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St John’s PE Revision CourseAQA AS PHED 1
Session 2Skill Acquisition
Skill
• Characteristics and definitions of skill • Difference between motor and perceptual
abilities • Difference between skill and ability • Types of skill – cognitive, perceptual and
psychomotor• Classification of skill, use of skill continua (open
– closed, discrete – serial – continuous, gross – fine, self paced – externally paced).
Characteristics of Skill
Learned
Aesthetic
Economic
Efficient,
effortless
Goal directed
Fluent, smooth
Coordinated
Predetermined
Skill is…….
A learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both
behaviour
Ability is………
Motor abilities are innate inherited traits that determine an individual’s coordination, balance ability and speed of reactions
Skill and Ability
Motor or Perceptual Ability?
Skills require the combination of two or more of these motor abilitiesSometimes knows as psycho-motor abilitiesLeads to – perceptual skills, psycho-motor skill
Perceptual – receiving, recognising, selecting, organising information from our senses
Motor – Underlying characteristics, innate traits
Psychomotor AbilitiesGross Motor Abilities
Strength Flexibility
Extent
DynamicStatic
Explosive
Dynamic
Trunk
Psychomotor Abilities
Reaction Time - Simple, Choice
Dexterity -Manual, Finger
Limb Coordination
Control Precision
Rate Control
Arm Speed, Wrist Finger Speed
Arm Hand Steadiness Aiming
Skill Classification
Open Closed
Gross Fine
Self Paced Externally Paced
Discrete Serial Continuous
Jan03Q2Ans
Fundamental Motor Skills
Information Processing • Input – senses, receptors, proprioception, perception, selective
attention • Memory – functions and characteristics of short-term sensory store• Short-term memory and long-term memory;• Strategies to improve memory, chunking, chaining, mental
rehearsal and practice• Decision making – reaction time, simple reaction time, choice
reaction time, • Response time, movement time and the relationship between them• Anticipation temporal and spatial• Factors affecting reaction time, Hick’s law, psychological refractory
period, single channel hypothesis• Motor programmes and sub routines • Factors affecting efficiency information processing systems &
strategies for improvement
Proprioception/Kinaethesis (body awareness) Awareness of body’s position in space, sense of balance, limb position, limb movement
Touch – feel grip on racket/floor, ball
Vision (eyes) Most important - 90% of information Info on movement of objects (ball/ players etc) own position. Audition (ears)
Identification of what we cannot see (team-mate calling for ball)
Important in certain sports – hear racket make good strike on ball
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
Movement/
executive
Feedback
Decision making
PerceptionSensory Input
Selective Attention
DCR
STSS
Jan04Q5 badrallyAns
Kinaethesis
Perception
• Acquiring, selecting , interpreting, and organising sensory information
•Involves D C R – Detection Comparison Recognition
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
PerceptionSensory Input
Acquiring and selecting
Interpreting and organising
D C R
Feedback
Concurrent Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Terminal
Positive
Negative
Knowledge of Results
Knowledge of performance
Feedback – Stages of Learning
Cognitive Associative Autonomous
Intrinsic(KP)Extrinsic(KR)
Terminal Concurrent
Positive Negative
June02Q1 Ans
Open and Closed Loop Control
Decision Making
InputIdentifyStimulus
Select Response
Programme Response
Output
Long Term Memory
Short Term Memory
Improving memory
• Chunking
• Chaining
• Mental Rehearsal
Chunking is organising material into meaningful units by breaking information down, thereby greatly increasing recall capacity.
Parts of a skill are practised individually, in the correct order, before being linked together and expanded. This allows for the memorising of the whole movement
mental rehearsal of movement can produce effects similar to practising the actual movements, including memorising movement sequences.
Movement Time
Reaction Time
Response Time
“time between onset of stimulus and initiation of response”
“time from the initiation of the first movement to the end of the movement”
“from the onset of the stimulus to the completion of the response action or movement”
(Reaction Time + Movement Time)
Reaction Movement
Response
Jan04Q4 Ans
Reaction time is affected by the number of stimuli –:
Can I react faster?
Simple reaction time – one stimulus one response
Reaction Time
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1 2 4 8 16 32
No of alternatives
Sec
s
Reaction Time
Hicks LawChoice reaction time
Respond correctly when faced with several stimuli each requiring a different response
Respond correctly to a specific stimuli from a choice of many
Can I react faster?
Compatibility between the stimulus and response
By previous experience or practice – cue detection, set pieces
Anticipation
If the stimulus is predictable
Stimulus intensity
Age
Gender
Anxiety Management
Anticipation
Spatial anticipation - an athlete's ability to predict where an event will occur
Temporal anticipation is the ability to predict when the event will occur or the timing of an action
Event anticipation is the ability to predict what will occur
S1
S1
S2
R1
R2
0.2
0.05 0.15 0.2
0.35
S2S2 S1 S2
PRPJan02Q5 Ans
Single Channel Hypothesis
Psychological Refractory Period
Psychomotor abilities
Fundamental Motor Skills
Sport Specific Skills
Sustained Coordinated Skill Performances
From Standing to Scoring the Winning Goal
Limb Coordination, Control Precision, Arm Speed, rate Control, Aiming, Trunk Strength, Gross Coordination, Extent Flexibility
Sub-Routines
Executive Plan
GripStance
Ball drop
Backswing
Forward Swing
Contact
Follow Through
Recovery
Motor abilities
Learning and Performance • Learning – stages of learning, use of guidance, how feedback differs
between the different stages of learning• Learning plateaus – causes and solutions• Motivation – intrinsic, extrinsic, tangible and intangible• Learning theories – operant conditioning, positive and negative
reinforcement and punishment • Cognitive/insight theories• Bandura’s observational model of learning, social learning theory• Motor learning –Schmidt’s schema theory (recall, recognition, initial
conditions, response specifications, sensory consequences, response outcomes)
• Transfer of learning (positive, negative, zero, bilateral, proactive and retroactive) o impact of practice on improving learning
• Goal setting – benefits and types, principles of effective goal setting.
How do we get
…..to him?from him….. Developing and adapting our genetic traits through experience, guidance and maturation
What is learning?
A relatively permanent change in behaviour or performance due to past experience and/or practice
How is that change in behaviour achieved?
Does it happen all at once?
Learning Theories
• Get into pairs• Make 3 paper balls• Learn to juggle in pairs by using each of the
learning theories or forms of guidance
Stimulus responseObservational learningSchema theory
VerbalVisualMechanical
Making a connection between a stimulus and a response
Operant Conditioning or Associationist/Connectionist Theories
June03Q5
Associating a stimulus
with a response
S R bondAns
Shaping
Bond formed by success/reward
Conditioning or Associationist/Connectionist Theories
Positive reinforcement - strengthens bond
Punishment – weakens the bond
Negative reinforcement – strengthens bond – withdraw aversive actions
June02Q2 volleyballAns
Law of Readiness – physically and mentally ready/able to do task
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
Law of Effect – if the effect is good it will be repeated
Law of Exercise – bond strengthened by repetition of stimulus/action reinforcement
Cognitive Theories
Understanding of relationship between process and outcome
InsightfulnessPeriods of
rapid progression and plateau
Constant reorganisation of response in the light
of new experiences
Not S R
Observational Learning/Modelling
Observation
Attention
Motivation
Performance
Retention
Motor reproduction
Receiving and processing stimuli
Athletic performance
Important cues
Model characteristics
Concentration span
Mental rehearsal
Physically able
Feedback
June02Q5Ans
Schmidt’s Schema TheorySchema – a set of
rules/relationships that allow the performer to decide upon
a solution to a problem
Does not accept that there is a motor
programme for every physical action
Learning is derived from past experience and an understanding
of the new situation
Jan04Q3 Ans
Recognition SchemaRecall Schema
Initial Conditions
Where we are – knowledge of environment
Body Position
Limb Position
Response Specification
What have I got to do?
Direction
Speed
Force
Sensory Consequences
Sensory Feedback
During and after movement
Use of all senses
KP
Response Outcomes
Compare actual with intended outcome
KR
Where am I starting?
What is my goal?
Select and adapt a response
Perform a motor action
How close did I get? KR
What does it feel like? KP
Modify my response
Recall Schema
Recognition Schema
Stages of LearningCognitive Associative Autonomous
Beginner
Understanding what to do
Cognitive images
Initial plan of action
Directed to important aspects
Short phase
Practice Phase
Basics acquired
Smoother, less errors
Can detect gross errors
Longer phase
Variety of conditions
Almost automatic
Performed easily
Little conscious control, habitual
Consistent, highly skilled
Detect & correct errors
Can give attention to other aspects of display
June04Q3 badsmash
Transfer of Learning
Positive
Pro-active
Bi-lateral
Zero
Negative
Retroactive
Old – New Situation
Forms of Guidance
Visual
Verbal
Manual/mechanical
Early Stages
Demo’s
Accurate
Highlight important cues
Mental Image Use with
visual
On own with experts
Cue words
Early Stages Remedial
SafetyPhysical Restriction
Forced Response
Jan05Q4
Ans
MotivationMotivation is why people do what they do
Arousal means how intense is our behaviour.
Internal mechanisms - our inner drives towards achieving a goal or outcome;
External stimuli mean the pressures and rewards that we gain, seek or avoid, from those around us
Jan02Q1 Ans
MotivationIntrinsic – from within – participation for sheer fun/enjoyment (self-satisfaction);
Extrinsic – from without/outside – playing for rewards
Intangible – untouchable such as praise from others
Table tennis
External rewardTangible –concrete, such as badges and medals;
Motivation
The vast majority of research into motivation has concluded that intrinsic motivation is far better than extrinsic
Performer may end up doing the activity just for the reward; Enjoyment of the activity is lost;Extrinsic reward if not valued will not develop intrinsic motivation;Extrinsic rewards can lose their power
Skill acquisition in practical situations
• Understand the advantages and disadvantages of the following factors and explain how to improve performance
• Factors to consider when developing skill and planning training/coaching sessions
• Teaching styles – command, reciprocal, discovery and problem solving
• Methods of presenting practice; whole, progressive part and whole-part-whole.
• Types of practice: massed, distributed, variable and mental practice.
• Methods of guidance: verbal, visual, manual and mechanical • Feedback – types of feedback, Knowledge of Performance,
Knowledge of Results, terminal, concurrent, delayed, positive and negative, intrinsic, extrinsic
Spectrum of teaching stylesAdapted from Mosston & Ashworth
A B C D E F G H I J
Teachers decisions
Learners decisions
Games for understandingGame
Game Appreciation
Performance
Tactical Awareness
Skill execution
Learner
Making appropriate decisions
What to do
How to do
Schema Theory - Teaching Implications
To develop recall schema
Practice in a wide variety of situations
Knowledge of wide variety of situations allows variety of response
More successful response
Use appropriate type of feedback to develop recognition
schema
Schema Theory relevant to both learning new
responses and adapting old responses to new
situations
Organising Practice
Massed Distributed
Simple Skill
Highly motivated
learner
Practice time is short
Learners are able, fit and experienced
To simulate fatigue
New Skill
Complex SkillFatigue may be
dangerous
Young learners -
short attention
Low motivation
Adverse conditions
June05Q5 Ans
Motivation & PracticeChallenging, Interesting, Attainable, Relevant, Evaluated
BeginnersUnderstand the relevance of training drills;Receive positive feedback based on knowledge of results;Selective simple feedback on knowledge of performance.
Skilled performersKnowledge of performance regarding fine precise movements;Help in developing kinaesthetic feedback;Some Negative feedback.
Types of goals
Outcome goals – relates to end resultMore unpredictable, less controlled, chose easy win/lose situations, lose motivation quickly
Performance goals – relates to performance judged against other performances – better the last performance e.g. timeFeel in control, selects realistic tasks, defeat not major set back – better.
Process goals – relates to technique or tacticsSimilar to performance goals
Goal Setting
SMART
specific
measurableachievable
recorded
time bound
How? Why?
Jan05Q1
Milestones/Targets
Clear route
Motivational
Develops self-efficacy
Helps monitor progress
Ans
Goal-settingBenefits:• Makes performer persist• Focuses attention on certain skills - directs• Motivates – sustains, diversifies• Boosts confidence• Reduces stress• Helps achievement of long-term goals• Reduces anxiety