AQA Physical Education

PHED 3

Evaluating Contemporary Influences

The Olympic Ideal

History of Sport

Sport reflects society• When society was so was sport• When position in society became

accepted, so did their position in sport• As society becomes more so

does sport

cruelwomen’s

technological

A Time LinePre 1800 –

popular recreation - class dominated

Post 1870 – Olympism –

modern sports and ethics

1830-1850 - industrialisation -

rise of middle classes

1850-1870 – rational recreation – development of

sports

Popular recreation – pre-1800

Two classes• Rich landowners – • Poor farmers – • Lack of time and • Recreation – , and

• Idea of

power

working the land

leisure income

festivals fetes

seasonal holidays

popular recreation

Characteristics of popular recreation

• Working classes• Local, and • Occasional / - • Few (unwritten) • Physical force rather than • • rather than • equipment and facilities

rural traditional

spontaneous festivals

rules

skill

Violent

spectating

Simple

Participation

Industrialisation

Changes to society• classes moved to towns - • • replacing • Poor working conditions – hours a day, 6

days a week – Sundays - • Limits to leisure

Working work

UrbanisationFactories ‘crafts’

12church

time

Effects on sport

• No time, space, energy for

• Popular recreations seen as • Conditions improved – increased

• Bank holidays for excursions – to – more

traditional sports

uncivilised

participation spectating facilities

seasidedisposable income

Rise of a middle class

• People below but above

classes• Made money during industrialisation –

• Wanted society based on • Led the way in reforming ,

aristocracy

working

factory owners businessmen

merit

education

local government welfare of poor

Effects on sport

• Sports invented – • Transport improved – fixtures,

competitions, interest • Time-keeping improved - • Growth of spectating – • Printing produced • – more informed

public

rugby, tennis‘away’

mediastop-watches

professionalismpopular press

Compulsory education

Rational recreation

• Popular recreations • for sport in towns – only• Upper and middle classes wanted

• Need to unruly rabble• Problems with • Middle classes playing sports at

died out

No space

disciplined workforcecontrol

health

school / university

pubs

Codification

• Systematic definition of of activity and of behaviour

• agreed rules at

• Led to and allows for on equal level

rulesrules

Ex-public schoolboys

university

fixtures competition

Characteristics of rational recreation

• Regular • Complex rules – • and participating• not force-based• Developed by classes• and based• Use of complex and

participation

written highly structuredSpectating

Skill-based

middle

Regionally nationally

equipment facilities

Typical question

Many National Governing Bodies of sport were set up in England during the period

between the late 1800s and early 1900s. Why was it necessary to form these

governing bodies and why did some of them prevent professionals from competing in their sport?

(5 marks)

Answer

• Ex-public schoolboys/middle classes;• Universities;• Codification;• Rules agreed; • Ethics/fair play;• Organisers/administrators;• Competitions/fixtures;• Maintain amateur status;• Exclude working classes/maintain exclusivity;• Social status maintained;• Working classes too good;

Social reform• Middle classes – ‘ ’ of

working class’ - organised activities – , clubs ( ),

• Social conscience – and conditions• Increased care of poor – and

provided• – social reformers

civilising/moralising

sport working men’s clubs

societiesimproved working

living

baths parks

Philanthropists

Amateurism

• Based on 19th century upper classes –

• Play for rather than financial gain

• Taking part more important • Play fair • Abide • Exclusion

gentleman amateurslove of sport

than winning

– sportsmanshipby the rules

of lower classes

Amateurism

• Difficult to maintain in • pressures and

• Professionals• But no

21st century

monetary rewardsnow allowed at Olympics

Commercial

appearance or prize money

Athleticism• Physical endeavour

• To produce gentleman with

• Strong moral code – • Physical qualities – • Spiritual links – godliness and manliness –

with moral integrity• Public schools

honour

teamwork

healthy lifestyle

Muscular Christianity

courage leadership

conformity

Olympism

• Not • Striving to win -• Taking part

• Sport for

• Individuals performing

teams/Nations

fairly

more important than winning• Amateur – for the love of sport

education• Cultural exchange

Still relevant in modern sport

Respect for rules and others

PE in schools stresses moral

values

Olympics biggest sporting stage

Fair play awards

Athletes as role models Sport dysfunctional

without rules

Doping illegal

Lets everyone take part – do your best

Less relevant in modern sport

Traditional values hinder hunger for

success

Other countries – Lombardian ethic

Commercialism - need to be best

Based on a non-existent

class

More elite professionals

than amateurs

Professional sports in OlympicsValues less

important – sport and the law

Professional Sport• Early concept – • Allows • Early 19th century forms –

• Performers• Excluded

• Amateur and professional -

Romanssocial mobility

pedestrianism, prize-fighting

from lower classes

by gentleman amateurs

divided by class

Professional Sport Structure

• Lower classes –

• Middle classes –

• Upper classes –

agents, promoters, managers

performer

patrons (sponsors)

Professional Sport

• Increasing numbers of • High status –• Paid by results – - pressure• Develops attitude• Leads to deviant behaviour –

• Money from

- pressure

professionals

media coverage

need success‘win at all costs’

aggression

sponsorship

gamesmanship cheating drugs

endorsements

Why does society regard elite sports performers so highly?

• Media –

• Winning and earnings

• Part of

high profile

• Role modelsgiven high status

• Lombardian ethic

entertainment industry

• Social mobility

Why higher status for amateurs than professionals in 19th century?

• Based on • Professionals from –

patronage

• Attempts to exclude• Amateurs –• Power -

class superiority

moral code applied

lower classes

lower classes

looked up to

ran sports

Professional performer - a commercial object?

• Signs contract –• Can be • Brings in money through

• Exploit image for company goals –

• Financial rewards

like a business

‘hired and fired’

advertising

marketability

based on results

endorsements

Pressures of being a role model?

• Media - invasion of privacy – private lives as important as

• Behaviour influences young people – need for

• Need to ‘perform’ all the time – leads to

and playing when • Highly competitive environment –

ability

‘clean’ image

injured

stress

overtraining

Olympism

• Competing with spirit of • more important than • performersSymbols:• Olympic • Olympic • Tending to disappear due to needed to compete

sportsmanship

Taking part winning

Amateur

rings

oath

financial support

Typical question

(a) How does the modern-day amateur differ from the amateur of the early 20th century (1900-1920)? (5 marks)

(b) What factors were responsible for the change in the status of professional performers from the early 20th century to modern day? (3 marks)

Answers(a) Early 20th C (Sub max 3 per section):Amateur had high status in sport/society/ were best players;Although professionals could out perform in some sports;Controllers of sport/selected teams/formed NGB’sMember of middle/upper classes/gentleman amateur – accept reverseHad sufficient income/leisure time for support playing of sport;Avoided playing against working classes/ working classes excluded from amateur; Today (Sub max 3 per section):Some amateurs receive money/sponsorship/appearance money/scholarships;Where professional sports exist, amateurs often unable to compete at same level;Amateurs tend not to have high sport/social status/ professionals now have high status;Blurring of amateur/professional distinction/professional in the Olympics;Sports changed from amateur to professional code 5 marks

(c) Social prejudice against professional has now disappeared/all classes can competeThough may still exist in some management echelons/levels in some sports;People now respected for their talents/abilities;Or their efforts in reaching an elite level;Rewards for professionals now very large/media interest/sponsorship;Encourages more to take up professional sport; Professionals have money/resources/time to put into training; Laws exist to prevent discrimination. 3 marks

Contract to compete

• Mutual agreement to • Striving to win – • Allow opponents to • Sportsmanship -

abide by the rules

make 100% effort

demonstrate skills

etiquette of sport

Striving for personal excellence

Rule structureKeep to rules otherwise no competition

Sport is lost if try to win by unfair means

Play to best ability

Allow others to demonstrate

skills

Commitment to sport

Contract to Compete

Ethics

Sportsmanship v Gamesmanship

SportsmanshipGamesmanship• Fair play • Bending the rules to

gain advantage• Rules – written and unwritten observed

• Losing gracefully• Fairness, generosity• E.g. kicking the ball

out of play when player injured

• E.g. tying laces before important serve/time-wasting

• Rules not broken• Unethical, tactics to

put opponent off

Sportsmanship v Gamesmanship

Sportsmanship Gamesmanship

Allows game to run

Admired by Spectators

Makes experience positive

Promotes good will

Ethical basis of play

Provides sport with a set of morals

Disrupts game

Destroys spirit of game

Causes trouble

Officials, spectators fellow players suffer

Detract from personal achievement.

Making sport work

Dysfunctional actionsFunctional actions• Arguing with referee • Give ball back to

opposition after injury• Appealing for everything

• Deliberately fouling

• Diving to gain foul

• Deliberately wasting time

• Taking drugs

• Clapping opposition after losing

• Lending opposition player if short

• Admitting fouls - snooker

Decline in SportsmanshipEvidence Solutions

More sports-related prosecutions

Emphasis on winning

Bigger rewards

Spectator behaviour encourages aggression

Media hype promotes rivalry

Fair play schemes

Positive role models – especially for children

Better officiating - use of technology

Punish negative behaviour

Encourage codes of conduct

Typical question

Many elite sports have a high public profile and offer the performers extrinsic rewards.

(a)Explain what is meant by the term gamesmanship and give examples of its use in different sporting situations. (3 marks)

(b)Discuss to what extent the Lombardian ethic may have a detrimental effect upon the ‘contract to compete’. (4 marks)

Answers(a) Gamesmanship – art of winning games by cunning means without actually cheating/breaking the rules;Not follow the etiquette of the game;Not declare a foul/admit to a foul/contradict/deceive official/claim for a decision knowing it’s not theirs;Verbal sledging/abuse/distraction of opponent;Time wasting/delay play;Pre-match psyching out tactics. 3 marks

(b) Lombardian ethic – winning is everything/second is nowhere;Encourages performers to win/try as hard as possible within rules;May break rules/ethics/etiquette/aggression;But this is OK – within ethics/characteristics of activity/accepted as part of game;Allow others to do same – need to try ones best;But temptation to take drugs/equiv; max 4

Evaluating Contemporary Influences

Deviance

Deviancy in Sport

• Deviant behaviour – against societies

• Criminal deviant – • Morally deviant – against what is normally

accepted as ‘ ’ behaviour – varies within society subgroups

norms and values

against the law

good

Deviancy

• Intentional breaking of rules or of sport – has detrimental effect

• Cheating – • Accepting / illegal /

• / • Breaks

ethics

dives fouls drugs

bribes betting

transfer bungsHooliganism player violence

contract to compete

Causes of deviancy

• Individuals lacking • Individuals valuing winning above possible

or • Rewards to resist temptation• Some deviant behaviour is becoming

• Punishment due to pressures or possible

moral restraint

punishment loss of respect

too great

acceptable

insufficient commerciallegal action

Player violence

• Spontaneous or planned

Causes:

• Instinct theory

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis

• Social learning theory

• Crowd incitement

Controlling players

• Support • players• Use of / • Use with good discipline• awards• Training for players – • Training for officials –

official’s decisions

Punish

video evidence citing officers

role models

Fair play

anger management

dealing with angry players

Leader’s responsibilities

• Set • • offenders• Keep offenders away from

• Avoid over- of certain individuals• Get players to control own • Avoid attitude

good example

Code of conduct

Punish

stressful situations

arousalarousal

win at all costs

Hooliganism - • Racist / obscene chanting• Fighting – other fans / police• Vandalism• Pitch invasions• Often large-scale – organised• Within stadia or outside

Spectator violence

Explanations - 1. Ritualised behaviour2. Outlet for aggression against society3. Tribal - group mentality4. Resistance of working class to change5. Tension on pitch6. Sub groups - BNP/ NF7. Team rivalry

Hooliganism

But - 1. Not always2. Not just working class3. Not all fans local; not other sports4. Not just working class5. Not in other sports6. Limited infiltration7. Not in other sports

Hooliganism

Antecedents - • Violence on Pitch• Importance of game• Alcohol• Unemployment• Boredom• Resistance to change• Sub groups - BNP/ NF

Hooliganism

Controlling Hooliganism

• Segregation • Extra

• Ban• All• Family

of fans/banning of away fans

policing/stewards/ID cards• CCTV/police intelligence

on alcohol consumption

-seater stadia

enclosures

• Segregation of fans – poor treatment of away fans

• Threat to teams / players of bans – loss of income / recognition

• Huge costs of policing / stewards / CCTV

• Poor reputation of country

Consequences of Hooliganism

Typical question

Hooliganism at football matches, both inside and outside stadia, is a recurring problem.

(i) Describe three steps that have been taken to prevent such acts. (3 marks)

(ii) Discuss three reasons that have been put forward as too why football should suffer from Hooliganism. Comment on the validity of these reasons. (6 marks)

Answers(i) CCTV in grounds;Prevention of troublemakers travelling to matches/ban/equiv;Banning of alcohol within grounds/ drunks/ moving kick off times;Close local establishments/pubs/bars/ equiv;Segregation of rival fans;Restriction /control of ticket sales/ family areas/ Identity cards;All seater stadia;Increased stewarding/ policing/ policing the streets around the stadia;Better police intelligence;Better player behaviour;Fine team/country/close stadia;

3 marks

Answers(ii) Working class males releasing aggressive tendencies/ masculinity/macho - No

evidence that working class males are any more or less aggressive than other males/ female hooligans.

Tribalism – protection of local area from ‘invading’ opposition fans/religious differences/ old rivalries/ some hooligans travel to their ‘home’ ground; - will go to an away ground to commit violent acts.

Nationalism – seeing other country’s/ teams fans as the enemy. - not all international spectators behave like this/eg Scotland; other sports/ don’t follow the crowd

Reaction by working class fans to the take-over of football by middle class spectators. - hooligans come from wide social backgrounds.

Replacement factor/football grounds becoming community focus after rebuilding of working class areas/football, the new religion. - If this were the case, why should it lead to acts of violence?

Political notions linked to racism etc by neo-nazi groups /media exposure. likely that hooliganism is multi-causal.

De-skilling of working class males, loss of traditional industries leading to lack of self value and self worth within society/ unemployment. suggestion that hooliganism is a symptom of society, not football

Status of the game/ media hype/ on pitch action/ alcohol /on pitch behaviour is controlled;Lack of action in the past by authorities; Thrill seeking/adrenaline rush/habitual; 

Drugs in Sport

Ergogenic Aid:

WADA:

PED -

any substance that helps performance

World Anti-Doping Agency

Performance-Enhancing Drug

Why performers may use drugs

• Lack morality – • Assume everybody else is – • with drugs• Unaware of drugs • Unaware of • to achieve• Temptation to

cheat

why not me

Success only achievable

- given by coaches

health risks

Outside pressure

speed up recovery

Battle against drugs• Provide • those proved to have used drugs • Educate young against • Ensure performers aware of

if they take PEDs• Ensure performers aware of what is/what is

not and what their are

testing regimes

Punish

use of drugs

consequences

allowed responsibilities

Role of WADA

• 2003 - • Anti-doping • Signatories include , all Olympic

sports and Governments• Promotes research into • Produces list of • Helps national bodies produce • Helps poorer nations

World Anti-doping Code

polices, rules and regulations

IOC80

drug detection

banned substances

policiestest performers

UK anti-drug Policy

• Responsibility – – organises tests

• 2009 – new agency in charge -

• provides list of athletes involved• Testing • Miss a test or give insufficient information

= ‘ ’ – 3 strikes in = ban

UK Sport

National Anti-Doping Organisation - NADO

NGB

in and out of competition

strike 18 months

Stamp out drugs

• Educate performers about • Ensure performers clear about their

responsibilities and • Increase number of • Increase punishment for • Use to encourage

young performers to not use PEDs.• Continue to develop • Use the law -

health hazards

result of positive testno warning tests

proven drug usepositive role models

better testsmake taking of PEDs illegal

Drug testing

• Not same for all in UK• Performer notifies NADO of • Tester arrives • Urine • Strict - • Not all drugs• If first sample • Blood testing

sample

procedure 2 samples

leave traces in urine

positive – 2nd sample tested more valid, but more invasive

sportswhereabouts

unannounced at any time

Legalise Drugs in Sport

For Against

Save time/money

Aids spectacular performances

Some undetectable

Competitors should make own opinion

Everyone at same level

Health risk

Dysfunctional role models

Pressure to take drugs

Unfair - cheating

Destroy competition ethos

The Strategy Today

Punishment

Testing –

Education Role models

random; at international level; more efficient; out of season

Severe

Punish suppliers

Schools - inform about risks of drugs

Public education

Use positive role model

Negative role model - name and shame

Typical question

‘Elite sport performers should be allowed to use performance enhancing drugs just like any other training aid.’

Discuss this statement (5 marks)

AnswerYesBattle against drugs is expensive/time consuming;Detection not effective/always behind chemists;Difficult to define drug as compared to aid/supplement;Sacrifices performer makes to achieve success is personal;High performance leads to more spectators/sponsors/money;Level playing field for all;NoSide effects are dangerous/health risks;Young tempted to use them/role model effect;Coaches/peer pressure may force performers to use drugs;Sport about using natural talent;Drug use outside this concept;Cheating/unethical;Costly; max 5

Sport and the Law

• Bosman ruling –

• No restriction within EU of where to work –

• Right of drug bans• Illegal for players to bet on matches –

• Civil actions for

freedom to change clubs at end of contract

cannot limit number of foreigners

appeal against

match fixing

injuries sustained in games

Sport and the law

• Match officials – open to ;

• Managers/agents – ‘ ’;

• Spectators – open to

bribesduty of care

bungs

stadium disasters

prosecution

corruption