1 AQA AS Physical Education PHED 3. 2 Psychological Aspects Personality

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AQA AS Physical Education

PHED 3

2

Psychological Aspects

Personality

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Personality

Personality

Hollander – personality is

Inner core of

Middle layer of

Outer layer of

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Hollander’s model

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Personality

Theories:

• Hollander – behaviour depends on inner core of traits and environment–

• Other ideas – based on inner core –

• Yet others – environment determines personality -

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Trait theories

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Situational theories

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Interactionist theories

Lewin - –

• Behaviour is a function of our and our • Behaviour determined by and

• Behave in way in same• Behave in different

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Measuring personality

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Questionnaire

Advantages Disadvantages

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Interviews


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Observation


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Profile of Mood States

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Mood States• Successful elite performers show

• high vigour; low tension, depression, fatigue and confusion

• Unsuccessful athletes show

• Change in profile associated with

• Cannot be applied to all performers – success could lead to

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Achievement motivation

• When faced with a situation where success is just as likely as failure what do you choose?

or

• An theory

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Two dimensions - personality traits

• Need to achieve - NAch urge to be best/seeks to improve

– seeks situations -

• Need to avoid failure – Naf

- avoids -

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Nach characteristics• Seeks • Concerned with

• • Values • Enjoys

• Not afraid of • Attributes

performance to

Naf characteristics• Preoccupied with • challenges• Prefer • Avoid • Avoid and perform

worse in

• Attribute performance to

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More obvious in evaluative situations

• Hence NAch-type common in sport

• ego-oriented

• task-oriented

Use questionnaire to determine preferred style

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Typical question

Morgan’s profile of mood state (POMS) is a questionnaire given to performers to establish their relative measures on the six mental health states of fatigue, vigour, tension, depression, anger and confusion.

(a) Research has shown that the profile for POMS differs between elite and non-elite performers. Describe these differences.

(3 marks)(b) What are the advantages and

disadvantages of using questionnaires to provide psychological information?

(4 marks)

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Answer

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Arousal

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Arousal

• State of – continuum

Physiological signs:

Psychological signs:

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Too much arousal

• High

•

• Negative

• Inability to

•

• difficulties

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Drive theory

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• As arousal increases performance of also increases• If dominant response is invariably at skill then performance • If dominant response is invariably at skill then performance

deteriorates

Explanation

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• Simple, well-learned skills – increased arousal improves chance of

response occurring

• Complex, not well-learned - increased arousal improves chance of

response occurring

Drive theory

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Inverted U theory

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Explanation

• At low levels of , increase in means increase in • Until level of arousal –

performance• Further increases in arousal –

performance

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Explanation

• Levels of optimal arousal are and

• High arousal probably causes

• Means beginners miss important

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Catastrophe theory

Level of arousal

Level of performance

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Catastrophe theory explained

• Point A - increasing arousal above

causes decline in performance

• At point B the performer either continues with and performance to C

• Or at B, performer arousal and performance will gradually to point D

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Peak flow experience

• Being in the

• performance

• Effortless,

• Totally

• Movements are

• Totally in

• Immense

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Typical questionThe inverted U theory may be used to explain how arousal may affect sports

performance. (a) (i) Name two other theories of arousal. (2 marks) (ii) Figure 1 shows the arousal-performance relationship for:

passing in hockey; putting in golf; and tackling in rugby.

Using Figure 1, match each of the curves A, B and C to one of these activities, justifying your choice. (4 marks)

(iii)Explain how the required levels of arousal vary between novice and elite performers. (2 marks)

CBA

Low Levels of arousal

Q ua

lit y of

pe

rf or

m an ce

High

Low

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Answer

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Controlling anxiety

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Anxiety

Negative aspect of experiencing stress:

Two components –

Two types -

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Trait / state anxiety• Trait – • high trait anxiety – most situations seen as

- tends to develop more

• State – • before competition; ; but

at crucial points • and components

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Anxiety

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Cognitive and somatic state anxiety

State anxiety

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Cognitive state anxiety

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Measuring anxiety

Physiological measures –

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Measuring anxiety

Observations –

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Measuring anxiety

Self-report questionnaires –

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STAI – State-Trait Anxiety Inventory

• Self report questionnaire (Speilberger (1970)

• Measures anxiety of performer

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Competitive anxiety

(Martens 1977) –

High competitive trait anxiety –

Development of

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SCAT – Sport Competition Anxiety Test

• Self-report -

• Measures anxiety in competition-specific situations

• Measures specific anxiety trait –

• Shows

47Level of anxiety

Quality of performance

High

High

Low

Low

Effects of state anxiety on performance

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Explanation of graph

• Somatic state anxiety – performance at level of

anxiety – inverted U• Cognitive state anxiety - lower for better

performance –

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Multidimensional view of anxiety

1.

2.

3.

Led to CSAI-2 – Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2 (Martens 1990)

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Changes in cognitive and somatic anxiety pre-competition

Time before competition

Level of state

anxiety

High

Low

1 week 1 day 2 hours 1 hour start 1 hour into

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Explanation of graph

• Cognitive state anxiety days prior to competition and then during competition usually depending on possibility of

• Somatic state anxiety tends to remain until before event, then as event starts

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Typical question

The cognitive and somatic state anxiety of the competitors may vary as the start of the race approaches.

(i) What do you understand by the terms cognitive state anxiety and somatic state anxiety? (2 marks)

(ii) Describe how cognitive state anxiety and somatic state anxiety may vary prior to and during the race. (3 marks)

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Answer

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Controlling Anxiety

• Stress – response of body to demands of situation

• Demands = –Threats to Potential Fear of

Increased • Stress causes

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Stress

Whether situation causes stress depends on:

Some activities designed to create stress -

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Stress response

• response• released• Increases and -

more• Increased • Blood diverted away from skin –

• Focuses

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Stress management

• Control thoughts - cognitive techniques – eg

• Reduce physiological components -somatic techniques – eg

• Involves redirecting thoughts away from

and

• Needs

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Imagery

• Imagine

• Use

• Must be

• Can imagine event – include possible

• Pre-experience achievement of – increase

• Lock on to perfect performance –

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Attentional control (focusing)

• Learn to concentrate/focus on

• Concentration linked to • Tendency to focus on • Needs to control attention• Avoid • Use of key phrases to help • Use routine for repeatable skills – eg

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Thought-stopping

• Use of ‘action’ –

• Switch attention to controlled

• Use whenever occurs

• Action that thought

• Involves – learn to think of action rather than negative thought

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Self-talk

• Develop about your actions

• Learn to

• Rehearse when things are going wrong -

• Can be

• Can recall good plus

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Biofeedback

• Use monitor to show effect of anxiety – eg

• Performer to reduce variable

• By thinking of

thoughts

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Centering

• Use to regain concentration

• Often used with ‘ ’

• Requires considerable

• technique

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Breathing control

• Focus on rather than cause of anxiety

• Learn breathing

• Lowers

• Often combined with techniques

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Progressive Muscular Relaxation

• Reduces

• Relax muscles by alternatively

• Start at extremities and gradually move towards

• technique

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Goal setting

• Control anxiety by directing attention away from and towards achievable

• Increases • Improves • Improves • Raises • Reduces

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Types of goals

• Outcome – based on – eg

But can be• Performance – based on specific aspect of

play – eg

• Process – based on – often affects goals

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Typical question

(a) Explain the difference between outcome, performance and process goals (3 marks)

(b) Which of these tends to be best at reducing anxiety? Explain your answer. (4 marks)

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Answer

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Attitudes, aggression and attributions

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Attitudes

• Opinions -

•

• Predispose towards

• Positive and negative

• Directed towards and

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Components of Attitudes

• Cognitive –

• Affective –

• Behavioural –

• Normally the three components are

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Influences on formation of attitudes

1. Peers – copying attitudes of

2. Significant others – – parents/teachers/coaches

3. Familiarity – develop attitudes

4. Conditioning – strengthen existing attitudes

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Attitudes and behaviour

• Attitudes - good predictors of

• Good attitudes lead to

behaviour

• Eg

• Eg

• Eg

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Positive attitude

• Exercise is • Enjoy • Activity is a

• Excited by •

Negative attitude

• Exercise is • Fear • for activity

amongst friends / family

• Fear of the • constraints

Attitudes to Physical Education and Sport

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Attitudes and behaviour

• Attitudes should predict behaviour - but not always the case

• Fishbein (1975), proposed that if we want to predict specific behaviours, we should consider

• ‘ ’ is a more accurate predictor of behaviour.

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Measuring attitudes

• Behavioural - eye contact/body language/ physiological measures –

• Questionnaires – commonly used - suffer from lack of – see notes on

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Changing attitudes

Persuasive communication – needs:

•

•

• communication

•

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Changing attitudes

- change a component - produce

• Comfortable if our thoughts ( ), feelings ( ) and actions ( ) components match

• Producing inconsistency – eg

- may change attitude as a whole

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What is Aggression?

Consider a basketball match between two teams, the Blues and the Reds.

During the match, six incidents occur.

Which of these 6 do you think involves aggression?

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What is aggression?

1. One of the Blues best players deliberately, but fairly, stands in the way of the Reds guard, setting a fair, but physical pick or screen.

2. The Red's guard retaliates by pushing the Blues player to the ground.

3. When the same thing occurs later in the game, the Reds guard again tries to retaliate, but the Blues player is ready for him and moves out of the way.

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What is aggression?

4. Blues attack again, and as a Blues forward moves into a space nearer the basket, he accidentally collides with a Reds defender.

5. The Reds defender, doesn't quite see it in the same way, and shouts after the Blues player, "he's a fat wimp who shouldn't be allowed on a basketball court.“

6. As the final whistle goes, and Reds have narrowly lost, the Reds coach vents his frustration by kicking a chair.

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Aggression

• 1 –

• 2 –

• 3 –

• 4 –

• 5 –

• 6 –

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Aggression

“Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment”

Aggression is:

1.

2.

3.

4.

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Forms of Aggression

• Instrumental –

• Hostile -

• Constructive use of force in sport =

• Channelled aggression – diverting aggressive feelings into

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Aggression

• Physical act• •

Assertion

• Physical act

•

•

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Theories

• Instinct -

• Frustration-aggression –

• Aggressive Cue theory –

• Social learning -

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Instinct theory

• Aggression • Builds up – needs to be • Displaced into sport rather than • Release = • Theory suggests aggression is , but

some is • as a means of control• Recent evidence of for aggression

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Frustration-aggression hypothesis

• Frustration leads to

• Aggression comes from

• In sport, prevents achievement of - leads to frustration, especially if

• Aggression released – – but not always

• But, not all leads to

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Frustration-aggression

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Aggressive-cue theory

• Not all frustration leads to aggression

• Only occurs if certain present

Such as:

• Coach aggression

• of behaviours

• Certain or

• Previous

• Depends on

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Social learning theory

• to be aggressive

• of others

• others

• leads to

• prevents

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Aggression and Sport

• Sport as a release?

• Competition as a of aggression?

• Competition causes high levels of

• that performance is

by aggressive behaviour

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Strategies to reduce aggression

Strategies both for player and coach

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Typical question

The collisions that occur in some sports can be the result of assertion or aggression.

(a) Distinguish between the terms aggression and assertion in relation to sporting performance.

(2 marks)

(c) Suggest why playing competitive games can often lead to aggressive behaviour. (3 marks)

(d) What can a referee do to control aggression during a sporting competition? (3 marks)

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Answer

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• Think about your last sporting performance where you won.

• Why did you win? –

• Think about your last sporting performance where you lost.

• Why did you lose? -

Attributions

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Attribution Theory

• The we provide for

Can lead to changes in our:

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Four attributes decide achievement

• – comments on one’s own performance

• – comments on one’s own contribution/involvement

• – comments on the standard of the opposition

• – comments on chance and the environment

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Weiner’s model

ExternalInternal

Stable

External

Unstable

Locus of causality

Locus of stability

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Weiner’s model

• Locus of – (ability and effort) or attribution (task difficulty and luck)

• Locus of – stable/unchanging ( ) or changeable/unstable ( )

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Self-serving bias

• Tendency to attribute

• Makes us feel better about ourselves –

• Avoid responsibility for

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Links to achievement motivation

• Attributions affect

• Suggestion that high and low differ in

• High achievers – attribute to

and to factors

• Low achievers –

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Learned helplessness

• Expectation of – failure inevitable even if possible

• Due to attributing to lack of

• Requires - helping performer attribute and

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Attribution retraining

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Typical question

Competitors at the 2004 Athens Olympics who did not get beyond the heats may eventually suffer from learned helplessness.

(a) What do you understand by the term learned helplessness and suggest the likely cause of

it? (3 marks)

(b) Sufferers of learned helplessness may require attribution retraining. Explain what attribution retraining is and suggest why it is effective. (3 marks)

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Answers

108


Confidence

109

Self Efficacy

• Self-confidence – person’s that they have the to

• Self-confidence opposite to anxiety – when confident – – when anxious –

• Self-efficacy – self-confidence; expectation of and good performance in a

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Changing self-efficacy

Efficacy expectations

performance

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Performance accomplishments

• - most effective cause of self-efficacy

• Success at task enhances

at easier one

• Early success better than

• Independent success better than

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Vicarious experiences

• Watching others

• Hence value of

• Success of others reduces

• Better if model is

• Not as good as

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Verbal persuasion

• Encouraging others that • than previous two• Needs

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Emotional arousal

• Performers interpretation of own • Over-arousal hinders • Need for techniques

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Increasing self-efficacy

116

Decreasing self-efficacy

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Typical questionIf performers are to maintain interest and improve performance in sports, it is essential that the performers develop self-efficacy.

(a)Explain the difference between self-efficacy and self-confidence. (2 marks)

(b)An ice hockey coach wants to develop self-efficacy in his performers. What strategies could he use to develop this? (6 marks)

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Answer

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Social facilitation

The effects of the presence of an on

Audience:

• primary spectators –

• secondary spectators –

• co-actors –

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Zajonc

•

• Audience produces increase in

• Hence improve performance on

• Negative effect on

121

Increase in arousal

122

Cotterell

• Different audiences have effects

• Called

•

123

Baron’s Distraction-conflict theory

• Audience takes up capacity

• Sufficient capacity for skills, but in

tasks, audience affects and increases and hence affects

• Any limits and increases

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Baron – distraction-conflict theory

Athlete

performing

125

Implications of social facilitation

• Learn new skill in

• Train/practice with

• Learn to minimise effects of distractors –

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Home advantage?

• Greater % wins for home teams• Increases player’s • Increases • Increases – theory –

skills• feedback from crowd for visitors

increases • Anxiety induced by

127

Home advantage?

• Can also increase for home team – high

• More important in of competition

• Less important when at home

• Greater influence when spectators are

128

Typical question

(i) Tennis matches are often played in front of an audience. Using appropriate theories, explain how the effects of playing in front of an

audience may differ for:•An elite performer;•A novice. (5 marks)

(ii) How could a coach prepare a novice tennis player who is about to play in front of spectators for the first time? (4 marks)

129

Answer

130


Group success

131

Which is a group?

Why?

132

Group dynamics

Groups have:

•

•

•

•

133

Sociogram

134

Sociograms

Chart showing

• Inter-relationships –

• Shared objectives –

• Contributions to a shared goal –

135

Group dynamics

Includes:

• Norms –

• within group

• Relationships between

•

• Sense

• on members

• Effects of within group

136

Group formation

• Forming –

• Storming –

• Norming –

• Performing –

137

Cohesion

• Forces - keeping members within group/

• Forces - causing commitment to group

Two categories:• - individual’s perception of

group task• – individual’s perception of

social interaction

138

Group cohesion

139

Cohesion depends on:

1. Individual attractiveness to group – task – level of of individual in group task

2. Individual attractiveness to group – – how individual feels about their interactions

3. Group integration – task – how much individual feels

4. Group integration – social – how mush individual feels group in

140

Factors influencing cohesion

• Type of

• of group members

•

•

• Satisfaction with

• of group

141

Development of cohesion

Antecedents ( )

• factors – geography, etc

• factors – similarity of status

• factors –

• factors –

142

143

Developing cohesion

• team members• Encourage • Known • Set goals• Develop • Encourage towards team and

members• Encourage • Encourage

144

Cohesion and success

• Generally thought that

• Cohesion bringing success depends mainly on

• Can have poor cohesion and success if cohesion high

145

Social Learning

Steiner:

Coaches need to and at same time faulty group process such as lack of , and poor

146

Potential productivity =

Potential productivity

147

Task relevant resources

Player’s and group’s

•

•

•

•

•

•

148

Social resources

149

Faulty processes

=

Factors affecting actual productivity

150

Losses due to Faulty Processes

Co-ordination losses: • Team not • not being implementedMotivational losses:• by individual/group• on part of some/all team

members•

151

Social Loafing/Ringlemann effect• given by

when working with othersLack of motivation due to:Thinking others are not ‘pulling their weight’

– • Thinking others will cover own lack of

• Thinking own efforts • Lack of of own efforts

152

Cures of social loafing

• Identify situations that allow • Emphasise role of to team’s

performance• Provide of contributions of all• Regular for individual contributions• Use but rely on

• Improved for task

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Typical question

Steiner (1972) suggested that the relationship between the individual members of a team and their overall performance may be expressed as:

Actual productivity = potential productivity – losses due to faulty group processes

(i) Explain the terms actual productivity and potential productivity and the factors that might affect them. (3 marks)(ii) Suggest potential causes of losses due to faulty group processes. (4 marks)

154

Answer

155


Leadership

156

Leadership

"the behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals".

What makes a good leader?

Good ; decision-making; ; of activity;

with performers; ;

; ; ;

157

Effective Leadership

Effective Leadership

158

Types of Leaders

• Leaders born –

• Emergent leaders –

• Prescribed leaders –

159

Leadership styles

• Interactional model

• Leadership style –

• Task -

• Team members -

160

Interactional model

161

Leadership styles

• Leaders needs to adapt style to suit and

• Task orientated - focus on

best when

• Person-orientated – focus on

best when

162

Leadership styles

• Autocratic –

• Democratic –

• Laissez-faire -

163

Leadership styles

164

Leadership styles

• Use task-orientated / autocratic in

• Use person-orientated / democratic in

165

Chelladurai’s model

Leadership Scale for Sports – dimensions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

166

Coaching preferences• Novices prefer

• Individual sport’s performers prefer

• Team players prefer

• Females prefer

• Older performers prefer

167

Chelladurai’s model

When does good leadership happen?When –

168

Situational characteristics

Leaders characteristics

Members characteristics

AntecedentsLeaders

behaviourConsequences

169

Typical question

Success in sport is often linked to effective leadership. Fiedler (1967) suggested that the effectiveness of a leader depended upon the extent to which the leader’s style fitted the situation the team were in.

(a) Name the two styles of leader that Fiedler identified and describe the different situations where each style is most effective. (5 marks)

(b) Chelladurai suggested additional factors, other than the leader’s characteristics and different situations, which must be taken into account when assessing the effectiveness of leadership. Identify and explain one of these factors. (2 marks)

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Answer

Documents

1 AQA AS Physical Education PHED 3. 2 Psychological Aspects Personality