A R EV IEW OF

ENGL IS H G R AMMAR

FOR

SECONDARY SCHOOLS

¥B\

EDWARD AgLEN

PROFESSOR OF TH E ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

UN IVER SITY OF M I SSOUR I

B OSTON , U . S .A .

D . C . H EAT H co . ,PUB LI SHER S

I 9O9

COPY R IGH T ,1903 AND 1909 ,

B Y D . C . H EAT H CO .

CONTENTS

PART I . PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS

VER B SPR ONOUNSADJECT IVES

ADVER B S

PR EPOSITIONSCONJUNCTIONSINTER JECT IONSPAR TS OF SPEECH

PART I I . INFLECTIONS

INFLECTIONNOUNS

Classification, 38—39 ; Gender, 40—41 Number, 41—45 ;

Cases, 46—5 1 .

PR ONOUNSPersonal Pronouns, 5 2-54 ; Compound Personal Pro

nouns, 54

—5 5 ; Interrogative Pronouns , 56 ; Relative

Pronouns , 5 7—60 ; Demonstrative Pronouns , 6 1 ; Indefin ite and Reciprocal Pronouns, 6 1—62 Review, 62—63 .

ADJECTIVESClass ifiCatlon, 64 ; Numeral vAdjectives, 64 ; Pronomi

nal Adjectives , 64-65 , Articles , 66 ; Comparison, 67—68 ;Review , 69 .

! IV .

! V III .

Contents

VER B STransitive and Intrans itive, 70—

74 ; Mood, 74—75 ;Tense, 76—78 ; Person a nd Number, 79 ; Infin itive and

Participles , 80 ; Conjugation , 8 1—86 ; S trong andWeakVerbs, 87—

93 ; Defective V erbs , 93—94 ; Impersonal

Verbs, 94 ; Auxiliaries, 94—

95 Review, 96

—97 .

ADVER B S 98-102

C lassification , 98 ; Pronominal Adverbs, 99 ; Comparison , I OO—I O I Review, 101—102 .

PREPOSITIONSCONJUNCTIONS

PART II I . ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

ANALY SIS OF SENTENCES 108-12 5S imp le S en tences , 108—1 13 ; Complex Sentences ,

1 14—1 18 ; Compound Sentences, 1 19 ; Sentence Analy

s is, 1 19—122 ; Review, 123-12 5 .

PART IV. SYNTA!

SYNTA! 126—166

Case Relations : Nominative, 127—129 ; Possessive,

129—130 ; Objective , 130

-133 ; Review, 133-135 .

Syn tax of Adj ectives , 135—137 .

—Concord : Of Pro~noun with Antecedent, 138-139 Of Subj ect with Predicate , 139—142 .

—Present and Present-Perfect Tenses,142 . Subjunctive Mood : In Principal S entences,143-144 ; In C lauses, 144

-145 . Modal Auxiliaries,147

—150 ; Conditional Prepos itions, 150-15 1 ; Sha ll

and Wi ll, 152 . Infin itive , 1 53—157 . Verbal Nouns,158

—1 59 ; Participles, 159—162 . General Review,

163—166 .

ENGLI S H GRAMMAR

PART I

CHAPTER I

NOUNS

I . Noun is the word in grammar for name.

fl ame is ca lled a N oun .

EXERCISE 1

Po int out the nouns in the fo llowing sentences :

1 . There are three books on the desk . 2 . T he chalk is on the

floor. 3 . I found the paper in my book . 4 . T he bottle is full of ink .

5 . Shut the door and open the window . 6 . H e asked for a knife tosharpen his penci l . 7 . H e had ten marbles in his pocket . 8 . Therei s not much water in the bucket. 9 . T he d ipper is hanging on a nail .10. I have lost my top and cord . 1 1 . Buttercups are yellow. 12 . Hangyour hat up in the hall . 13 . T he bell hangs in the church-steeple .

I 4. She has torn her frock . 15 . There were two app les in the basket .

Make sen tences conta in ing the names of five things yousee in the room.

2. T he names of living things are Nouns.

2 English Grammar

EXERCISE 2

Poin t out the noun s in the following sentences

1 . T he dog was chasing a hare . 2 . T he cows are coming home .

3 . T he thrush was singing in the tree . 4 . T he cat was p laying witha mouse . 5 . T he k itten is asleep behind the stove . 6 . T he

” swallowfell down the ch imney. 7 . T he fly was caught in the web of an uglysp ider . 8 . The hawk flew at the chickens . 9 . T he man was ridingon the back of an elephant . IO . T he warm sun brought the ants outof their holes . 1 1 . T he pony broke the bridle and ran to the barn .

12 . T he old hen was frightened when the ducks went into the water.13 . There were two white rabbits in the pen . 14 . A mouse once freeda lion . 15 . The turtle carries his house with him .

Make sentences contain ing the names of five livingthings .

3 . The names of per son s and p laces are N oun s .

EXERCISE 3

Point out the nouns in the fo llowing sentences

1 . T he boy went home with his sister. 2 . I have an uncle and threecousins liv1ng ln the coun try . 3 . T he milkman comes to our houseevery morning . 4 . A soldier was walking up the stree t. 5 . I went tothe station to meet my father . 6 . T he sailor went to sea . 7 . The

blacksmith has a shop near the court house . 8 . T he teacher tells thes cholars a story . 9. T he general is riding across the field . I O . Pa rentswant the ir children to learn . I 1 . T he k ing and queen travel in foreigncountries . 12 . T he servant broke a !

p itcher . 13 . T he miller livesoutside the village . 14 . T he thief stole the baker’s purse . 15 . T he

mayor’s clerk wrote letters all day.

Make sentences contain ing the name s of five person sand of five p laces .

4 . The name of a particular person , place , or thing iscalled a Proper Noun .

N ouns 3

EXERCISE 4

Po int out the proper n oun s

'

1 . George Washington was our first president . 2 . S t . Louis is the‘

largest city in Missouri . 3 . Caesar was emperor of Rome . 4 . GreatBritain is an island . 5 . America was discovered by Columbus . 6 . Therewas a man named j ob living in the land of U2 . 7 . John and Jameswere sons of ! ebedee . 8 . Dewey captured Man ila . 9 . Santiago is acity in Cuba. 10. Captain Clarke commanded the Or egon . 1 1 . Arkansas is south of Missouri . 12 . Dan iel Boone was a famous hunter .13 . Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt . 14 . Solomon was the son

of David . 15 . Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown .

Make ten sentences conta in ing proper nouns .

5 . T he name of a quality or of an action is a N oun .

EXERC ISE 5

Point out the noun s

1 . She admires the beauty of the rose . 2 . My brother is fond ofskating . 3 . Out of strength cometh forth sweetness . 4 . Honesty isthe best policy. _5 . A soft —answer turneth away wrath . 6 . T he

treasures of wickedness profit nothing . 7 . N0 on e doub ts the truth ofhis report . 8 . H e was afraid of falling . 9 . Hunting is forbidden on

these prem ises . I O . Obedience is a duty. 1 1 . j ohn was rewarded forhis perseverance . 12 . H e was noted for h is justice and wisdom .

13 . T he warm th and closeness of the room make my head ache .

14 . Writing is harder than reading . 15 . What is the size of your slate

Make sentences con tain ing the names of five qua litie sand of five action s .

REVIEW

Po in t out all the n ouns

1 . Little Jack HornerSat in a corner,Eating a Christmas p ie

H e put in his thumbAnd pulled out a plumAnd said, “What a great boy am I

English Grammar

2 . Some little mice sat in a barn to spin .

Pussy came by and popped her head inShall I come in and cut your threads ofl

'

P

Oh no , kind sir, you will snap our heads off.

T he man in the moon

Came tumbling downAnd asked the way to Norwich

H e went by the southAnd burnt his mouthWith eating cold pease porridge .

4 . T he good man sat beside his doorOne sultry afternoon ,

W ith h is young wife s inging at his sideAn old and goodly tune .

5 . Oh pleasant, pleasan t were the days,T he time when , in our childish plays,My sister Emmeline and I

Together chased the butterfly

6 . And the good south wind still blew beh ind,But no sweet bird did follow

,

Nor any day, for food or p lay,Came to the mariner’s hollo

7 . Clang the bells in all your sp iresOn the gray hills of your siresFling to heaven your signal-fires

8 . T he glory of the sunset heavenOn land and water lay

On the steep hills of Agawam,

On cape, and bluff, and bay .

N ouns

9 . If dim the gold of life has grown,I will no t count it dross ,Nor turn from treasures still my own

To sigh for lack and loss .

But now his nose is thin,And it rests upon h is chinLike a staff,

And a crook is in his back,And a melancholy crackIn his laugh .

Now in building of chaises, I tell you what,There is always somewfier e a weakest spot,In hub, tire , felloe, in spring or thill,In panel, or crossbar, or floor, or sill,In screw, bolt, thoroughbrace , lurking still,Find it somewhere you must and will,Above or below, or within or without,And that’s the reason , beyond a doubt,That a chai se Memes

-

down,but doesn’t wear out .

CHAPTER I I

VER B S

6 . A Verb says something about a person or thing .

EXERCISE 6 (

Po int out the verbs in the fo llowing sen tences1 . Birds s ing. 2 . John ran . 3 . T he horse stumbled . 4 . Flowers

bloom . 5 . Dogs bark . 6 . T he Wind blows . 7 . T he moon shines .8 . Fred skates . 9 . Ducks swim . I O . Hens cackle . 1 1 . Snow falls .

12 . T he ice broke . 13 . T he boat sails . 14 . T he bell rings . 15 . T he

parrot talks . 16 . Susan plays . 17 . T omworks . 18 . T he lightningflashes . 19 . T he rain pours . 20. Wood burns . 2 1 . T he lion roared .

2 2 . T he wind howls . 23 . T he po t boils . 24 . T he cat sleeps .

EXERCISE 7

Supply a verb after each noun

1 . John 2 . Dogs 3 . Rain5 . S tars 6 . Children 7 . T om

9 . Day I O . T he cat 1 1 . Horses13 . George 14 . T he clouds 15 . Soldierseagle 17 . Cows 18 . Flowers20 . Babies

7 . T he person or thing about wh ich the Verb te lls some

thing is called the subj ect of the Verb .

EXERCISE 8

Make sentence s by p lacing a subj ect before each1 shines . 2 bloom . 3 . laugh . 4 .

5 . fly . 6 . sews . 7 . rang . 8 . came . 9

falls . 10 . walks . 1 1 plays . 12 . shout . 13 .

14 . sail . 15 . mew . 16 . swim . 17 .

18 . wriggle . 19 . lows . 20 . scratch .

6

4 . M ice8 . T he sun

12 . Mary16 . T he

19 . Ice

Verbs 7

8 . Some Verbs need other words after them to comp letethe sen se by showing what the acti on expressed by the

Verb is exerted upon .

EXERCISE 9

Point out the verbs

1 . T om broke his arm . 2 . Albert threw the ball . 3 . Cows eathay . 4 . T he carpenter builds houses . 5 . T he cook spoiled th e soup .

6 . T he farmer p loughed his field . 7 . T he dairyman sells m ilk .

8 . T he blacksmith shod the horse . 9 . T he dog caught a rabbit .10. Snow covers the p layground . 1 1 . T he teacher rang the be ll .12 . T he bird bui lt a nest . 13 . Arthur caught a trout . 14 . T he

hunters made a fire . 15 . The pony kicked a calf. 16 . T he rain wetmy book . 17 . Will tore his jacket . 18 . Hens lay eggs . 19 . The

mi ller ground the corn . 20 . C louds h ide the sun . 21 . The girl setthe table . 22 . Edgar learned hi s lesson .

EXERCISE 10

Supp ly verbs

1 . Cats mi lk . 2 . Cattle_ _

grass . 3 . Dogs bones .

4 . The sai lor the boat . 5 . T he dogs the cows home .

6 . T he captain his sword . 7 . Edi th a letter . 8 . Johnhis finger . 9 . David Goliath . 10 . T he AmericansSpan iards . 1 1 . Henry h is kn ife . 12 . T he farmerhorse . 13 . T he tree fruit . 14 . Jane

a funny story. 16. T he po liceman

the

histhe floor. 15 . William

the thi ef. 17 . N ed

the prize . 18 . T he ship a rock . 19. James hi s penci l .20. T he kitten the baby. 2 1 . T he farmer his corn . 22 . T he

shepherd his sheep .

9. Some Verbs need other words after them to com

plete the sense by referring back to the subject .

EXERCISE 11

Poin t out the verbs

1 . T he window is open . 2 . T he cake was brown . 3 . The groundlooks wet . 4 . T he dog seems lame . 5 . Shakspe re was a poet .

8 English Grammar

6 . These apples are ripe . 7 . T he soldiers were weary . 8 . Rosessmell sweet . 9. London is a city . I O . Sugar tastes sweet . 1 1 . T he

trees were full of fruit . 12 . T he wind is cold . 13 . T he fire is low14 . T he ground was hard . 15 . George feels hurt . 16 . H is voicesounds harsh . 17 . James grew worse . 18 . T he sky became cloudy .

EXERCISE 12

Supp ly verbs

1 . T he horse old . 2 . T he prisoner guilty . 3 . T he

girls at home . 4 . T he boys late . 5 . Leaves green .

6 . T he grass wet with dew . 7 . The doorboard full of holes . 9 . The closet musty . 10 . Marywell . 1 1 . T he ch ild ill. 12 . Edith afraid . 13 . This apple

sour . 14 . Washington a general . 15 . Job patient .

open . 8 . T he

10. T he Verb is sometimes made up of two or more

words . We may say“ The dog is aa réz

'

ng”

as we ll as

“ The dog ba r/es .

Some par ts of the verb to be (am ,is, was

,were

,

éeen), som e parts of the verb to have (fia t/e , lza s , and

the verbs.

“will, shall, are o ften used to make up Verbs .

In the sentence , H e has sold h is horse ,”ka s solel is the

Verb in the sen tence , “The house has been painted,”lea s

éeen pa inted is the Verb .

EXERCISE 13

Point out the verbs

1 . T he bell has rung . 2 . T he scholar has done his duty . 3 . Mycousin has been in the country . 4 . I shall go next week . 5 . T he

dog has caught a mole . T he letter will give you the news . 7 . Johnwas stung by a hornet . 8 . T he package has been sent . 9 . T he fire

was kindled with shavings . I O. T he horses had been shod the daybefore . 1 1 . T he tree was struck by lightn ing . 12 . T he cat hascaught a mouse . 13 . T he mouse was caught by the cat . 14 . Myfather was standing on the steps . 15 . I was expect ing a letter. 16 . T he

sailor was speak ing of his ship . 17 . T he workmen are eating theirdinne 18 . I am going to St . Louis to-morrow .

Verbs 9

11. There are often two ways of saying the same thing .

The tai lor made the coat ”and “ T he coat was made by

the tailor ” have the same mean ing .

EXERCISE 14.

Say the same thing in another way

1 . Columbus discovered America . 2 . T he Mississipp i River wasdiscovered by De Soto . 3 . T he hawk caught the chicken . 4 . Twocows were killed by lightn ing. 5 . John sawed a cord of wood . 6 . The

jan itor rang the bell . 7 . T he hunter trained my dog . 8 . H amlet waswritten by Shakspere . 9 . A deer was shot by the hunter . 10 . T he

teacher praised the class . 1 1 . A branch of the tree was broken by thewind . 12 . Jack was stung by a hornet . 13 . A great victory was wonby the fleet . 14 . T he grocer sells flour. 15 . T he President appointedhim consul .

12. The parts of the Verb are o ften separated . In the

sen tence , “ I have never seen him before ,”the Verb is

nave seen,and never i s not a part of the Verb .

EXERCISE 1 5

Point out the verbs

1 . T he river is slowly rising . 2 . I have hardly recovered . 3 . T he

officer was greatly annoyed by the boys . 4 . T he tardy scholar willno t be rewarded . 5 . T he child was ser iously injured by the fall .6 . Shooting stars are often seen in November . 7 . Richard will certain lybe here soon . 8 . T he boy was probably mistaken . 9 . H e will n everreturn . I O . Alice has seldom been tardy . 1 1 . I have now read the

whole book . 12 . T he calves were no t all sold . 13 . H e will surelycome in time . 14 . Flowers are sometimes found in March . 1 5 . Suchwork is easily done .

13 . In a sk ing a question the parts of the Verb are

usually separated.

I 0 English Grammar

EXERCISE 1 6

Po int out the verbs1 . H as the bell rung ? 2 . Do all birds sing ? 3 . Have you found

your pencil 4 . Has the horse been shod ? 5 . What have you donewith my top ? 6 . When shall we three meet again ? 7 . Where haveyou been ? 8 . Have you been to the village ? 9 . Have you not seenyour brother to-day ? 10 . Why did you come so late ? 1 1 . W ill thecherries be r ipe in May ? 12 . Which of these tops did you get last ?I 3 . Are you no t going home at n6on 14 . When does the train leave F1 5 . Did you hear the noise last n ight

14 . Some words may be used e ither as Nouns or as Verbs .

EXERC ISE 1 7

Te ll whether the words‘

in italics are used as noun s or

a s verbs1 . Allee has a new wa le/z . 2 . Hunters wa lek their dogs . 3 . Sh ips

sa il on the sea . 4 . T he m i ! of the boat was torn by the wind . 5 . T he

ch ildren took a wa lk with the ir father . 6 . T he boys wa lk fast becausethey are late . 7 . Blackbirds ka r zn no one

, but crows do a good dealo f ka r nz s ,

8 . I know my dog by his ba r k . 9 . S ome dogs ba r k at

n ight . I O . T he sp ider caught a fly . 1 1 . Wild geese fly north inthe spring . 12 . Blacksmiths skoe horses . 13 . T he horse has lost askoe . 14 . It was hard wor k . 1 5 . Printers wor k at n ight . 16 . We

dr ink coffee at breakfast . 17 . H e gave the poor man a dr ink of water .18 . Good boys konor their parents . 19 . It is true , upon my konor .

20 . M erchants skip their goods . 2 1 . T he skip put to sea . 22 . We

made a long sea r ek . 23 . Men sea r ek for gold . 24 . She bought twoquarts of mi lk . 2 5 . They en z'lk their cows very early . 26 . Dogs and

cats figkz‘

. 27 . There was a figkt in the street . 2 8 . Every store hasa sz

c

'

gn . 29 . People sign letters . 30 . Pick up slz'

eks . 3 1 . T he snowsticks to my shoes .

EXERC ISE 1 8

Make sentence s using e ach word, fir st as a noun,then

as a verbAct . Name . Work . B ite . Swing . Ride . Set .

Shoe . Pin . S tone . Fast . Judge . Hate . Love .

Verbs 1 1

Wish . Call . Fry . Salt . Plough . H oe . S eal . Butter . Knock .

Trip . Jump . Book . Pen . Fold . E nd . Finish . Score . Drive .

Hit . Doubt . S tep . Pile . File . Spring . Blame . Fire . Rage .

REV IEW

Po int out the verbs

1 . T he little bird sits at h is door in the sun .

2 . T he shouts of war die on the gale .

3 . Down swep t the chill wind from the mountain peak .

4 . T he moving moon went up the sky .

5 . I woke , and we were sailing on .

6 . T he glittering spears are seen no more .

7 . T he rainbow comes and goes,

And lovely is the rose .

8 . Fades slow the ir light ; the east is gray ;T he weary warder leaves his tower .

9 . It raised my hair, it fanned my cheek,Like a meadow-gale of spring .

I O . T he loud wind never. reached the sh ip,Y et now the ship moved on .

1 1 . The sun now rose upon the right,Out of the sea came he .

12 . T he curfew tolls the knell of parting day,T he lowing herd winds slowly o’

er the lea,

T he ploughman homeward p lods his weary way,And leaves the world to darkness and to me .

13 . I steal by lawns and grassy p lots,I slide by hazel covers,

I move the sweet forget-me-notsThat grow for happy lovers .

I murmur under moon and starsIn brambly wildernesses ;

I linger by my sh ingly bars ;I loiter round my cresses .

English Grammar

I saw him once before,As he passed by the door,And again

T he pavemen t stones resound,As he totters o’

er the groundWith h is cane .

They say that in his prime,Ere the pru

/n ing-kn ife of time

Cut him down ,Not a better man was foundB y the crier on h is roundThrough the town .

RatsThey fought the dogs and ki lled the cats,And bit the babies in their cradles

,

And ate the cheeses out of the vats,And licked the soup from the cook’s own ladles ;

Split open the kegs of salted sprats ,Made nests inside men’s Sunday hats,And even spo iled the women’

s chats .

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14 English Grammar

R uth said the kitten was theirs, but Edith said it was hers . 1 1 . The

farmer has sold h is sheep . 12 . H e sold them to a drover . 13 . Theywill now be driven to another place . 14 . She saw h im coming downthe road . 15 . They did no t hear his a nswer .

16. In stead of using h is own name, the person speak ingsays 1, me

, my ,m ine . In speaking of himse lf and other s

,

he says we , a s , our , ours . In stead of using the name of

the per son or per son s he i s speak ing to ,he says y ou, y our ,

y ours .

EXERCISE 21

Po in t out the pronoun s

1 .,Where are you going 2 . I am on my way to school . 3 . You

have time enough . 4 . Here is my hat ; where is yours ? 5 . I havelost m ine . 6 . Our parents will not let us p lay marbles on Sunday .

7 . Tell me where the lesson is . 8 . We can go swimming in the sum

mer . 9 . I leftmy overshoes in the hall ; where are yours 10. Your

brother lent me his knife to sharpen my pencil . 1 1 . It was their fault,no t ours . 12 . We have not seen him since he was with you . 13 . Myfather met them on the road . 14 . H e said the kn ife was yours, but Iknew it was m ine . 1 5 . Your house is larger than ours .

REVIEW

Poin t out the pronoun s z

1 . Little B o-Peep has lost her sheep,And cannot tell where to find them ;Leave them alone, and they’ll come home,

And bring their tails beh ind them .

2 . Then he ran to her , and laid_His head upon her arm,

As if he said,

“ I’m not afraid,You’ll keep me from all harm.

Pro nouns 1 5

I know it is a sinFor me to s it and grinAt him he re ;

B ut the old three-cornered hat,And the breeches , and all that,Are so queer !

4 . Then launched they to the blast,Ben t like a reed each ma st,Y et we were gain ing fast,When the wind failed us .

5 . Lift your leafy roof for me,Part your yie lding walls ;

Let me wander lingeringlyThrough your scented halls .

6 . I met a little cottage g1rl ;She -was eight years old , she said

H er hair was thick with many a curlThat clustered round her head .

My father . lived at Blenhe im then,Y ou little stream hard by :They burnt his dwelling to the ground,And he was forced to fly ;

S o with his wife and child he fled,

Nor had be where to rest h is head .

8 They are here ! They rush on We are broken We are goneOur left is bo rne before them like s tubble on the blast .

CHAPTER IV

ADJEGTIVES

17 . An Adj ect ive is a word that describes or modifies

a Noun .

E! ERCISE 22

Point out the adjectives

1 . A red apple is hanging on the old tree . 2 . Fred is a bright boy .

3 . Mary likes white roses . 4 . Jack has a new suit . 1

5 . T he teachertook a long walk . 6 . T he black horse is lame . 7 . A wise son maketha glad father. 8 . I have lost my new Sllk umbrella. 9. T he hot sun wi lldry the ground . 10. I never saw a purple cow . 1 1 . T om has a tamesquirrel . 12 . T he squirrel has a bushy tail . 13 . Alice has a kindheart . 14 .

\i t was a famous victory . 15 . A good name is rather to be

chosen than great riches . 16 . T he old so ldier has a wooden leg.

17 . The co ld wind is driving the white clouds southward . 18 . H e had

a Roman nose .

EXERCISE 23

Place an adj ective before each noun

1 . A boy . 2 . A girl . 3 . A day . 4 . men .

5 . A tree . 6 . A river . 7 . T he house . 8 . Ateacher . 9 . T he man gave the boy a apple .

10 . Fred has a bicycle . 1 1 . T he girl has a doll .12 . T he man walks with a cane . 13 . T he house has blinds .14 . T he boys drank water from the spring . 1 5 . breadis made from wheat . 16 . It was a day in June . 17 . H e droppedhis ball in the road . 18 . H is pet was a rabbit .

18 . Some Adjectives point out what person or thingis meant.

Adj ectives 17

EXERCISE 24

Point out the adj ectives

1 . This room is warm . 2 . Give it to th is boy. 3 . Show that girl :

the way . 4 . Those clouds will bring rain . 5 . This chair is new ;

that chair is old . 6 . This kn ife is sharp . 7 . That man is my uncle .

8 . T hese marbles and those tops are mine . 9 . That man gave theselittle girls candy . 10 . My father has an office in this street . 1 1 . Thathouse in my grandmother’s . 12 . These cherries are not ripe .

19. Some Adjective s show how much or how many .

EXERCISE 25

Point out the adj ectives

1 . There were few scholars present . 2 . There is little ink in the

bottle . 3 . Some farmers own much land . 4 . All men are mortal .5 . Is there any water in the bucket ? 6 . Most people are fond ofpraise . 7 . I have no apples in my basket . 8 . I had ten marbles thismorn ing . 9 . Thirty days hath September, April, June , and November .10. T he grocer sells sixteen pounds of sugar for one do llar. 1 1 . Abase-ball team has nine playersf 12. If we had more time, there wouldbe less haste . 13 . Several boys were hurt . 14. Many men, manyminds . 15 . Bo th doors were locked .

20. Some Adjectives show in What order .

EXERCISE 26

Point out the adjectives

1 . Alfred has been promoted from the fifth grade to the sixth grade .

2 . September is the n inth month in the year . 3 . H is text was thesecond verse of the third chapter of Proverbs . 4 . T he twenty-secondday of February is Washington’s birthday . 5 . T he first day of Maywi ll be a ho liday . 6 . I saw him the last time he was here . 7 . Turnto your left at the third corner . 8 . You will find h im in the first roomon the

,

third floor . 9 . T he lesson begins on the fourteenth page .

10 . Take the elevator to the seventh floor.

1 8 English Grammar

21. A or an and the are Adj ective s . T hey are sometimes cal led Ar ticles .

An Adj ective does not always come before the Noun .

EXERCISE 27

Po int out the adj ective s

1 . The sky is blue . 2 . T he river is deep . 3 . T he corn is ripe .

4 . A poor man sat by the dusty road . 5 . An orange is larger than a

peach . 6 . When blackberries are red they are no t ripe . 7 . Jane islazy . 8 . Jack is very polite . 9 . T he water from the spring is cool .10. T he road was rough . 1 1 . T he streets were muddy . 12 . His name

was ten th on the roll . 13 . T he box is not square . 14 . Some ink isblack

,and some is blue . 15 : T he flag 15 red, white, and blue .

Adj ective s may be long to Pronoun s as we ll as to

Noun s :I am co ld . H e is late . Are you tired

22. Sdme words may be used e ither as Adj ectives or

as Nouns .

EXERCISE 28

Te llwhether the words in ita lics are noun s or adjectives

1 . I heard a strange sound . 2 . A sound mind in a sound body .

3 . H e paid a heavy fi ne. 4 . She was sewing with a very fi ne needle .

5 . H e had on a ligbi‘ overcoat . 6 . T he sun gives lzgkl by day and the

moon by n ight . 7 . T he pupils did no t long remain quiet . 8 . Therewas quiet throughout the town . 9 . T he milkman made his r ound everymorning . IO . Is the ball exactly r ound 1 1 . Do it in the r igi d way .

12 . Might does not make r zgkl . 13 . There was a great ca lm . 14 . It

was a ca lm day . 1 5 . T he table was made of oak . 16 . H e had an

oak stick . 17 . T he land is fla t . 18 . They live in a fla t . 19 . Theydanced on the gr een . 20. G rass is gr een . 2 1 . Sitting B ull was an

Indian ekief . 22 . Character is the ekief thing .

Adjectives 19

EXERCISE 29

Use each word, first as a noun , second as an adj ectiveKind . Head . Fast . Plain . Fat . Square . Savage . Base .

Secret . Iron . Paper . Main . Even ing . Deep . Light . S ignal .Cross . ! uiet . S teep . Cold .

23 . Some words may be used e ither as Adj ectives or as

Verbs .

EXERCISE 30

Te ll whether the words in ita lics are verbs or adj ec

tives1 . I saw a blind man on the street . 2 . T he rays of the sun blind

my eyes . 3 . Do no t idle away your time . 4 . T he idle boy did not

know his lesson . 5 . T he sky was bright and clea r . 6 . Policemen

clea r the street . 7 . Farmers dry app les . 8 . T he ink is dry . 9 . T he

jan itors clean the room every day . 10 . Always write on clean paper.1 1 . There passed a wea ry time . 12 . You wea ry me . 13 . T he shipsnea r the land . 14 . Christmas was nea r . 15 . H e lives on the lower

floor. 16 . Sailors 17 . They oyen their books . 18 . T he

window is open . 19 . T he chi ldren returned safe and sound . 20 . Loudsound the bugles .

EXERCISE 31

Use each word fir st as a verb , then as an adj ective

Thin . Long . Right . Lean . Wrong . Warm . Wet . Fast .Weary . Fine . Light . ! uiet . Left Round . Clear. Dry . Secure .

Better. Cross . Level . Last . S econd .

REVIEW

Po int out the adjectives

1 . So shines a good deed in a naughty world .

2 . Beware the fury of a patien t man .

3 . A little learn ing is a dangerous thing .

4 . I am never merry when I hear sweet music.

5 . Virtue is bo ld, and goodness never fearful .

20 English Grammar

6 . T he way was long, the wind was co ld ,T he minstrel was infirm and old .

7 . Th is hermi t good lives in that woodWh ich slopes down to the sea .

8 . There was one li ttle Jack, no t very long back,And ’

tis said to h is,lasting disgrace,

That he never was seen with h is hands at all clean,Nor yet ever clean was his face .

H is friends were much hurt to see so much dirt,And often and well did they scour ;

B ut always in vain,he was dirty again

Before they had done it an hour .

T he idle and bad may, like to this lad,B e dirty and black, to be sure ;

B ut good boys are seen to be decent and clean,Although they are ever so poor.

9 . A good sword and a trusty handA merry heart and trueK ing James’s men shall understandWhat Corn ish lads can do .

H is hair is crisp , and black , and long,H is face is like the tan

H is brow is wet with honest sweat,H e earns whate’

er he can ,

And he looks the Wh ole world in the face,For he owes not any man .

1 1 . The fair bree z e blew, the wh ite foam flew,

T he furrow followed free ;We were the first that ever burstInto that silent sea .

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CHAPT ER . V

ADVER B S

24. A word that modifies a Verb is ca lled an Adverb .

EXERCISE 32

Po int out the adverbs

1 . T he wind was blowing furiously . 2 . T he stream flowed rapidly .

3 . T he so ldiers march slowly. 4 . T he girls sing well . 5 . T he be llwill ring soon . 6 . T he traveller never returned . 7 . James alwayscomes in time . 8 . I have not seen him. 9. We often meet h im on

the way to schoo l . 10 . T he sun shines everywhere . 1 1 . H e seldommisses hiS' lesson . 12 . H e is sometimes mistaken . 13 . Perhaps I canfind it . 14 . I earnestly hope you wi ll find it . 15 . T he ch ild was no t

hurt much . 16 . John talks less than most boys . 17 . T he dog wasnearly drowned . 18 . H e answered harshly. 19. She treated us kindly.

20 . Y ou surely know better than that . 2 1 . H e is coming now.

2 2 . Where did you put my hat ? 23 . Why did you come so late ?24 . When did you see him last 2 5 . How do you know that

25 . An Adverb may a lso modify an Adjective .

EXERCISE 3 3

Po int out the adverbs

1 . T he sun is very warm . 2 . Robert is remarkably tall . 3 . No oneis wholly bad . 4 . It became quite dark . 5 . There is too much talkingin the room . 6 . T he cherries are almost ripe . 7 . What is morebeautiful than the rose ? 8 . T he well is nearly dry . 9 . H ow long is

22

Adverbs 23

the lesson ? I O . H e was so tired he fell asleep . 1 1 . It was fearfullycold . 12 . T he lesson was rather long . 13 . That is hardly true .

14 . T he cold was unusually severe . 15 . Cork is much lighter thanwood . 16 . How beautiful this sunset looks ! 17 . H e was carefulenough . 18 . H e is a most diligent student . 19 . T he sky is slightlyhaz y . 20 . Tom is more polite than h is brother .

26 . An Adverb may modify another Adverb .

EXERCISE 3 4

Point out the adverbs

1 . H e ran very rap idly . 2 . I saw him quite recently . 3 . Writemore carefully . 4 . I see him pretty often . 5 . H e dresses ratherneatly . 6 . H e works somewhat slowly. 7 . They walked too fast forme . 8 . I like itWell enough . 9 . H e l ikes p lay far better than he doeswork . 10 . H e has just now passed the door . 1 1 . Alice is very muchp leased with her new doll . 12 . T he horses travelled tolerably fast .13 . H e is much more cheerful now . 14 . She writes rather more rap idlythan she did . 15 . H e is somewhat less diligen t than his brother .16 . T he k ite came down too -s oon . 17 . H e passes the house veryfrequen tly . 18 . H e reads much better than he did a month ago .

EXERCISE 3 5

Supp ly adverbs

1 . We know him 2 . T om was late . 3 . T he house ispainted . 4 . Alice is busy. 5 . H e is satisfied than he

was . 6 . It is warmer to-day . 7 . all children like a holiday .

8 . T he house was burned to the ground . 9 . T he pedler ishonest . 10 . I believe he was speaking the truth . 1 1 T he weatherwas cold . 12 . T he bell will ring 13 . are you going14 . will you return ? 15 . were you late ? 16 . I wasobliged to him . 17 . do you like your new neighbor ? 18 . H e

wi ll be strong again . 19 . T he wind scattered the leaves20 . H e m issed his lesson . 2 1 . I thought of that . 22 . The

poor man isconsented .

ill. 23 . T he sky looks threatening . 24 . H e

24 English Grammar

EXERCISE 3 6

Make sentences contain ing the fo llowing adverbs

Certainly . Hardly. Seldom . Often . Very . Soon . Here . Then .

There . Now. Where . Much . Little . Twice . Hence . Once .

Almost . Ill. Well . T oo . Never . Truly . Probably . Fast . Loud .

Long . Frequently . Sufficiently . Soundly. Gallantly. Sadly . Justly.

REVIEW

Point out the adverbs

1 . H e serves me most who serves h is country best .2 . And what he greatly thought, he nobly dared .

3 . T he shades of n ight were falling fast .

4 . Merri ly, merrily, shall I live now

Under the blossom that hangs on the bough .

5 . Solemnly sang the village cho irOn that sweet Sabbath morn .

6. In the market-place of B ruges stands the belfry old and brown ;Thrice consumed and thrice rebui lded, sti ll it watches o’

er the town.

7 . T he night is come, but not too soon ;And sinking silently,All silently, the little moonDrops down behind the sky.

8 . Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship,Y et she sailed softly too ;

Sweetly, sweetly blew the breez eOn me alone it blew.

9 . Now let us sing, Long live the king,And Gilpin , long live he ;

And when he next doth ride abroad,May I be there to see .

Adverbs

I wind about, and in and out,

With here a blossom sailing,And here and there a lusty trout

,

And here and there a grayling .

Till noon we quietly sailed on,Y et never a breez e did breathe ;

S lowly and smoothly went the ship,Moved onward from beneath .

12 . Now the darkness gathers,S tars begin to peep,

B irds and beasts and flowersSoon will be asleep .

2 5

CHAPTER V I

PR EPOSIT IONS

27 . A Preposit ion is a word u sed to show the re lation of

a Noun or Pronoun to some other word .

When we say ,“ T he dog r an round the house , or

z‘

krougk the house , or“under the house ,

”or

“ bekind

the house , the words round , z‘

krougk, under , bekind , showthe re lation of the house to the runn ing

,of

“ house to

“ran .

”

EXERC ISE 3 7

Point out the preposition s

1 . Three black crows sat on a tree . 2 . There was an old womanwho lived i n a shoe . 3 . Three wise men went to sea in a bowl .4 . T he house stands in a large yard . 5 . T he sun set behind the hill .6 T om ran down the street . 7 . George has written a letter to hisuncle . 8 . T he squirrel ran in to his hole . 9 . We walked along theriver . I O . There was a dog among the sheep . 1 1 . Moles work underthe ground . 12 . T he bird flew out the window . 13 . T he smoke wentup the chimney . 14 . T he horse galloped across the field . 1 5 . T he

hunter jumped over the ditch . 16 . I met him comlng from school .17 . H e made a whistle with his new knife . 18 . Man ila is beyond thesea . 19 . T he ch ild was walking between h is father and his mother .20 . Washington was the father of h is country . 2 1 . Albert is fond of

hunting . 2 2 . Mr . Thompson won two pri z es at the fair . 23 . S choolbegins at n ine o’clock . 24 . Chickens go to roost at night .

28 . When these words are used w ithout Noun s or Pronoun s they become Adverbs . When we say ,

“ T he mouseran up the clock ,

”up is a preposition ; when we say, The

sun came up ,”up is an adverb .

26

Prepo s itio ns 27

EXERCISE 3 8

Tell whether the words in ita lics are prepositions or

adverbs °

1 . Edi th stood by her father . 2 . Three soldiers were standing by .

3 . T he kettle boiled over . 4 . T he dog jumped over the fence . 5 . T he

sun peeped in . 6 . I looked in the window . 7 . T he kite went up and

down . 8 . T he policeman walks up and down the street . 9 . Thereis a grove bekind the house . 10. T he lazy boy lagged bekind . 1 1 . T he

little ones followed af ler . 12 . My brother lives two miles up the road.

13 . T he clouds are sailing above . 14 . We met T om going af ter thecows . 15 . We hurried home af ter the game . 16 . T he moon appearedabove the trees . 17 . T he sai lor fel l of the horse . 18 . T he handlecame of . 19 . T he soldiers marched on . 20 . T he b ird perched on alimb of a tree . 2 1 . T he railroad runs lkr ougk our farm . 2 2 . H e readthe story tkr ougk . 23 . Just then my brother came hurrying a long .

24 . T he ship sailed a long the shore . 2 5 . I have no t seen him s ince

Christmas . 26 . I have not been there s ince. 27 . There is a greatrock under the tree . 28 . I was watching it when it went under .

29 . D id you ever see him bef or e 30 . I shall see him befor e the holidays . 3 1 . T he children played benea l/z the large oak.

EXERCISE 3 9

Use each word first as a p reposmon , then as an

adverb

Down . Across . By . Before . About . On . Through . Along .

Behind . Beyond . Under . After . Up . Over . S ince . Out . Ofl.

Round . Beneath . Above .

REVIEW

Poin t out the preposition s

1 . She dwelt among the untrodden waysBeside the springs of Dove .

2 . T he flames by fits curled round the bars,Or up the chimney crinkled .

English Grammar

B eneath the spreading chestnut treeThe village smithy stands .

Over the river and through the woodT o grandfather’s house we go .

And neither the angels in heaven above,Nor the demons down under the sea,

Can ever dissever/my soul from the soul

Of the beautiful Annabel Lee .

6 ; I stood on the bridge at midnight,As the clocks were striking the hour,

And the moon rose o’er the city,

B ehind the dark church-tower .

All in a hot and copper sky,T he bloody sun , at noon,Right up above the mast did stand,No bigger than the moon .

Up into the cherry treeWho should climb but little meI held the trunk with both my handsAnd . looked abroad on foreign lands .

From breakfast on through all the dayAt home among my friends I stay,B ut every n ight I go abroadAfar into the land of Nod .

10. I chatter over stony ways,In little sharps and trebles,

I bubble into eddying bays ,I babble on the pebbles .

l I . How pleasantly the ris ing moon,Between the shadow of the mows,Looked on them through the great elm-boughs !

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30 English Grammar

6 . It is so , though you do not believe it . 7 . H e went hunting,although

it was raining. 8 . H e stumbled as he was gowg downstairs . 9. Edithis older than Will . 10 . H e asked h is father whether he might go .

1 1 . Wait until I return . 12 . We went to walk, although it was wet .

13 . You will not remember un less you pay attention . 14 . Socratessaid that he knew nothing . 15 . It was raining so hard that I couldnot go out . 16 . Harry knows his lesson better than ‘ Will does .

17 . Tell him,if you see h im,

that I shall leave to-morrow . 18 . Tellme whether you have seen him lately .

31. Sometimes Con junction s come first in the sentence .

EXERCISE 42

Po int out the conjunction s

1 . If I knew, I would tell you . 2 . Unless you write it down, you willforget it . 3 . Although he is small, he is very strong . 4 . As it waswet , she wore her overshoes . 5 . Because the book was torn

,he would

no t keep it . 6 . That you are wrong, is very evident . 7 . If there weretime, I would tell you the whole s tory . 8 . If you see him,

ask h im formy top . 9 . Un less my father consents, l shall not go . 10. If you loveme, keep

’

\my commandmen ts . 1 1 . Though he is o ften reproved, he

never gets angry . 12 . Whether he told the truth , I do no t know.

13 . As I was coming up the stree t, I met Lucy on her way home .

14 . If you wake first,call me .

E! ERCISE 43

Supp ly conjunctions

1 . Florence Julia are cousins . 2 . I have meat no bread.

3 . Is his name Brown Jones 4 . Is that man your uncleyour cousin 5 . My mother sister have gone away . 6 . I , havein my basket two books a napkin .

’

7 . You will be late youdo no t make haste . 8 . the weather was fine, we wen t to thewoods . 9 . you run , you wi ll no t overtake h im . 10 . I am cer

tain he would tell he knew . 1 1 . His father punished himhe disobeyed . 12 . it is cold, he wears no overcoat . 13 . T he

soldiers retreated they should be captured . 14 . H e returnedsooner I expected . 15 . I don’t know he is gui lty or not .

Co njunctions

REVIEW

Po int out the conjunction s

10 .

I I .

12 .

Charms strike the sight, but merit wins the soul.Freely we serve, because we freely love.

Man wants but little here below,Nor wants that little long.

And still they gazed, and still the wonder grewThat one small head could carry all he knew.

A little learn ing is a dangerous thingDrink deep , or taste not the Pierian spring .

Night’s candles are burnt out, and j ocund DayS tands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops .

H er modest looks the cottage m ight adorn ,Sweet as the primrose peeps beneath the thorn.

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,But to be youngwas very heaven

I slept and dreamt that life was beauty ;I woke and found that life was duty .

For some must follow and some command,Though all be made of clay .

Whether we look , or whether we listen,We hear life murmur, or see it glisten .

T he sunshine is a glorious birth ;But yet I know, where’

er I go,That there hath passed away a glory from the earth .

Not enj oyment and not sorrow,Is our destined end or way ;But to act

,that each to-morrow

Find us farther than to-day .

CHAPTER V I II

INTERJECT IONS

32. An Inter j ection is a word that calls attention or

expresses sudden fee ling .

Some of the interj ections are

0,ok, ak, kello, a las, key , kur r ak, yskaw,

ka,lo, bak,

aka,fi e

,etc.

EXERCISE 44

Point out the interjection s

1 . Hello ! is that you ? 2 . Oh what a pity ! 3 . 0 king, live forever ! 4 . q rrah ! our boys have won . 5 . Ah ! what a fall was there ,my countrymen 6. Pshaw ! what difference does it make 7 . Alashe is no more . 8 . H ey Nellie

,ho Nellie, l isten unto me . 9 . Bah

this apple’s sour . 10. I turned , and lo he had vanished . 1 1 . Aha I

have caught you . 12 . H ey ! Bob, wait for me ! 13 . Fie ! you oughtto be ashamed . 14 . Whew how the wind blows 15 . Tut my boy,

never mind .

CHAPTER IX

PARTS or SPEECH

33 . All the words in our language may be divided, according to the part they take in a sentence , into e ightclasses or Parts of Speech .

T he eight parts of speech are

Noun , Pronoun , Verb‘

, Adj ective, Adverb , Preposit ion ,

Conjunction , Interj ect ion .

A Noun is the name of anything .

A Pronoun is used, for the most part, to take the p laceof a Noun .

A Verb says something of the subj ect.An Adj ect ive is used to descr ibe or in some way modify

a Noun .

An Adverb is used to modify a Verb, or an Adjective ,or another Adverb .

A Preposi tion shows the re lation of a Noun or Pronoun

to something e lse in the sentence .

A Conjunction is used to j oin words or group s of words .An Inter j ect ion is used to call attention to or to expre sssome sudden fee ling .

34 . Some words may be sometimes one par t of speech ,sometimes another , according to their mean ing or use in

the sentence .

34. English Grammar

E! ERCISE 4 5

Te ll the part of speech of each ita liciz ed word

1 . W isdom is better than rubies . 2 . H e builded better than he

knew . 3 . I could have better spared a better man . 4 . H e thought tobetter his condition . 5 . Their better s could hardly be found . 6 . Theygot the better of him . 7 . H is was a sound mind in a sound body .

8 . So sound he slept that naught might him awake . 9. Sense and not

sound must be the princip le . 10. How s ilver-sweet sound lovers’

tongues ! 1 1 . There was not a man to ti ll the gr ound .. 12 . T he m iller

ground all day from morn ti ll n ight . 13 . Now all is ca lm and freshand sti ll. 14 . T he wind ceased and there was a great ca lm .

15 . With h is name the mothers still their babes . 16 . Brandy is madein a sti ll. 17 . Sunsh ine broken in the rill, though turned astray, is sunshine still. 18 . Music hath power to ca lm the savage breast . 19 . H e

roamed a savage in the woods . 20 . T he k ite went up and down .

2 1 . H e walked up and down the street . 22 . She went by dale and

she went by down . 23 . I remember how you downed Hamilton .

24 . They had their nys and downs of fortune .

EXERCISE 46

Make sen tences contain ing the following words used as

differen t parts of speech

Fast . Round . B itter . But . Up . Long . Mean . After . Past .Like . Square . Wheel . Blow . Water . Bear . Spring . Part .Name . Fly . Bark . Blind . Range . Behind . H ire . Place . Kind .

Fine . Lean . Idle . Trick .

GENERAL REVIEW

Te ll what part of speech each word is

Laz iness travels so slowly that Poverty soon overtakes

1 . Come, little leaves,”l

said the wind one day,“Come over the meadows with me and play .

Put on your dresses of red and gold ;Summer is gone, and the days grow cold .

Parts o f Speech 3 5

2 . Between broad fields of wheat and cornIs the lowly home where I was born ;T he peach tree leans against the wall,And the woodbine wanders over all .

3 . Over the river and through the woodOh ! how the wind does blowI t stings the toes,And bites the nose,As over the ground we go .

4 . I know a rosebud fairer farThan any buds of summer are ;Sweeter than sweet winds of the southGuess me the rosebud Baby’s mouth .

5 . Though your duty may be hard,Look not on it as an ill ;

If it be an honest task,Do it with an honest will .

6 . T he sp lendor falls on castle wallsAnd snowy summ its old in story ;

T he long light shakes across the lakes,

And the wild cataract leaps in glory .

7 . O thou child of many prayersLife hath quicksands

,life hath snares,

Care and age come unawares .

8 . T he wonderful air is over me,And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree ;It walks on the water and whirls the mills,And talks to itself on the top of the hills .

9 . K ing James once asked his council if he could not take the

money of his subjects without the consent of Parliament . Bishop N eileanswered flatteringly,

“Your Majesty may lawfully take the money ofyour subjects

,because yo u are the breath of our nostrils .

” T he k ingthen turned to Bishop Andrews . H e replied that he was no t skilfulin such matters , but the k ing demanded a p lain answer from him

,and

he said, “ I am sure that your Maj esty may lawfully take brotherNeile’s money, because he says you may .

”

PART I I

—000

CHAPTER X

INFLECTION

35 . Inflection, as used in grammar,mean s a change in

the form of words to mark a change of mean ing .

When we say boxes , that which distingu ishes it frombox is es when we say lzgkted , that which distingu ishes i t

'

from lzgkt is ed when we say ta ller, that which dis

t inguishes it from ta ll is er . T he es in boxes,the ea

’in

ligkted , the“

er m taller , are inflections .

Inflections are generally at the end of words : churches from clzur clz,

brothers from br otker , mother’s from motker , oxen from or,blinded

from blind, slept from sleey , eaten from ea t, look ing from look,older

from old,highest from bigli .

Sometimes the change takes place not at the end but within the

word : men from man , mice from mouse, sang from si ng, rode from r ide.

36 . Some of the parts of speech are inflected, othersare not inflected . Inflected are : Nouns , Pronouns , Verbs,Adj ectives, and some Adverbs . Uninflected are : Preposit ion s , Conjunction s , Interj ections , and some Adverbs .T he inflection of a Noun or Pronoun is ca lled Declension .

T he inflection of a Verb is ca lled Conj ugation .

T he inflection of an Adj ective or Adverb i s ca lledCompar ison .

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CHAPTER XI

NOUNS

37 . Common Nouns .— A name that is common to a

class of obj ects i s ca lled a Common Noun . Ci ty ,r iver ,

man, are common noun s . City is the name given to any

large town any large stream is a r iver .

38 . Proper Nouns .— T he particular name by wh ich one

of a class is distinguished from others of the class i s calleda Proper Noun . N ew York

,P otomac

,H a rold , are proper

noun s . New York distingu ishe s the city«

so named fromother cities

!

) P otomac is the name of a certain r iver inVirgin ia ; H a rold is the name by which we distingu ish thebearer of it from others of the same class other boys orrnen .

39 . Abstract Nouns .-T he qualities of an obj ect are

indicated by adjectives ; actions , by verbs and condition s ,by verbs or noun s . So we say ,

“ The paper i s wki te ,”

Scho lar s s tudy ,

” “ fEsop was a slave . B ut the qua lities, ~

action s , and condition s,though not obj ects of sen se , are

obj ects of thought,ideas ; and these ideas we can express

by noun s . The quality which the paper has we callwki teness ; the action of the Scho lars , s tudy ing ; the con

dition of the slave , slavery . N oun s that are the namesof qualities, actions

, or condition s , we ca ll AbstractNouns .

N ouns 39

Abstract Noun s are formed from Adjectives , Verbs , andother N oun s .

(I ) From Adjectives

Whiteness, boldness , foolishness , freedom, wisdom , truth , width,warmth

,honesty, purity, solidity, rap idity, prudence , patience, excellence,

distance, justice .

(2 ) From Verbs

Pleasure, occupation , election , service, judgment, refinement, belier,defence, seeing, learn ing, reading, proof, strife, choice, knowledge .

(3) From Noun s

Boyhood,manhood, friendsh ip , kinship , thraldom , sovereignty,

priestcraft, rascal ity, mastery, roguery, infancy, heroism,knavery

,

bondage, presidency .

There are also abstract nouns that are not formed from other words .Such are time, syfiace, f a i t/t .

40. Collective Nouns . — A Collective Noun is the name

of a collection or group of obj ects of the same class .Army , fl ock, kerd , swa rm ,

congr ess , fl eet, na t ion, are col

lective noun s .

EXERCISE 47

Po int out each noun and tell of what kind it i s

1 . The miller had a wart on his nose . 2 . Mr . Miller lives in New

York, but is now visiting his cousin , George Brown , in S t . Louis . 3 . Old

[r onsides was the popular name of the frigate Consti tution . 4 . T he

flock of sheep strayed off in to another field . 5 . Washington wasremarkable for prudence as well as for courage . 6 . Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty . 7 . Let not the sun go down upon yourwrath . 8 . Love is the fulfilling of the law . 9 . T he ho rn of the hunter is heard on the hill . 10 . Rowland’s regiment is on duty in Cuba .

1 1 . There never lived a braver youth . 12 . Y outh is the spring-time oflife . 13 . Hope springs eternal in the human breast . 14 . Congress will

40 English Grammar

adjourn in two weeks . 15 . Excalibur was the name of K ing Arthur’ssword . 16. Alexander’s horse was named Bucephalus . 17 . A littlelearning is a dangerous thing . 18 . T he committee made a unanimousreport . 19 . Cromwell, l charge thee, fling away ambition . 20. LittleLaura was a beauty . 2 1 . T he kittens are little beauties . 22 . In unionthere is strength .

41. T o Noun s be long Gender , Number , and Case, whichare partly distingui shed by inflection s .

GENDER

42. Gender is a distinction in words corresponding to

the natura l distinction of sex . A ll noun s may be divided,according to gender , into three classes : Mascu line , Femin ine , and Neuter .

(1) Names of ma le beings are of the Masculine Gender

boy , brother , ox.

(2 ) Names off ema le beings are of the Feminine Gendergir l

,si ster , now .

(3) Name s o f objects of nei tker sex are of the NeuterGender : leaf, stone , hat .

NOTE — Names common to botk sexes are sometimes said to be of

the Common Gender : parent, cousin, bird.

43 . The gender of noun s is distinguished in threeways

(1) B y d ifferen t words

M asculine Femmine

man

boy

fatherbrothernephewkinglord

Number

different endings

Feminine

lionesscountessheiressJewesshostessactresshero ine

(3) B y composition with distinguishing words

M asculine F em in ine M asculine

man-servant maid-servant bo ndmanhe-bear she-bear turkey-cockhe-goat she-goat pea

-cockcock-sparrow hen-sparrow

NOTE . T he femin ine inflections of purely English o rigin are -ster

in sp inster (old feminine of spinner ) , and -en in vixen (old fem in ine of

f or ) . Many o f the words in list 2) are fore ign words and form the

femin ine according to the rules of t h e language from which they aretaken .

NUMB ER

44 . Number , in grammar,is used to indicate whether one

or more of the obj ects named by the noun is meant . Thereare two number s in English , the S ingular and the Plura l .Thus boy ,

mean ing only one , is of the S ingular Number ;

boy s , meaning mo re than one , IS of the Plural Number .

I . The regular way of forming the Plura l is by adding8 o r es to the singular .

1 . B y adding 5

(a ) boys, cows, feathers, shores , tables , doves, hats,strings , fields, flowers, me ta ls, marbles, windows .(b) Words ending in silent e preceded by a h issing sound

make another syllable when s is added : horses, houses,fences, v ices, vases, siz es, bridges .

42 English Grammar

B y adding es

(a ) es is added, making another syllable, to nouns endingin s , sk , ck (as in ckur ck) , x, and z : gases, glasses, wishes,dishes, bushes, benches, churches, witches, boxes, foxgs,topazes .(b) es is added without making a new syllable : heroes,

potatoes, halves, wolves .

Some nouns ending in f or f e change the f to v:

beef, beeves ; calf, calves ; loaf, loaves ; shelf, shelves ; thief, th ieves ;wolf

,wolves ; kn ife, kn ives ; life, lives ; self, selves .

Others do not change

grief, griefs ; proof, proofs ; dwarf, dwarfs; hoof, hoofs ; cliff, cliffs ;roof

,roofs ; ch ief, chiefs ; reef, reefs scarf, scarfs .

N oun s ending in y preceded by a consonan t change y to

i and add es

lady,ladies ; baby, babies ; lily, l ilies ; mercy, mercies ; pony, pon ies ;

body,bodies ; puppy, puppies ; penny, penn ies ; copy, copies ; berry,

berries ; army, armies .

When the y i s preceded by a vowe l the p lura l is formedsimp ly by adding s

boys,keys, joys, chimneys

,turkeys, valleys, monkeys, abbeys, alleys .

Of nouns ending in o,the fo llowing add s

quarto,canto, fo lio , halo, libretto , palmetto, p iano, solo, tyro, 'octavo .

The following add es

hero, motto , negro,cargo , echo, potato, tomato, mosquito, grotto,

volcano,calico

,buffalo .

NOTE . Letters, figures, and signs are usually made plural by adding’s : m’

s, 3

’s . Dot yours i’s and cross your t’s .

Number 43

I I . A few nouns show an old p lural in en

oxen, children, brethren, kine .

NOTE .

‘ In the last three the en has been added to‘

earlier ‘

plu

rals : cki ldr e, br etker , ky e . These, therefore, are real ly double plurals .

I I I . A few noun s form their p lura l simp ly by change of

vowel. These are :

man,men ; woman, women ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth,

t eeth ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice .

IV . Some noun s have the same form for both numbersdeer, sheep, swine .

45 . Nouns wi th Two Plurals .— Some noun s have two

p lura l forms , with differen t mean ings . The most commonof . these are

brother brothers (of a family) brethren (of a church)cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes _(garments)die dies (stamps for coining) dice (cubes for gaming)fish fishes (separat ely ) fish (co llectively)genius gen iuses (men of gen ius) genn (sp irits)index indexes (to books) indices (in algebra)shot shots (discharges of a gun) shot (balls of lead)penny penn i es (separately) pence (collectively)

Some noun s that have commonly a regu lar p lural usethe singular form in such phrases as

Three yoke of oxen, three scor e, tenf atkom,a troop of kor se.

46 . Nouns used only in the Plural . Some nouns haveno singular . Such are

tongs, shears , scissors, trousers .

47 . Foreign Plurals . Words borrowed from other lan

guages and not yet fe lt to be true English words formthe ir p lura l according to the rules of the language from

44 English Grammar

which they are borrowed . The more common of suchwords are

seri es series

mesdames

dilettanti

seraph im

Some of these words, however , have also an English

p lural :Bandits, cherubs, beaus , memorandums , formulas, etc.

48 . Plural of Compound Nouns .— Compound nouns

form the ir p lural in several ways

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46 English Grammar

CASE

49 . Nouns have three cases : Nominative , Possessive ,and Obj ective .

The Nominative Case 1S the case of the subj ect of theverb . In the sentence “ B irds fly ,

”bi rds

,the subj ect

“

of

the verb , i s in the N ominative Case .

The Rossessive Case usua lly denotes possession : j oku’

s

k ite .

T he Obj ective Case is the case of the obj ect, direct orindirect . In the sentence The hunter k illed a bird ,

”bi rd

is the direct obj ect of the verb ki lled . In H e made the

boy a whistle , wkis tle is t he direct obj ect and boy the

indirect obj ect of the verb . B i rd,wk istle

,boy ,

1n’

these

sentences, are then in the Obj ective Case .

EXERCISE 49

Te ll the case .of each noun°

1 . Harry broke his b icycle . 2 . T he thief was caught . 3 . Leavesare falling . 4 . Mr . Brown’s house was burned . 5 . Jane lost her book .

6 . T he sun’s rays melted the snow . 7 . Did John find his top 8 . T he

frost has killed the flowers . 9 . T om caught the ball . 10. Lightningstruck the tree . 1 1 . Mary’s dress 1s torn . 12 . T he dog tore Mary

’s

Case 7

dress . 13 . Chestnuts are ripe . 14 . T he wind has scattered the leaves .15 . Has the farmer sown his wheat 16 . Arthur found a crow’s nest .17 . T he rain has stopped the children

’s game . 18 . T he merchant keptboys’

,men’s

,and ladies’ shoes . 19 . Alice found her brothers’ books.

20 . When will the train leave

50. Uses of the Nominative Case — The Nominative i s

used as fo llow s

(I ) A s the Subj ect of a Verb : The sun r ises .

(2 ) A s a Predicate N oun,w ith certain verbs that have

not o f themse lves a comp lete mean i ng : T he so ldier hecame cap ta in .

(3) In Apposition with some other N ominative Char les ,the dr iver

,lo st his way .

(4) In Address : j oku ,where have you been ?

(5 ) Abso lutely with a particip le T he ra in be ing over , wereturned home . This i s called the Nom inative Absolute .

EXERC ISE so

Point out the noun s in the nominative case , and te ll inwhich of the five ways each is used

1 . Bryant, the poet, translated the I liad . 2 . A heavy rain havingfallen , the roads were impassable . 3 . Boatman , do no t tarry . 4 . H e

was elected governor . 5 . My brother is a lawyer . 6 . T he sun

having risen , we set out . 7 . An honest man is the noblest workof God . 8 . Friends

,Romans

,countrymen , lend me your ears .

9 . C icero, the orator, was called Tully by older writers . 10 . Henry,

lend me your knife . 1 1 . T he Joneses are our neighbors . 12 . Thomas,

your mother is calling you . 13 . Darkness coming on , we stopped atthe tavern .

’

14 . Benedict Arnold turned tra itor . 15 . T he postmancomes, the herald of a noisy world . 16 . Kipl ing, the author of T he

Jungle Book,” is an Englishman . 17 . Whitney was the inventor of thecotton-gin . 18 . Eugene Field became a journalist . 19 . Franklin leftB oston a poor printer and returned a famous statesman . 20 . Booksare the legacies of wise men .

4 8 English Grammar

5 1. Uses of the Possessive Case. T he Possessive Caseis so ca lled because it u sua lly denotes posse ssion . I t is

equivalent to of wi th the Obj ective Case .

“T he m i ller ’s

house ”is equ iva lent to the house of the mi ller .

”

Of with the Objective, however, is nof always equivalent to the

Possessive : “ the city of Boston ” cannot be changed to “ Boston’scity .

” On the o ther hand the Possessive is no t always equivalent toof with the Objective T he Winter’s Tale ,” the name of one ofS hakspere’s plays, means “a tale for winter,” not “ a tale of winter ”

“an even ing’s entertainment ” means “

entertainment for an even ing“ a Colt’s revolver ” means “a revo lver made by Colt . ”

T he S ign of the possessive singular, ’s,

1 is for an older es , still seeninWednesday (Woden’s day) . It is also used to form the possessivep lural of nouns whose nominative plural does not end in s : men

’s,

oxen’s,deer ’

s .

In nouns of more than one syllable ending in an s or 3 sound the s

is sometimes omitted, to avo id the unpleasan t repetition of hissingsounds : “For consci ence’ sake,” “Moses’ seat,” “ Lycurgus’ son s .But where the possessive ending does not sound harsh, it is retainedJones ’s house

,

” “ S t . James’s Square,” “Morris’s sons .

”

In compound nouns,and when two or more words are

closely connected, the po ssess ive inflection come s at the

end : f a tker-in—law’

s,man-of-wa r

’

s,somebody else

’

s, Sm i tk

and B rown’

s store , B eaumon t and Fle tcker’

s p lays , the

! ueen of E ngland’

s crown .

When separate possession is meant, each noun shou ldhave the S ign : j okn

’

s and M a ry’

s shoes,Webs ter

’

s and

Worcester’

s dictionar i es .

T he possessrve p lura l of noun s forming the p lura l in s

o r es is indicated by the apostrophe a lone : the boy s’

p layground, ladies’

waiting-room .

1 The comma above the line before the s is ca lled an apostr opke.

Case 49

EXERCISE 5 1

Construct sentences contain ing the possessive case of

the following noun s and phrases :

Sailor . Boy . Dog . Laborers . Workmen . Butterfly . Flies .Foxes . Marquis . Dwarf. Wife . Tornado . Geese . Princess .

Demosthenes . Mason and Dixon . Wright and D itson . Moses .

Webster the statesman . T he Prince of Wales . T he ! ueen ofEngland . Henry the Eighth . George I II . President Jackson .

Brother-in-law . Attorney-general . David the king .

52. Uses of the Obj ective Case. The Objective Case isused

(I ) As the D irect Obj ect of a Verb : T he hunter killeda deer .

(2 ) As the Indirect Object of a Verb : Robert gave h isbrotker a kn ife .

(3) After Prepositions : H e fell into the pond . Theyreturned before n igkt .

(4) In Apposition w ith another noun in the Obj ectiveCase z I know your fr iend , the j udge .

(5) A s the Obj ective Comp lement, or Second Object,

after certain verbs : They e lected his father governor .

(6) Adverbially , to express time , distance , and sim ilarre lations : I saw him M onday . H e stayed two weeks .

H e ran a m i le .

EXERCISE 5 2

Po in t out the'

noun s in the obj ective case , and tell inwhich of the six ways each i s used

1 . T he frost has k illed the flowers . 2 . Have you caught any fish ?3 . H e has been here a fortnight . 4 . I saw your uncle , Mr . White , inthe village . 5 . I stood on the bridge at m idn ight . 6 . His house isten m iles from the station . 7 . T he President has appointed Mr. Smithpostmaster . 8 . My cousin gave Robert a pony . 9 . Have you paid

50 English Grammar

the man his wages ? 10. T he cat has killed Tony, my canary .

1 1 . T he dog bit Thomas , the gardener . 12 . They elected Harry cap~tain of the team . 13 . T he fish weighed three pounds . 14 . We callWashington the father of his country . 15 . I met Mr . Smith , the postmaster, in the city last week . 16 . H e gave the man a blow on the

cheek . 17 . Mary sent her aunt a basket of flowers . 18 . We returnedhome after dark . 19 . H e lectured on Longfellow, the author ofEvangeline .

”20. T he tramp threw a stone at my dog Rover. 2 1 . T he

hotel is three blocks from Broadway . 22 . My racket cost five dollars .23 . T he snake measured four feet from head to tail . 24 . My littlebro ther is ten years old to-day .

PARSING

5 3. T o parse a word is to te ll What part of speech it is,and its re lation to other words in the Sentence . In parsinga Noun the pr incipal thing is to decide in what case it is,and Why .

REVIEWParse each noun

1 . Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers .2 . Imitation is the s incerest flattery.

3 . Prosperity makes friends, adversity tries them.

4 . T he groves were God’s first temples .5 . A hard beginn ing maketh a good ending .

6 . No legacy is so rich as honesty .

7 . All mankind love a lover .8 . T he heavens declare the glory of God ; and the firmament

showeth his handiwork .

9 . Justice, sir, is the great interest of man on earth .

10 . Sweet mercy is nobility’s true badge .

1 1 . At Christmas play and make good cheer,For Christmas comes but once a year.

12 . What are the wild waves saying,S ister

,the whole day long

13 . One morn a Peri at the gateOf Eden stood disconso late .

Pars ing

14 . Thus done the tales, to bed they creep ,By whispering winds soon lulled to sleep .

15 . O judgment ! thou art fled to brutish beasts,And men have lost their reason .

16 . Fire in each eye, and papers in each hand,They rave , recite, and madden round the land .

We are such stuffAs dreams are made of, and our little lifeIs rounded with a sleep .

From mornTo noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve,A summer’s day .

19 . They sang of love, and not of fame ;

Forgot was Britain’s glory ;Each heart recalled a different name,But all sang Annie Laurie .

”

20 . The world goes up and the world goes down,And the sunshine follows the rain ;

And yesterday’s sneer and yesterday’s frownCan never come again .

CHAPTER XI I2

PRONOUNS

54. The Pronoun ,as we have seen ,

is so called because itis used for a Noun . B ut thi s defin ition is not broad enoughto cover all uses of pronouns . T he pronouns w e

, y ou ,

wko , tkis , tka t , exp ress relation s of person and p lace thatthe noun alone could no t express . In H e that runs may

read ,ke and ika t cannot be rep laced by nouns . Pronouns ,

then,are really r eference words , po inting out person s and

things,rather than standing for nouns .

5 5 . There are five classes of pronouns

(1) Personal : 1 lent k im my kn ife'

.

(2 ) Interrogative : Wko did this ?

(3) Relative : T he boy tkut borrowed my top lost it .

(4) Demonstrative : Who did tkis ?(5 ) Indefini te : S omebody sa id so .

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

5 6 . Per sonal Pronouns are so ca lled because they are usedto distingui sh the three grammatical Person s, the speaker

(F irst Pe rson), the person spoken to (Second Pe rson ), andthe person o r th ing spoken of (Third Per son) . Like nouns ,

they have Gender , Number , and Case , and are declined as

follows :

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54 English Grammar

In older English, as in the English B ible y e is regularly usedfor the nominative , and y ou fo r the objective : “N o

'

doubt but y e are

the people and wisdom shall die with y ou .

” Ye is some times foundin modern poetry ; but o rdinary speech uses y ou for both nominativeand objective .

T he original possessive of it was not i ts , but kis “ If the salt havelost kis savor, wherewith shall it be salted I t

’s, in modern English,

is an abbreviation of i t is, and should never be used for i ts .

T he plurals we, y ou , and tkey are sometimes used indefinitelv, without reference to any particular person

We seldom find honor among thieves .You cannot eat your cake and have it too .

They say so .

Your worm is your on ly emperor for diet .Your real grumbler n ever smiles .

[t is used after certain verbs indefinitely, as a sort of cognate object(see 84) foot it , rough it, queen i t, fight zt out .

59. Compound Per sonal Pronouns — T he Compound Per

sona l Pronoun s ar e formed by adding self (selves ) to formsof the Per sona l Pronoun s . They are : myself , tky self, y ourself , kimself, kerself , i tself, ourselves , y ourselves , tkemselves .

These Compound Per sona l Pronouns are u sed

(I ) A s Reflex ive Pronouns I hurt my self. H e pra iseskimself .

A Reflexive Pronoun is a lways the obj ect (direct or indirect) of a verb , o r the obj ect of a prepos ition ,

and refersto the same person or thing as the subj ect : We shouldnever prai se ourselves . H e got kimself a new hat . She

thinks on ly of kerself.

In older English the s imple pronouns are used as reflexives . Thisuse still occurs in poetry, and somet imes also in prose, especially in thecase of the indirect obj ect : Now I lay me down to sleep . My fatherhas bought kim a new horse .

Perso nal Pro nou ns 5 5

(2 ) A s Emphatic Pronoun s emphasiz ing a noun or p ro

noun a lready used : I saw h im my self. H e told me so

kimself . She kerself knows it is fa lse . I asked the gove rnor kims elf.

T he compound pronoun is sometimes used instead of the simplepersonal pronoun : H ere are tickets for y our self and friends .S elf (selves) is sometimes used separately as a noun : Tarquin’s

self ; my woful self ; men may rise on stepping stones of the ir deadselves to higher things .

EXERCISE 5 3

Po int out the persona l and the compound pronoun s , andtell the person ,

number , and case of each .

1 . Love thy ne ighbor as thyself. 2 . It is I open the door . 3 . Takeheed that ye do no t your alms before men , to be seen of them . 4 . Thyfather’s friend forget thou not .

5 . H is flock he gathers and he guidesTo open downs and mountain sides .

6 . Rocked in the cradle of the deep ,I lay me down in peace to sleep .

7 . Who gives himself with his alms feeds three,Himself, his hungry ne ighbor, and me .

8 . Theirs no t to make rep ly,Theirs no t to reason why

,

T heirsmbut to do and die .

9 . Build thee more stately mans ions,O my soul

10 . Riches certain ly make themselves wings .

What is ‘

yours is min e, and all mine is yours .

12 .

“God save thee,Ancient Mariner,

From the fiends that plague thee thusWhy look’

st thou so “With my crossbowI shot the Albatross .

56 English Grammar

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

60. T he Interrogative Pronouns are used in askingquestion s . They are wko

,wkick

,and wkat .

Who is used on ly of person s Wko IS your teacher ?What is used on ly of things : Wka t did he wan t ?Which is used of e ither per son s or things : Wk ick of

you came fir st ? Wkick wi ll you have , the app le or the

pear ?

61. Wh ich and what are un inflected, that is, have eachon ly one form ; Which is u sed as singu lar and plura l,nominative and obj ective . What i s used for both cases

,

but is a lways singular . They have no po ssessive case .

Who is declined as follows

N om . whoPoss . whoseObj . whom

I t has novar iation of form for gender o r number .

Wketker , mean ing “which of the two , is now o bsolete , but is familiar from its use in S cripture : “Whether is grea ter, the gift or thealtar

EXERCISE 5 4

Parse the interrogative pronoun s

1 . With whose permiss ion did he leave home ? 2 . Who saw himlast ? What does he want ? 4 . Which do you prefer, the red orthe blue ? 5 . With whom were you riding yesterday ? 6 . Whosehorse did you drive 7 . What was the cause of the outcry 8 . Towhom did you give the apple 9 . Who is that standing on the bridge10 . What is the name of that flower ? 1 1 . Which is the wind thatbrings the rain ? 12 . What have you in your pocket ? 13 . Here are

two marbles ; which will you take 14 . Whom do you wish to see ?

1 5 . Which passed the better exam ination, Mary or Alice 16 . Whosehouse is that 17 . Who killed Cock-Robin 18 . What is the mean

Relative Pronouns 57

ing of inter r oga tive .9 19 . What did you hit him with 20. What did

you tell h im for 2 1 . Whom do you want to go with ? 2 2 . Whichof the boys do you like best 23 . What is corn worth this week ?What are the wild waves saying 2 5 . Who were there ?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

62. T he word or group of words to which a pronoun

refer s is called the Antecedent of the pronoun ,so named

because it common ly come s before the pron oun .

Pronoun s which j oin the clause in which they stand tothe ir anteceden ts are ca lled Rela tive Pronouns .

In the sentence,This is the house that Jack built,

tka t is a relative pronoun . It is a pronoun because it stands for “the

noun kouse ; it is a relative pronoun because it j oins the clause “ thatJack built ” as a modifier to its antecedent kouse .

Re lative pronoun s , then , are not on ly reference words,

like other pronouns , but are a lso con junctive words . Theyare , however , not to be confounded with con junction s

,

for they have the same case re lation s as the personal

pronoun s .63 . T he re lative pronoun s are who, which , what, and

that . That and what are indeclinable , and are used on ly

in the nom inative and obj ective “

cases .

Who and which are declined as follows

N om . who whichPoss . whose [whose!Obj . whom which

Wko, wkic’

k,and tka t are singular or p lura l , according to

the number of the an teceden t . Wka t i s always singula r .

Wkick is rea lly indeclinable , but the po ssessive case of

5 8 English Grammar

wko is frequently used as a possessive of wkick . We maysay , A tr iangle who se sides a re equal,

”a s we ll as

, A tr i

angle the sides of which are equa l . ”

Tka t was originally a demonstrative pronoun, and is the oldest relative ; wko, wkick, and wka t

, originally interrogatiire pronouns, camelater to be used as relatives .

64 . As Re lative Pronouns , wko refer s to persons on ly ,wk ick to things, and tka t to e ither personsor things . Whichwas former ly used for persons as we ll as for things , as inthe o lder form of the Lord

’s Prayer : Our Father wkickar t in heaven . We have a lready seen that as an interrogative wkick is used indifferently for person s and th ings .

65 . The Re lative Pronoun takes its person and number

from its an teceden t , but its case is determ ined by its use

I , whoi

am your chief, command you .

I , whom they hated, was their benefactor .Thou

,who seest all things , seest me .

H e whose tongue is loudest th inks the least .

66 . Wka t differ s from the other re latives in that i t hasno anteceden t . In mean ing it contains its own antecedent.

Thus inWhat is new is not always true,

wka t is equivalent in mean ing to tkat wkick ; and we may say

That which is newis not always true,

where tkat , subject of is not a lway s tr ue, is the antecedent of wkick,

subject of is new . In parsing, however, it is better not to reso lve wka tinto tko l wkick . In the sentence above, parse wkat as the subject ofi s new and wkat is new as the subject of i s not a lways tr ue. See

Noun C lauses, 142, 1 .

”I

Wko, also, is sometimes used without an antecedent expressedWko steals my purse '

steals trash

Re lative Pro nouns 59

67 . Compound R elative Pronouns .

-ever and -soever ,affixed to wko

,wkick

,and wka t

, fo rm the Compound

Re latives whoever , whichever , whatever , etc . They h aveno anteceden t exp ressed ,

and refer to no defin ite personor thing, but have the same conn ective force as the simplere latives

Whoever asks may have .

Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so tothem .

Wko in these compounds i s declined Wkosoever,wkose

soever,wkomsoéver .

68 . As and B ut as R elatives — T he con junction a s is

used ,e specially a fter suck

,w ith the force of a re lative

pronoun

We are such stuff a s dreams are made of.

B u t,in such sen tences a s

There is no one but knows this ,

is equ ivalent to wko not, and take s therefore the place

of a re lative .

69 . Relative Omi tted — T he relative pronoun is some

times om itted,as in

H e is the very man I met before .

Have you read the book I gave you

where the obj ects of m et, gave , are to be supplied in

parsing .

70. T o parse a Re lative Pronoun ,give its case and its

agreemen t w ith i ts an teceden t, thus

A British officer,who saw the battle, has written an account of it .

Wko is a relative pronoun , in the third person , singular number,and masculine gender , to agree with its anteceden t ofi icer , and in the

nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb saw .

60 English Grammar

T he B ritish p ffi cer whom you met yesterday has been ordered hom

Wkom is a relative pronoun , in the third person , s ingular number,and masculine gender, to agree with its antecedent ofi icer , and in the

objective case , because it is the object of the verb myt .

What he says is true .

Wka t is a relative pronoun, without anteceden t expressed ; it is inth : objective case , because it is the object of the verb say s . T he clausewka t ke say s is then to be parsed as subject of the predicate is tr ue .

EXERC ISE 5 5

Parse the re lative pronoun s

1 . I have lost the book that you lent me . 2 . The tailor that livedon Broadway has moved . 3 . T he rain which threatened has passedover . 4 . Have you seen the Sailor that re turned from Hawaii lastweek 5 . I know a little boy whose name is Jack . 6 . Thomas Jefferson , who wrote the Declaration of Independence , also founded the

Un iversity of Virgin ia . 7 . T he Philippine Islands, which the Americans acquired from Spain , are very fertile . 8 . Rudyard Kip ling, whomAmericans at first disliked because he criticised them severely

,has since

become a favorite author in the Un ited S tates . 9 . Lightn ing struckthe tree under wh ich we were sitting . 10 . My friend whom you met isa doctor. 1 1 . Te laughs best who laughs last . 12 . They who sowthe wind reap the whirlwind . 13 . Benjam in Franklin , who wrote “PoorRichard’s Almanac

,

” was famous as a scientist . 14 . T he people whosehouses were burned lost heavily . 15 . H e was always j ust, even to people whom he disliked . 16 . Who is the man that you were talkingwith j ust now ? 17 . T he book that you spoke of is in the library.

18 . T he catalogue that you sen t for will come to-morrow . 19 . Yoursister has found the purse you lost yesterday. 20 . That’s the funn ieststory I ever heard . 2 1 . H e knew me the minute he saw me . 2 2 . T he

book he wants is in my desk . 23 . I,who am known to you all

,give

you In,word for it . 24 . O thou that hearest prayer, to thee shall all

flesh come . 2 5 . G ive me what you have in your hand . 26 . Didyou get what you wan ted ? 2 7 . Whatever he undertakes prospers .2 8 . Who breaks , pays . 29 . Whoever crosses this line does so at hisperil . 30 . Such as are worthy will be promoted . 3 1 . There is no one

in the school but likes h im.

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62 English Grammar

In such sentences as , “ I tell you what,”wka t is neither relative nor

interrogative, but indefin ite, and should be parsed as such .

EXERCISE 5 6

Parse the demon strative and the indefin ite p ronoun s

1 . Have you seen this before ? 2 . That is what I asked you . 3 . Are

these the goods you ordered ? 4 . This is the most interesting story Iever read . 5 . Those who come first will get the best seats . 6 . Hasany one been in this morn ing ? 7 . H e prom ised to give specialattention to those who apply by letter . 8 . I preferred these to those .

9 . One never knows what may happen . 10 . Each respected the other ..1 1 . One’s conduct speaks louder than one’s words . 12 . They kep teach othe r’s secrets . I 3 . It is somebody else’s turn to go . 14 . Thatis nobody’s business but his . 15 . Some went one way, some another .16 . I have no ink ; please give me some . 17 . If any one comes , tellh im to wait . 18 . Do you need anything more ? 19 . Both of themmay go , for aught I care . 20. Neither of these answers is right . 2 1 . Allof you made the same mistake . 22 . Some said yes , others no . 23 . Of

such is the k ingdomi

of heaven . 24 . Few can tell what he really thinks .2 5 . When he'i s angry he stops at nothing . 26 . That is all I have tosay . 2 7 . S omebody has scribbled on my paper,and I haven’t any thatI can use . 2 8 . Which pen do you wan t, this or that ? 29 . G ive me

both . 30 . H e has seen much , but has learned little . 3 1 . Each of themgave a different answer . 32 . Few shall part where many meet .

REVIEW

Par se the n oun s and the pronouns

1 . Talent is that wh ich is in a man’s power ; gen ius is that in whosepower a man is .

2 . There are some that bear a grudge even to those that do themgood .

3 . I am a part of all that I have met .

4 . Go , get you to your house .

5 . Whoever fights, whoever falls,Justice conquers evermore .

Pro nouns

Who is heThat he should rule us P Who hath proven h imKing Uther’

s son

7 . Rattle his bones over the stones !H e

’s on ly a pauper whom nobody owns

8 . Oh,don’t you remember sweet Alice

,B en'B olt

,

Sweet Alice , whose hair was so brownWho wep t with delight when you gave her a smile,And trembled with fear at your frown

9 . That man may last, but never lives,Who much rece ives , but nothing gives ;Whom none can love , whom none can thank

,

Creation ’s blot creation’s blank .

10 . T he spirit who bideth by himselfIn the land of m ist and snow

,

H e loved the bird that loved the manWho shot him with his bow .

1 1 . How happy'

is he born‘

and taught,That serveth n o t another’s willWhose armor is his honest thought,And simple truth h is utmost sk ill !

12 . That time of year thou mayst in me beholdWhen yellow leaves , or none, or few, do hangUpon those boughs which shake against the coldBare ruined choirs , where late the sweet birds sang .

Blest are thoseWhose blood and judgment are so well commingled,That they are no t a p ipe for fortune’s fingerT0 sound what stop She please . G ive me that manThat is not passion

’s slave , and I will wear himIn my heart’s core , ay, in my heart of heart,As I do thee .

CHAFTER X I I I

ADJECT IVES

74 . Adj ectives may be divided into three classe s

(I ) Adj ectives of ! uali ty : A good hor se . A w ise man .

Cold weather .

(2 ) Numeral Adj ectives : Five days . Tkree times . T he

seven tk man .

3) PronominalAdj ectives : Tk is class . Tka t boy . Wkickbook ?

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES

75 . Nurfrerals are of two k inds, Cardina ls and Ordina ls .

T he Cardinals are those which te ll how many : one,two

,

tkree,twen ty ,

kundred ,tkousand .

T he Ordinals are those which tell position in a ser ie s

fi rs t,second ,

tki rd,twen ti etk

,kundredtk

,tkousandtk .

T he ordinals (exceptfir st and second ) are also used to te ll the partsinto which a quan tity or th ing is divided

,and have then the construc-u

tion and inflection of nouns : T wo-tki r ds of the crew were drowned .

Three-flf tks of twenty is twelve .

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES

76 . Pronom inal Adj ective s fa ll,according to the ir mean

ing, into the fo llowing classes

(I ) T he possessive forms of the per sona l pronoun s havethe value of adj ectives , and are by many grammar ian sca lled Possessive Adj ectives : My book . Your pen ci l .

Pro nom inal Adj ectives 65

(2 ) T he interrogative s wkick and wka t are used a s

Inter rogative Adj ective s Wk ick book do you want ? Wka tan swer did he make

3) Wk ick and wka t are also used as Re lative Adj ect ivesH e was two year s in Germany ,

dur ing wk ick time he hea rdthe lecture s of several famous scholars . H e spent wka tmoney he had .

T he Compound Relatives , wka tever ,wkickever , etc . (notwkoever ) , areused as adjectives, and may then be called Indefin ite Relative Adj ectivesbut it would be better to call them simply Indefin ite Adjectives

Wkickever road he takes , he will find it bad .

(4) T he Demon strative Adj ectives are tbis (p lura l tkese ),tka t (p lura l tkose), y on ,

and y onder : Tkese men . Tka t

tree . Tkose fr iends of yours . Yonder ivy-mantled tower .

Yon glitter ing star .

Tkese and tkose are the only adjectives‘

in English that show inflec

tion for number . Yon and y onder are no t used as pronouns .

(5 ) One , any ,some

, no, every ,otker

,a notker , botk , many ,

seve ra l, f ew ,

a ll,muck

,li ttle

,e i tker , ne i tker , f ormer

,la tter

,

ca ck,suck

,-many of which have a lready been described

as indefin ite p ronoun s, — may be used as adj ectives , and

are then ca lled Indefin ite Pronomina l Adj ectives

B otk horses were sto len .

S uck men are dangerous .

M a ny men,ma ny m inds .

Every member of the cla ss was present .E ack day br ings its p lea sures .N o man knoweth h is sepulchr e .

NOTE — M any a , as in “ I have heard it many a time, may b.

taken together and parsed as one adj ective . Though it is plural inmean ing, it is singular in form,

and requires always a singular noun .

66 English Grammar

(6) The adjectives a or a n and tko are ca lled Ar ticles .A

,an

,IS called the Indefin ite Ar ticle .

An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound, and oftenbefore k in unaccented syllables, as in kistor ica l, where k is scarcelyheard . A

, a clipt form of an,is used before words beginn ing with a

consonant sound

A tree . An apple . A h istory . A horse . A univers ity . An historical novel . An heroic deed .

T he indefin ite article is from old English an,wh ich gives also our

numeral one.

“A child ” means any one of the class children .

”

NOTE 1 The indefinite article is used idiomatically with f ew ,gr eat

many , kundr ed, etc .

,to form an adjective phrase limiting nouns in the

plural : A f ew days . A gr ea t many words . A‘

kundr ed times . T he

pronominal use, on the other hand, of f ew, etc .

,is seen in : A f ew of

my friends . A great many of them .

NOTE 2 . T he a in asleep , a-fi sking, aboa r d,is not the article, but

a reduced form of the preposition on .

Tke is salled the Defin ite A rticle . It is a weakened

form of an old English demon strative which survive s in the

modern tkut,and it reta in s a pronom in a l (r e . re ference )

force in almost all of its mode rn u se s . These use s are as

fo llows :

1 . It marks a thing as already described, or mentioned, or otherwise sufficiently known to the hearer or reader : Tke sun . Tke Atlantic . G ive me lkc change .

2 . It marks a thing to be explained by some following word, phrase,or clause : Tke next day . Tke earliest opportun ity . Tke book youasked for .3 . It is sometimes used with the singular of a class-noun to denote

that the whole class is meant : Tke fool hath said in his heart,there is no God . Tke mocking-bird is sometimes called tke Americannightingale .

NOTE — In such sentences as , “ T he longer the day, the shorterthe n ight

,

”i ke before longer and skor ter is not the article, nor an

Comparison 67

adjective at all . It is an old case of the demonstrative pronoun tka t,

modifying the comparative to which it is prefixed , and means by tka tB y tka t the day is longer, by tka t the n ight is shorter . Tke in this construction is to be parsed as an adverb .

COMPARISON

77 . With the exception of tk i s and tkut,which form the

plura ls tkese , tkose, adj ectives have in Engli sh no inflectionfor gender , number , or ca se . Most adj ectives , however ,have an inflection to distingu i sh degrees of the quality or

quan tity indicated . This i s ca lled Compar i son .

There are three degrees of compar ison : Positive , Com

parative , Superlative .

The simple adj ective , w ithout inflection ,is sa id to be in

the Posi tive Degree : sweet,ka rd

,ta ll.

T he fo rm of the adj ective u sed in comparing one obj ectw ith another is called the Comparative Degree : swee ter

,

ka rder,ta ller ; he i s ta ller than I am .

The fo rm of'

the adj ective wh ich is used to denote the

quality or quan tity in the greate st degree is called the Su

perlative Degree : sweetes t , ka rdes t, ta lles t; he is the ta lles tman I ever saw .

78 . T he comparative degree is common ly formed by

adding er to the s imple adj ective , and the superlative byadding es t

,as in the examples g iven above .

T he comparative and superlative degree s of some adjec

tives are formed by the use of the adverbs mor e,mos t

,to

avo id the formation of long and clum sy words ; thu s thecomparative of bea u t if ul is more bea u tif ul, not beau t if u ller

S ome adj ectives may be compared in both ways : clea rer

o r more clea r .

A nother way of compar ing adj ectives is by mean s of theadve rbs less and lea st : less bea ut if ul, lea st bea utif ul.

68 English Grammar

following adjectives are i rregu lar lycompared

S uyer la tive

bestworstfarthest

,furthest

leastmostlatest, lastnearest, nextnighest , nextoldest, eldesthindmost , hindermostinmost

,innermost

outmost,outermost

utmost, uttermostupmost, uppermostforemost, first

Some adjectives cannot because of their mean ing, be compared .

Such are wooden , golden , sufiici ent, in imi table, squa r e, f erf ect, and the

like . Many\of them, however, are often loosely used in the comparative and supe

‘

tlative . In the Bible we read : A mor e perf ect knowledge ”

; and in Milton, ckief est,”etc .

80. The adj ective with the defin ite article is often usedw ithout a noun

,when the noun may be readi ly supp l ied :

Tke r ick are not a lways happy . N on e but tke bravedeserves tko fa i r .

81. N oun s in English are not infrequen tly used with theforce of adj ectives T he a ngel cho ir . S unday papers . A

coun try boy . A gold r ing .

REVIEW

Po int out the adj ective s , te ll to which class each be longs,and w ith what n oun o r p ronoun i t is to be con strued

1 . Man's feeble race what ills await2 . H e fed the hungry and clothed the poor.

Comfia r a tive

betterworsefarther, furtherless, lesser

morelater, latternearern igherolder. elderhinderinnerouterutterupperformer

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CHAPTER X IV

VER B S

82. T he Verb says something of a subj ect . I t expresse se ither an act or a state .

Some verbs are used in the expression of both act and

state , with a differen ce of mean ing :

H e looked calmly on (act) . H e looked calm (state) .I f elt his pulse (act) . I f elt sleepy (state) .

83 . Verbs may be d ivided into two classes , Tran sitiveand In tran sitive .

A Trairs i t ive Verb i s one that take s an obj ect : That boystr uck my dog. H e f ound h is book . I skot a hawk .

An Intrans i tive Verb is one that doe s not take an

obj ect : T he horse ran o ff . T he ra in fell in tor rents .

There i t lies .

In intran sitive verbs the act is confined to the subj ect ;in trans itive verb s the act pa sses over to some obj ect (hen cethe name tra ns i t ive , passing

84 . Many tran sitive verbs are used intransitive ly : Thecha in broke . The smoke lif ted from the field . T he co lordoes not skow well by lamp-light .On the other hand

,some intran sitive verbs are a lso used

transitive ly . H e ra n a sp linter in h is hand . Wa lk yourhor se s over th is br idge . T he farmer g rows wheat in th isfie ld . H is brother sa i led the boat into por t.

70

Verbs 7 1

Many intransitive verbs take an object of kindred mean ing, but areno t to be parsed as transitive verbs To d ie tke dea tk of the righteous .

H e has slep t his last sleep . I dreamed a fearful dr eam . This is .calledthe Cognate Object .

85 . T he verb be has a peculiar va lue . I n the sentenceT om i s industr ious ,

”the adj ective indus tr ious i s what

1s sa id of Tom ,and the verb is really says nothing ; it

exp re sses n either an act nor a state . Y et w ithout the i sw e have no sentence T om indu str ious ”

make s no statem en t about T om . Thu s we arr ive at the true value of be .

I t enab le s us to make an a ssertion out of a n oun or an ad

j ective , though i t contain s no mean ing of itse lf . In “ T om

wo rks,

”works i s a verb

,expre ssing an act ; in

“ T om is

industr ious,”i s is a verb

,giving the form of assertion

,but

a sserts nothing until it i s completed by the w ord that tellsu s what T om i s . B ecause of i ts office of connecting thesubj ect w ith the e ssen tial p redicate , it i s o ften called th

copula , and the word that comp le tes the p redicate is calledthe complement .Other verbs that have th is copulative function are seem

,

become,and ,

sometimes,many othe r verbs such as appea r ,

look, f eel, ta s te , grow ,

turn . These verbs di ffer from be in

having a certa in m ean ing of the ir own , but are like it in

requir ing some o ther word to make a complete p redicate .

Thus in “ A rnold turned tra itor , turned denote s action,

but is n ot comp lete w ithout the n oun tra i tor , and, in so far

serve s as copula between A rnold and tra i tor .

T he comp lemen t after the se verbs always r efers to thesubj ect

,and is care fully to be distingui shed from the obj ect

of a tran sitive verb . In Caesar w as con sul,

”consul i s n ot

the obj ect of wa s , for wa s denotes n o action and can therefore have no obj ect . N or i s tr a i tor in the examp le abovethe obj ect of turned, for turned does no t here represent an

7 2 English Grammar

action as go ing over to anything e lse . The noun or pro

noun comp lement after the se verbs is in the same case as

the subj ect, the nom inative , and i s therefore ca lled the

Predicate Nom inative . Adj ective s so used are sa id to bein the predicate con struction , or a re called simply PredicateAdj ective s . T he verb , of course , is always intr an s itive .

86 . Some tran sitive verbs, also , take beside s the obj ecta comp lemen tary noun o r adj ective , which , with the verb ,give s a differen t mean ing from that of the simple verb .

Thus in “ H e made the stick stra ight,”we do not mean

that he made the stick , but that he stra ightened it . S tick,

then,i s the obj ect, n o t of ma de

,but of the who le verb

no tion expressed by made and the complemen tary adj ective s tra igkt . S im i larly in “ Y our genero sity make s all

men your fr iends ,”men is the obj ect, no t of makes

, but of

makes y our f r iends . T he comp lemen tary word in this construction a lways re fer s to the obj ect ; whence it i s ca lledthe Obj e

'

nt ive Complemen t,and

,if a n oun or pronoun ,

is

a lways in the obj ective case .

Some verbs that are o therwise intran sitive may take an

obj ect when the ir mean ing is changed by an obj ective com

plement wo rd or phrase . T he p redicate so formed is

sometimes called the factitive p redicate

A female athei st talks you dead.

H e walked him self footsore .

I have run myself out of breath .

Sometime s p repositional phrase s that can hardly be

classed as obj ective comp lemen t serve never the less to

make intran sitive verbs tran sitive ; fo r example

H e ta lked me to death .

They laughed him to scorn .

Verbs 73

87 . Transitive verbs have two forms of expression .

We may say ,

“

John broke the glass ”f or T he glass

was broken by John . T he mean ing i s the same ; the

difference is on ly in the way i t is sa id . This di fferencein the form of exp ression is ca lled Vo ice . In the firstsen tence the verb is in the Active Voice ; in the second ,the verb is in the Passive Voice .

T he Active Voice represents the subj ect as actingHen ry struck James .T he Passive Voice represents the subj ect as acted upon

James was struck by Henry .

In 'changing the form of expression from the active to

the passive vo ice , i t wi ll be seen that the obj ect of the verbIn the active voice becomes the subj ect of the verb in the

passive .

88 . A s in tran sitive verbs have no obj ect, they cannot beused in the p assive vo ice . Y et the verbs made tran sitiveby an obj ective - comp lement adm it the passive con struetion

, excep t when the obj ect is reflexive :

H e was ta lked to death .

H e was laughed to scorn .

Further , the obj ect of a preposition after in tran sitiveverbs , as in

“They laughed at him,

may be made the subj ect of the verb in the passive con

struction,the p reposition be ing r etained as an adverb ,

thus :H e was laughed at .

It is the di r ect object of the action that is made the subject of thepassive ; but English usage goes so far as to allow the indirect objectalso to become the subject of the pass ive construction

74 Engl ish Grammar

a . They gave h im a dinner.b. A dinner was given h im .

c. H e was given a dinner .

In the last examp le dinner , the direct object of the action, is retainedafter the passive, and may be called therefore r eta ined obj ect .

EXERCISE 5 7

C lassify the verbs according to mean ing

1 . Robert shot three pigeons yesterday . 2 . H ow soon will the moonrise ? 3 . H e called, but no one answered . 4 . Alice has rece ived aletter from her cousin . 5 . T he hunter called his dog and walked away .

6 . T he sun is shin ing brightly . 7 . Ruth found two eggs in the barn .

8 . H er brother has painted h is top . 9 . Moles l ive in the ground .

10 . They are sometimes caught in traps . 1 1 . T he farmer sows wheatin the Spring . 12 . This pear tree was p lanted by my grandfather .13 . I have fought the good fight . 14 . When did you see Henrylast ? 1 5 . T he postmaster is my uncle . 16 . Have you been to the

fair 17 . T he fair will be held in our town next year . 18 . She lookedscornfully a

at him . 19 . Listen to me . 20 . Jane wrote a long letter .2 1 . Leaves\fallwhen cold weather comes . 22 . T he crocus blooms earlyin the spring. 23 . T he cook burn t the bread . 24 . Was the driver'

rnuch hurt ? 2 5 . T he town was almost destroyed by fire . 26 . T he

roads are muddy . 2 7 . T he Span ish were defeated in the battle of

Man ila . 28 . T he days are growing shorter . 29 . H e turned everything upside down . 30. T he thief turned and fled . 3 1 . H e wasrefused admittance . 32 . She was denied a hearing. 33 . H e ate h im

self sick . 34 . Come and trip it as you go . 35 . H e was then a Captain ,but soon after became a colonel . 36 . T he rose smells sweet . 37 . She

seemed indifferent . 38 . T he cider tastes b itter .

89 . T o verbs belong Mood,Ten se , Number , and Person .

MOOD

90. We have seen that a verb says someth ing of a Sub

ject . T he manner in which it says thi s is ca lled the Mood .

T he F ini te Verb (that is , the verb which has a subj ect)

hdo od 7 5

has three moods : the Indicative , the Subjunctive , and the

Imperative .

T he Infin itive , which has no subject, is also generally, though improperly, called a Mood .

91. The Indicative Mood says something of its subj ect ina positive manner , as i f . i t were a fact, or asks a questiondirectly

T om br oke his arm .

T he cow j umped over the moon .

I s your father at home

92. T he Sub junctive Mood says someth ing of the subj ectin a -less positive mann er , as assumed or mere ly thought of,usually in the exp re ssion of a wish or an unreal condition

God bless our native landIf I wer e you I would not do that .Thy k ingdom come

93 . T he Imperative Mood is the mood of command or

entreaty . I ts subj ect is always in the second per son , but

i s not expressed excep t for emphasi s or contrast

Ca ll me early in the morn ing .

S end me three cop ies of yesterday’s Herald .

Y ou come here , you go there .

Go thou and do likewise .

EXERCISE 5 8

Tel l the mood of eachverb :

1 . All that glitters is not gold . 2 . Come when you are called .

3 . Three black crows sat on a tree . 4 . N ow good digestion wait onappetite, and health on both ! 5 . Ruin seize thee, ruthless king .

6 . Were I Brutus, and Brutus Antony, there were an Antony wouldruffle up your spirits . 7 . God send me a better prince ! 8 . Let him

that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall . 9 . R ing out, ye bells,

76 English Grammar

across the snow 10 . E ternal blessings crown my earliest friend1 1 . This generation shall not pass away till all these things be fulfilled .

12 . God grant that she be safe

TENSE

94. Tense, in grammar , mean s time . B ut ten se impliestwo th ings :

(a ) The time of the action .

(b) The stage of the action (comp lete or incomplete) .

As there are on ly three divi sion s of time , past, present,and future , — if ten se imp lied time on ly there would be butthree ten ses, since every action must be refer red to the '

pre sent, or to the past , or to the future . B ut it is importan ta lso to represen t the action as e ither continued or comp letein the presen t , or the past, or the future ; hence , we find

needful‘

two tense s for each divi sion of time , making six

tenses : “

Presen t and Presen t Perfect, Past and PastPerfect, Future

-

and Future Perfect .The Present Tense represents an action as now go ing

I am wr it ing .

Do you see himH e r eads well .

The Present Perfect Tense represents an action as now

fin ishedI kave wr itten my exercise .

John kas been r eading aloud to his sister .

The Past Tense represents an action that took p lace inthe past

I wrote to my father yesterday .

D id you see the processionN0, I was study ing when it went by.

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78 English Gramma

96 . In the con jugation of the verb (106) on ly the simplest

(indefin ite o r comp lete ) form of each ten se w i ll be given ;but the other form s may readily be con structed from the

fo llow ing table

Present

Present

Present Perfect

Tense Past

Past Perfect

Future

FutureFuture Perfect

EXERCISE 5 9

Te ll the ten se of each verb

1 . T he frost has k illed the flowers . 2 . T he leaves will soon fall .3 . Last year they fell a month earlier than this . 4 . Does the fire burnwell 5 . It burned well this morn ing, but it is not burning well now .

6 . They will have the chimney cleaned to-morrow . 7 . H e has beens tudying all the afternoon . 8 . Has he learned his lesson 9 . H e didno t know his lesson this morn ing, because he had not s tudied it .10 . H ewas playing ball when I saw h im last . 1 1 . I know the houseyou mean . 12 . T he train had just left when we reached the station .

13 . I shall tell h im so when I see h im . 14 . Y ou will not know h im,

he has changed so much . 15 . If you do no t write at once , he will havestarted before your letter reaches h im . 16 . Th is time to-morrow I

shall have been away from home three days . 17 . Have you seen my

top 18 . Harry will te ll you where it is . 19 . I am not going to tellyou . 20 . H e had been told that often enough .

I write (indefinite )I am writing (continuous)I do write (emphatic)

jI have written (complete)( I have been writing (continuous)

i I wrote (indefin ite)

4 I was writing (continuous){I did write (emphatic)

jI had written (complete)LI had been writing (continuous)f I shall write (indefin ite)I shall be writing (continuous)

JI shall have written (complete ){ I shall have been writing (conl tinuous)

T he Infinitive 79

PERSON AND NUMB ER

97 . Verbs are said to be_in the S ingu lar or in the Plura l

Number according as the subj ect is singu lar or plura l, and

in the First, Second , o r Third Person ,according as the sub

j ect i s in the fir st, second, or third per son .

Thus know in “ I know h im well ” is in the first person and in the

singular number, because its subject I is the singular of the pronounof the first person ; comes in Night comes swiftly on is in the thirdperson and in the singular number, because its subject n igkt is in thatperson and number.T he verb in English has only a few forms left which indicate num

ber and person ; the rule, therefore, that a verb must agree with its subj ect in person and number has only a lim ited application . With the

exception of the verb be modern English has, outside the language ofprayer and poetry (where we find such expressions as Thou lovest,”H e cometh on ly one inflection that marks person and number

,

namely, the ending s Of the third person singular of the present tense :H e sees . H e knows . H e understands .

The on ly parts of the verb not yet considered are the

Infin itive and the Particip le .

TH E INFINITIVE

98 . The Infini tive is a Verbal N oun ,that is

,it is a word

expressing an action or condition indicated by the verb , butn o t predicating it of any subj ect . Having no subj ect, it isnot lim ited in person and number as the Fin ite Verb is

,

and for that reason i s called the Infin itive (not lim i ted ) .I t has

, however , the other character istics of a verb ; iftran sitive , it takes an obj ect, and it is modified by adverbs,not by adj ective s

To die is not the worst that can befall us .She asked him to wr i te plainly .

80 English Grammar

99. The Infinitive common ly has the word to‘

before it ; but

this is not e ssentia l, for there are some verbs wh ich take a

dependen t infin itive without to . In the following sentencesthe words in italics are infin itives

I heard h im say i t .

Let him come in .

I saw the flagstaff f a ll.I felt the rain str ike on my face .

H e could no t go .

100. The Infin itive is w ithout mood, number , or person ,

but has two ten ses , p resent and perfect, and in the case of

transitive verbs , i s found in both active and passive vo ice .

There is another kind of verbal noun, ending, like the present participle, in ing, but easi ly distinguished from the particip le by its use,

which is always that of a noun : F ly ing k ites 15 good sport . Play ing is

easier than working. Spinn ing tops is that boy’s delight .

PARTICIPLES

101. T he Par ticiple is a VerbalAdj ective . I t differ s fromother adj ective s in that it may take an obj ect or a comp lemen t . I t i s ca lled a pa r t icip le because it participate s inthe nature both of verbs and of adj ectives , having the

mean ing of the former and the use of the latter .

102. There are two Particip les in Engli sh the Present

and the Perfect . So the verb w r i te has the PresentParticip le wr i ting ,

and the Per fect Particip le wr i tten .

EXER CISE 60

Point out the infin itiVes and the par ticip les

1 . Seeing a dark cloud coming up, I turned back . 2 . Such a striking resemblance is no t often seen . 3 . H e caught the dog killing achicken . 4 . We could no t face the blinding snow. 5 . Are you readyto go ? 6 . B id h im come hither at once . 7 . T he keeper made the

bear dance . 8 . To hesi tate now is to confess ourselves defeated .

Conjugation 8 1

9. T o err is human, to forgive divine . 10 . H is mother refused to lethim go . 1 1 . I love to watch the clouds go sailing by . 12 . T he

melted . snow made the walk muddy . 13 . V iewed in that light,his con

duct is without excuse . 14 . They saw once more his well-rememberedface . 1 5 . Lost hours can never be recovered . 16 . I asked h im to le tme mend h is torn kite . 17 . A rolling stone gathers no moss . 18 . T o

know how to read well is a desirable accomplishment . 19 . T o haveknown such a man is honor enough for you and me . 20 . Alice tried tolearn the poem by heart . 2 1 . Just then a so ldier went galloping by .

2 2 . Having seen him once, I can never forget him . 23 . H e lived re

tired from the busy world, devoted to study and meditation . 24 . T he

day dawn ing fair, we arose early .

CONJUGATION

103 . T o conj ugate a verb i s to give all its forms and

parts — Vo ice,Mood, Ten se , Number , and Person

systematica lly arranged .

104. T he conjugation of the verb be is as fo llows

Indicat ive Mood

PR ESENT TENSE PR ESENT PER FECT TENSES ingular Plur al

1 . I am We are I have been We have been2 . Thou art You are Thou hast been You have been3 . H e is They are H e has been They have been

PAST TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE1 . I was We were I had been We had been2 . Thou wast (wert) You were Thou hadst been You had been3 . H e was They were H e had been They had been

FUTURE TENSES ingular

1 . I shall be2 . Thou Wi lt be3 . H e will be

82

I

2

3

I

2

3

00

English Grammar

FUTUR E PERFECT TENSE1 . I Shall have been2 . Thou wi lt have been3 . H e will have been

We shall have beenYou will have beenThey wi ll have been

Subjunct ive MoodPRESENT TENSE

S ingula r

I be

Thou beH e be

PAST TENSE

Imperative Mood

2 . B e (thou)

PAR TICIPLES

Pxesent

INFINITIVESB e, to beHave been, to have been

105 . The conjugation of the verb have is as fo llows

Indicat ive Mood

PR ESENT TENSES ingu la r

I have We haveThou hast Y ou haveH e has They have

PAST TENSEI hadThou hadstH e had

PR ESENT PERFECT TENSE

I have had We have hadThou hast had You have hadH e has had They have had

PAST PERFECT TENSEI had had We had hadThou hadst had You had hadH e had had They had had

Co njugatio n

FUTUR E TENSES ingular

1 . I shall have2 . Thou wilt have3 . H e will have

FUTUR E PERFECT TENSE1 . I shall have had We shall have hadThou wilt have had You will have had

3 . H e will have had They will have had

S ubj unct ive Mood

PR ESENT TENSE PAST TENSES ingula r Plur a l S ingula r

1 . I have We have I had2 . Thou have Y ou have Thou hadst 1

3 . H e have They have H e had

Imperative MoodS ingula r

2 . Have (thqu)

PAR TICIPLESPr esen t . Having

Had

1 This is the indicative, used for the subjunctive in Modern Engl ish .

Plur a l

We shall haveY ou will haveThey will have

Plur a l

Have (you, ye)

INFINITIVESHave

,to have

Have had, to have had

84 English Grammar

106 . Conjugation of the verb love

Indicat ive MoodACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

PRESENT TENSES ingular

1 . I love I am loved2 . Thou lovest Thou ar t loved3 . H e loves H e is loved

Plura l

We are lovedYou are lovedThey are loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

1 . I have loved I have been loved2 . Thou hast loved Thou hast been loved3 . H e has loved H e has been loved

Plural

1 . We have loved We have been loved2 . Ydu. have loved You have been loved3 . They have loved They have been loved

I . I loved I was loved2 . Thou lovedst Thou wast loved3. H e loved H e was loved

Plura l

1 . We loved We were loved2 . You loved You were loved3 . They loved They were loved

PAST PERFECT TENSES ingular

1 . uI had loved I had been loved2 . Thou hadst loved Thou hadst been loved3 . H e had loved H e had been loved

‘

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86 English Grammar

ACTIVE VOI CE

I . I loved2 . Thou loved3 . H e loved

PASSIVE VOICE

We be lovedY ou be lovedThey be loved

I were lovedThou wert lovedH e were loved

Plur a l

We were lovedY ou were lovedThey were loved

Imperat ive Mood

S ingula r

2{Love (thou) B e (thou) loved

Plur a l

2 . Love (you, ye) B e (you, ye) loved

PAR TICIPLESPr esent

Loving

Having loved

Be ing loved

Loved, having been loved

INFINITIVESPr esent

Love, to love

Have loved, to have loved

B e loved, to be loved

Have been loved, to have beenloved

Stro ng and Weak Verbs 87

T he older form of the third person singular present indicative, ending in tk , is found in poetry and in the Bible : H e cometh . T he secondperson singular (lovest) is found in olde r literature , in poetry, and inprayer. Modern English uses instead the plural, y ou love.

In earlier English the present perfect and past perfect tenses of intransitive verbs were regularly formed by means of the aux iliary beinstead of kave : H e is come . They a r e gone . H e wa s come . Theywer e gone . These forms are still found in poetry and sometimes inprose .

STRONG AND WEA ! VERB S

107 . Verbs are classified,according to the way in which

they form the past ten se and p erfect par ticip le , into two

con j ugation s : the S trong Con jugation and the Weak

Con jugation .

I . Ve rbs of the S trong Conj ugation form the p ast ten seby changing the vowel w ithout adding anything ; and the

perfect particip le , sometimes by change of vowe l, some

times by adding 11 or en ,and sometimes by both mean s

s ing ,sa ng ,

sung ;e know

,kn ew , known ; r i se

,rose

,r i s en ;

break,broke , broken .

LI ST OF STRONG VERB S

Many of these verbs have also forms of the weak conjugation, either

taking the place of strong forms , or existing side by s ide with them . In

the list. weak forms are enclosed in parentheses

Pr esen t Tense Pa st Tense

abide abodearise aroseawake awoke (awaked)be [was!bear borebeat beatbegin beganbehold beheldbid bade

,bid

Perf ect Pa r ticiple

abodearisenawoke (awaked)beenborne

,born

beatenbegunbeheldbid

,bidden

88

Pr esent Tense

bindbiteblowbreakchoosecleaveclingcomecrowdigdodrawdrinkdriveeat

fallfightfind

flingfly

forbear

English Grammar

Past Tense

bound boundbit bit, bittenblew blownbroke brokenchose chosenclove (cleft) cloven (cleft)clung clungcame comecr‘ew (crowed) (crowed)dug dug

did donedrew drawndrank drunkdrove drivenate eatenfell fallenfought foughtfound foundflung flungflew flownforbore forborneforgot forgottenforsook forsakenfro z e frozengo t got, go ttengave given[went! goneground groundgrew grownhung (hanged) hung (hanged)hove (heaved) hove (heaved)held heldknew knownlay lainrode r iddenrang rungrose risenran run

Lis t o f Stro ng Verbs

Present Tense Past Tense Perf ect Pa r ticiple

sawshook(sheared)shoneshotshrankshrove (shrived)sangSanksatS lewslungslunksmotespokespunsprangstoodstove (staved)s tolestucks tungstunkstrodestruckstrungstrovesworeswamswungtooktorethrove (thrived)threwtrodwoke (waked)worewove

seenshakenshorn (sheared)shoneshotshrunkshriven (shrived)sungsunksatslainslungs lunksmittenspokenspunSprungs toods tove (staved)s tolenstuckstungstunkstriddenstruck

,stricken

strungstrivenswornswumswungtakentornthriven (thrived)throwntrodden, trod(waked)wornwoven

90 English Grammar

Pa st Tense Perf ect Pa r ticiple

won won

wound woundwrung wrungwrote written

NOTES . Climb has also an older past tense, clomb, often found inpoetry .

B or ne is the perfect participle of bea r , except in the sense “ givebirth to

,

” in wh ich case the particip le is bor n .

E a t has,bes ides the past tense a te

,a form eat (et) , often found in

l iterature and in spoken English .

Instead of the forms skr ank, sang, sa nk, spr a ng, swam,in the past

tense,forms with u (skr unk, etc.) are sometimes met with .

H a nged , in the past tense and perfect particip le, is used on ly in thesense “

put to death on the gallows .

”

T he following forms of the perfect participle are now used on ly asadjectives : bounden , dr unken , sunken .

Went, past tense ofgo, is borrowed from the weak verb wend . Was

,

used as past tense of be, is from an obsolete verb wosan .

I I . Weak Conj ugation .—Weak Verbs form the past

ten se particip le by adding ed, d, o r t to the

form of the p resen t infin itive , generally w ithout change of

vowel : ca ll,ca lled ,

ca lled ; love, loved , loved ; burn ,burn t,

burn t .

Verbs of thi s con jugation are mostly regu lar , that is,when they end in si len t e they add d (love-d ) , otherwise ed

(ca ll-ed ) . T he irregular weak verbs may be divided intotwo classes

-(a ) Those that add d or t , usua lly w ith change of vowe l .

(b) Those that, ending in d or t in the pre sen t ten se , takeno addition a l d or t, though they sometime s change d to t,and often shorten the vowe l .

In the following list,the verbs marked are also regular. T he

regular forms are often to be preferred to the irregular ; thus leaned ispreferable to leant .

Lis t o f I rregu lar Weak Verbs

LIST OF IRREGULAR WEA ! VERB S

CLASS (a )Pr esent Tense

bereavebeseechbringburnbuycatchcreepdaredealdreamdwellfeelflee

havehearhidekeep

knee llayleanleapleavelosemakemeanpay

sayseeksellshoesleepspellsp illsweep

Perf ect Pa r ticiple

bereftbesoughtbroughtburn tboughtcaughtcreptdareddealtdreamtdweltfeltfled

hadheardhid (hidden)kep tkneltlaidleantleap tleftlostmademeantpaidsaidsoughtsoldshodsleptspeltspiltswept

92 English Grammar

Pr esent Tense

teachtellthinkweep

9‘ work

CLASS (b)

Perf ect Par ticiple

taughttoldthoughtweptwrought

bentbet

bledblentbredbuiltburstcastchid (chidden)costcutfed

girthid (h idden)h it

hurtknitled

lentlet

lit

met

put

qui treadrentridsentset

shed

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English Grammar

All these verbs'

are u sed e ither as indicative or as sub

junctive , w ithout change of form . They are u sed in bothnumbers and in all three per son s without change , exceptin the second .person singu lar : thou cans t

,coulds t, may s t ,

m igktes t, ougktes t, ska lt,skoulds t, w i lt , woulds t . M us t i s

invar iab le .

T he third person s ingular of the present tense of all these verbs isthe same as the first person . We say ke ska ll

,ke w i ll

,ke may , ke can ,

instead of ke ska lls , ke wi lls, ke may s , ke cans . T he reason is that thepresent tense of all these verbs except w i ll was formerly a past tense,and in the past tense the third person is always the same as the firstperson . In the same way, da r e and need ,

no t otherwise defective , aresometimes used in the third person singular without s H e da r e no t do

it . H e need not go .

There are a few other defective verbs occasionally found in literature ,

“

Of these the more important are : to w i t (know) , present wot, past

w ist ; tkinks (seems) , as in metkinks (it seems to me) , metkougkt (itseemed to me) ; quotk (Said) used only in the past tense ; kzgkt (wascalled) .

IMPERSONAL VERB S

109 . Verbs used on ly in the third person ,w ithout refe r

ence to any agen t,are ca lled Imper sonal Verbs . For

grammatica l subj ect the se verbs have the pronoun i t,

u sed indefin ite ly . They re late fo r the most par t to phe

nomena of nature , as : I t ra in s . I t snows . I t ha ils . It

dawn s .

AU ! ILIARY VERB S

110. Aux iliary Verbs are so ca lled because they help tomake up certa in forms of mood , ten se , and voice . T he

auxiliary verbs are be , do , kave , ska ll, w i ll, may .

B e .— (a ) B e is used“

w ith the per fect participle to formthe passive vo ice of all tran si tive verbs

H e is loved . They will have been loved .

Auxiliaries and Verb—Phrases 95

(b) B e is used w ith the present p articip le to make up the

continuous or p rogressive ten se-form s

I am writing. H e was reading.

(c) B e is used w ith the perfect par ticiple to form the old

perfect ten se s of some in tran sitive verbs :

H e is gone . They were come .

[20.— Do i s used with the infin itive to make up the

emphatic, negative , and interrogative form s of the presen tand past ten ses

Y ou do know that . H e does no t know . Did you see him

Have .— Have is u sed w ith the perfect particip le to make

up the perfect ten ses

I have written . Y ou had written . You will have written .

Shall. — Shall is u sed w ith the infin itive to make up the

first p erson of the future ten ses

I shall go . We shall have seen .

Will. Wi ll i s used with the infin itive to make up the

forms of the future ten ses in the second and third person s

H e will know . They will have seen .

For may ,skould

,and would

,as auxiliaries of the subjunctive mood

see 172—174.

T he verbs here considered are, however, no t always auxiliaries .

They may be used as principal verbs . Thus kave in “They have the irreward ” is a principal verb , just as r eceive is in “They rece ive theirreward ”

; but in “They have received their reward,”kave is merely theauxiliary of the perfect tense, and the verb is kave r eceived, perfecttense of r eceive . When we say “T he medicine did h im good

,

” d id isthe principal verb ; when we say “ I did not know h im,

” d id is an auxiliary used to make the past tense of know . Whether these verbs areto be construed as auxiliaries or as principal verbs in any instancedepends on whether they are or are not used to make up verb-phrasesof voice, tense, or mood .

96 English Grammar

REVIEW

Give the mood, tense , vo ice , number , and per son of the

verbs,and classify them (S trong or Weak

,Tran sitive or

Intransitive) . Point out a lso the infin itives and participles :

1 . But O the heavy change, now thou art gone,Now thou art gone and never must return

2 . His prayer he saith , th is patien t, holy man ;Then takes h is lamp and riseth from his knees .

How shall I then your helpless fame defend’Twill then be infamy to seem your friend .

Methought I heard a vo ice cry, S leep no more

T he naked hulk alongside came,And the twain were casting d ice ;T he game is done I’ve won, I

’ve won

! uoth She, and whistles thrice

T he si lly buckets on the deck,That had so long remained,

I dreamt that they were filled with dew ;And when I woke, it rained .

But it will not be longEre this be thrown aside,And with new j oy and pride

T he little actor cons another par t .

8 . Eternal blessmgs crown my earliest friend,And round his dwelling guardian saints attend ;Blest be that spot where cheerful guests retireT o pause from toil, and trim their even ing fire .

Fairest of stars , last in the train of n ight,If better thou belong not to the dawn ,Sure p ledge of day, that crown’

st the smiling mornWith thy bright circle t — praise him in thy sphereWhile day arises, that sweet hour of prime .

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CHAPTER XV

ADVER B S

111. We have seen that the use of the Adverb is to

modify verbs , adj ectives , and other adverbs , as : She wa lk s

g racef ully . T he weather is very cold . H e wr ites fa i rly

Adverbs may be divided in to the fo llowing classe s :

(I ) Adverbs of Manner : fa i tkf ully ,s ternly ,

so,well, etc .

(2) Adverbs of T ime : soon , p r esen tly , tken ,af terwa rds ,

a lway s , never , to-mor r ow,e tc .

3) Adii‘

erbs of Place : kere , tkere , wkere , back, up ,down

,

nor tk,k i tker

, etc .

I

(4) Adverbs of Degree : muck,li ttle

,as , so, very ,

a lmos t,

qu i te, enougk, etc .

5 ) Adverbs of Cause or Reason : wky ,wkeref ore , tkere

f ore , kence , a ccordingly , etc .

(6 ) Adverbs of Concession : neve r tkeless,kowever

,in~

deed, etc.

Yes and no, y ea and nay , express simple affirmation or negation, and

make complete statements in themselves . lVot,however, and no in such

expressions as “no better,” etc .

,are true adverbs, and may be called

Negative Adverbs .

112. Most adverbs are formed from adj ectives by the

add ition of -ly .

° grand,grandly ; true , truly ; wise , w isely ;

principal, p rincipa lly .

Adverbs 99

Not all words,however, that end in -ly are adverbs ; many adjectives

are formed in this way : a lovely rose, a komely word , a f r i endly eye, asickly

-

look,a goodly number, a godly life . Whether a word ending in

-ly is an adverb or an adjective is to be determined by its use In the

sentence . In “H e made daily visits to his friend,”da i ly is an adj ective :

in H e visited his friend daily,” da i ly is an adverb .

In old English, adverbs were distinguished from adj ectives by theaddition of e . In course of time the e was dropped, leaving the adverbiden tical in form with the adjective . This simp le form of the adverb isstill in use , and is quite common in poetry : Don’t talk so loud . Walkfast .

“F a i r laughs the morn, and sof t the zephyr blows .

”

113 . Some adverbs are der ived from the bases of the

pronoun s ke , tka t, wko . The ir formation and mean ing are

p resented in the follow ing

TAB LE OF PR ONOM INAL ADVER B S

Wker e F r om w k i ck To w k ick T im e Ma nne r R ea son D eg r ee

T he adverbs wker e, wken , wki tker , wkence, kow , wky , are, l ike the

pronoun wko,both relative and interrogative . As relative adverbs ,

they have the same power of j oin ing dependent sentences or clausesthat the pronoun has : I go wker e duty calls me . This is the seasonwken the woods are most beautiful . These are called ConjunctiveAdverbs (seeT he pronom inal adverbs, and some others , such as consequen tly ,

a ccor dingly , often serve as reference words connecting one sen tencewith another : I waited for h im until six o’clock . Tken

,as it was get

ting dark,I set out for home .

114. A few adverbs are not derived from other words .T he more important of these are : now ,

so,of ten , qu i te, very ,

well,soon .

English Grammar

EXERCISE 61

Po int out the adverbs , te ll to which class each be longs,

and what it modifies

1 . Christmas will soon be here . 2 . She l istened very patiently toh is rather tedious exp lanation . 3 . When will your father return ?4 . Too many cooks spoil the broth . 5 . His brother will certain ly cometo-morrow. 6 . I have often watched him walking down the street .7 . I hope you will be quite strong when I come again . 8 . Your letteris too carelessly wri tten . 9. Y ou are no t careful enough . 10. S lowlyand sadly we laid him to rest . 1 1 . S ometimes he answers harshly .

12 . Always do what is right, and never despair . 13 . S low rises worthby poverty depressed . 14 . H e is far brighter than h is brother, who isquite dull. 15 . Walk fast

,and don’t talk so loud . 16 . T om is thor

oughly honest . 17 . Yonder gleam the lances of the foe . 18 . Charlesis much o lder than I . 19 . T he family formerly lived in Chicago .

20. Why did you stay out so late ? 2 1 . T he class in spelling recitesfirst

,then the geography class . 22 . I could hardly hear him . 23 . T he

mail is de livered there twice a day . 24 . I have se ldom heard that oldsong better

‘

sung. 2 5 . They are almost all gone now.

COMPARI SON OF ADVERB S

115 . A few adverbs are compared like adj ective s : of ten ,

of tener , of tenest ; soon,sooner

,soones t ; f a st, f as ter , f as tes t ;

ea r ly ,ea rlier

,ea r lies t.

Most adverbs form the Comparative and Super lative bythe use of more and mos t

,less and leas t free ly , more free ly ,

most free ly ; free ly , less free ly, least free ly.

116 . T he following adverbs are irregular ly compared

Positive Compar a tive

ill, badly worsewell bettermuch morelittle less

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102 English Grammar

15 . Comrades , leave me here a little , while as yet ’tis early mornLeave me here, and when you want me

,sound upon the bugle-horn .

Forward,forward let us range ,

Let the great world spin forever down the ringing grooves of change.

17 . To one who has been long in city pen t,’Tis very sweet to look into the fairAnd open face of heaven , to breathe a prayer

‘

Full in the smile of the blue firmament .

18 . Full knee-deep l ies the winter’s snow,And the winter winds are wearily s ighing ;Toll ye the church bells sad and slow,And tread softly and speak low,For the old year lies a-dying.

CHAPTER XV I

PREPOSIT IONS

117 . A Preposition is a wo rd u sed with a noun or p ro

noun to Show its relation to some other word in the sen

tence . T he noun or p ronoun dependent on the prepo sitionis in the obj ective case , and is therefore called the obj ect of

the p rep osition .

T he preposition is so called from the fact that it is usually placedbef or e its object ; but it sometimes follows the object : All the worldover .

It is thoroughly in accord with English idiom to close a sen tencewith a preposition : What are you waiting f or This is the best p lacethat I know of . Never talk '

of'

matters that you know nothing about .

T he preposition always comes last when its object is an om ittedrelative pronoun . In the sen tence “This is the book you were lookingfor ,

”the obj ect of the preposition f or is the relative pronoun tka t

,

om itted after book, andf or Shows the relation between tka t and looking.

Other examples are :This is the gen tleman I travelled with .

You need a light to read by.

This is the p lace to come to .

118 . T he obj ect of a preposition is not a lways a noun

or a p ron oun . Other par ts of speech , and even who le

phrases and clau ses , are used after p reposition s

(a ) Adverbs : I did not know until tken . It 15 no t far from ker e .

Come at once .

(b) Adjectives : I cannot say for cer ta in . Lift up your eyes on

kzgk . H e pleaded in va in .

English Grammar

(c) Phrases : H e Wi ll not leave ti ll af ter ike election . A voiceanswered from w i tkin tke vei l.

(d ) C lauses : Don’t speak of wka t y ou kave kea r d .

119 . Some preposition s are Simp le , other s der ivative .

S imp le prepo sition s are

at,after, by, down, ere, for, from,

in,of, off, over, ti ll, to , up, with .

Der ivative preposition s are formed

(a ) B y compounding adverbs with prepo sition s :

about, above, against, beneath , into , throughout, toward, underneath,upon , within, without .

(b) B y compounding noun s or adj ective s wi th preposition s

across, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart, aslant, belowbes ide, besides, between , betwixt .In these the a and the be stand for the prepos itions on and by

respectivelyq

(c) From verbs

during, except, past, save, notwithstanding, concerning .

120. Sometime s two or more words are u sed togetherw ith the va lue of a preposition In the sentence H e

stopped in fron t of the store , in f ront of shows there lation of s tore to s topp ed . Some of the se group s of

words are

out of,according to

,alongside of, because of, instead of, in respect

to, in regard to .

T he student is rem inded that many of the words here classed as

prepositions are also used without an object, in which case they are tobe parsed as adverbs : Come in out of the rain . It is, time to get up .

Go on,and I will follow . Take your hat oft

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CHAPTER XV I I

CONJUNCT IONS

121. Conjunction s j oin words or group s of words . Theymay be divided into two pr incipal cla sses : CoOrdinate and

Subordinate .

122. Coordinate Conj unctions are those that j oin wordsor group s of words of the same rank .

T he simple coordinate conjunctions are and, but , or . Certain pairsof words that have the value of coOrdinate conjunctions are calledCorrelatives : botk and , eitker or

, neitker nor , wketker

or,not only but (a lso) , and sometimes or or

,nor nor .

123 . Subordinate Conjunctions are those that introduceclauses (see They are divided

,according to the office

of the clause in troduced, in to Con junction s of

(1) T ime : af ter , a s , bef ore , ere , s ince , un til, wkile, etc.

2 ) Cause or Reason : as,beca use

, f or , s ince , wkereas ,

etc .

(3) Condi tion : if , excep t, unless , p rovi ded , so , etc.

(4 ) Concession tkougk, a ltkougk, a lbe i t, notw i tks ta nd ing ,

e tc .

(5 ) Purpose or R esult : tka t , les t, [so! tka t, [in order !tka t

,e tc .

(6) COmpar ison : a s,tkan .

(7) Conj unctions introducing Noun Clauses : tka t, wketker .

106

Co njunctions I 07

124 . Sometimes two or three words are used togetherw ith the va lue of a conj unction . Such phrases are : a s

if, a s tkougk , so tka t, i n order tka t, inasmuck a s,e tc .

T he clause introduced by a subordinate conjunction is sometimesreduced, by the omission of parts readily understood from the context,to a S ingle word . In the sentence “Though dead, he yet speaketh,”

tkougk is a subordinate conjunction , introducing the concessive idea,ke is dead, which is sufficiently rendered here by the one word dead .

125 . Some adverbs are used,like subordinate conjunc

tion s,to introduce clauses . When so u sed they are called

Con junctive Adverbs , inasmuch as they never entirely lo sethe ir adverbial force . Such are

when,where, whence, how,

why .

EXERCISE 62

Po int out and classi fy the con junction s and the con

junctive adverbs

1 . I care not whetherh e goe s or stays . 2 . Tarry till I come . 3 . H e

is welcome wherever he goes . 4 . I will give you an answer as soon asmy brother returns . 5 . It is a year since I saw him last . 6 . Y e shallno t eat of it, lest ye die . 7 . I t is said that men of few words are the

best men . 8 . Freely we serve because we free ly love . 9 . I t mattersno t how he looks , so he can do the work . 10 . Except the Lord buildthe house they labor in vain that build it . 1 1 . I know that I can find

it . 12 . H e is taller than I am . I 3 . Though it is past twelve o’clock,

the train has not yet come . 14 . If any one asks for me , say that I shallbe back before long . 1 5 . Wealth heaped on wealth nor truth n or

safety buys . 16 . She gave him no t on ly something to eat,but also

some clothing . 17 . Do unto others as ye would that they should dounto you . 18 . Ask him whether he knows the road to Weston . 19. H e

looks as if he had not had a square meal for a week . 20. Open the

gate wide so that he can drive . through . 2 1 . A holiday was given in

order that the children m ight see the parade . 2 2 . T he old soldier wasfond of telling how the great battle was won . 23 . T he road is betternow than it was when I used to trudge along it to school .

PART I I I

CHAPTER XV I I I

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

126. Whenever we say anything , or ask a question , or

give an order , or expre ss a w ish or a fee ling , the words bymean s of which we do so make a sentence .

“

John has

learned his lesson ,

” “When w i ll he return ? ” “Send me

three loave s of bread,” “ Long live the k ing ! ” “

H ow

sweet the moon light sleep s on yonder bank !”are sentences .

According as,a sentence make s a statement , a sks a

question , g1ves a command, or expresses emotion ,

it is

called Declarative,In terrogative , Imperative , or Exclama

toryDECLARATIVE : John has learned his lesson .

INTER R OGATIVE : When wi ll he return ?IMPERATIVE : Send me three loaves of bread .

E ! CLAMATOR Y : How sweet the moon light sleeps on yonder bank

127 . Sentence s are also classified according to the ircon struction ,

as S imp le , Comp lex, and Compound.

S IMPLE SENTENCES

128 . Every sentence is made up of two parts, calledthe Subj ect and the Predicate .

In “John has learned his lesson, j oku is the subject — that ofwhich someth ing is said ; and kas lea r ned kis lesson is the predicate

108

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I 10 English Grammar

simp le subj ect and i ts adj un cts,is called the Comp lete

Subj ect o f the sentence .

T he adjuncts of the subj ect may be

(a ) Adjectives .(b) Nouns in Apposition or in the Possess ive Case .

(c) Adjective Phrases .

131. A Phrase is a group of words , w ithout subj ect or

predicate , that does the work of a single part of speech .

Thu s in the sen tence H e is a man of honor ,”of konor i s a

phrase , fo r i t does the work of the adjective konora ble .

According as they do the work of adj ectives or of adverbs ,phr ase s are classified as Adj ective Phra se s or AdverbPhrases .

EXERC ISE 64

Point out the complete subject, the simple subject, and the adjunctsof the simple subject . Classify the adjuncts as adjectives, noun s

,or

adjective phrases1 . Grind citi z ens prefer the welfare of the country to the success of

the ir party . 2 . A fearful , storm arose . 3 . John,the gardener, is sick .

4 . T he rules of the game were strictly observed . 5 . Tom’s father hasreturned . 6 . Captain Parker, a tall, lean man

,commanded the second

company . 7 . This old air,sung by a hundred fresh y oung voices , was

well worth hearing . 8 . T he time for action is at hand . 9 . Washington , our first Pres ident, was a surveyor in his early life . 10 . Man’sinhuman ity to man makes countless thousands mourn . 1 1 . T he slowlywan ing moon appears . 12 . T he Victory of our team is now assured .

13 . Captain K idd, the famous p irate, was the terror of all merchantmen .

14 . Water fit to drink was not to be had . 15 . A march lasting twentyfive days , through dense forests and po isonous swamps, brought us atlast to the seacoast .

132. Under noun-subj ects are included

(1) Infin itives : To live dishonored is a fearful fate(2 ) Verbal Nouns in -ing : D igging for hidden gold makes few

men rich .

Simple Sentences 1 1 1

(3) Adjectives used as Nouns : T he r ickest are no t always the

happ iest .(4) Adverbs of Time and Place used as Nouns : To-mor r ow will be

Sunday .

(5 ) Any part Of speech , When made the subject of discourse : isa personal pronoun .

133 . T he infin itive and,

the verba l noun in -ing Showthe ir verbal nature by taking as adjun cts

,in addi tion to

the noun-modifiers a lready given , the fo llow ing verb-modi

fier s

(a ) Object : To give money is not enough .

(b) Indirect Object : G iving otker s advice is easy .

(c) Predicate Noun or Adjective : Looking w ise is not a sure S ignof wisdom .

(d ) Adverb To live well is to live happily .

(e) Adverb Phrase : To live wi tkin one’s income is true economy .

134 . Preparatory t and Tkere . T he p ronoun i t and the

adverb tker e are often u sed at the beginn ing of a sen tenceto take the p lace of the subj ect, when it i s desired to put

the subj ect after theve rb .

In the sentence It is easy to answer that question ,” the subject isto answer tka t question ,

and the predicate is is easy i t is used beforethe verb , where we ldok for the subject, to fill the place un til the truesubject is given . I t is to be parsed as a pronoun tempo rar ilvholdingthe p lace of the subject . S o tker e, in

“There are three men here ,merely holds the place of the true subject tkr ee men , wh ich is givenafter the verb .

EXERCISE 6 5

Po int out the complete subj ect , the s imp le subj ect, andthe adjun cts o f the simp le subj ect

1 . To be weak is to be m iserable . 2 . Seeing is believing . 3 . Tosee is to believe . 4 . Y our com ing has made us happy . 5 . Mak inghay is hard work . 6 . G iving such a man mon ey will no t help h immuch . 7 . Y our being the general’s son makes no difference . 8 . Tohear h im weep cuts me to the heart . 9 . Walking so fast will tire you.

1 1 2 English Grammar

10 . T he richest are not always the most generous . 1 1 . Yesterday wasmy birthday . 12 . P laying with books is no t studying . 13 . T he ayeshave it . 14 . T he king’s refusing to gran t the petition caused a revolution . 15 . Wken is a relative adverb . 16 . It is hard work rowingagainst the stream . 17 . There were three lilies in her hand . 18 . Therecame a man on horseback to the gate . 19 . You is a personal pronoun .

20. It is my duty to rem ind h im . 2 1 . There was heard a noise ofweeping in the house . 2 2 . Loving may be either a participle or a verbal noun .

135 . Simple and Complete Predicate .—T he Predicate

i s tha t wh ich is sa id of the Subje ct . I t i s,therefore

,an

e ssen tia l part of any sen tence ; there can be no sentencew ithout a predicate .

Ca r tkage is not a sen tence , for though it names a city, it tells usnothing about that city . N or is Tke destr uction of Ca r tkage a sen~

tence . It is only a noun with modifiers , of which nothing is yet said .

But Ca r tkage was destr oy ed is a sentence, and so is Tke destr uction ofCa r tkage r emoved i ke la st gr ea t r iva l of R ome

,for in the first some

thing is said of “Carthage, and in the second something is said of“ the destruction of Carthage .

”

136 . T o any comp lete p redication a Fin ite Verb is essentia l . Infin itives and par ticip le s , though they have a verba lSign ifica tion and may be u sed -to complete o r modify a

p redicate , canno t make p redicates by themse lves ; theydo not put the verbal idea in p redicate form .

137 . T he Fin ite Verb i s called the S imp le Predicate .

T he Complete Pr edicate in clude s a ll that is said of the

subj ect ; it may be iden tica l w ith the S imp le p redicate ,i t may be an en largemen t of the Simple p redicate . Thusin the sentence “

Ice melts , m elts is the p redicate ; in“ Ice melts rap idly in the sun

,

”melts is the S imple predi

cate , the adverb rap i dly and the adverb ia l phra se in tke

s un are adj uncts o f the S imple pr edicate ,and melts rap idly

i n ike sun i s the complete p redicate — all that is sa id of

ice in thi s sen tence .

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1 14 English Grammar

plays tolerably well . T he armies of Rome made Carthage a ruin .

12 . Thompson was elected captain of the team . 13 . T he snake measured five feet . 14 . T he class was told to take the lesson over again .

1 5 . I met the sheriff on my way home . 16. They were in a greathurry . 17 . T he highwayman became the terror of the coun try-side .

18 . Learn to eat slowly . 19. H e is coming to take tea here Thursday even ing . 20 . I have no time to do your sums for you . 2 1 . Aftertrying in vain to make a living in business

,he became a tramp

'

.

2 2 . Security is mortals’ ch iefest enemy . 23 . B e on your guard .

24 . H e got strong again in a few weeks . 2 5 . My brother was twelveyears old last mon th . 26 . Some books help us to understand ourselves .2 7 . Duncan is in his grave . 28 . After life’s fitful fever he sleeps well .29 . T om stood at the door, his broad—brimmed hat perched on the backof his head . 30 . I have lived here th irty years .

COMPLE ! SENTENCES

139. A Clause i s a group of words con tain ing a subj ectand a p redicate , and u sed in the sentence with the va lueof a s ingle part of speech .

Thus in the sentence “I know that you are right,”y ou a r e r zgkt is a

clause . It is made up of the subject’

you and the p redicate a r e r zgkt

and it is used as the object of the verb know ,that is, as a noun .

A clause is di stingu ished from a phrase by the fact thatit con ta in s subj ect and predicate like a sen tence , while a

phrase does n ot . It is di stingu ished from a sen tence byits use

,which i s a lways that of some part of speech in a

sen tence .

T he same words may be in one p lace a sen tence , as in “You are

right,

” used alone, and in another p lace a clause, as in the illustrationgiven above , where the same words constitute a clause, because thevare used with the value of a single part of speech . T he clause here ismarked as such by the conjunction tka t, which is frequen tly om itted .

140. A sentence conta in ing a clause o r clau ses is ca lleda Complex Sentence.

Complex Sentences 1 I 5

141. A clause may be used

1 . A S a N oun°

Tka t y ou kave wr onged me doth appear in this .

2 . A s an Adj ective

T he house i n wk ick we used to live has been sold .

3 . A s an Adverb

I wi ll come wken [fln isk my work .

Clau ses , therefore , are of three kinds

N oun Clauses,Adj ective Clauses ,Adverb Clauses .

142. Noun Clauses . Most of the function s of the noun

may be performed by clauses . A clause may be

1 . Subj ect : Wka t ke say s make s no di fference .

2 . Obj ect of a Verb : H e p rom ised tkut ke would be on

t ime .

3 . Obj ect of a Preposition : Te ll us about wka t y ou saw

a t tke ci rcus .

4 . In Predicate Con struction (predicate noun) : T he p lan

agreed upon was tka t ea ck skould pay ka lf .

5 . In Apposition : H e remembered the proverb , I t neverra ins bu t i t pours .

EXERCISE 6 7

Po int out the noun clauses and tell how each i s used :

1 . We all hope that you may be successful . 2 . Whether you go orstay is none of my business . 3 . Whatever is , is right . 4 . H e showed me

where the best fishing was . 5 . Home is what we make it . 6 . T he

fact that our provisions were nearly exhausted alarmed us . 7 . Thingsare no t what they seem . 8 . That the money is lost is certain . 9 . I t iscertain that the money is lost . 10 . Tell me not in mournful numbers,

English Grammar

Life is but an empty dream . 1 1 . I know not what course others maypursue . 12 . John stayed until after the lights were lit . 13 . We reliedon what you told us . 14 . Tell me where you hid it. 1 5 . It is truethat he found it . 16 . It matters little what he thinks . 17 . I asked theman what he wanted . 18 . H e said he was ashamed to tell me

143 . Adj ect ive Clauses . — Clauses tha t limit or modifynoun s o r p ronoun s are called Adjective C lauses . They are

connected w ith the noun s o r pronoun s they modify bymeans of re lative pronoun s or relative adverbs

H e tka t is not w i tk me is against me . T he house a t wkick y our

br otker boa r ded has been sold . T he cave wker e tke bea r spent tke

w inter was neve r found by hunters . T he key y ou gave me will no topen the door . T he moment 1 saw kim I knew h im .

NOTE . T he connecting relative is sometimes understood, as in thelast two examples . (See T he clause , of course, is still a relativeclause .

EXERCISE 68

Po inti

out the adj ective clauses and te ll to what noun or

p ronoun each belongs

1 . God he lps those that help themselves . 2 . This is the house thatJ ack built . 3 . It was Christmas , the day that chi ldren look forwardto so eagerly . 4 . This is the spot where Warren fell . 5 . T he househe lived in has since been torn down . 6 . T he uniform the soldiers worewas plain and serviceable . 7 . T he next time you see h im , give h immy message . 8 . I had killed

“

the b ird that brought the fog and mist .

9 . T he hour at which he wi ll arrive is not yet known . 10 . A peop lewhom I have not known Shall serve me . 1 1 . They never fail who diein a just cause . 12 . That is the man whose child you befriended .

13 . T he store where my brother works was broken into by thieves lastn ight . 14 . T he time is no t far distant when all our troubles will bebu t pleasant memories . 1 5 . Most of the books that he wrote are

interesting .

144 . Adverb Clauses . When a clause re str icts o r

otherwise modifies the p redicate of a sentence it is called

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1 I 8 English Grammar

EXERC ISE 69

Po int out and classify the adverb clause s

1 . Do not fail to call on him after you return . 2 . Come th is even‘

ing if you have time . 3 . T he men were so demoralized that the colonelcould no t rally them . 4 . When thieves fall out honest men come bythe ir rights . 5 . As I was crossing the street I saw Brown . 6 .

‘As isthe priest so are the people . 7 . Come when you are called . 8 . If youhave tears , prepare to Shed them now. 9. T he new law was posted atall the street corners , that every one m ight read it . 10 . Go where dutycalls thee . 1 1 . H e was taken to a warmer climate , as the doctors saidthat was the on ly hope of saving his life . 12 . H e is as laz y as the dayis long . 13 . S ince my country calls me, I obey . 14. H e is wiser thanhe seems . 15 . Let me see you before you leave town . 16 . Make haywhile the sun sh ines . 17 . We are sure that he will come . 18 . I am

sorry you lost it .

EXERCISE 70

C lassify all the clause s in Exercise 62 .

145 . A comp lex sentence may , of cour se , conta in more

than one k ind of clause . In the senten ce I f you were

p resen t, te ll me how it happen ed ,” there is both an

adverb clause and a noun clause . A ll three k inds of

clauses may appear in the same sentence .

146 . A clause may be itse lf complex, tha t i s, may conta inclauses used a s noun s, adj ectives, or adverbs within the

clauseIn the sen tence It has often been observed that, when the eyes of

the infan t first open upon the world , the reflected rays of light whichstrike them from the myriad of surrounding objects present to him no

image , but a medley of colors and Shadows,

”the time clause wken ike

ey es of i ke inf antfir st open upon tke wor ld is adverb clause to pr esent,and the relative clause wkick str ike tkem f r om tke my r iad of sur

r ounding obj ects is adj ective clause to r ay s . But r ay s and p r esent are

themse lves respectively subject and predicate of the clause introducedby ika t, wh ich is a noun clause, being the true subject of the sentence .

Sen tence Analysis 1 19

COMPOUND SENTENCES

147 . When two or more sen tence s are put togetherand treated as one , they make what i s called a Compound

Sentence . Thus in “ I called, but he did not an swer,

I ca lled,ke did not a nswer

,are coOrdinate sentence s

, so

closely un ited in thought as to form but One sentence .

148 . In the example given above the parts of the com

pound sentence are both simp le senten ces ; but any or all

of the members of a compound sentence may be complex.

For examp le :

I liked that book very well when I first read it, but it does no t p leaseme so well now.

H e called to them , but they could no t hear what he said .

After the war was over, he returned to his farm ; and there he liveduntil his brother died .

149 . On the other hand,a comp lex sen tence may con

ta in two or more clauses having the same con structionI fore saw tku t tke p lan would f a i l, and tka t we skould

come ou t p oorer tkan bef ore . Such clause s a re ca lledCoOrdinate Clauses .

150. A compound subject, as in John and James were absentyesterday,” does no t make the sen tence compound any more than a pluralsubject does in the sentence T wo of the boys were absen t yesterday .

”

T he same is true of the compound predicate . T he sentence , “T he

speaker then bowed and took his seat, has a compound predicate, butis no t therefore a compound sentence .

SENTENCE ANALY SIS

15 1. T o analy z e a sentence i s to resolve i t into its parts .

First,te ll whe ther the senten ce is simp le , comp lex, or

compound ; then po in t out the S imp le subj ect, with i ts

I 20 English Grammar

adjuncts , classifying them ,and ana lyz ing phrases and

clauses ; then p o in t ou t the simp le p redicate and i ts

adjuncts , analyz ing phra ses and clauses as in the subj ect .For examp le

1 . When I said I wou ld die a bache lor , I did not think Ishou ld live till I were married .

This is a complex sen tence .

T he subj ect is I ; it has n o adjuncts .T he verb is did th ink . I ts adjuncts are

T he negative adverb not ; the noun clause skould livet i ll I were ma r r ied

,obj ect of did tkink ; and the

adverb clause of time wken sa id I would di e a

backelor,modify ing did tkink .

T he noun clause , obj ect of d id tkink,is ana lyz ed as

follows :

Subj ect, J verb,skould live ; ti ll I were ma rr ied

,ad

verb clau se of time , limiting skould live . In this time

clause 1 is th e subj ect, were ma r r ied i s the predicate ,and ti ll is a subordinate con j unction

,j o in ing the

clause as a time modifier to skould live .

The adverb clause wken sa id I would d i e a backelor is

analyz ed as fo llows :

Subj ect, verb,sa id ; I would d i e a ba ckelor

,noun

clause , obj ect of sa id ; wken,con junctive adverb

,

modifying sa i d,and j o in ing the whole clause as time

modifier to the verb d id tk ink . Of the noun clause ,obj ect of sa id

,the subj ect is f ; the verb , would die ;

and backelor is p redicate nominative , used with woulddi e to complete the predicate . A is an adj ective qua lify ing backelor .

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1 2 2 English Grammar

S imple subj . forefathers .

Adjuncts of simp le subjAdjectives : tke, r ude .

Adjective phrase : of tke kamlet .

Noun dependen t on preposition : kamlet .

Adjective tke .

Preposition showing relation of ka'

mlet to f or ef a tker sPronoun in apposition : ea ck .

Participle modifying cack la id .

Adverb phrase in kis na r r ow cell.

Noun dependen t on prep . : cell.

Adjuncts of cell : kis,na r r ow .

Prep . showing relation of cell to la id : in .

Adverb modifying la id : f or ever .

S imple pred . : sleep .

Adjuncts of simp le predAdverb phrase benea tk ikose r ugged elms

,tka t y ew tree

’s skade.

Nouns dependen t on preposition : elms,skade .

Adjuncts of elms tkese, r ugged .

Adjunct of skade tka t y ew tr ee’s .

Poss . case limiting skade y ew tr ee’s .

Adjective to y ew tr ee’

s tka t .

Preposition showing relation of elms and skade to sleep benea tk .

Adverb clause wker e keaves tke turf in ma ny a moulder ing keapSubject : turf .

Adjective : tke .

S imple pred . : keaves .

Adjuncts of simp le predAdverb phrase : in many a moulder ing keap .

Noun dependent on p reposition in keap .

Adjuncts of keap moulder ing, many a .

Prep . showing relation of keap to keaves in .

Conjunctive adverb wker e .

Written analysis, if required at all, should be used but seldom.

Analysis is best taught by oral, not by written exercises .

Analysis o f Sen tences 1 23

REVIEW

S entences for analysis and gen eral par sing

1 Earth with her thousand voices praises God .

2 . That n ight the baron dreamt of many a woe .

3 . Thou canst not surely be the same that thou didst seem .

4 . Where once we dwelt our name is heard no more .

5 . I love no t man the less , but nature more .

6 . T he greatest of faults is to be conscious of none .

7 .

’Tis pleasant, sure, to see one’s name in prin t .8 . I awoke one morn ing and found myself famous .9 . No profit grows where is no pleasure taken .

10 .

’Twas certain he could write , and cipher too .

1 1 . Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep .

12 . A man he was to all the coun try dear .13 . T he village all declared how much he knew .

14 . Man’s feeble race what ills await !1 5 . T he hand of little employment hath the daintier sense.

16 . S till in thy right hand carry gen tle peace,To silence envious tongues .

17 . When—

Fortune meansi

to men most goodShe looks upon them with a threaten ing eye .

18 . What I aspired to beAnd was no t, comforts me .

19 . To gild refined gold, to paint the l ily,Is wasteful and ridiculous excess .

20 . True hope is swift, and flies with swallow’s wings ;Kings it makes gods , and meaner creatures kings .

2 1 . How silver e sweet sound lovers’ tongues by n ight,

Like softest music to attending ears

2 2 . There is a tide in the affairs of men

Which,taken at the flood

,leads on to fortune .

23 . Our acts our angels are , or good or ill,Our fatal shadows that walk by us still .

English Grammar

24 . Words are like leaves ; and where they most abound,Much fruit of sense beneath IS rarely found .

25 . All times I have enjoyedG reatly, have suffered greatly, both with thoseThat loved me, and alone .

H ow dull it is to pause, to make an end,

T o rust unburnished, not to shine in use !

As though to breathe were life .

Death closes all : but someth ing ere the end,

Some work of noble note, may ye t be done,Not unbecoming men that strove with gods .

28 . H is life was gentle ; and the elementsSo m ixed in h im ,

that Nature migh t stand upAnd say to all the world, “This was a man ! ”

To thine own self be true,And it must follow, as the n ight the day,T hou canst not then be false to any man .

T he old order changeth , yielding place to new ;

And God fulfils himself in many ways,Lest one good custom should corrupt the world .

31 . H e who ascends to mountain-tops shall findT he loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow ;

H e who surpasses or subdues mankindMust look down on the hate of those below .

32 . Beside yon s traggling fence that skirts the way,With blossom’d furze unprofitably gay,There, in his noisy mansion

, Skilled to rule,T he village master taught his little school .

33 . There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream,T he earth

,and every common s ight

To me did seemApparelled in celestial light .

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PART IV

CHAPTER X IX

SYNTA!

15 2. Syntax is that part of grammar which sets forth the

pr incip les con tro lling the re lation s of words within the sen

tence . Much of it has a lready been p re sented in Part I Iand in Par t I I I but there rema in to be con sidered manymatters not yet touched upon ,

and other s that have beenmentioned but not fully expla ined . They may be groupedunder thexf

n

o llowing heads : Case Relation s , Syntax of theAdj ective , Concord ,

Ten se,Mood and Modal Auxi liar ies

,

Infinitive,Particip le and Verba l Noun .

CASE RELATIONS

15 3 . Of cases , as dis ti ngu ished by inflection , Englishnoun s have bu t two : man

,man

’

s . Some of the p ronoun shave three : ke, k is, k im ; wko, wkose, wkom . Adj ectives ,which in Anglo-Saxon had case inflection s like noun s,have , in modern English

,no inflection for case .

B ut,though Engli sh has at mo st on ly three case forms ,

and Engli sh noun s only two , the case relation s are as

var ied as in other languages . I t is customary in Englishgrammar to group the se u ses under one or other of the

three case n ames given to the forms of the p ronoun:

126

Case Relations I 27

Nominative , Possessive , Obj ective . We can in most casestell whether a noun is in the n om inative or the obj ectivecase by see ing what form the per sonal pronoun would takein the same p lace .

154 . Nominative Case. 1 . T he subj ect of a finite verbis in the nom inative case

j okn knows his lessons . Ske looks well . Is ke gone ?

T he subject of a verb in the imperative mood (always the pronounof the second person) is not expressed, except for emphasis or contrastHand me the blotter .T he subject is sometimes omitted before verbs in other moods . In

“Thank you , sir,” the subject I is omitted . In “Bless your heart,”

the subject is omitted, and, indeed, is hardly thought of.On the other hand, the subject is sometimes repeated in the form of

a pronoun, either for emphasis or to restate a long or remote subjectT he Lord, ke is God .

To make a happy fireside climeTo weanS and wife

Tka t’s the true pathos and sublimeOf human life .

T he redundan t use of the pronoun when no emphas is is intended, asin T om ,

ke was there ,” often heard in colloquial speech, is inelegan t .

2 . The n oun or pronoun indicating the person addressedis in the nominative case

Where have you been, j okn .9’

O Tkou that hearest prayer, to thee shall all flesh come

3 . A n oun or pronoun in the abso lute con struction witha particip le is in the nom in ative case z

T he r a in being over, we set out .H e being absent

,no business could be transacted .

1 2 8 English Grammar

T he case of the noun o r pronoun in this construction was , in older

English, the dative (modern objective) and survivals of this older useare not infrequent in Milton :

1

Dagon hath presumedM e overthrown , to enter lists with God .

T he absolute construction is to be kept distinct from that of. theappositive participle , where the noun or pronoun has its constructionindependent of the participle , and the participle is merely a modifier .In “ John

,hearing the news , hurried home,” j okn is the subject, and

the particip ial phrase is an adjunct of the subject ; but in “ John havingtold us the news, we were prepared for their coming,” j okn is ne ithersubject nor object, and has no construction excep t with the participlekaving told . Hence it is said to be used absolutely .

4 . A noun or p ronoun may be descr ibed or exp lainedby j o in ing to i t an other noun or pronoun standing for thesame person or thing . T he de scr ibing noun or pronoun is

said to be in appos i tion with the noun or pronoun de scr ibedEdward, the k ing

’s e ldest son,was sla in .

T he word in apposition is in the same case as the pr in

cipal word .

“

Hence , a noun or p ronoun in apposition w ith.

a w ord in the nomInative ca se is in the n ominative caseMy old“ friends, tkey that to i led and suffered with me through that

t ime, are all gone now. Garrick,the famous actor , was his friend .

Appositive epithets sometimes become so closely united with the

words they modify that the whole is felt to make but one nameWilliam the Conqueror, Peter the Hermit .

5 . A fter the intran sitive verbs of incomp lete predication (or copu lative verbs , see the noun or pronoun thatcomp letes the predication ,

standing for the same person or

thing as the subj ect,is in the nom inative case

Are you the man I am ke .

They soon became f r iends .

Arnold turned tr a itor .

1 T his use in M i lton may be expla ined , however , as an imitation of the Latin

Abso lute C on struction .

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130 English Grammar

struction , possessive , but the case i nflection is given to one

only : of H amlet oa r clea r brotker’

s death ; for man tke

cr ea ture’

s sin at f oknson’

s tke bookseller .

15 7 . T he word that the posse ssive lim its is frequentlyom itted when it can be readily supp lied from the context :This book is my brotker

’

s ; H e is staying at the j oneses’

They took lunch at D elmon z

'

co’

s ; Mee t me at the pkotograp/zer

’

s .

T he use of the po ssessive after of in such expressions asa fr iend of father ’s ,

” “ that hor se of B rown ’s,

” “ thi s home

of ours,” “ that Wife of h is , is logica lly redundan t, as it

expre sses the posse ssive relation twice ; but it is an e stablished idiom of the language . I t is common ly ca lled the“ doub le po sse ssive .

15 8 . Obj ective Case — I . T he direct obj ect of a tran sitive verb is in the obj ective ca se

have fin ished their wor k .

fellow wrote Eva ngeline .

Where did you leave your book

2 . Some intran sitive verbs may take an object of kindredmean ing . Thi s is called the cogna te obj ect :

H e died the dea tk of the righteous .Fight the good figkt of faith .

I dreamed a dr eam .

Eyes looked love .

She looked dagger s at him.

H e ran his godly r ace.

They danced a r eel.H e wan ted to rough it like the commonest labore

Some tran sitive verbs may take , in addition to the directobj ect, a cognate obj ect

Th e ruffian thereupon struckmm a blow .

Case Relations 13 I

3 . The indirect obj ect of a verb 1s in the objectivecase

T he old man told me a wonderful story .

His uncle has given k im a pony to ride .

H e left tke/ n all his wealth .

S end me word at once .

Instead of the indirect object this relation may be expressed by toorf or with the objective They sent me (indirect obj ect) word at oncethey at once sen t word to me (prepositional phrase) ; the carpenter

made kim (indirect object) a sled the carpen ter made a sled f orkim (prep . phrase) . Do not, however, parse the indirect object asgoverned by to or f or understood .

”

T he relation of indirect object is expressed in Old

English and in some other language s by a specia l case ,the Dative . T he function s of the dative are now per

formed e ither by p repositiona l phrases or f by the obj ectivecase . B e side s that of indirect obj ect the following dativecon struction s appear in modern English

(a ) T he r eflex ive dative, wi th in transitive verbs

They sat tkem down to rest .

(b) T he so-called etkica l dative

the Hotspur of the North , he that kills me s ix or seven do z enof Scots at a breakfast .One Colonna cuts me the throat of Ors in i’s baker.

(c) T he dative after nea r (nea r er , next ) and like

H e looks very much like me .

Were you near kim when he did it

T he case after these words is not to be explained as “objective after

a preposition understood .

”

4 . Certa in transitive verbs take , besides the obj ect, anoun to complete the mean ing (see The comp le tingword after these tran sitive verbs

,standing for the same

I 3 2 English Grammar

person or thing as the obj ect, i s in the same case , theobj ective

They made h im capta in .

You once called me yourf r iend .

A noun in thi s con struction is to be par sed as Obj ectiveComp lemen t .

Some of the verbs that take an objective complement are make,

ckoose, elect, appoint, cr ea te, a’ecla r e, ca ll.

As already pointed out (N om . Ca se when these verbs are used inthe passive voice, the object of the action becomes the subject of thesentence and the complement is retained, but in the nom inative case, toagree with the subject .

5 . A noun or pronoun dependent upon a preposition isin the obj ective ca se :

Mary has written a letter to her aunt .H e spoke to tkem .

Is this for meHurry after kim

6 . Noun‘

s are sometimes used in the objective case , without p repo sition s , w ith -a purely adverbia l va lue . T he mostimportant of the se u se s are to denote t ime

,space , w e ight,

measure,di rection ,

manner :

I saw h im last week .

They stayed three day s .

I will no t yield an inck .

T he flag-pole is one hundred f eet h igh .

H e went the r est of the way alone .

T he bass weighed five pounds .

Alfred hurried kome .

Have it your own way .

7. In exclamation s , the objective is sometimes used absoo

lutely , without any govern ing word

Ah me ! Dear me M e miserable

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134

8 .

9 .

IO .

I I .

12 .

14 .

English Grammar

Even now, where Alp ine solitudes ascendI sit me down , a pensive hour to spend .

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,And all the air a solemn stillness holds

,

Save Where the beetle Wheels his droning flight,

And drowsy tinklings lull the distan t fold .

When Mus ic,heaven ly maid, was young,

While yet in early Greece she sung,

T he passions oft, to hear her shell,Thronged around her magic cell .

Favors to none , to all she smi les extends ;Oft she rejects, but n ever once offends .

Then lies him down the lubber fiend,And , stretched out all the chimney’s length,Basks at the fire his hairy strength

,

And crop-full out of door he flings,

E re the first cock his matin rings .

But oh the heavy change, now thou art gone,Now thou art gone, and never must return !Thee, Shepherd, thee the woods and desert cavesWith wild thyme and the gadding vine o

’ergrown ,

And all their echoes,mourn .

From scenes like these old Scotia’s grandeur springs,That makes her loved at home, revered abroad ;

Princes and lords are but the breath of k ings,An honest man’s the noblest work of God .

T he mountains look on MarathonAnd Marathon looks on the sea ;

And musing there an hour alone,I dreamed that Greece might still be free ;For, stan ding on the Persians’ grave,I could not deem myself a slave .

Syntax o f Adj ectives I 3 5

In the spring as fuller crimson comes upon the robin’s breast ;In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest .

17 . But me , not destined such delights to share ,My prime of life in wandering spen t and care ;Impelled, Wi th steps unceasing, to pursueS ome fleeting good that mocks me with the view ;That

,like the circle bounding earth and skies,

Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies ;

My fortune leads to traverse realms alone ,And find no spot of all the world my own .

SY NTA ! OF ADJECT IVES

159 . Adj ectives are in the ir nature dependen t words ;they belong to some noun o r p ronoun ,

e ither expre ssed or

understood . According to the relation an adj ective bear sto its pr incipal, noun or pron oun ,

it is sa id to be in the

A ttr ibutive,App os itive , or Predicate con str uction .

I . T he A ttr ibutive use is that in which the adj ectivedirectly modifies or lim its the mean ing of the p r in cipa lword . In this use the adj ective gener ally precede s, al

though i t may , e specia lly in poetry , follow the word to

which i t ‘

belongs :

A good soutk wind sprung up .

Tbef a i r breeze blew ; tke wkite foam flew.

A knam’

sk speech sleeps in a f oolis/i ear .

At last he rose and twitched his mantle blue ;To-morrow to f r osk woods and pastures new .

2 . When the adj ective i s less closely un ited w ith the

p r incipal wo rd,and rathe r adds to than lim its o r modifies

it,it i s said to be in the App ositive con struction . T he

appositive adj ective o r adj ective phrase is often a reduced

clause and as such is in sen se a modifier of the predicate ,

136 English Grammar

a lthough as adjective i t is to be construed w ith the noun

o r pronoun ,n ot wi th the ve rb

Gr and, gloomy , and jbeculiar , he sat upon the throne a sceptredherm it .I l istened motionless and still.

3 . We have already seen that a noun or pronoun may

be used after a verb , not as obj ect, but to comp lete the

predicate . Adj ective s may be u sed in the same way to

comp lete the predicate , re ferr ing e ither to the subj ect (seeEm . Ca se, 5 ) or to the obj ect (see Obj . Ca se , In the

sentence , “ The chi ldren are happy ,happ iness is no t

simply a ttr ibu ted to the ch ildren,but is p red ica ted of

them . In the sentence , “ H e made the stick straight,”

s tra igkt is a part of what he did to the stick .

Sweet was the sound,when oft at evening’s close

Up yonder h ill the .village murmur rose .

Fear made him speec/z less .

160. Compar i son . S ome exceptional and idiomatic use sand forms of the comparative and super lative degrees are

to be noted

I . A lthough the comparative i s the usua l con structionin the compar ison of two obj ects She was the. f a i r er of

the the super lative i s found in th is use throughoutthe whole range of English literature

Let us make incision for your love,

To prove whose blood is r eddest, his or mine . SHA ! SPE RE .

Then thou shalt see , or rather to thy sorrowSoon feel

,whose god is str ongest , thine or m ine .

— Mm ~on .

And who were tutors Lady Blanche ,” she said,And Lady Psyche .

” Which was pr ettiest,B est natur ed “Lady Psyche .

” —T ENs on .

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13 8 English Grammar

CONCORD

162. We have seen a lready (Part I I ) tha t verbs agreew ith the ir subjects

,and pronoun s agree w ith the ir an te

ceden ts,in number and per son . Pronoun s that distin

guish gender mu st agree w ith the ir anteceden ts in thi srespect a lso

I am,thou a r t, he is , you wer e .

One sows,another r eaps .

England expects every man to do kis duty .

Lucy has lost ker scissors , and cannot fin ish ker work without i kem .

l,wko kave seen all countries , still prefer my own .

O Thou tka t seest all things,judge my cause I

163 . Concord of Pronoun w i th Antecedent — Three con

struction s in wh ich error s are often made call for specia lcon sideration here .

I . When a pronoun has for an tecedent two or more

noun s or . p ronoun s in the s ingu lar number j omed by the

con junction s or , nor , e i tker or, ne i tker nor

,the

p ronoun agree s w ith each separate ly , and i s therefore inthe singular

Ne ither yard nor garden has any fen ce around i t .

Ne ither horse nor rider could find kis way back .

A civilized man,or a Hottentot

,would have betrayed kis surprise ;

no t so the Indian .

A fool or a knave may boast of kis consistency .

2 . In like manner the di str ibutive s,ea ck

,every ,

e i tker,

ne i tker , requ ire the r eference words to be in the singu lar

Each member of the comm ittee acted according to k is convictions .Every castle had i ts stout defenders .Everybody in Van ity Fair spends kis time in foolishness .E ither of the sisters would gladly have given up ker room to the guest.

Co nco rd I 39

The absence of a personal p ronoun of common genderin English makes i t difficu lt to observe this rule where bothsexes are invo lved . Any one, every body ,

etc.,may be

.

u sedfor e ither man or woman ; but be is mascu line , ske femin ine . Hence the difficulty in such sentences as thi s

Every boy and girl paid dime cheerfully .

What pronoun shall be used before dime ? Not k is,

because that exclude s the gir ls ; not ker , because thatexclude s the boys . T he strict logica l con struction demandsboth , k is or ker . B ut this is cumbersome and sounds awkward. The plura l pronoun is used in such sentences bymany good speakers and wr iters

Every boy and girl paid tkei r dime .

In many cases , concord can be preserved by changingthe con struction of the sentence

All the boys and gi rls paid tkeir dimes cheerfully .

T he dime was cheerfully paid by each boy and girl .

3. In the sen tence , “ Thi s is one of the best nove lsthat have ever been published in Amer ica ,

”the an tece

den t of the relative tka t is not one,but novels

,and the verb

i s therefore p lural (kave) . In such senten ces the use of

a singu lar verb as predicate to the re lative pronoun is

wrong .

For the concord of pronouns with collective nouns see 1 64 , 4.

164 . Concord of Subj ect and Predicate. 1 . Two

singular subj ects .connected by or,nor , ei tner

nei tker nor,requ ire the verb in the singular

One or the other of them is guilty .

N either your father nor your grandfather tkinks so .

140 English Grammar

2 . Two or more singular subj ects connected by and

require a p lural verb

Mercy and truth kave met together.France and Germany a r e adjoin ing countries .

Cer tain exception s are to be made to this rule

(a ) Sometimes the verb is in the singular agreeing withthe nearest of the two or more subj ects, as in M i lton

Thence to the land whereflows Gauges and Indus .

This is e specia lly frequent when the subjects fo llow the

verbFor wide is heard the thundering fray,T he rout, the ruin, the dismay .

(b) When two or more noun s go to express one idea , orare close ly connected in thought, the verb is often put in

the singular

Do youknow where my needle and thread is ?Where envy and stri fe i s

, there i s confus i on and every ev1l work .

B I B LE .

B itter constraint and sad occasion dear compels me .— M1m~

on .

I should know what God and man is . T ENNY SON .

Distress and anguish comet/z upon you . B I B LE .

(c) Two or more subj ects preceded by the distr ibutiveseuon, every , etc .

,require the verb in the singu lar :

Every man, woman , and ch i ld was there .

Each leaf and blade of grass was parched .

3 . A subject in the p lural requires a .p lural verb

T he boys kave come back .

T o this rule the fo llowing exception is to be notedWhen the subject, though p lural in form , is in mean ing

a un it, the verb i s singular

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14 2 English Grammar

or to emp loy some verb that does not distinguish person ,as in

E ither you or I must be wrong.

TENSE

165 . Present Tense.

— The present ten se , be sides representing an act or condition in the p re sent time , or w ithrefe rence to the pre sen t, has the fo llowing specia l u ses

I . It is sometime s u sed for the future

When do you leave ?I go in the morn ing .

To-morrow is Sunday .

I am going to the city next week .

2 . I t is sometimes used for the past, e specia lly in live lynarration

H e reached the road in safety . See ing an officer, he sudden ly tur nsand r uns in the opposite direction . But here he is conf r onted byanother difficulty .

3 . I t is u sed— even in clauses dependen t upon pastten ses, where the past ten se m ight be expected — in

statements of un iver sa l truth

H e denied that the earth is round .

She taught her pup ils that honesty is always better than shrewdness .

166. Present Perfect Tense.

— The present per fect ten seis often u sed to express the presen t resu lt of a past act

Burke kas wr i tten speeches that will compare favorably with the

greatest orations of antiquity .

A tree kas f a llen across the road .

Subjunctive M o od 143

SUB JUNCTIVE MOOD

The i ndicative and imperative moods have been a lreadydiscussed, and need no further treatment here . T he sub

junctive , however , though of less frequent occurrence ,

requ ire s,on account of the difficu lties it presents, more

detai led treatment .

167 . Subj unctive in Pr incipal Sentences . The Sub

junctive Mood gets i ts name from the fact that i t i sgenerally used in subj o ined clauses . I t has

,however , in

English literature three we ll-defined uses in principa lSCIl tGIICCS

I . Imperative Subjunctive , expressing a command . Th i sdiffers from the imperative mood , which i s never used exceptin the second person

S i t we down ,

And let us hear Bernardo speak of this

S ing we to our God abovePraise eternal as his love .

Come one, come all, this rock shall flyFrom its firm base as soon as I .

NOTE . In modern English prose the imperative mood of the verblet

,with complementary infin itive , would be used Let us si t down . Let

us s ing . Let one come,let all come .

2 . Optative Subjunctive , expressing a w ish

Thy kingdom come. God bless you L ight be the earth above thee !

NOTE . In modern prose we generally use may with complementaryinfinitive : M ay thy kingdom come . M ay the earth be l ight above thee

144 English Grammar

3 . Subjunctive of Con sequence (the condition be ing frequently not expressed)

It wer e madness to attempt it . It wer e best you let him know.

It kad been so with us , had we been there .

NOTE . In modern prose we should say rather : I twould be madnessto attempt it . It would be best that you let him know. I t would kavebeen so with us

,if we had been there .

168 . Subjunctive in Clauses — The subjunctive is used

I . In clauses of Purpose

Gather up the fragments , that nothing be lost .But that it s

jor ead no further, let us straightway threaten them.

2 . In clauses of Result

H e that smiteth a man , so that he die, shall be surely put to death .

S o live s-that, when thy summons comes

Thou go!

not, like the quarry slave at n ight,S courged to his dungeon, etc .

3 . In‘

Indirect ! uestion s

H e shall know of the doctrine, whether it be of God .

Whether it be true or false I cannot say .

4 . In N oun clauses

’Twere best he speak no harm of Brutus hereIf I will that he ta r ry ti ll I come

,what is that to thee

See thou tell no man .

5 . In Time clause s

Come down ere my ch ild die.

Why may not imagination trace the noble dust of Alexander, till hefind it stopp ing a bunghole

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146 English Grammar

9 . Mated with a squalid savage what to me were sun or clime ?

10. Life p iled on lifeWere all too little, and of one to me

Little remains .

a 1 1 . B ut thou, when thou fastest, anoint thine head, and wash thyface, that thou appear no t unto men to fast, but unto thy Father whichis in secret .

12 . Agree with thine adversary qui ckly, while thou art in the waywith him ; lest at any t ime the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and

'

the judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cast into prison .

13 . I f damned custom have not brassed it so,

That it be proof and bulwark against sense .

14.

’T is hard to say if greater want of skillAppear in writing or in judg ing ill .

’Twere good she were spoken with : for she may strewDangerous conjectures in ill-breeding minds .

I 6. Thy dukedom I res ign , and do entreatThlou pardon me my wrong .

17 . One would th ink his mother’s milk were scarce out of him.

18 . Doth our law judge any man before it hear h im ?19 . S tay, monster, ere thou sink .

20 . T he tree will wi ther long before it fall .2 1 . If thou do these things , show thyself to the world .

22 : Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it ab idethalone .

23 . O God ! I could be bounded in a nutshell, and count myself aking of infin ite space, were i t not that I have bad dreams .

24 . For murder, though it have no tongue, will speakWith most m iraculous organ .

2 5 . She refuseth to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he neverso wisely .

26. Then give me leave, that I may turn the key,That no man enter till my tale be done .

M odal Auxiliar ies 147

MODAL AU ! ILIARIES

169 . We have seen that the Fin ite verb , that 18,the

verb limited by a subj ect, has on ly three moods indicative ,subjunctive , and imperative . T he infin itive i s really not

a mood, as it has no subj ect nominative .

We have seen also that mood has nothing to do with f act.Mood i s the tone of affirmation , the manner in which a

verb says something of its subj ect, regardless of whetherthe predication is a fact or not a fact .

M ood is sometimes confounded wi th the mea n ing of the verb, withwhich mood has nothing to do . To call can go the fiotentia l mood,because potentiality lies in the meaning of can , is to obscure hopelesslyany right conception of mood . In “ I am able to walk ”

and “ I can

walk ”the mood is the same . If mood had to do with the mean ing of

the verb, there would be no end to moods . For instance, we might call“ I will go,” the volentia l mood ; “ I beg you to go,” the def er entia lmood ; “ I am sorry I went,” the fien itentia l mood , and so on . In

I doubt it,

” doubt is expressed, but the mood is indicative .

170. Verb-Phrases made up of the auxiliar ies may ,

m igkt, would,and skould

,with a fo llowing infin itive

,are

in the indicative o r subjunctive mood, according to the

conception or the manner of affirmation . These auxiliaries , however , are often pr incipal verbs ; and can

,could ,

and mus t,often classed as auxiliaries, are a lways p r incipal

verbs . B ut for conven ience the use s of all are here given .

They are followed by the pure infin itive , that is, the infin i~

tive without to .

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the verb-phrase repre

sents the indicative or the subjunctive mood . In German, for instance ,”

the mood is determined for the most part by the f orm of the auxiliary ;but in English the auxiliary forms for both moods are now iden tical,and the mood can be determined only by the sense . T he mood of

14 8 English Grammar

these words when used as pr incipa l verbs is determined in the sameway as that of any o ther finite verb .

In the summary of uses given be low, the who le phraseis ita lici z ed when used as the equiva lent of a mood ; whenthe fin ite verb is pr incipa l and not auxiliary, it a lone isitaliciz ed .

171. Can

Abi lity : I can read . H e can lift that with one hand .

In both examp les , can is in the indicative mood . T he verb thatfollows can is to be parsed as the complementa ry infin i tive . In “ If

you can read it, can lift it (and you say you can) , why don’t you do it P”

the mood is indicat ive. In “ If I can find it (a mere supposition) , I will‘

send it,” the mood of can is, according to theory, the subjunctive, thoughin actual practice the indicative is common ly used in English in suchconditional clauses, as If it r a ins, he will no t go,” If he is a t home,tell him .

”

Could (past ten se of can)Abilityk

: H e could read Latin at ten year s of age . I

could lift a heavier we ight some year s ago .

In both examples could is in the indicative . In “ If I could (wereable to ) afford it, I would buy it,” could is in the subjunctive .

172. May

I . Possibi lity : Gather ye rose s whi le ye may . I may

go yet .

2 . Permission Y ou may (are permitted to) go now .

3 . Wish M ay he live long and happ i ly .

4 . Purpose , etc. : H e studies that he may lea rn .

I hope he may come .

I fear he may lose it .

In 1 and 2,may is in the indicative ; in 3 and 4 may live, may lea r n,

may come,may lose, may be parsed together as the predicate, equiva

len ts of the subjunctive in such sentences as , “ Long live the king,

”

Thy kingdom come,

” “Gather up the fragments that nothing be lost,”

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English Grammar

5 . Equivalent of past indicative : Whom skould I meet

(did I meet). What skould he‘

do (did he do) .“When the p riest skould a sk

” “Taming of the

Shrew (asked, Anglo-Saxon sceolde a sczan) .

I , 3, 5 are in the indicative : 2 and 4 are equivalents of the subjunctive .

175 . Mus t .

—In origin a past ten se , but now used as

a p re sen t. In “We must obey the law , mus t shou ld be

parsed as a verb in the indicative ; obey ,as infin itive .

M ust,when reference is made to past time

,is followed

by the perfect infin itive : Y ou mus t have known him

former ly .

CONDITIONAL PROPOS ITIONS

176. C lauses expre ssing condition may be divided intothree cla sses : log ica l, idea l, and unrea l.

1 . Log ica l. Emp loyed for sake of argument — if on e

thing i s so, then another thing is so . No doubt is ex

pressed . T he mood is indica tive .

ExamplesIf he i s br eatking, he is living .

If he say s that, he lies .

If there is a God, he is just .If that thou beest a Roman

,take it forth .

If thou beest he thou seest .If it was you, then I have nothing more to say .

If she wa s without love , she was without hate .

2 . Idea l. A mere supposition ,may or may not be true .

Doubt is imp lied, and the mood is subj unctive .

ExamplesIf there be a God, he ought to be just .If thou do these things

,show thyself to the world .

If it assume (skould assume) my noble father’s person, I’ll speak to it.

Co nditional Propo sitio n I 5 I

Instead of the subj unctive according to theory , in modern English theindica tive is more common ly used , even in mere suppositions as , If itr a ins to morrow, I shall no t go ; “ If he

,is at home , tell him to send

the book .

” T he more modern equivalents of the ideal subjunctive are

also in common use :“ If you skould see him

,let me know ”

;“ If he

skould r etur n , he would be a ir ested .

’

3 . Un r ea l. Condition not fu lfilled . The past subjunctive15 used to exp ress unreality in the present time ; the past

perfect, unrea lity in the past .

ExamplesIf I wer e you

,I should go .

If he wer e here, he could speak for himself.If I knew , I would tell you .

If I kad been in your p lace, I should have done so .

If he kad been here, he could have spoken for himself.If I kad known, I would have told you .

EXERCISE 7 2

Parse the verbs and verb-phrase s

1 . I cannot tell where he IS . 2 . You may go to-morrow . 3 . Myfingers are so numb I cannot write . 4 . May your shadow never growless ! 5 . I could no t see my hand before my face . 6 . H e mavreturnsooner than you think . 7 . I would help you if I could . 8 . I hope youmay succeed . 9 . Enj oy your holiday while you may . I O. Y ou may havebeen mistaken . 1 1 . H e might have answered more politely . 12 . Theyfeared they m ight lose the ir way . 13 . I thought he would be herebefore this . 14 . It .is better that I should stay where I am . 1 5 . T he

old sailor would entertain us for hours with stories of his early life .

16. If he had stuck to it, he could“have made his fortune . I 7 . H e

would no t answer my question . 18 . We should do to others aswe would that they should do to us . 19 . When seven o’clock came

he would shoulder his axe and go to the woods . 20. If he should notbe at home , leave a message for him . 2 1 . H e gave orders that the spy

should be shot at daybreak . 2 2 . If he has my mail , I will turn backhome . 23 . If you had a message for me , why didn’t you deliver itsooner 24 . If I were no t busy to-day I should go hunting . 2 5 . If I

1 5 2 English Grammar

had seen him,I should have told h im ; 26 . If I see him to-morrow, I

wi ll tell h im . 27 . If I had been there, he would no t have escaped .

28 . Had he known it earlier he could have saved you the trouble .

USES OF SHALL AND WILL

177 . Shall and wi ll are auxiliar ies of tense when theydenote futur ity (see p . otherwise they are pr incipa lverbs with comp lementary infin itive , w i ll in the first .per

son denoting voli tion or determ ina tion,ska ll in the second

and third per son s denoting p rom i se or compuls ion . As

the se words are often m i sused, the fo llowing tab le 1 is

given to show 111 wha t ways they may be correctly used .

2 1) AND 31)

PE Rs .

E ! AMPLE ST o E! PRE SS I ST PE RS .

1

I ska ll“ come to-morrow.

Futurity Y ou w i ll get back late .

H e will arrive first.

Skall I pass ?! uestion shall shall, will Ska ll you pass ?

Wi ll he pass ?

I w i ll have my own way.

You w i ll have your own way .

H e w ill have his own way .

Promise

Compulsion shall

1From West’

s Engl ish Grammar .

I w ill pay you to-morrow.

You ska ll be paid to-morrow .

H e ska ll be paid to-morrow.

H e says I ska ll do it .

Thou ska lt not steal .H e ska ll surely die .

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I 54 English Grammar

When the verb upon which the infinitive depends is in the passivevo ice, the to is regularly used

H e was heard to say it .

H e was seen to do it .

2 . In certain idioms .

(1) After kad ra tker,kad better

,kad a s lief , etc

I had rather be a doorkeeper .Y ou had better go and see .

In certain e llip tica l phrases .

Of comparison

As well pay now as later .Better do it now than put it off ti ll to-morrow.

Exclamatory and interrogative

What be gone all day and not catck a fishWhy not tell him

After but

H e cannot choose but bear .

'we can but try .

180. Uses of the Infini tive.—~ The Infinitive

used :1 . A s subject

To er r is human .

To be contents his natural desire .

2 . As predicate noun (predicate nominative)T o see is to believe .

T o know her is to love her .

3 . As obj ect of a tran sitive verb

I like to r ead K ipl ing’s stories .H e preferred to stay at home .

She intends to teack .

I hate to see him act so .

T he I nfin itive 1 5 5

4 . After the preposition s about , bu t, excep t

They were about to leave .

There was nothing left for me but to give my consent .H e did nothing but r ead .

H e cared for nothing except to make money .

5 . T o modify or comp lete the mean ing of verbs , noun s,adjective s , and adverbs . In these u ses it may be par sedas a comp lemen ta ry infi n i tive to the word it lim its .

(a ) A fter verbs, to express purpose , con sequence, and

the like

H e came to see us .I t came to pa ss .

H e was ordered to sur r ender .

They rej oiced to bear of it .

(b) A fter noun s

They had no rule to go by.j one s has a fine horse to sell.

G ive me some thing to ea t .

I have no desire to ofi end you .

(c) A fter adj ective s

I am glad to see you .

Are you ready to sta r t .

She is hard to plea se.

H e was the first to speak .

(d ) A fter adverbs

H e was not strong enough to lif t it .

They arrived too late to ca tck the train .

B e so good as to answer at once .

6 . After certain ve rbs the infin itive , preceded by a noun

or pronoun in the obj ective case , forms w ith i t a substan

tive phrase , the whole to be regarded as the obj ect of theverb

I 56 English Grammar

I saw kim fa ll.She asked kim to come.

H e ordered tke r egiment to advance.

In the passive construction the infin itive is retained,parsed as complementary infin itive :

The regiment was ordered to advance.

7. In parenthetica l phrases

To be sure, I have no t known him long .

H e is no t a scholar, so to speak, but he is well read .

To tell you the truth , I do not like him .

8 . In exclamations

I,to desist from my purpose ? Never !

1, to kerd with narrow foreheadsH e tur n traitor ?

EXERCISE 7 3

Parse th e infin itives

1 . They bade h im be gone . 2 ; May it p lease your highness sit ?3. What makes that ship drive on so fast ? 4 . Y ou need but

!

gaz e on

Ellen’s eye . 5 . I think Captain Channel had better hasten home .

6 . Like the Chaldean, he could watch the stars . 7 . T o be good is tobe happy . 8 . H e sought to slay Moses . 9 . I purpose to write the

h istory of England . 10 . H e frankly avowed himself to be W ilfred ofIvanhoe . 1 1 . There is no time to waste. 12 . I have the wish , butwant the will to act . 13 . What’s to come is still unsure . 14 . At myage , to talk to me of such stuff 15 . I came to save , and not destroy .

16 . What had he done to make him fly the land ? 17 . Such a one do

I remember, whom to look at was to love . 18 . Well, — to make a longstory short

,he won the race . 19. If you have tears , prepare to shed

them now . 20 . I must not have you question me . 2 1 . Let us go visitFanstus . 2 2 . I am shamed through all my nature to have loved so

slight a th ing .

23 . H e resolved, rather than yield,T o die with honor in the fie ld .

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15 8 English Gramma

38 . Sometimes a-dropping from the sky

I heard the Skylark sing ;Sometimes all l ittle birds that are,How they seemed to fill the sea and airWith their sweet j argon ing

VERB AL NOUNS AND PARTIC IPLES

181. Words formed from verbs by the ending -ing may

be e ither presen t particip le s or noun s . T o which classthey be long must be determ ined by the ir use in the

sentence . In Seeing is be lieving ,”see ing and believing

are noun s ; in Seeing h im fa ll, and be lieving him to be

ser iously hurt, I ran to h elp h im,

”see ing and believing

are par ticip le s .

182. Verbal Nouns .

— Verba l Noun s in -zng may be

divided into two classes

1 . Those having the ordinary con struction and inflectionof noun s , but not the govern ing power o f the verb

This is a true say ing .

His teackings have had great influence .

I will do your bidd ing.

This was his being ’s end and aim .

I know all the windings of the river .T he royalists looked upon the bekeading of the king as an impious

2 . Tho se that take an obj ect, a predicate noun

adj ective , or other adjuncts of the verb

M aking prom ises is not keep ing them .

H e enj oyed r eading your letter .I could no t keep him from br eaking the seal .You cannot prevent his going home .

H e is sure offind ing friends enough .

They knew of his baving wr itten the letter.

Verbal N ou ns and Par ticiples 1 59

183 . Verba l noun s of the second class are common lycalled Gerunds .

184 . Confusion of Gerund and Par ticiple — The gerundis generally distinct from the partici ple in mean ing and in

con struction . Thus , in “ I saw him com ing,”com ing is a

p artici p le be longing to kim , the obj ect of saw . In “I am

sure of h is com ing in time,

”com ing is a verba l noun in the

objective case after of , and k is i s a possessive case modifying com ing .

In the latter sen tence the true substantive is the word expressing theaction ; it is the com ing of which the speaker is sure ; and the word thatrepresents the subj ect of the action (I am sure that be will come)becomes merely an adjunct of the gerund, a possessive case .

T he p r incip le which calls for the possessive con structionwi th the gerund i s regu larly observed when the subj ect ofthe action is represen ted by a pronoun ; but in the caseof noun s, some con fusion has ar isen in the languagebetween the gerund and the par ticip le , and in con sequencewe o ften find such expression s as H e cou ld not preventhi s son go ing to war

,

” “Who ever heard of an a rmy

super ior in numbers r e trea ting w ithout a blow ? ”where

the verba l noun is treated as if it were a particip le .

185 . Par ticiples . Particip les have a lready been defin edas verbal adj ectives . They stand in the same re lation to

other adj ectives that verba l noun s do to other noun s .They may be used

I . Attr ibutive lyA sm i ling face . Wr i tten directions . T he contr acting parties .T he swelling river hurries to the sea .

I n this use the participle is con strued as a simple adj ective , and adm its on ly the adjuncts of the adjective , that i s ,

160 English Grammar

adverbs, but not obj ects and other verb modifiers . Some

particip le s , however , adm it what is rea lly an obj ect as a

prefixed defini ng element — usually un ited with the par

t iciple by a hyphen : A godf ea r ing man . E a r-p iercingshrieks were heard .

T he participle in this use sometimes stands without i ts noun (see80) T he exa lted are brought low . T he loving are the da r ing.

2 . Appositive ly (see 15 9, 2 )Banners bea r ing strange devices floated from the gables .We forded several streams swollen by the recent rains .Defea ted in h is attempts, be abandoned his purpose .

3 . A s a par t of the predicate:

(a ) A s predicate adj ective , agree ing w ith the subj ect

They were ta lking. I have been consider ing the,matter. You are

invited to attend . She became acqua inted with him later .

(b) Aspredicate adj ective , agree ing with the obj ect

I heard them ta lking . H e left the town wellf or tified andpr ovisioned .

John is having a new coat made .

(c) Adverbia llyThey came r unn ing. H e went wkistling down the road .

Observe that in this use the participle, though construed with thesubject, has the value of a predicate modifier — an adverb phrase orclause .

In uses 2 and 3 the particip le may take all the adjuncts of the verbfrom which it is formed .

4 . Abso lute ly, with a noun or pronoun in the nominativecase

T he secr etary being absent, no business was done .

T hewea tker permitting, I shall sail to-morrow .

Ske consenting, we took a long walk .

T he participle being is often omitted : B r eakf ast (being) over, theystarted .

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162 English Grammar

H e with his horrid crewLay vanquished, rolling ln the fiery gulf

,

Confounded though immortal .

I am in bloodS tepped in so far that, should I wade no more,Return ing were as tedious as go o’

er .

Here lay Duncan ,H is silver Skin laced with his golden blood ;And his gashed stabs looked like a breach in nature,For ruin’s wasteful entrance .

1 1 . Let us, then , be up and doing,

With a heart for any fate ;S ti ll achieving, sti ll pursuing,Learn to labor and to wait .

Thou comest not when violets leanO’er wandering brooks and springs unseen,Or co lumbines , ln purple dressed,Nod o

’er the ground-bird’s hidden nest .

For a cap and bells our lives we pay,Bubbles we buy with a whole soul’s tasking ;’T is Heaven alone that is given away,’T is only God may be had for the asking .

In vain we call old notions fudge,And bend our conscience to our dealing ;T he T en Commandments will not budge,And stealing will continue stealing .

While I nodded,'

nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,As of some one gently rapp ing, rapping at my chamber door .

B ack into the chamber turn ing, all my soul with in me burning,Soon again I heard a tapping, somewhat louder than before .

But, scarce observed, the knowing and the boldFall in the general massacre of goldW ide-wasting pest that rages unconfined,And crowds with crime the records of mankind ;

General Review 163

For gold h is sword the hireling ruffian drawsFor gold the hireling judge distorts the laws ;Wealth heaped on wealth nor truth nor safety buys

,

T he dangers gather as the treasures rise .

18 . Our actions, depending upon ourselves,may be controlled, wh ile

the powers of thinking, originating in h igher causes, cannot always bemoulded to our wishes .

GENERAL REVIEW

M iscellaneous examp les for parsing and analysis

1 . T he armaments wh ich thunderstrike the wallsOf rock-built cities, bidding nations quake,And monarchs tremble in their capitals,T he oak leviathans, whose huge ribs makeTheir clay creator the vain title takeOf lord of thee and arbi ter of warThese are thy toys, and, as the snowy flake,They melt into thy yeast of waves, wh ich marAlike the Armada’s pride, or spoils of Trafalgar . B Y RON.

2 . The world is too”

much with us : late and soon ,Getting and spending, we lay waste our powersLittle we see in Nature that is ours ;We have given our hearts away, a sordid boonT he Sea that bares her bosom to the moon ;T he winds that will be howling at all hours,And are up

-gathered now like sleeping flowers ;For this, for everything, we are out of tune ;It moves us not . Great God I’d rather beA Pagan suckled in a creed outworn ;So might I , standing on this pleasant lea ,Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn ;Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea ;

Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn . Wonnswoam .

3 . I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,From the seas and the streams ;

I bear light shade for the leaves when laidIn their noon-day dreams .

164 English Grammar

From my wings are shaken the dews that wakenT he sweet buds every one,When rocked to rest on the ir mother’s breast,As she dances about the sun .

I wield the flai l of the lash ing hai l,And wh iten the green p lains under,

And then again I dissolve it in rainAnd laugh as I pass in thunder . SH ELLEY .

Now glory to the Lord of Hosts , from whom all glories are !And glory to our Sovere ign Liege, King Henry of NavarreNow let there be the merry sound of music and of dance,Through thy corn-fields green and sunny vines, O pleasant land of

FranceAnd .thou, Rochel le , our own Rochelle, proud city of the waters,Again let rap ture light the eyes of all thy mourning daughters .As thou wert constant 1n our ills , be joyous in our joy ;For cold and stiff and still are they who wrought thy walls annoy.

Hurrah hurrah a smgle field hath turned the chance of warHurrah hurrah for Ivry and K ing Henry of Navarre I— MACAULAY .

So said he, and the barge with oar and sailM ovedf rom the brink, like some full-breasted swanThat

,fluting a wild carol ere her death ,

Ruffles her pure cold plume, and takes the floodWith swarthy webs . Long stood S ir BedivereRevolving many memories, till the hullLooked one black dot against the verge of dawn,And on the mere the wailing died away .

— TENNY SON.

6 . How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank !Here will we sit, and let the sounds of mus icCreep in our ears : soft stillness and the nightBecome the touches of sweet harmony .

S it, Jessica . Look how the floor of heavenIs th ick in laid with patines of bright gold :There’s no t the smallest orb which thou behold’

st

But in his motion like an angel sings,S till quiring to the young-eyed cherubins ;Such harmony is in immortal souls ;

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166 English Grammar

A man he was to all the country dear,And passing rich with forty pounds a yearRemote from towns he ran his godly race

,

Nor e’er had changed, nor w1shed to change his place ;

Unpractised he to fawn , or seek for power,By doctrines fashioned to the varying hourI‘ ar other aims his heart had learned to prize,More sk illed to raise the wretched than to rise . GOLDSM ITH .

1 . Fame is the spur that the clear sp irit doth raise,That last infirmity of noble m1uds

,

To scorn delights, and l ive laborious days ;

But the fair guerdon when we hope to find,

And think to burst out into sudden blaz eComes the blind Fury

,with the abhorred shears,

And slits the thin-spun life . M ILTON .

How sleep the brave who s ink to rest,By all their coun try’s wishes blestWhen spring, with dewy fingers cold,Returns to deck the ir hallowed mould,She

l

there shall dress a sweeter sodT harirxfancy

’s feet have ever trod .

By fairy hands their knell is rungBy forms unseen their dirge is sung ;There honor comes , a p ilgrim gray,To bless the turf that wraps the ir clay ;And freedom shall awhile repair,To dwell, a weeping hermit, there COLLms.

I NDEX

A o r an , 66.

Abstract nouns, 38—39.

Active vo ice , 73 .

Adjectives,64 ff. ; attr ibutive , 135 ; predi

ca te,136 ; appo sitive , 135 ; demon

strative,65 ; indefin ite , 65 re lative ,

65 ; interrogative , 65 ; numera l,64 ;

compar ison of, 67 ; used as nouns , 68

Adjuncts,109 ,

n o,1 1 1

,1 12 .

Adverbia l clauses , 1 1 1 ,1 17 .

Adverbia l objective , 49 , 1 13 , 132 .

Adve rbia l phrases,1 10.

Adverbs , 98 ff. ; classification o f, 98 ; con

junctive , 99 ,107 ; pronom ina l , 99

comparison of, 100.

Ana lysis , 108 ff.An tecedent

, 5 7 ; agreement with , 5 8 , 138 ;om itted , 5 8 .

Appo sitive , 47 , 128.

Ar ticles , 66 .

As , re la tive , 59.

Attr ibu tive , 135 . Dar e, 94 .

Auxi liary verbs, 94

—95 ; modal, 147 . Dative case , 131 .

Declarative sentences , 108.

B e, copula , 7 1 ; conjugation of, 8 1—82 ; D eclen sio n , 36 , 46.

auxi liary , 94 . D efective verbs , 93 .

B ut, as re lative , 59. D efin i te article

,66 .

Demonstrative pronouns, 61 ; demonCan , 148 . stra tive adjectives

,65 .

C ard ina l numera ls , 64 . D irect object , 46 , 49 , 70,130.

C ase see Nom ina tive,Po ssessive

, D o, 95 .

Obj ective . Double po ssessive , 130.

C lauses , 1 14 ; noun clauses,1 15 ; adj ec

tive clauses , 1 16 ; adverb clauses,1 17 . Emphatic pronouns , 5 5 .

C ognate object, 54 , 7 1 , 130. Emphatic tense forms

, 77—78.

Co llective nouns, 39 . Exclamatory sentences , 108.

C ommon nouns , 38 .

C ompar ison o f adjectives , 67—68 ; of ad Fem in ine gender , 40.

verbs , 100. Fin i te verb, 74 , 147 .

C omplements , 7 1-72. Fo re ign plura ls

, 43—44.

167

Comp lementary infin i tlve , 155 .Complex sentence , 1 14 .

Compound nouns,plura l o f, 44 .

C ompound persona l pronouns , 54.

Compo und sentences,1 19.

C ompound subject,

1 19 ; compoundpredicate

,1 19 .

Concession ,adverbs of, 98 conjunctions

of, 106 ; clauses of, 1 17 ; subjunctiveof, 145 .

C onditiona l sentences , 150-15 1 .

C onjugation,8 1 if .

Co njunction,106—107 ,

coordinate , 106

subo rd inate , 106 .

C onjunctive adverbs, 99 , 107 .

CoOrd inate clauses , 1 19 ; conjunctions,

106.

C opu la , 7 1 ,

Co rre lat ives , 106 .

Could,148 .

168 Index

Future perfect tense , 77 .

Future tense , 77 .

Gender of nouns, 40 ; of pronouns , 5 2 ,

5 6.

Gerund , 159.

H ave,conjugation of, 82 ; auxiliary, 95 .

Imperative mood , 75 . Object, direct, 46 , 49 , 70, 130 ; indirectImperative sentence , 108 . 46, 131 cognate , 54 , 7 1 , 130.

Impersona l verbs , 94. Objective case , 49, 130.

Incomplete predication ,verbs of, 7 1 , 128 , Ougkt, 93.

13 1 .

Indefin ite article , 66.

Indefin ite pronouns,61 .

Indicative mood, 75 .

Indirect object, 46 , 131 .

Indirect question , 144

Infin itive, 79 , 80,

1 10,153.

Inflection , 36.

ing , wo rds ending in, 80, 15 8 .

Interjections , 32 .

Interrogative : pronouns, 5 6 ; adjectives,65 ; adverbs , 99 ; sen tences , 108 .

Intransitiveverbs , 70, 73 .

Irregu lar compz

r ison,68

,100.

Irregular weak erbs, 91—93 .

It, preparatory , 1 1 1 ; as cognate object,54

Like,131 .

Logica l conditional , 150.

M any a,65 .

M ascu line gender , 40,

M ay ,m igkt , 148 , 149.

M etlz inks, 94 .

M ood see Indicative,Imperative , Sub

junctive .

M or e and most, comparison with , 67 , R eciprocal pronouns , 61 .

100. R eflexive pronouns , 54 .

M ust, 150. R e lative pronouns , 57 .

R esu lt , 144.

N ear , 131 . R e ta ined object , 74.

N eed , 94 .

N ei tlzer nor,141 . S entences , 108 .

N euter gender , 40. Ska ll , 93 , 95 , 15 2.

Nomina tive case , 46 , 47 , 127-129. Skould , 149.

Noun clauses , 115 .

Nouns , 38 ; common, 38 ; proper , 38

abstract , 38 ; co l lective , 39 ; compound ,

44 ; pa rsmg o f, 50 ; used as adjective s

,

68 ; used adverbia lly , 49 ; inflection o f,

36.

Number , 41—45 , 79.

Numera l adjectives , 64.

Parsing, 50.

Participle ,159

—161 .

Parts of speech , 33 .

Passive vo ice , 73 .

Past tense , 76.

Past perfect tense , 77 .

Perfect participle , 80,161 .

Person , 79 .

Persona l pronouns , 5 2 .

Phra se,1 10.

Plura l number , fo rmation o f, 41

—45 ; in

fo reign noun s , 43 .

Po sitive degree , 67 .

Possessive case, 48 , 129.

Possess ive pronouns , 64.

Predicate,1 12 .

Pred ica te nom inative , 47 , 7 2 , 128 .

Prepo sition,103 .

Presen t perfect tense , 76 , 142 .

Presen t tense, 7 6 , 142 .

Principa l verbs , 95 .

Progressive tense-fo rms , 77 , 161.Pronom ina l adjectives

,64 .

Pronouns , 5 2—63 .

Proper nouns, 38 .

Purpose , 106, 144.

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