in the substance arriving from the
stomach Absorbs the products of digestion Transports the remaining
residues into the large intestine Digestive System 20
Slide 27
Small Intestine Parts of the small intestine include: Duodenum
the shortest and most fixed portion of the small intestine Jejunum
the diameter of the jejunum is greater than that of the ilium, and
its wall is thicker and more active Ilium has a higher bacterial
population than the jejunum Digestive System 21
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Enzymes in the Small Intestine Digestive enzymes found in the
small intestine break down food molecules before absorption takes
place. These enzymes include: Peptidases split peptides into amino
acids Sucrase splits disaccharide sucrose into glucose and fructose
Maltase splits disaccharide maltose into two glucose molecules
Lactase splits disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose
Intestinal lipase splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Digestive System 22
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Large Intestine, Rectum, and Anus Parts of the Large Intestine
The large intestine absorbs ingested water and electrolytes
remaining in the alimentary canal Reabsorbs and recycles water and
remnants of digestive secretions Forms and stores feces Cecum the
beginning of the large intestine, connected to the appendix
Ascending colon begins at the cecum and extends upwards Transverse
colon longest, most movable part of the large intestine Descending
colon the transverse colon turns abruptly downward to become the
descending colon Sigmoid colon the descending colon makes an
S-shaped curve, where it becomes the sigmoid colon Digestive System
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Rectum and Anus The rectum is continuous with the sigmoid
colon. It is attached to the sacrum, and becomes the anal canal
about five centimeters inferior to the tip of the coccyx bone At
the distal end of the anal canal is the anus, which is where the
anal canal opens to the outside of the body, the exit for feces
Digestive System 24
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Digestion of Large Food Molecules It is important to be able to
break down the food we eat into small molecules that can be used by
the body Ex: the body must convert starches into glucose before it
can be used as an energy source, proteins must be broken down into
amino acids, and fats must be broken down into their glycerol and
fatty acid components Molecules must be small enough to travel
through the wall of the small intestine by diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, or active transport. Food molecules must be broken down
for nutrient absorption to take place. Digestive System 25
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Role of Enzymes in Digestion Enzymes in the digestive system
are proteins molecules that break down a specific substance The
enzymes mentioned under the description of the pancreas and small
intestine are important in breaking down specific components of the
human diet (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) In addition to the
enzymes previously mentioned, enzymes involved in digestion
include: Salivary amylase breaks down starch in the mouth Pepsin
breaks down proteins in the stomach Gastric lipase breaks down fats
in the stomach Trypsin and erepsin break down wholly and partially
digested proteins into amino acids in the duodenum Without enzymes,
we would not be able to break down food into smaller subunits, and
therefore would be unable to absorb nutrients Digestive System
26
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Physical Vs. Chemical Digestion Physical Digestion Chemical
Digestion The breakdown of food by physical means, no chemical
reactions involved Physical digestion can separate food molecules,
but cannot break down the molecules Chewing food, using smooth
muscle to move food down the digestive tract, and the churning of
food within the stomach are all examples of physical digestion The
breakdown of food by chemical means, requiring chemical reactions
(enzymes) Breaks individual molecules apart Breaking down protein,
carbohydrate, and fat molecules are all examples of chemical
digestion Chemical digestion is needed to: Make molecules small
enough to pass through a cell membrane Make nutrients soluble in
water (blood) Changes food into a form that is usable by the body
Digestive System 27
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Physical and Chemical Digestion Though physical and chemical
digestion differ on a molecular level, the principles are the same.
In both physical and chemical digestion, food is broken down into
smaller pieces to allow for more efficient digestion Physical
digestion breaks apart food particles to increase the surface area
for chemical digestion Chemical digestion breaks food molecules
into smaller molecules to allow for nutrient absorption into the
bloodstream and ultimately into body cells Digestive System 28
Slide 35
Carbohydrate Digestion Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the
mouth when the salivary glands secrete the enzyme salivary amylase
Majority of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small
intestine. As food moves into the duodenum, pancreatic amylase is
released into the small intestine. Breaks down starch into
disaccharides The small intestine also contains sucrase, maltase,
and lactase Break the disaccharides into monosaccharides, which
then enter the bloodstream and are transported to body cells
Digestive System 29
Slide 36
Protein Digestion Digestion of protein begins in the stomach
when the stomach secretes gastric juices containing pepsinogen As
pepsinogen comes into contact with hydrochloric acid, it is
converted into an active enzyme called pepsin When protein reaches
the duodenum, a hormone called cholecytokinin is released from the
intestinal walls, stimulating the release of pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice contains three inactive protein splitting enzymes
In the presence of the enzyme trypsin, the inactive enzymes in the
pancreatic juice become activated and are able to help break down
protein Peptidase is released, which splits peptide bonds into
amino acids, allowing for protein digestion Digestion is completed
in the small intestine. From there the amino acids travel to body
cells through the bloodstream Digestive System 30
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Lipid Digestion Chemical digestion of lipids begins in the
stomach Gastric juices in the stomach contain small amounts of
gastric lipase, which begins to break down certain lipids As the
lipids pass into the duodenum, the gallbladder releases bile into
the small intestine via the common bile duct The function of bile
is to emulsify fats to break them down into smaller droplets for
more effective digestion At the same time, pancreatic juices are
released, containing pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase initiates
the breaking down of lipids. Intestinal lipase is released, which
splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol Some fatty acids dissolve
into the blood, while others are used by the liver in making
lipoproteins Digestive System 31
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Lactose Intolerance People with lactose intolerance lack
lactase in the small intestine Lactase is the enzyme that breaks
down lactose, the sugar found in milk products Can be caused by
digestive diseases or injuries to the small intestine More than 50
million Americans are lactose intolerant Symptoms - symptoms worsen
when larger portions of milk products are consumed, include:
Cramping Bloating Gas Diarrhea Nausea People with lactose
intolerance may avoid symptoms by avoiding milk products or taking
lactase supplements or lactase drops Digestive System 32
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Stomach Ulcers A stomach ulcer is a small erosion in the
gastrointestinal tract. It most commonly occurs in the duodenum.
Caused by the destruction of the gastric or intestinal lining of
the stomach by hydrochloric acid Excess secretion of hydrochloric
acid, genetic predisposition, and stress are all contributing
factors Chronic use of anti-inflammatory medications such as
aspirin may cause ulcers Cigarette smoking can cause an ulcer
formation and failure of ulcer treatment Symptoms: Burning or
gnawing feeling in the stomach area Loss of appetite Weight loss or
weight gain Vomiting Blood in the stool Anemia Digestive System
33
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Stomach Ulcers Statistics About 20 million Americans develop at
least one stomach ulcer during their lifetime. Stomach ulcers
affect about 4 million Americans every year. More than 40,000
Americans have surgery because of persistent symptoms or problems
from ulcers every year. About 6,000 Americans die of stomach
ulcer-related complications every year. Treatment Medication to
reduce stomach acid or to protect the lining of the stomach and
duodenum Antibiotics In rare cases, surgery may be required to
treat a peptic ulcer Digestive System 34
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Digestive System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy &
Physiology Textbook (Chapter 17 Digestive System)
http://www.colostrumresearch.org/Studys/SO54_The%20Neonate%20
and%20Colostrum.htm http://www.hyss.sg/escience2/filestorage/2E%20-
%20%20Digestion%20-%20Introduction.htm
http://www.foodallergysolutions.com/lactose-intolerance.html
http://www.mamashealth.com/stomach.asp Digestive System 35
Circulatory System The circulatory system has multiple
functions: Transporting materials Transports gases (O2 and Co2)
Transports nutrients to cells Transports waste materials from cells
Transports hormones Contains white blood cells that fight infection
Maintains body temperature 38 Circulatory System
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Blood Vessel Structure & Function Types of blood vessels:
Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart Arterioles
small finely branched arteries Capillaries smallest, most numerous
blood vessels Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart
Venules small branches of veins, merge to form veins 39 Circulatory
System
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Structure Defines Function Arteries Veins Function carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart and maintain blood pressure
Structure: Strong and elastic, designed for carrying blood away
from the heart under high pressure Function carry deoxygenated
blood to heart, not under pressure Structure: Have thinner walls
than arteries Have a larger lumen than arteries (the lumen is the
part of the blood vessel through which blood travels) 40
Circulatory System
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Vein Structure Vs. Artery Structure 41 Circulatory System
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Structure Defines Function Function allow for exchange of
nutrients and oxygen from red blood cells to body cells and
exchange of waste products and carbon dioxide from body cells to
red blood cells Structure: The smallest blood vessels Have no
smooth muscle fibers, unlike arteries and veins Have thin walls
that form a semipermeable layer through which substances are
exchanged Allow only one red blood cell through at a time to allow
for efficient nutrient and gas exchange Capillaries 42 Circulatory
System
Slide 49
43 Circulatory System
Slide 50
The Heart The heart has four chambers, two atria and two
ventricles The atria are the smaller upper chambers The ventricles
are the larger lower chambers The right atrium and ventricle are
located on the right side of the body, or the left side when shown
in diagrams. The left atrium and ventricles are on the right side
in diagrams. RIGHT LEFT 44 Circulatory System
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Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 1. Deoxygenated blood
returns from the body to the heart in veins leading into the right
atrium 2. Blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing back
into the right atrium. 45 Circulatory System
Slide 52
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 3. The ventricles contract,
forcing blood out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery.
The blood passes through the pulmonary valve, preventing the blood
from flowing back into the right ventricle 4. Blood in the
pulmonary artery goes to the lungs to receive oxygen. The pulmonary
artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood Pulmonary
artery 46 Circulatory System
Slide 53
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 5. After receiving oxygen,
blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via the pulmonary
veins 6. The atria contract, forcing blood from the left atrium to
the left ventricle. Blood passes through the Mitral (Bicuspid)
Valve which prevents blood from flowing back into the left atrium.
Pulmonary veins 47 Circulatory System
Slide 54
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 7. The ventricles contract,
forcing blood out of the left ventricle and into the aorta, the
largest artery of the body. The aortic valve prevents backflow of
blood into the left ventricle from the aorta 8. Blood travels to
the rest of the body, returning through the veins to the right
atrium (step 1) Aorta Overall pathway of the blood through the
heart To left atrium 48 Circulatory System
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Composition of Blood Plasma The Formed Elements Plasma the
watery portion of the blood containing dissolved amino acids,
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, hormones, electrolytes,
and cellular wastes Makes up about 55% of a blood sample The formed
elements of the blood include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
platelets Blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells
(erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets 49
Circulatory System
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The Formed Elements Erythrocytes transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide, make up approximately 45% of a blood sample Leukocytes
protect against disease, make up less than 1% of a blood sample The
five types of white blood cells are neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes Platelets cell fragments,
less than half the size of an erythrocyte. Helps control blood loss
from broken vessels 50 Circulatory System
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Erythrocyte Structure and Function Function Structure Travel
through the bloodstream and transport gases Erythrocytes are
biconcave discs, meaning that they are thin near their centers and
thicker around their rims. This adaptation increases the surface
area through which gases can diffuse. Their shape allows them to
squeeze through narrow capillaries Dont have nuclei, which provides
more space in the cell for hemoglobin molecules 51 Circulatory
System
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Open & Closed Circulatory Systems Open Circulatory System
Closed Circulatory System Blood is pumped from the heart and enters
body cavities, where the tissues are bathed in the blood No network
of blood vessels Blood flows slowly because there is no blood
pressure. The animal must move in order to move the blood in its
body Blood is contained within blood vessels, it is not free in a
cavity Valves exist to prevent the backflow of blood 52 Circulatory
System
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Open & Closed Circulatory Systems Example: Open Circulatory
System Example: Closed Circulatory System Arthropods and most
mollusks have an open circulatory system Found in vertebrates and
some invertebrates including annelids, squids, and octopuses 53
Circulatory System
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Circulatory System in Fish Fish have a two- chambered heart,
one atrium and one ventricle Deoxygenated blood enters the heart
and is pumped to the gills. The newly oxygenated blood travels
throughout the body before returning to the heart 54 Circulatory
System
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Circulatory System in Amphibians Amphibians have a three-
chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle Blood coming from
the lungs goes to the left atrium. Blood coming from the body goes
to the right atrium Both atria empty into the ventricle, where some
mixing occurs The advantage of this system is that there is high
pressure in vessels that lead to both the lungs and body. 55
Circulatory System
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Circulatory System in Reptiles Reptiles, like amphibians, have
a three-chambered heart Two atria The ventricle is partially
divided to reduce the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
56 Circulatory System
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Circulatory System in Birds and Mammals Four-chambered heart
which acts as two separate pumps After passing through the body,
blood is pumped under high pressure to the lungs After returning
from the lungs, blood is pumped under high pressure to the body
High rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the body enables birds
and mammals to maintain high activity levels 57 Circulatory
System
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Sickle Cell Disease Hemoglobin crystallizes in a low oxygen
environment due to an incorrect amino acid in the protein portion
of hemoglobin The red blood cells bend into a sickle shape,
blocking circulation in small vessels Symptoms: Joint pain Frequent
infections Anemia Swelling in hands and feet Swelling of abdomen 58
Circulatory System
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Sickle Cell Disease Statistics: Affects 90,000 to 100,000
Americans Occurs among about 1 in every 500 Black or African-
American births Sickle cell trait occurs among about 1 in 12 Blacks
or African Americans, provides resistance to malaria Treatment: A
bone marrow transplant can completely cure sickle cell disease but
has a 15% risk of causing death The drug hydroxyurea reactivates
production of a slightly different form of hemoglobin, delays
sickling 59 Circulatory System
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Atherosclerosis Deposits of fatty materials, particularly
cholesterol, form on the inner lining of the arterial walls The
deposits, called plaque, protrude into the lumens of the vessels
and interfere with blood flow Walls of affected arteries lose their
elasticity and become hardened Signs and Symptoms: Chest pain and
tightness during activity Numbness or weakness in arms or legs
Shortness of breath 60 Circulatory System
Slide 67
Atherosclerosis Approximately 14 million Americans have
Coronary Artery Disease (atherosclerosis is the main cause of
Coronary Artery Disease) Treatment: Lifestyle changes such as
eating a healthy diet and exercising Drugs that slow the effects of
atherosclerosis Angioplasty (balloon treatment) Endarterectomy
(surgical removal of fatty deposits) 61 Circulatory System
Slide 68
Circulatory System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy &
Physiology Textbook (Chapter 14 Blood, Chapter 15 Cardiovascular
System)
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20
102/bio%20102%20lectures/circulatory%20system/circulat.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/data.html
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/153647-overview 62
Circulatory System
Respiratory System The primary function of the respiratory
system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to
deliver oxygen to all parts of the body Eliminates carbon dioxide
from the body in order to maintain the pH of the blood Respiratory
System 65
Slide 72
66 Respiratory System
Slide 73
Alveoli Alveoli have a structure specialized for efficient
exchange of gases Walls are thin and made of epithelial cells Large
surface area to volume ratio Surrounded by a network of
capillaries. Oxygen diffuses through the walls of alveoli and
enters into the capillaries. Respiratory System 67
Slide 74
Oxygen Transport in the Blood Oxygen enters the blood stream
and is carried by red blood cells In RBCs, oxygen combines with
hemoglobin to become oxyhemoglobin When the RBC reaches the
capillaries of the body cells, the oxyhemoglobin breaks up and
releases its oxygen, becoming deoxyhemoglobin Oxygen is transported
to cells of the body Respiratory System 68
Slide 75
Carbon Dioxide Transport In Blood Carbon dioxide, a waste
product created by cells, passes through a membrane and into the
bloodstream Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as:
Bicarbonate ions (70%) Bicarbonates of sodium and potassium
Carbaminohemoglobin (15-25%) Carbon dioxide is removed from the
bloodstream by diffusion before the blood leaves the lungs
Respiratory System 69
Slide 76
Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream 1. Oxygen enters the body
through the external nares of the nose Passes through the: 2.
Nasopharynx 3. Oropharynx 4. Laryngopharynx 5. Larynx 6. Trachea
OropharynxPassageway for air and food LaryngopharynxPassageway for
air and food Respiratory System 70
Slide 77
Oxygen enters the bronchi 7. Primary bronchi 8. Secondary
bronchi 9. Tertiary bronchi Passes through the: 10. Intralobular
bronchioles 11. Terminal bronchioles 12. Respiratory bronchioles
Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream Respiratory System 71
Slide 78
13. Oxygen enters the alveolar ducts 14. Passes into the
alveolar sacs 15. Enters the alveoli Once oxygen enters the
alveoli, it diffuses through the alveolar walls and enters the
blood through nearby capillaries Oxygen reacts with hemoglobin in a
red blood cell to form oxyhemoglobin Carried in the form of
oxyhemoglobin to cells of the body Path of Oxygen into the
Bloodstream Respiratory System 72
Slide 79
Inhalation Atmospheric pressure is the force that moves air
into the lungs When the respiratory muscles are at rest, the
pressures on the inside of the lungs and on the outside of the
thoracic wall are about the same The external intercostals are the
skeletal muscle directly involved in breathing Respiratory System
73
Slide 80
Boyles Law and Breathing Boyles Law involves the inverse
relationships between volume and pressure If the pressure inside
the lungs and alveoli decreases, outside air will be pushed into
the airways by atmospheric pressure This is what happens during
normal breathing, also involves the action of the diaphragm The
diaphragm contracts and move downward, while the external
intercostal muscles contract, increasing the size of the thoracic
cavity The pressure inside the lungs falls farther, and atmospheric
pressure forces more air into the bodys airways Respiratory System
74
Slide 81
Exhalation As the diaphragm and the external intercostal
muscles relax, the elastic tissues cause the lungs to recoil and
return to their original shapes The abdominal organs spring back
into their previous shapes, pushing the diaphragm upward Surface
tension causes the alveoli to shrink These actions cause the
pressure inside the lungs to increase about 1 mm Hg above
atmospheric pressure The air inside the lungs is forced out through
the respiratory passages Normal resting expiration occurs without
the contraction of skeletal muscles, considered a passive process
Respiratory System 75
Slide 82
Asthma Asthma is a chronic disease that affects the airways The
airways become swollen and narrowed Produce extra mucus, breathing
becomes difficult Common symptoms: Coughing Wheezing Shortness of
breath Asthma cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be controlled
by: Avoiding situations that may trigger an asthma attack Using
long-term control medications to prevent flare-ups Using a
quick-relief inhaler to control symptoms once they start
Respiratory System 76
Slide 83
Asthma Statistics An estimated 300 million people worldwide
suffer from asthma 250,000 annual deaths caused by asthma Workplace
conditions, such as exposure to fumes, gases, or dust, are
responsible for 11% of asthma cases worldwide About 70% of people
with asthma also have allergies Respiratory System 77
Slide 84
Pneumonia An inflammation of the lungs, caused by infection
Caused by infection bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites Can
range from mild to life-threatening Often is a complication of
another condition, such as the flu Concern for people: Older than
65 With a chronic illness With a weak immune system Respiratory
System 78
Slide 85
Pneumonia Symptoms: Fever Cough Shortness of breath Sweating
Headache Fatigue Estimated 500,000 cases of pneumonia each year in
the U.S. 40,000 deaths resulting from pneumonia Treatment: Most
bacterial pneumonias can be treated with antibiotics, but
antibiotic-resistant strains are a growing problem Best approach is
to prevent infection Respiratory System 79
Slide 86
Respiratory System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy &
Physiology Textbook (Chapter 19 Respiratory System)
http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/respiration.html
http://www.preservearticles.com/201102264268/transport-of-
oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide-through-blood-during- respiration.html
http://www.ann.com.au/MedSci/oxygen.htm
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/asthma/DS00021
http://www.aaaai.org/about-the-aaaai/newsroom/asthma-
statistics.aspx
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pneumonia/DS00135/DSECTI
ON=symptoms
https://www.askaamc.org/quality/quality_measures.php?cat=pneu
Respiratory System 80
Immune System Function: protects the body from bacterial,
parasitic, fungal, and viral infections, as well as from the growth
of tumor cells by recognizing and responding to antigens Body Parts
Involved in Immunity Bone marrow Thymus Spleen Lymph nodes Immune
System 83
Slide 90
Recognition of Pathogens Cells in our body recognize pathogens
by their antigens Antigens are molecules (usually proteins) on the
surface of cells and viruses. Nonliving substances such as toxins,
chemicals, and drugs can also have antigens. The body has antigens
that are seen as normal to the immune system. Therefore, the immune
system usually doesnt react against the bodys own antigens. The
immune system recognizes foreign antigens and destroys the
substance that contains them Immune System 84
Slide 91
Recognition of Pathogens After exposure to a foreign antigen
and destroying the substance, the body creates antibodies that will
specifically recognize the foreign antigen it has been exposed to
The antibodies will recognize the antigen and trigger the immune
system to agglutinate and destroy the foreign substance with that
particular antigen Immune System 85
Slide 92
Innate and Acquired Immunity Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity
The defense system the body was born with Protects the body against
all foreign antigens Innate immunity involves barriers that keep
harmful materials from entering the body Examples: Cough reflex
Enzymes in tears and skin oils Mucus Skin Stomach acid If an
antigen gets past these barriers, it is attacked and destroyed by
other parts of the immune system Acquired immunity is immunity that
develops with exposure to various antigens The immune system builds
a defense that is specific to that antigen Examples: Immunity
produced by a vaccination The body produces antigens after being
exposed to a virus Immune System 86
Slide 93
Active and Passive Immunity Active Immunity Passive Immunity
Occurs when a person is exposed to a pathogen, develops the
disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune
disease Can be caused by a vaccine Vaccines are used to expose the
body to a particular antigen for health purposes Antigens are
usually killed or severely weakened to decrease their potency The
body stores T cells as memory cells Way of artificially acquiring
immunity Example: vaccines The body has immunity to particular
antigens as a result of genetic traits passed on from parents to
offspring Offspring are immune to the particular pathogenic threat
Example: pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are passed from the
mother into the babys bloodstream Immune System 87
Slide 94
Humoral and Cell Mediated Immunity Humoral Immunity Cell
Mediated Immunity Humoral immunity involves fighting infectious
agents in the body tissues in the blood Managed by the B cells with
the help of T cells Cell mediated immunity deals with the body
cells that have been infected with some foreign bodies or antigens
Managed by T cells Both humoral and cell mediated immunity feature
impressive complexity and an interrelationship that enables them to
modify the immune reactions to almost any kind of antigen or
molecule Immune System 88
Slide 95
B and T Lymphocytes B Lymphocytes T Lymphocytes Used in the
production of antibodies When they encounter a new antigen, the B
Lymphocytes divide to form plasma cells and memory cells The memory
cell remembers the antigen and which antibody to use for the
specific antigen The plasma cell makes antibodies to fight a
particular antigen Mainly used in identifying antigens and
releasing chemicals that attract macrophages to destroy the antigen
Immune System 89
Slide 96
Antibiotics and Bacteria Antibiotics work by interrupting
metabolic pathways in prokaryotic cells. Some bacteria prevent the
proper formation of a cell wall, while others prevent bacteria from
completing cell division Antibiotics are not effective against
viruses because viruses lack metabolic pathways. They reproduce by
infecting eukaryotic cells and hijacking their metabolic pathways,
which are not affected by antibiotics Immune System 90
Slide 97
Allergies Allergies occur when the immune system reacts to a
foreign substance such as pollen, bee venom or pet dander In a
person with allergies, the immune system makes antibodies that
identify the allergen as something harmful, even though it isnt.
When a person comes into contact with the allergen, the immune
system reacts by inflaming the skin, sinuses, airways, or digestive
system Allergies can range from minor irritation to anaphylaxis, a
potentially life-threatening emergency Allergies can't be cured,
but a number of treatments can help relieve allergy symptoms Immune
System 91
Slide 98
Allergies Symptoms: Hay Fever Congestion Itchy, runny nose Food
Allergy Swelling of the lips, tongue, face, or throat Insect
Allergy Cough, chest tightness, wheezing, or shortness of breath
Anaphylaxis Drug Allergy Hives Rash Statistics: 1 in 5 people have
allergies Immune System 92
Slide 99
HIV/AIDS AIDS is a chronic, potentially life-threatening
condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) HIV
damages the immune system and interferes with the bodys ability to
fight disease HIV is a sexually transmitted disease Can also be
spread by: Contact with infected blood Mother to child during
pregnancy Breastfeeding It can take years before HIV weakens the
immune system enough to cause AIDS There is no cure for HIV/AIDS,
but there are medications that can dramatically slow the
progression of the disease These drugs have reduced AIDS deaths in
many developed nations Immune System 93
Slide 100
HIV/AIDS Symptoms of AIDS: Heavy night sweats Shaking chills or
high fever for several weeks Coughing and shortness of breath
Chronic diarrhea White spots or unusual lesions on the tongue or in
the mouth Headaches Persistent, unexplained fatigue Blurred and
distorted vision Weight loss Skin rashes or bumps Statistics: An
estimated 1,178,350 people age 13 and older were living with HIV
infection in the United States at the end of 2008 20% had
undiagnosed HIV infections Immune System 94
Slide 101
Immune System Reference Page
http://www.thebody.com/content/art1788.html
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000821.htm
http://www.biology-online.org/1/11_cell_defense_2.htm
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0858765.html
http://cellmediatedimmunity.net/humoral-vs-cell-mediated-
immunity-system
http://ibbiology.wetpaint.com/page/Explain+why+antibiotics+a
re+effective+against+bacteria+but+not+against+viruses
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergies/DS01118/DSECTIO
N=symptoms http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hiv-aids/DS00005
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/basic.htm#hivest Immune
System 95
Excretory System The excretory system functions in removing
nitrogenous substances and other wastes from the blood in the form
of urine Regulates certain metabolic processes Includes the
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Excretory System
98
Slide 105
Nitrogen Excretion - Ammonia Fish and amphibians excrete
nitrogen in the form of ammonia Ammonia is very toxic, and would
require a large amount of water to dilute in the body of mammals
and reptiles, but.. Animals such as fish and amphibians have
constant access to water Rather than breaking down nitrogenous
waste to a less toxic form, fish and amphibians are able to flush
their nitrogenous wastes frequently and primarily as ammonia
Excretory System 99
Slide 106
Nitrogen Excretion - Urea Mammals metabolize ammonia into urea,
a less toxic form of nitrogenous waste Requires energy to build
urea, but mammals dont need as much water to dilute urea Allows
mammals to conserve water, mammals often dont have constant access
to water Less toxic for mammals to store Excretory System 100
Slide 107
Nitrogen Excretion Uric Acid Reptiles and birds excrete
nitrogen in the form of uric acid Contains four nitrogen atoms per
molecule Requires more energy to make than urea, but eliminates
more nitrogen per molecule Less toxic than urea, requires very
little water to dilute Allows birds and reptiles to conserve the
greatest amount of water Excretory System 101
Slide 108
102 Excretory System
Slide 109
103 Excretory System
Slide 110
The Nephron The nephron is the functional unit of the kidneys
Consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule Main function is
to control the composition of body fluids and remove wastes from
the blood Excretory System 104
Slide 111
The Nephron Parts of a nephron Glomerulus Bowmans capsule
Proximal convoluted tubules Loop of Henl Distal convoluted tubules
Collecting duct 105 Excretory System
Slide 112
Glomerulus and Bowmans Capsule Site where filtration takes
place Blood from the renal artery is forced into the glomerulus
under high pressure Most of the liquid is forced out into the
surrounding Bowmans capsule This process wont work properly in
people with extremely low blood pressure 106 Excretory System
Slide 113
Proximal Convoluted Tubule The site where glucose is reabsorbed
from the filtrate and put back into the bloodstream If glucose was
not absorbed, it would end up in the urine Happens in people
suffering from diabetes 107 Excretory System
Slide 114
Loop of Henl The Loop of Henl is the part of the nephron where
water is reabsorbed The kidney cells in this region spend all of
their time pumping sodium ions This causes the region of the kidney
called the medulla to be very salty 108 Excretory System
Slide 115
Distal Convoluted Tubule The site of the nephron where most of
the salts in the filtrate are reabsorbed Collecting Duct Collecting
ducts run through the medulla and are surrounded by loops of Henl.
In the collecting duct, filtrate is turned into urine as water and
salts are removed from it Called a collecting duct because it
collects the liquid produced by many nephrons. 109 Excretory
System
Slide 116
Glomerular Filtration Urine formation begins with glomerular
filtration The filtration of materials from blood plasma Filters
water and other small dissolved molecules and ions out of the
glomerular capillaries and into the glomerular capsules Large
molecules, like proteins, are restricted because of their size The
glomerular capsule receives the resulting glomerular filtrate
Contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine, and sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate,
phosphate, and sulfate ions Excretory System 110
Slide 117
Tubular Reabsorption Tubular reabsorption is the process by
which filtrate is moved from the renal tubules back into the blood
in response to the bodys needs Can occur by passive or active
transport Usually all of the glucose in the filtrate is reabsorbed
because there are enough carrier molecules to transport it As a
result, normally no glucose found in urine Normally only a trace of
amino acids in the urine because most amino acids are actively
transported out of the glomerular filtrate About 70% of the
filtered sodium, other ions, and water are reabsorbed Excretory
System 111
Slide 118
Tubular Secretion and Excretion During tubular secretion,
certain substances move from the plasma of the peritubular
capillary into the fluid of the renal tubule Reverse process of
tubular reabsorption Helps control blood pH Substances may include
penicillin, histamine, phenobarbital, hydrogen ions, ammonia, and
potassium ions Hydrogen ions are actively secreted throughout the
renal tubule, causing urine to (usually) be acidic by the time it
is excreted Excretion The process by which urine exits the body
After substances have been secreted and entered the kidney tubules,
they are eliminated from the body through the urethra Excretory
System 112
Slide 119
Gout Occurs when high levels of uric acid in the blood cause
crystals to build up in a joint or surrounding tissue Uric acid
normally dissolves in the blood and passes through the kidneys into
the urine Body produces too much uric acid, or the kidneys excrete
too little uric acid Symptoms Intense joint pain, usually in the
joint of the big toe Pain most severe within the first 12 to 24
hours of onset Lingering discomfort Inflammation and redness
Excretory System 113
Slide 120
Gout Statistics: Occurs in approximately 840 out of every
100,000 people in the US 9 times more common in men than women
Treatment: Usually involves medications to prevent future attacks
and reduce the risk of complications from gout Non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs Corticosteroids Medications that block uric acid
production Excretory System 114
Slide 121
Urinary Tract Infection A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an
infection that begins in the urinary system Most UTIs involve the
lower urinary tract, the bladder and the urethra Can become serious
if it spreads to the kidneys Symptoms: Strong, persistent urge to
urinate A burning sensation when urinating Urine that appears
cloudy Pelvic pain, in women Rectal pain, in men Excretory System
115
Slide 122
Urinary Tract Infection Statistics: Women are at greater risk
of developing a urinary tract infection than are men 1 in 5 women
will get a UTI during their lifetime Treatment: Antibiotics are the
typical treatment for a urinary tract infections People can take
steps to reduce the chance of getting a urinary tract infection
Excretory System 116
Slide 123
Excretory System Reference Page Holes Human Anatomy &
Physiology Textbook (Chapter 20 Urinary System)
http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/dox/nitrogenouswaste.ht ml
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gout/DS00090
http://www.whathealth.com/gout/incidence.html
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/urinary-tract-
infection/DS00286/DSECTION=symptoms
http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/u/urinary_tract_infections /stats.htm
http://www.purchon.com/biology/kidney.htm#bowmans Excretory System
117
