An integrative framework linking brand associations and brand loyalty in professional sports

© 2008 PALGRAVE MACMILLAN LTD 1350-23IX $30.00 BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 15, NO. 5, 336–357 MAY 2008336www.palgrave-journals.com/bm

Erdener KaynakSchool of Business Administration, Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg, 777 West Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA 17057, USA Tel: + 1 717 948 6343 Fax: + 1 717 566 8589 E-mail: [email protected]

sponsoring sporting events or athletes. Organisations use sport as a medium of creating a distinctive image in the eyes of consumers and may in turn distinguish their brands from those of their competitors.

One major factor that makes a profes-sional team sport more appealing to compa-

INTRODUCTION Professional sports have emerged as a rewarding business with many opportunities for sports marketers to prosper. In recent years, many organisations and companies like Siemens, Coca-Cola, Toyota and BenQ have been heavily investing in sports and

An integrative framework linking brand associations and brand loyalty in professional sports Received (in revised form): 1st August, 2007

ERDENER KAYNAK is professor of Marketing and Chair of the Marketing Program at the School of Business Administration of The Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg. He is holder of a B.Econ. degree from Istanbul University, an MA degree in Marketing from The University of Lancaster, and a PhD from Cranfi eld University. A prolifi c author, Dr Kaynak has had 25 books and over 200 papers published in scholarly and practitioner-oriented journals of North American and European origin. His papers have appeared in such journals as Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science , Journal of Advertising Research , Journal of Business Research , International Journal of Research in Marketing , International Marketing Review and European Journal of Marketing , among others. He has also lectured and engaged in consulting assignments in over 30 countries over fi ve continents.

GULBERK GULTEKIN SALMAN is a doctoral candidate and research assistant of Marketing in the Department of Business Administration at Bahcesehir University. She earned an MBA degree from Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey. She is currently working towards a PhD degree at the same university and is in the process of fi nishing her doctoral dissertation. Her main research interests are sport marketing and brand management.

EKREM TATOGLU is an associate professor of International Business at Bahcesehir University, Istanbul, Turkey. His current research interests include international entry mode strategies and strategic management of multinational enterprises. His publications appeared in leading academic journals including Management International Review, Journal of World Business, International Journal of Production Research, International Marketing Review, Journal of Global Marketing and International Small Business Journal, among others. He also co-authored a book on the ‘ Dimensions of Western Foreign Direct Investment in Turkey ’ , published by Quorum Books.

Abstract This study provides a conceptual framework linking brand loyalty and brand associations in professional team sports. The study is primarily inspired from Gladden and Funk where they examined the link between brand associations and loyalty in professional sports in USA, without distinguishing between sports and clubs. Based on Aaker ’ s general conceptualisation of brand equity and Keller ’ s model on consumer-based brand equity, an integrative conceptual framework is developed for identifying various dimensions of brand associations that are predictive of brand loyalty in professional sports. Journal of Brand Management (2008) 15, 336 – 357. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.bm.2550117 ; published online 9 October 2007

Keywords brand equity ; brand loyalty ; brand associations ; sport marketing

Keywords brand equity ; brand loyalty ; brand associations ; sport marketing

© 2008 PALGRAVE MACMILLAN LTD 1350-23IX $30.00 BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 15, NO. 5, 336–357 MAY 2008 337

INTEGRATIVE FRAMEWORK LINKING BRAND ASSOCIATIONS

nies or organisations is the people who engage in that sport and the importance of the event. Another factor is the extent of the popularity of the sport. As fans serve a crucial means for the process of branding a sport team or club, it is highly essential for clubs or teams to better understand their fans. On the other hand, fans dedicate their time and efforts to support their teams and they contribute an unconditional love to the team. A loyal fan can enhance the brand equity of a team and success can be consid-ered an important aspect in the process of branding. 1

Despite the growing importance of the subject, there is a dearth of research on the concept of brand loyalty with special emphasis on professional sports industry. Brand loyalty is important to sport teams for two major reasons. As suggested by Gladden and Funk, 1 brand loyalty guar-antees a steadier following even when the performance of the core product stumbles, especially when the team has a losing season. Hence, such loyalty helps the team or the club to charge a price premium. 2 In several cases, teams have been able to control this price premium to increase revenues and assist to compensate areas where expenses, like player salaries, new stadiums or arenas, are increasing. Brand loyalty also ensures a steadier following through the broadcast media and given consistent ratings, broadcasters are able to charge advertisers of teams with loyal followings premiums for advertising time. Secondly, brand loyalty enables companies to extend beyond their core product. 2,3 New products such as team-related merchandise stores and restaurants in close proximity to the venue enable the team to create additional revenue streams by owning and operating the ventures or sharing in profi ts through licensing agree-ments. 1 Similarly, admission may be charged to practice facilities of profes-

sional teams. High brand loyalty also allows the team to offer these brand extensions across geographic boundaries.

A growing number of studies have exam-ined the concept of loyalty in the sport setting. 4,5,1 This study serves two main purposes. First, it intends to further existing research by examining loyalty within the broader context of brand management theory, where brand loyalty is a crucial outcome of building brand equity. 2 Then, it examines the associations attached to the sports teams. Based on Aaker ’ s 6 general conceptualisation of brand equity and Keller ’ s model 3 on consumer-based brand equity, an integrative conceptual framework primarily inspired from Gladden and Funk 1,7 is developed for identifying various dimen-sions of brand associations that are predictive of brand (ie team) loyalty in professional sports.

The remainder of this study is organ-ised as follows: the next section reviews the background literature and suggests a conceptual model linking between brand loyalty and brand associations in brand management theory. The following section explains model constructs and their potential measures. The fourth section provides managerial implications and directions for future research agenda. The fi nal section sets out the conclusions.

BACKGROUND LITERATURE Within this section, background literature on loyalty and associations is provided to have a sound understanding of how loyalty could be explained by the associations. In doing this, it is essential to provide fi rst the distinguishing features of sport marketing. Sport marketing is of two forms: one is marketing of sport — engaging in a professional team or a tennis club — while the other is marketing through sport — sponsors. 8 According to Shank, 9

KAYNAK, SALMAN AND TATOGLU

© 2008 PALGRAVE MACMILLAN LTD 1350-23IX $30.00 BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 15, NO. 5, 336–357 MAY 2008338

sport marketing is the specifi c application of marketing principles and processes to sport products and to the marketing of non-sport products through associations with sport. A signifi cant manner in which sport clashes with other common enter-tainment forms is that sport is sponta-neous. Hence, it is hard to determine what one might feel while watching a sporting event. One may feel thrilled or has pleasure if it is a close encounter and the supported team wins. On the other hand, if it is a dull game and if the team loses, the entertainment benefi t that one receives becomes rather diverse. Consequently, it is hard to determine the consequence of a sporting event. As a sporting event has a spontaneous nature and an unpredictable outcome, the sport producers cope with a swarm of challenges that are unlike those confronted by other entertainment contributors. 9

Today, companies allocate substantial amounts of capital in order to occupy a distinctive node in the minds of consumers through building sound branding strate-gies. Brands have become an important marketing component to the manufac-turer 10,11 and a rich source of information for the consumer. 12 For the manufacturer, brands provide a means of identifi cation for ease of handling and tracing, a means of legal protection of exclusive features and of awarding products with unique associations. 13,14 To the consumer, a brand reduces the search costs 15,16 and perceived level of risk, and signals the quality of the product. 17 – 21 A brand also identifi es the source of the product; assigns responsi-bility to the product manufacturer and provides a promise or bond with the manufacturer. 22 Moreover, brands must be assembled on differences in images, mean-ings and associations. Brands offer instant recognition and identifi cation, promising consistent, reliable standards of quality,

taste, size or even psychological satisfac-tion. Thus, a brand adds value to the product for both the customer and the manufacturer. 23

Bearing the uniqueness of a sport product in mind, it is important to famil-iarise with Keller ’ s conceptualisation of brand equity to the sport setting. In team sport, the product is the actual game itself between two teams, in which case it is unpredictable and uncontrollable. More-over, the consumption of the product in sport is experiential and emotional. 8 According to Gladden and Funk, 1 the sport teams, which have a high number of followers from different media channels and frequently sold-out games, will have the peak levels of brand equity as well.

Brand management and brand equity Realising that the most important asset of a company is the brand, managers need to concentrate their efforts on managing their brands. As branding is all about creating differences, marketers agree on the importance of the role of the brand in marketing strategies. 23 Many compa-nies use branding strategies to increase the strength of the product image and to carry out their market and product develop-ment strategies. 24 Branding strategies are devised in order to distinguish goods and services from one another. 25 These strate-gies are plans for the systematic develop-ment of a brand to enable it to meet its agreed objective.

Brand management involves managing the tangible and intangible aspects of the brand. To put it in Keller ’ s words, ‘ strategic brand management involves the design and the implementation of marketing programmes and activities to build, measure, and manage brand equity (p. 44) ’ . 26 This process is composed of four steps, which



include identifying and establishing brand positioning and values; planning and imple-menting brand-marketing programmes; measuring and interpreting brand perform-ance; and fi nally growing and sustaining brand equity. 26

Management of sport is vital because consumers rely on their awareness, percep-tion and attachment to the brand while making their purchasing decisions. Many executives of professional sport teams are turning to long-term strategic brand management as the dominant viewpoint for their marketing efforts especially in different leagues of professional sports in the US. 27 A long-term focus on brand management strategies is warranted considering the unpredictability of success in team sport. Short-term tactics are commonly used by sport managers such as fi ring a head coach, hiring or renting a star player in the middle of the season or signing a free agent to a multimillion-dollar contract due to the unsuccessful chain of games. No matter how important winning may be, these short-term tactics do not guarantee long-term and steady revenue fl ows. Sport managers, therefore, adopt brand management strategies, real-ising that winning is only one aspect of consumers ’ experience.

Companies seek to establish a long-term relationship with their customers, which Wood 28 defi nes as brand equity. Farquhar 29 refers to brand equity as value added to a product by the virtue of its name. Similarly, Lamb et al . 30 describe brand equity as the value of a company and brand names. Nicolino 31 portrays brand equity as the sum of all different values that people attach to a brand name. Brand equity is the value of the brand ’ s capital, which is the totality of what consumers, dealers, distributors or even the competitors feel and think about the brand over an extended period of time.

High brand equity offers a host of consent to the product marketer, which in return leads to customer loyalty, price elasticity and long-term profi ts. 23

On the other hand, Fill 32 describes brand equity as a measure of a number of different components including beliefs, images and core associations that consumers have about a particular brand. He further argues that brand equity is important due to the growing interest in measuring the return on promotional investments. High brand equity will preserve the customer franchise and repulse competitor actions. 32

Aaker 2,6 describes brand equity in terms of representing positive or negative asso-ciations with a particular brand name, logo or mark that adds to or subtracts from the value provided by the product. Taking this defi nition as a guide, profes-sional sports teams are apt to hold brand equity by high merit of the added meaning sport that the consumers attach to the names and logos of their favourite teams.

Aaker 2 divides brand equity into fi ve major asset categories: brand name aware-ness, perceived quality, brand associations, brand loyalty and other proprietary brand assets. There is a need to elaborate on each of these categories. Figure 1 shows a general overview of how brand equity spawns value and provides the different ways in which the brand equity assets create value. Moreover, brand equity creates value not only for the customer but also for the fi rm. Finally, for assets or liabilities to inspire brand equity, they must be linked to the name and symbol of the brand, and if there is a change in name or symbol, this may cause some or all assets and liabilities to be affected. 6

Customer-based brand equity is defi ned as the discrepancy effect of brand knowl-edge on consumer reaction to the



marketing of the brand. 33,26 Accordingly, brand equity is conceptualised from the perspective of the consumer, and customer-based brand equity takes place when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favourable, strong and unique brand associations in the memory. 33,26

In Keller ’ s defi nition, 26 brand equity has three key components: differential effect, brand knowledge and consumer response to marketing. Brand equity sur-faces from differences in consumers ’ res-ponses. Subsequently, what consumers have learned, felt, seen and heard about the brand as a result of their experiences over time, which are the results of consumers ’ knowledge about the brand, cause these differences in responses. Finally, yet importantly, perceptions, preferences and behaviour related to all aspects of the

marketing of the brand refl ect the differ-ential response by consumers, which make up the brand equity. Keller 26 proposes a model of brand equity by brand knowl-edge, which is shown in Figure 2 . This model is comprised of brand awareness (brand recognition and recall achieved through marketing stimuli) and brand image. Brand image is detailed largely in the model as it has a complex nature. Thus, brand image results from the favourability, strength, uniqueness and types of brand associations held by the customer. In the model, Keller 26 depicts various types of brand association: attributes (product-related and non-product related), benefi ts (functional, experiential and symbolic) and attitudes. In fact, the brand associations will be discussed in detail under the subsection of brand associations.

Reduced Marketing Costs Trade Leverage Attracting New Customers . Create Awareness . Reassurance Time to Respond to Competitive Threats

Anchor to which Other Associations Can Be AttachedFamiliarity-Liking Signal of Substance/Commitment Brand to Be Considered

Reason-to-Buy Differentiate/PositionPrice Channel Member Interest Extensions

Help Process/Retrieve Information Reason-to-Buy Create Positive Attitude/Feelings Extensions

Competitive Advantage

Brand Loyalty

Brand Awareness

Perceived Quality

Brand Associations

Other Proprietary Brand Assets

BRAND EQUITY

Provides Values to Customers by Enhancing Customer’s:

.Interpretation/Processing of Information Confidence in the

Purchase Decision .Use Satisfaction

Provides Value to Firm by Enhancing:

Marketing Programs

Efficiency andEffectiveness of

. Brand Loyalty . Prices/Margins . Brand Extensions . Trade Leverage . Competitive Advantage

Figure 1 How brand equity generates value. Adapted from Aaker 6 (p. 9).



In professional sports, Gladden et al . 34 focused on brand equity and conceptual-ised a model based on that of Aaker, which

is shown in Figure 3 . Their model presents the antecedents of brand equity for a sport product that are important for sport

Brand Image

Types of BrandAssociations

Favorability of BrandAssociations

Strength of BrandAssociations

Uniqueness of Brand Associations

Attributes

Benefits

Attitudes

Symbolic

Experiential

Functional

Product Related

Non-productRelated

Brand Personality

User/Usage Image

Price

Feelings &Experience

Brand Awareness

Brand Recall

Brand Recognition

Brand Knowledge

Figure 2 Brand knowledge. Adapted from Keller 3 (pp. 1 – 22)

Antecedent Brand Equity Consequences

Product Related

Success

Head coach

Star player

Reputation and tradition

Conference and schedule

Entertainment package/product delivery

Organization Related

Market Related

Local-media coverage

Geographic location

Competitive forces

Support

Perceived quality

Brand awareness

Brand associations

Brand loyalty

National media exposure

Merchandise sales

Individual donations

Corporate support

Atmosphere

Ticket sales

Marketplace perception

Figure 3 Conceptual framework for assessing brand equity. Adapted from Gladden et al . 34 (pp. 1 – 19).



managers to understand as they have an impact on the level of brand equity. Gladden et al . 34 divides these antecedents into three categories: product related, organisation related and market related. Brand equity is then divided into perceived quality, brand awareness, brand associa-tions and brand loyalty. Their model also describes the related outcomes or conse-quences of establishing strong brands.

Low and Lamb 35 argue that both Keller and Aaker appear to hypothesise that consumer perceptions of brands are multi-dimensional, and yet many of the dimen-sions they identify appear to be very similar and have not been subjected to empirical validation. They further argue that it is diffi cult to determine whether various constructs, such as brand attitudes and perceived quality are separate dimen-sions of brand associations or whether they are simply indicators of brand asso-ciations.

Similarly, Krishnan and Hartline 36 suggest that Keller ’ s approach is a direct while that of Aaker is an indirect measure-ment of brand equity. In the former approach, an attempt is made to assess the value added by the brand to the product, whereas in the latter approach the focus is on the identifi cation of the potential sources of brand equity. 36

Drawing on Keller ’ s 26 model and Aaker ’ s 6 model revised by Gladden et al ., 34

the framework proposed in this study articulates the relationship between brand associations and brand loyalty within the context of professional sports. Figure 4 shows the underlying relationships between the model constructs. The following section explains the model constructs and their potential measures.

MODEL CONSTRUCTS

Brand loyalty Brand loyalty is the core of brand ’ s equity, which signifi es a measure of attachment that a customer has to a brand. 2 Customer loyalty mostly creates brand ’ s value to a fi rm, and loyalty-building programmes can be encouraged and justifi ed by consid-ering loyalty as an asset, which then can be aided to create and enhance brand equity. 6 Brand loyalty is qualitatively different from the other major dimensions of brand equity in that it is tied more closely to the use experience; thus, it cannot exist prior purchase and use expe-rience. 2

Oliver 37 posits that ultimate customer loyalty is a function of perceived product superiority, personal fortitude, social bonding and their synergetic effect. On the other hand, Wilkie 38 describes brand loyalty as a favourable attitude, and consistent purchase, towards a particular brand. According to

Brand Associations

Behavioral loyalty

Brand Loyalty

Attitudinal loyalty

• Attitudes

• Product-related attributes• Non-product related

attributes

• • •

Functional benefit

Symbolic benefit

Experiential benefit

Figure 4 Conceptual model



Griffi n, 39 the concept of customer loyalty leans more towards behaviour than to atti-tude, in which case she is discussing the purchase behaviour in terms of retention and total share of customer. Loyalty is something that consumers may exhibit to brands, serv-ices, stores, product categories and activities. 40 In professional sports, brand loyalty is defi ned as the ability to attract and retain consumers. Wilkie ’ s 38 defi nition of brand loyalty implies that consumers are loyal when both attitude and behaviour are favourable; however, this does not clearly explain the intensity of brand loyalty as it precludes the possibility that a consumer ’ s attitude is unfavourable while one repurchases.

Wakefi eld and Sloan 41 defi ned ‘ team loyalty ’ as enduring allegiance to a particular team and was noted as the most important factor in determining a spectator ’ s desire to attend live sporting events. According to James et al ., 42 loyal sport consumers are people who will remain with the team over an extended period of time. The behavioural consistency or repeat patronage that char-acterises loyalty is a signifi cant fi nancial goal for many organisations, and yet true loyalty needs to be considered as more than simply the inertia of engaging in team-related behaviours. 42 Funk and James 43 conclude that team loyalty pertaining to sport involves a person to form a psychological connection to a team, which results in consistent and enduring behaviours and attitudes towards a team. According to Funk et al ., 44 concep-tualising loyalty in terms of resulting features linked to strong attitudes provides a means to examine the psychological processes responsible for possible variations in team-related attitudes. Consequently, strength-related features such as resistance and behaviour could be treated as casual indica-tors of loyalty and viewed as possible deter-minants of team loyalty. 44 With this approach, Funk et al . 44 suggest that an attitude is leading to the extent that it manifests a

variety of strength-related features. Accord-ingly, persistence, resistance, impact on cognition and congruence of an attitude with behaviour may detach or unite with one another additively or multiplicatively to yield an overall level of loyalty. Adaptation of this perspective would foster a line of research that explores the determinants of attitude formation like team identifi cation and its consequent relationship with a team, sport or player. 44

Benefi ts of loyalty Customer loyalty has both economic and noneconomic benefi ts, as there is a high cost of acquiring new customers when compared with keeping the current port-folio where present customers are there to generate more profi ts and spread favourable communications. 45

According to Linton, 46 loyalty activities and implications that lead to mostly none-conomic benefi ts to companies include improving long-term business perform-ance; infl uencing product development; focusing the organisation on the customer; ensuring repeat purchase; increasing customer retention; shortening purchase cycles; enhancing the ownership experi-ence; managing customer relationships; opening sales channels; contributing to long-term planning and dealing with competitive activities. Through these areas, the companies will be able to respond to customers ’ needs, differentiate products or services from the competitors, and build and retain long-term loyalty. 46

Reichheld 47 proposes six economic benefi ts of retaining customers. These include savings on customer ’ s acquisition or replacement costs, a guarantee of base profi ts and growth in per-customer. Moreover, a reduction in relative oper-ating costs as the fi rms can spread the cost over many more customers and over a



longer period, free of charge referrals of new customers from existing customers, which would otherwise be costly in terms of commissions or introductory fees. Finally, price premiums as existing custo-mers do not usually wait for promotions or price reductions before deciding to purchase, in particular with new models or versions of existing products. 47

Measuring brand loyalty In an operational manner, Sheth 48 provides the defi nition of brand loyalty as a func-tion of a brand ’ s relative frequency of purchase in both time-independent and time-dependent situations. Jacoby and Chestnut 49 identifi ed three categories for measuring loyalty: behavioural, attitudinal and a composite of both.

According to Bennett and Rundle-Thiele, 50 loyalty is often used with its operational defi nition, where it refers to repeat purchase, preference, commitment, retention and allegiance. Loyalty is also referred to its market specifi city: service, store and vendor loyalty. 50

Measuring behavioural loyalty According to Jacoby and Chestnut, 49 behavioural loyalty represents the propen-sity of a consumer to purchase the same brand repeatedly over time. Aaker 2 provides a direct measurement of behavioural loyalty by habitual behaviour, which considers actual purchase patterns: purchase rates, percentage of purchases or number of brands purchased. Past purchase behaviours defi ne loyalty and customers as neither monogamous nor promiscuous, rather polygamous — loyal to a portfolio of brand. 40 Keller, 26 on the other hand, describes behavioural loyalty in Aaker ’ s 6 terms of repeat purchases and the amount or share of category volume attributed to

the brand, which is the ‘ share of category requirements ’ . Keller 26 agrees that behav-ioural loyalty is essential but not enough for resonance to occur. In order to create resonance, a strong personal attachment is needed where customers should go beyond having a positive attitude towards viewing the brand as being something special in a broader context. 26 In addition, Day 51 observed that the major limitation of behavioural measures is the failure to iden-tify the motive and the resulting confusion between brand loyalty and other forms of repeat buying, as purchase behaviour alone is not suffi cient. Unfortunately, conceptu-alisation of behavioural data has limitations as it may be inconvenient or expensive to obtain actual data and provides only limited diagnostics about the future. It may also be diffi cult to distinguish between or among those who actually switched brands and the purchases of multiple brands by different members of a family. 2

In order to capture reported brand usage and behavioural loyalty, consumers could be asked several questions directly or alternatively the percentage of their last purchases on a particular brand and near future percentage intentions. These ques-tions could be open ended, dichotomous or could involve multiple choice, or rating scales, and the answers could be compared with actual measures of consumer behav-iour to assess whether consumers are accurate in their predictions. 26

In professional sports, behavioural loyalty signifi es a group of consumers who purchase season tickets and / or watch all of a team ’ s games on television. In previous research, behavioural loyalty was measured through game attendance, the propensity to purchase team merchandise and the number of years as a fan. In this sense, Gladden and Funk 1 used three measures of behavioural loyalty: number of games attended, frequency of following the particular team through media



coverage and participation in activities relating to the team.

Measuring attitudinal loyalty As consumers may stay committed to a brand for a long time, it is important to consider those consumers having favourable attitudes towards the brand. 52 Reynolds et al . 53 view brand loyalty on the attitudinal element as the tendency for a person to continue over time to exhibit a similar attitude in situations similar to those one has previously encountered. Jacoby and Chestnut 49 describe attitudinal loyalty in terms of a consumer ’ s predisposition towards a brand as a function of psychological proc-esses, which includes attitudinal preference and commitment towards the brand. Keller 26 proposes that creating greater loyalty requires a deeper attitudinal attachment. Attitudinal loyalty is defi ned by attitudes. 40

According to Mellens et al ., 54 attitu-dinal loyalty should be measured at two levels: individual-level (tendency to be loyal) and brand-related measures (atti-tudes towards the act of purchasing the brand). Bennett and Rundle-Thiele 50 noted, however, that there was no signifi -cant relationship between these two levels of measurement.

Attitudinal measures may include iden-tifi cation of the reasons underlying loyalty and greater protection against the effects of temporary conditions such as stock-outs or short-run competitive promotions. On the other hand, there may be limita-tions to the attitudinal measures of loyalty where there is a concern for the specifi -city of the attitude object, the possibility of demand effects resulting in the construc-tion of a false attitude and the possibility of attitude change. 55

Attitudes may be measured by asking how much people say they like the brand, feel committed to it, will recommend it to others and have positive beliefs and

feelings about it — relative to competing brands. 56 Solomon 57 proposes that attitu-dinal loyalty can be calculated by measures of attitude towards the brand or measures of attitude towards the act of purchasing a brand. Bennett and Rundle-Thiele 50 also suggest that attitudinal loyalty could be measured by capturing the individual ’ s tendency to be loyal.

Composite measure of behavioural and attitudinal loyalty Day 51 suggested that loyalty should be evaluated by both attitudinal and behav-ioural criteria. He was the fi rst to propose a two-dimensional conceptualisation of loyalty integrating both behavioural and attitudinal components, which is twice as good as a model using behavioural dimen-sion alone. 51 In order to allow the rela-tionship between attitude and behaviour, this should be moderated by composite variables. 40

Baldinger and Rubinson 52 mention the ‘ BrandBuilder model ’ , which implies the key concept where the buyers who are behaviourally loyal to a particular brand are expected to rate that brand attitudinally much more favourably than brands they either never buy or buy less often. They also suggest that the combination of atti-tudes and behaviour provides a loyalty defi -nition that is the basis for assessing, tracking and taking actions to improve brand health (the health of a brand is its likelihood of growing versus declining). Use of loyalty defi nitions that include both attitudinal and behavioural components will be superior in terms of their predictive ability to conceptualise of loyalty that is purely behaviourally based. 52 Chaudhuri and Holdbrook 58 suggest a model of brand loyalty that tends to lead to a greater market share, while attitudinal loyalty leads to a higher relative brand pricing.



Although early studies on the attitude – behaviour relationship produced equiv-ocal results, some research was interpreted as demonstrating that attitudes were poor predictors of behaviour. In fact, the differ-ence between attitude and behaviour is that the latter is an outcome or refl ection of the current or historical situation where the former provides information about the future behaviour. 59 Fortunately, past research in the mid-1970s helped to clarify the relationship between attitudes and behaviour.

Murrell and Dietz 60 found in their research that individuals ’ support for a particular team could be strong regard -less of actual attendance. Backman and Crompton 61 established factors that explain the reason why strictly behav-ioural or observable measures like attend-ance are inadequate indicators of loyalty. Therefore, true loyalty exists only when the consumer regularly purchases the product or services and displays a strong, positive attitude towards a particular brand. 51 In addition to this, Mahony et al . 4 indicated that it is expected that fans who reveal loyalty towards a sports team have an attitude bias that is both resistant to change and persistent over time, and that strong and weak attitudes or levels of personal commitment towards a team would be effective guides to behaviour. Nevertheless, the relationship between attitudes and behaviours in sport settings was noted to be more complicated. 62,63

Ajzen and Fishbein ’ s 64 study showed that attitude measures contributed to predicting behaviour provided four elements: the action (watching a game), the target (watching a specifi c game), the context (watching a specifi c team on telivision) and the time (watching a specifi c team on television Sunday after-noon). These scholars suggested that a stro-nger attitude – behaviour correspondence

is observed by increasing specifi city in the measures of attitudes and behaviours. Along with these authors, a number of researchers have studied to identify condi-tions where attitudes were more likely to infl uence and predict behaviour. The consistency between a consumer ’ s attitude and subsequent behaviour is thought to refl ect importance, knowledge, extremity, certainty, intensity, accessibility, personal relevance and affective-cognitive consist-ency. A loyal fan, who attends every home game during one season, would be expected to possess an attitude towards the team that is intense, extreme, impor-tant, supported by extensive knowledge and experience and held with great certainty. On the other hand, a fan who attends a couple of games during one season would be expected to possess an attitude that is moderate to low in extremity, intensity and importance. 44

Several papers promoted one approach over another due to the lack of agreement for years; thus, recently, researchers argue that the concept of loyalty to be consid-ered should be dependent on the types of market and situation. Therefore, they suggest using both behavioural and atti-tudinal loyalty measurements. 50 To sum up, in professional sports consumer loyalty should be assessed by both behavioural and attitudinal dimensions. 65,66 In this study, both dimensions of loyalty, behav-ioural and attitudinal, will be considered.

Brand associations There are various perspectives on the types of brand associations in the extant literature. Aaker 2 divides brand associa-tions into 11 categories, which include product attributes, intangibles, customer benefi ts, relative price, use / application, user / customer, celebrity / person, lifestyle / personality, product class, competitors and



country / geographic area. On the other hand, Biel 67 argues that brand associations could result from corporate image, product image and user image such that each of these can be divided into functional and emotional attributes. Then, Farquar and Herr 68 propose that brand associations comprise product category, usage situa-tion, product attribute and customer benefi ts. Chen 69 divides brand associations into two — product associations and organisational associations. He further divides product associations into func-tional attribute associations such as product attribute, perceived quality and functional benefi ts, and nonfunctional attribute asso-ciations such as symbolic association, emotional association, price / value and user / usage situation. In a similar vein, organisational associations are split into two subcategories: corporate ability asso-ciations and corporate social responsibility associations. 69

Finally, Keller 3 suggests that there are three kinds of associations: attributes, bene-fi ts and attitudes with respect to the qualita-tive nature of the associations. For the purposes of this study, we adhere in general to Keller ’ s conceptualisation of associations, with special emphasis on the works of Gladden and Funk 1,7 in professional sports.

Attributes Attributes are typically the descriptive features of a particular brand, which char-acterise as a means of symbolising what one gets when purchasing or consuming the product. 3 According to Myers and Shocker, 70 attributes can be categorised in many ways, while Keller 3 distinguishes attributes in terms of how directly they relate to product or service performance. Attributes are categorised into two groups: product-related and nonproduct-related.

Product-related attributes Product-related attributes are the ingredi-ents that are necessary for performing the product or service function that the consumers seek. This leads to relating to a product ’ s physical composition or a service ’ s requirements and these attributes vary by product or service category. 3 According to O ’ Cass and Grace, 71 product-related attributes are essentially defi ned as the components of the core product or service function and in terms of service-related attributes they refer to the process of the core service. In terms of team sports, product-related attributes would represent those factors that contribute to the perform-ance of the team, which include success, star player, head coach and management. 7

Success, as has also been indicated in Gladden and Funk ’ s 1,7 works, is one of the most important creators of brand associa-tions and, over time, brand equity as supported by the fi ndings of earlier research. 72,73 They suggested that the most notable outcome of success is the increased ticket sales. Then, according to Schofi eld, 74 star player or players ’ presence can contribute to the overall appeal of a team. Fans tend to associate themselves with a successful athlete or team. 75 Especially, as Gladden and Funk 7 also indicate, in the case of unsuccessful teams, marketing and promotional activities for star players may help change brand associations developed by lost games. 76 According to Gladden and Funk, 7 there is anecdotal evidence that suggests that the head coach can have an impact on the creation of brand associations. They also noted a positive relationship between the head coach and team merchandise sales in their research when examining the importance of brand equity in professional sports. Finally, team management can have an impact on a consumer ’ s perception of a team. 7



Non-product-related attributes Non-product-related attributes are defi ned as external aspects of the product or service that relate to its purchase or consumption, although they do not affect the overall performance of the product. There are four main types of non-product-related attributes including price, brand personality, user (what type of person uses the product or service) and usage imagery (where and in what types of situations the product or service is used) and feelings and experiences. 26

In terms of sport products, these four non-product-related attributes can be altered as logo design, stadium / arena, product delivery and tradition. According to both Aaker 2 and Keller, 3 in the process of gener-ating brand associations, corporate marks or logos play an important part. Similarly, Gladden and Funk 7 indicate in their works that corporations can also strengthen the retrieval of associations with a particular brand by a logo. 77 For those who are attending, the game or stadium can play a big part in the creation of associations. Schofi eld 74 argues that positive associations can be created by the cleanness of the restrooms, concession stands, layouts, aesthetic qualities of the stadium, the sense that the community provides, and the opening of new stadiums and areas. Then, product delivery, where the eager fans can be enter-tained, can trigger the motivation for sport support. 78 Through the product delivery, a sport team can entertain and develop brand associations. The team ’ s performance and occurring supplementary activities can be included. Finally, Gladden and Funk 7 argue that tradition can be a strong basis of brand association and might be associated with the team. Factors of tradition can range from game performance, style of play, history to management, and thus any defi nition must be broadened beyond winning. 7

Benefi ts Benefi ts are the personal value that a person attaches to the product or service attributes denoting what consumers think the product or service can do for them. 3 In addition, Keller 3 presents that benefi ts signify the psychological meaning and value that consumers attach to the product. As Wann 78 puts it, the instance of a person purchasing a team jersey, which has the team logo, can translate to signify this person ’ s identifi cation with that team, consequently satisfying the needs of affi l-iation and self-esteem enrichment.

A particular team can provide a basis for identifi cation, which can offer a benefi t to a fan. On the other hand, following a team can help a fan escape the daily stresses, and thus aids to develop strong associations with the team. 79 How a team brings back good or bad memories will affect a consumer in his choice to follow a team, which is actually called nostalgia, and to relive a feeling of happiness through the associations. 80

Benefi ts are categorised into three types with respect to their underlying motiva-tions including functional, symbolic and experiential benefi ts. 81

Functional benefi ts Park et al . 81 posit that functional benefi ts motivate the search for products that solve consumption-related problems. Func-tional benefi ts are the intrinsic advantages of product or service consumption and typically match the product-related attributes, satisfying basic motivations such as solving or avoiding problems. According to Keller, 3 these benefi ts are often linked to basic motivations, as in Maslow ’ s 82 theory — physiological and safety needs, and engage in a desire for solving or avoiding problems.

In sports, like Gladden and Funk, 7 Smith 79 argues that following a sport team



can be used as a way to cope through which people can fi nd fulfi lment and contentment. Temporary escape from daily stress is a functional benefi t that can be linked to professional team sport expe-rience as a fan. 1

Symbolic benefi ts As Park et al . 81 put it, symbolic needs fulfi l internally generated needs for self-enhance-ment, role position, group membership or ego-identifi cation. A brand with a symbolic concept is one that is designed to be rele-vant to the individual with a desired group, role or self-image. They are the extrinsic advantages of product or service consump-tion, which correspond to non-product-related attributes and are associated with the basic needs for social approval or indi-vidual expression and outward-directed self-esteem. 3

The ability of a team to offer a source of identifi cation and comply with a consumer ’ s need to associate with some-thing successful or desirable was charac-terised as a symbolic benefi t. 1 Thus, fan identifi cation with a particular team will be a symbolic benefi t. Peer group accept-ance is another symbolic benefi t, arising from an interest in a particular team. Friends and family also play an important role. 83 If a consumer feels that friends and family approve the following or supporting a specifi c team, all constituents of the consumption experience will be viewed more favourably. In this sense, positive associations with a team may be derived given a consumer ’ s eagerness to belong to a group. 7

Experiential benefi ts Experiential needs are desires for products that offer sensory pleasure, variety and cognitive stimulation. A brand with an experiential concept is designed to fulfi l

the internally generated needs for stimu-lation and variety. 81 As Keller 3 describes, experiential benefi ts relate to what it feels like to use the product or service, satisfy experiential needs and usually corresponds to the product-related attributes. These benefi ts present a symbolic meaning or a pleasurable experience. 3

Nostalgia and pride may be considered as experiential benefi ts as a sport team can provide a source of nostalgia and a source of pride for a community. Nostalgia is ‘ a yearning for yesterday, longing for the past, or a fondness for possessions and activities associated with the days of yore ’ (p. 245). 80 Mael and Ashforth 84 and Trujillo and Krizek 85 argue that the notion of invented traditions or behaviours connect people with the past. Strong brand associations may be developed as the consumers believe that the team presents a common point for the community. 7

Attitudes The most abstract form of brand associa-tions is attitudes. This is important because attitudes are what constitute the basis for consumer behaviour. To Kinnear et al ., 86 attitudes are learned tendencies to perceive and act in a consistent way towards a given object or idea, such as a product, service, brand, company, store or spokes person. Also, many marketers consider attitudes to be precise predictors of consumer behav-iour. 86 Keller 3 posits that brand attitudes are a function of the associated attributes and benefi ts that are salient for the brand. Attitudes are consumer ’ s overall evaluation of the brand and often rely on the strength and favourability of the attributes and benefi ts that the brand provides. 26 As Zeithaml 87 explains, brand attitudes can be associated with beliefs about product-related attributes and the functional and experiential benefi ts. In contrast, brand



attitudes can be associated with nonproduct-related attributes and symbolic benefi ts. 88

Gladden and Funk 7 used attitude as a dimension in their study by dividing atti-tude properties into attitudinal aspect, cognitive structure and subjective beliefs. Attitudinal aspects refl ect the characteristics of an attitude, which exist on a continuum ranging from positive to negative, for example valence. The cognitive structure dimension represents the attitude ’ s position within a network of associative links such as knowledge, which establishes how an individual assesses the attitude item from memory. Subjective beliefs stand for attitu-dinal characteristics, for example impor-tance, linked with the subjective evaluation of an item based on its perceived signifi -cance. 7 Gladden and Funk 7 used impor-tance, knowledge and affective reactions for their attitudinal dimension where impor-tance refers to a person ’ s perception of the psychological signifi cance and value that one attaches to a sport team. Knowledge stands for attitude-relevant knowledge accompanying an individual ’ s attitude related to a team, where asking someone to list all the things he / she knows about the team could do the measurement of knowledge. Finally, affective reactions represent an individual ’ s feelings about a team and these reactions have been assessed using affective indexes drawn from a series of semantic differential scales. 7

Attitudes are only tendencies to perceive and act in a given way. 86 They are very abstract and thus it is diffi cult to make them operational for managerial action, and attitudes are also hypothesised to mediate the formation of strong associa-tions based on attributes and benefi ts. 1 Gladden and Funk 1 used importance, knowledge and affective reactions in their survey and posited that these three dimen-sions were strong predictors of commit-ment to a professional baseball team.

Table 1 summarises the model constructs and their potential measure types.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH AGENDA In most countries, many people engage in sport as spectators instead of active partic-ipants. Commensurate with the new trend of sport marketing activities, sport clubs are considering their fans as their customers. Clubs renew their stadiums; transfer star players; hire the best coaches; and produce merchandising products, and thus the fans become customers who consume these services and products. Increasing expenditures of the clubs are leading them to charge higher prices for tickets and other services. This brings about a change in the consumer base towards the upper classes. At this point, it should be borne in mind that the specta-tors and the fans are the real fi nancial contributors and owners of the profes-sional team sports.

There has also been an increasing trend that sport clubs have turned into corpora-tions where they share their wealth with their stockholders. The supporters of the team then become their customers and shareholders. The clubs have started gener-ating their own economy, with the players also being their most important assets and investments. Although ticket revenue used to be the number one source of income, now it has been declining due to the emergence of other sources of revenues such as merchandising, broadcasting rights and season combined tickets. The concepts used in contemporary business such as productivity, effi ciency, motivation, team spirit, ethical values and branding also play an important role for the sport clubs.

This study also questions the impor-tance of associations attached to the team or the club in fostering brand a loyalty.



Table 1 Potential measures of model constructs

Constructs Measure type Authors

Attributes Product-related attributes Success Winning and competing

Likert-type multi – item scale (eg I do not care whether the team wins or loses)

Branvold et al . ,72 Gladden and Milne ,27 Porter and Scully ,73 Schofi eld ,74 Gladden and Funk 1

Star player Outstanding, likeable and admirable player’s presence Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I like to watch the star player)

Fisher and Wakefi eld ,76 Gotthelf ,89 King ,90 Gladden and Funk 1

Head coach Successful and/or charismatic head coach’s presence Gladden and Milne ,27 Gladden and Funk 1 Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I like the head coach) Management Trust in management that makes the right decisions and satisfaction

that the management drives from consumers Fournier ,91 Garbarino and Johnson ,92 Gladden and Funk 1

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg Management does a good job of running the team)

Non-product-related attributes Logo Logo, colours and uniforms to convey and strengthen image

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I like the colors) Biehal and Sheinin ,93 Gladden and Milne ,27 Gladden and Funk 1

Stadium Place, where consumers experience the consumption, to intensify consumption experience

Trujillo and Krizek ,85 Wakefi eld and Sloan ,41 Gladden and Milne ,27 Gladden and Funk 1

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg architecture of the team’s stadium is attractive)

Product delivery Team’s capability to satisfy a consumer’s need for entertainment Likert-type multi-item scale (eg Games are exciting)

Marcum and Greenstein ,94 Wann ,78 Gladden and Funk 1

Tradition Team possession of a history of winning or certain behaviour mannerLikert-type multi-item scale (eg The team has a rich history)

Kolbe and James ,95 Putler and Wolf ,96 Gladden and Funk 1

Attitudes Importance A person’s perception of the psychological signifi cance and value

attached to a team Krosnick ,97 Gladden and Funk 7

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I consider team to be important) Knowledge The amount of attitude-relevant knowledge that accompanied an

individual’s attitude related to a team. Kallgren and Wood ,98 Gladden and Funk 7

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I possess a great deal of knowledge about the team)

Affective reactions Refl ection of a person’s feelings about a team Crites et al . ,99 Bassili ,100 Gladden and Funk 7 Semantic differential scale (eg smart to stupid)

Benefi ts Functional benefi ts Team’s capability to provide an escape Wann ,78 Gladden and Funk 1 Escape Likert-type multi-item scale (eg watching, reading and talking about the

team provides temporary escape from problems)

Symbolic benefi ts Fan identifi cation Team’s capability to provide a vehicle (often representing success) with

which consumers can affi liate Cialdini et al . ,101 Mael and Ashforth ,84 Sutton et al . ,102 Gladden and Funk 1

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg It is important that friends see one as team’s fan)

Peer group acceptance

Team’s ability to provide a vehicle to spawn a broad social approval when followed Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I began following team because of friends)

Wakefi eld and Sloan 103

Experiential benefi ts Nostalgia Team’s capability to summon feelings from the past and fond memories Holbrook 80 Likert-type multi-item scale (eg Thinking about the team brings back

good memories)



Certainly, winning leads to short-term positive marketplace outcomes, although Gladden and Funk ’ s 1 work indicates that the success of the team is not a signifi cant predictor of brand loyalty. In one sense, this is good news for sport marketers as it suggests that winning is not related to (ie predictive of) team loyalty among committed consumers. Nevertheless, in line with Gladden and Milne, 27 this research also posits that with the under-standing of whether success is a predictor or not, it may be unwise to pivot all marketing activities and energy on whether a team wins or loses.

These proposed links will lead to suggest that efforts to nurture and main-tain long-term brand loyalty may be augmented by understanding the role that the team plays in a consumer ’ s daily lives. 1 That is, the sport marketer should consider what benefi ts the team could provide the consumers. For example, sport marketers should begin asking how identifi cation with the sport team or group acceptance can be effectively acquired and then

enhanced and alternatively, how nostalgia can be used as a vehicle to enable consumers to connect with the team. Consumers ’ attitudes also play an impor-tant role in building loyalty. Strategies, like fi nely tuned communications through a variety of media (e-mail, mail and special ‘ limited access ’ events), may provide a way to enhance and reinforce the degree to which committed consumers feel like they are treated special and truly part of a team. 1

Sports marketers should not rely on the fact that consumers are knowledgeable; instead, they should view attitudes as being the predictor of loyalty. They could use this as an extension to their core product and organise events to enable connection with the team. These events can bring fans and players together. The statistics of the team are already posted on the websites of the team, which is a great way of keeping consumers updated and enhancing their knowledge about the team. Sport marketers need to make consumers feel as a part of the team and

Table 1 Continued

Constructs Measure type Authors

Pride Team’s capability to provide a uniting point for town pride Likert-type multi-item scale (eg The team helps citizens be proud of where they live)

Trujillo and Krizek ,85 Zang et al . ,104 Gladden and Funk 1

Behavioural loyalty Attendance How many matches are attended in a season Gladden and Funk 1 Open-ended question Involvement with the team

How often the team is followed from various media and how often team items are purchased or used.

Gladden and Funk ,1 Milne and McDonald 105

Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I watch matches from television) Involvement with the club

Activities done in line with club’s offerings Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I watch other sports ’ matches of the club)

Generated by the authors

Attitudinal loyalty Attitudinal Likert-type multi-item scale (eg I would not change affi liation from

favorite team to another team) Gladden and Funk 1

Intentional Likert-type multi-item scale plan to exhort friends and family to watch matches of the team)

Generated by the authors



discover ways to keep them having the importance of the team in their lives.

To benefi t from the relationship between escape and loyalty, team marketers should strive to boost the frequency with which the team provides an escape for the fan. A team ’ s website provides a brilliant tool to boost the frequency with which someone escapes through the team. For example, video clips from past games and ongoing or current press conferences allow the fan to be involved with the team more frequently, thus escaping the rigours of daily life. 1

Given the committed nature of respond-ents, the presence of star players may have an important impact on the loyal fan. Alternatively, the highly mobile nature of today ’ s professional athlete could have decreased the importance of the player to the committed fan. While building marketing campaigns around star players may do well in encouraging product trial, there is no evidence to suggest that this will also be effective in enhancing long-term loyalty. Therefore, in a time of open markets and frequent player movement, building a branding strategy based on a player or players may not be the most suitable strategy for communicating with committed fans. 1

As a stadium is where the action and product delivery takes place, clubs need to focus their efforts on providing a comfortable atmosphere in the stadiums. In addition, security has become a crucial subject lately, with fi ghts and incidents of death in the stadiums. Hence, teams need to secure the stadiums in order to make the consumers feel safe and the stadium more appealing.

A number of future research avenues are worthy of note. First, follow-up studies are needed to focus on developing and validation of the constructs. The validity of the proposed relationships in this work

should be empirically tested. Moreover, the suggested links between the constructs may not a have direct impact on different sports or different supporter groups. Thus, variables (the associations and loyalty) should be chosen carefully and precisely. Considering all these possibilities to foster loyalty with the assessment of association impact on loyalty, there is a need to under-stand loyal consumers and loyal team fans. Thus, this study seeks to provide a pathway for further research by developing an inte-grative framework that can also be used on various team sports and sport clubs. This study needs to be backed up by an empirically tested research in order to validate the underlying constructs of the framework.

CONCLUSIONS Sports are an international language that transcends religious, social and language barriers. Investigating what leads fans to support and follow the team is a concept that clubs need to understand in order to better serve them and keep them committed. This study has been largely inspired from that of Gladden and Funk 1 and attempted to develop an integrative framework to better assess the relationship between the brand associations and the brand loyalty. Proposing that there is a link between asso-ciations and loyalty, this study has sought to further existing research by examining loyalty within the broader context of brand management theory. Thus, a comprehen-sive review of extant literature has been provided to better understand the termi-nology and the conceptualisations behind these constructs. Based on Aaker ’ s 6 general conceptualisation of brand equity and Keller ’ s 3 model on consumer-based brand equity, an integrative conceptual frame-work has been developed for identifying various dimensions of brand associations



that are predictive of brand loyalty in professional sports.

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