Art of the Ancient Near East

Present day political borders

Historical Context• First development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent between Tigris and Euphrates rivers (Mesopotamia)• Development of city-states around 4000 BCE• Each city-state has own gods, social hierarchy, and government• Development of specialized labor, trade• Agricultural wealth + no natural defenses = centuries of political upheaval• Religion plays important role. People worship multiple gods (polytheism) and believe in afterlife. Each CS has its own patron god. Ruler of CS was delegate from god.

Sumer• Southern Mesopotamia, 3500 – 2340 BCE• Invention of cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) writing on clay tablets using pointed stylus• World’s first literary epic, the Epic of Gilgamesh, about the king of Uruk’s quest for the secret of immortality

Sumerian Ziggurats• Huge, stepped structure with white-washed temple on top• Central hall of temple called a cella, which included a stepped altar to the deity• Corners of temple oriented to compass• What does the design of the White Temple and its ziggurat tell you about the religious beliefs of the Sumerians?

Temple (cella)

Ziggurat White Temple and ziggurat, Urukc. 3300-3000 BCE

(present day Warka, Iraq)Temple dedicated to sky god Anu

Sumerian Ziggurats• Cella only large enough for a few select people• Bridge from heaven to earth. Proclaimed wealth and stability. Glorified CS’s gods.• Raised structure protected against flooding. May have been result of successive rebuilding.• Made of dried mud brick (no stone available)• Statues of gods and donors placed in temples.

Temple (cella)

Ziggurat White Temple and ziggurat, Urukc. 3300-3000 BCE

(present day Warka, Iraq)Temple dedicated to sky god Anu

Bent Axis

Carved Vessel, Uruk• Contains three registers (bands of imagery)• Imagery forms a narrative• What do you see in the bottom band? What do you see in the middle band? What might be depicted in the top band?

Registers

Carved Vessel, Urukc. 3300-3000 BCECarved alabaster

(present day Warka, Iraq)

Carved Vessel, Uruk• Contains three registers (bands of imagery)• Imagery forms a narrative• Bottom band depicts plants and animals, middle band depicts men carrying foodstuffs, top band depicts goddess Inanna (goddess of love and war, later known as Ishtar) accepting offerings from two human figures (probably a priest and a king).

Registers

Carved Vessel, Urukc. 3300-3000 BCE

(present day Warka, Iraq)Dedicated to goddess Inanna

Sumerian Votive Offerings• Carved of limestone, gypsum, or alabaster, with inlaid lapis lazuli (bright blue stone) eyes• Approximately 1 to 2.5 feet in height• What do these figures appear to be doing?• How would you describe their demeanor?• What about them seems distorted? Why might they be designed that way?

Sumerian Votive Offeringsc. 2700 BCE

Square Temple, Ishnunna(present day Iraq)

Sumerian Votive Offerings• Figures were placed in temples in a shrine facing a larger, more elaborate image of a god.• Figures were patronized by citizens (a patron is someone who pays for an artwork to be made). Larger figures were usually from wealthier patrons.• The figures were a surrogate (stand-in) for their patron, locked in eternal awe and supplication to the god• A votive offering is any offering to a deity. Can be a figurine (such as these), food, incense, candle, etc.

Sumerian Votive Offeringsc. 2700 BCE

Square Temple, Ishnunna(present day Iraq)

Great Lyre with Bull’s Head• Only the bull’s head and front panel were found, as the wooden and string components had long since deteriorated. • This is what the complete lyre might have looked like.• Found resting on the body of the woman who presumably played it during the funeral of a royal figure buried nearby.• Bull’s Head made of gold and lapis lazuli• Front piece made of shell inlaid with bitumen (a.k.a. pitch or asphalt) Great Lyre with Bull’s Head

c. 2600-2500 BCERoyal Tomb, Ur

(present day Iraq)

• May represent scenes from Epic of Gilgamesh

• May also depict heroic actions of the deceased in the top panel, and banquet in the world of the dead in the second panel

• Anthropomorphic animals depicted are traditional guardians of the underworld

Registers

CompositeView

Great Lyre with Bull’s Head

Standard of Ur• Discovered in the royal tomb of Ur-Pabilsag (king)• Originally thought to be a standard, but no proof.• Mosaic of shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone imbedded in bitumen on wooden frame• One side, dubbed War, depicts military campaign• Other side, dubbed Peace, depicts a banquet.• Example of hierarchical (or hieratic) scale, where the most important figures are largest.

Standard of Urc. 2600 BCE

Tomb of Ur-Pabilsag, Ur(present day Iraq)

Akkad• Neighbors to the north of Sumer• Adopted Sumerian culture, but spoke a different language• Under Sargon I (c. 2300 BCE), Akkadians conquered most of Mesopotamia.• The Akkadian empire ended around 2180 BCE to the Guti, who were then replaced in 2112 BCE by the Sumerians again.

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin• A stele (plural: stelae) is a large stone or wooden slab that is carved or inscribed in commemoration of a person or event.• This stele is an example of low relief (bas relief)• Naram-Sin was Sargon’s grandson• Which figure do you think is Naram-Sin?• What are the figures to the left of Naram-Sin?• What is happening to the figures in front of Naram-Sin?• What is in the sky?

Victory Stele of Naram-Sinc. 2200 BCE6’, 6” tall

Symbols of Naram-Sin’s Religious and Political Authority

Varied arsenal

Muscular physique

Horned helmet

Three sunsLarger and higher up

than others

Mountain echoes his

shape

His pose is mimicked by his

soldiers, who are looking

upward at him

Victory Stele of Naram-Sin• The stele depicts Naram-Sin’s victory over the Lullubi people, one of his important military victories• This was the first example of a king giving himself godly attributes (such as the horned helm)• Inclusion of recognizable native trees indicates that this depicts a real event, not a generic battle.• Artists continued to use twisted perspective and hierarchy of scale.

Neo-Sumerian Art• In 2112 BCE, Sumerians, under the leadership of King Urnammu of Ur, regained control of the region.• Built a new ziggurat in Ur dedicated to moon god Nanna• First ziggurat that was not the accidental product of successive rebuilding. • Base was rectangular, with angled retaining walls, and three sets of stairs rising up to converge at an entrance gate on the first of three platforms.

Ziggurat of Ur (reconstructed)c. 2100 BCE(present day Iraq)

Girsu• Girsu was a Sumerian city-state that remained independent during the Neo-Sumerian era.• Gudea was king of Girsu, and restored many temples, into which he placed votive figures of himself.• Cuneiform inscriptions on his clothing state that he dedicates himself, the temple, and the figure to the poet goddess Geshtinanna.• Carved out of diorite, a very hard stone, which may have dictated the compact, simplified form.

Votive Statues of Gudeac. 2090 BCE

(present day Iraq)Diorite. 29”

Life-giving water

Fleece hat

Stele of Hammurabi• King Hammurabi reunited the region after years of political turmoil. He ruled from 1792 to 1750 BCE from the city of Babylon.• Hammurabi devised a systematic codification of the rights, duties, and punishments for all of his people, known as Hammurabi’s Code.• Hammurabi’s Code was inscribed on the Stele of Hammurabi.• At the top of the stele, there is a relief carving of two figures. Which do you think is Hammurabi?

Stele of Hammurabic. 1750 BCE

Susa (present day Iran)Diorite. Height approximately 7’

Code of Hammurabi

Stele of Hammurabi• Now that you know who the two figures are, what do you think is taking place in this image?

Hammurabi Shamash(sun god)

Stele of Hammurabi• The sun god is depicted presenting Hammurabi with his symbols of authority/law – the rope and measuring stick.• God-given authority• First ruler to have clearly defined rules and punishments (instead of leaving punishments up to local officials)• Punishments were not the same for everyone. Rights of some supersede others: men over women, wealthy over poor, citizens over slaves.

Pose of prayer

Sun raysRope and measuring

rod

Hittites• Established capital in Hattushash (present day Turkey) c. 1600 BCE (destroyed 1200 BCE). • Empire reached along coast of Mediterranean through Syria and Lebanon (conflict with Egyptians).• First people to work with iron (used for tools, weapons, and armor). • Fortified capital at Hattushash built from locally quarried stone blocks, decorated with relief sculptures of lions that measured seven feet in height, blending with the colossal scale of the building.

Lion Gatec. 1400 BCEHattushash (Turkey)

Assyria• Assyrians rose to dominance in northern Mesopotamia between 1400 BCE and 600 BCE.• Assyrian kings built huge palaces atop high platforms inside different fortified cities that served as capitals.• Palaces were made of mud brick covered with a veneer of alabaster or limestone (a more durable and impressive material). • Relief sculptures, depicting the king participating in religious rituals, war campaigns, and hunting expeditions, were carved into the veneers.

Citadel of Sargon IIc. 700 BCEDar Sharrukin (Iraq)

Palace of Assurnasirpal II

• Assurnasirpal II ruled from 883-859 BCE and established his capital in Kalhu. • Kalhu included a fortified protective wall, and an irrigation system.• The image on the right is a relief panel that shows archers of Assurnasirpal II pursuing enemies in an important military victory. There’s a lot going on in this image, so let’s look at it more closely…

Assurnasirpal II Archers Pursuing Enemies (relief from Palace of Assurnasirpal II)c. 850 BCEAlabaster, approximately 39” in heightKalhu (Present day Nimrud, Iraq)

Long robes indicate higher status

Cuneiform inscription Lack of beard probably = eunuch

Dressed in standard Assyrian soldier garb

Caught by surprise – still inflating floatie

Overlap indicates spatial relationship

Smaller size = farther away

Ruler of enemy citadel. Note lax weapon pose.

Gesture of despair

Palace of Assurnasirpal II

• This is another low relief from the Palace of Assurnasirpal II. Describe what you see.

Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions(relief from Palace of Assurnasirpal II)c. 850 BCEAlabaster, approximately 39” in heightKalhu (Iraq)

Palace of Assurnasirpal II

• This scene depicts a ceremonial hunt by the king.• The king (while being protected by bodyguards with swords and shields) rode back and forth on a chariot, shooting lions that were released one by one into the chamber.

• Compare how the depiction of Assurnasirpal II differs from depictions of previous kings, such as Gudea, in tone. How are they different?

Lamassu• Sargon II was an Assyrian ruler (721-706 BCE)• Built his capital in Dur Sharrukin (Citadel of Sargon II)• Within the citadel, Sargon’s palace complex stood on a raised, fortified platform 40 feet high, guarded by two towers.• The lamassus guarded the gate between the courtyard that served as a waiting area for visitors and Sargon’s throne room.• Can you identify the different components of a lamassu? What do you think was the function of the lamassus?

Lamassus (Guardians of the Gate of the Citadel of Sargon II)c. 700 BCEDar Sharrukin (Iraq)

Lamassu• Lamassus had head of a man, wings of an eagle, body of a lion, and horned headdress of a god.• Functioned as propaganda by demonstrating the might of Sargon and Assyria to visitors.• What can you interpret about Sargon based on the lamassus?• Do you notice anything unusual about the legs?

Lamassus (Guardians of the Gate of the Citadel of Sargon II)c. 700 BCEDar Sharrukin (Iraq)

Palace of Assurbanipal II

• Assurbanipal II ruled Assyria from 669 to 627 BCE, three generations after Sargon II• He made his capital at Nineveh• Like Assurnasirpal, he decorated his palace with alabaster reliefs depicting hunting and battle, and occasionally palace life.• The scene to the left depicts Assurbanipal and his queen in their palace garden.

Let’s look more closely…

Assurbanipal and his Queen in the Garden (relief from Palace of Assurbanipal II)c. 650 BCEAlabaster, approximately 21” in heightNineveh (Iraq)

Who is depicted?

Servants with whisks to deter bugsQueenServants with food KingMusician

The king’s weapons, laid aside. Peaceful, right?

Well, maybe not.

Neo-Babylonia• Babylon again rose to power in 612 BCE (people known as Neo-Babylonians)• Most famous Neo-Babylonian ruler was Nebuchadnezzer (ruled 605 to 562 BCE)• Nebuchadnezzer built many temples to Babylonian gods, and restored Babylon into a splendid city.• The Processional Way, a wide avenue through the eastern half of the city, provided a route for religious processions honoring Marduk (patron god).

Ishtar Gate, c. 575 BCE. Babylon (Iraq)

Ishtar Gate• The Processional Way ran from the Euphrates river bridge, through the temple district, and up to the Ishtar Gate (the ceremonial gate to the city)• The walls along the Processional Way, as well as the Ishtar Gate itself, were decorated with glazed blue ceramic tiles (glazing is when clay is covered with a glass coating before being fired, resulting in a glossy outer coating).• The tops of the Ishtar Gate are crenellated (notched for military defense).

Ishtar Gate, c. 575 BCE. Babylon (Iraq)

crenellations

Ishtar Gate• In addition to the blue tiles, the Processional Way was decorated with lions, and the Ishtar Gate with dragons and bulls.• The lion was symbol for goddess Ishtar (goddess of love, beauty, and war). Dragons were sacred to god Marduk (the patron god of Babylon). Bulls were symbol of Adad, the storm god. • The animals are sculpted in low relief.

Persian Empire• Around 550 BCE, under the leadership of Cyrus II, the Persian Empire emerged out of Iran, and eventually expanded to include Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Media, and even some Aegean Islands. At its height, it reached from Africa to India.

• The dynasty of Persian leaders is referred to as the Achaemenids, as they believed their ancestry traced back to the mythical King Achaemenes.

• Darius I ruled 521-486 BCE. He set up 20 tribute-paying areas under Persian governors, but left local rulers in place beneath the governors. He also allowed local customs and religions to continue, which lead to loyalty from his subjects.

• Initially, Darius made Susa his capital, but then in 518, he began building a new capital called Parsa, now known by it’s Greek name, Persepolis.

Persian Empire• The imperial complex at Persepolis was built on a raised platform (40 feet high), and laid out on a rectangular grid.• Darius imported materials and artists from around his empire to work on Persepolis, leading to a new multicultural style that combined many different traditions.• Upon his death, only the treasury, Apadana (audience hall), and a small palace for himself were built.

Persepolis (Iran)c. 500 BCE

Persepolis• Darius I was succeeded by his son, Xerxes I.• Xerxes expanded the treasury, added a new, larger audience hall called the Hall of 100 Columns, and built a sprawling palace for himself.• The palace was decorated with many reliefs. • The relief below is on the central staircase to the Apadana. What is depicted? What message was Darius sending to those who saw it?

Apadana (audience hall) of Darius and Xerxes

Persepolisc. 500 BCE

Persepolis Reliefs• Originally, the reliefs were painted with bright colors, and decorated in some places with gold leaf (a thin layer of hammered gold).• Although in 334, the Greek ruler Alexander the Great defeated Darius III and nearly destroyed Persepolis, the Persian style of art continued to influence Greek artists and later became one of the foundations for Islamic art.

Darius and Xerxes Receiving Tribute (left) and Tribute Bearers (above)

Persepolisc. 500 BCE

(Iran)