Prof. dr. sc. Danica ŠkaraProf. dr. sc. Danica ŠkaraUniversity of SplitUniversity of Split

dskara@ffst.hr dskara@ffst.hr

Week 5:Week 5:Metaphor and its role in categorization and Metaphor and its role in categorization and

conceptualization in languageconceptualization in language

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE/METAPHORSFIGURATIVE LANGUAGE/METAPHORS

Metaphors are very powerful and natural cognitive Metaphors are very powerful and natural cognitive processes, which help us to understand the complex issues processes, which help us to understand the complex issues in nature and society. in nature and society.

Metaphors can be described as mediators between the Metaphors can be described as mediators between the human mind and culture. human mind and culture. New metaphors change both the ordinary language we New metaphors change both the ordinary language we use and use and the ways in which we perceive and understand the ways in which we perceive and understand the world. the world.

Metaphors cause the audience to see things in a new Metaphors cause the audience to see things in a new light.light.In politics, the explanatory function of metaphors is In politics, the explanatory function of metaphors is often subjected to the goal of manipulation, which often subjected to the goal of manipulation, which means that metaphors are often primarily selected means that metaphors are often primarily selected for their emotional and strategic effect. for their emotional and strategic effect.

Prime candidates in political speeches in general are Prime candidates in political speeches in general are metaphorical links with familiar words, e.g. WIND metaphorical links with familiar words, e.g. WIND (e.g. (e.g. the new breeze, wind of change), the new breeze, wind of change), ILLNESS ILLNESS metaphorsmetaphors, e.g., e.g. Our country can be Our country can be healthy; healthy; it hasit has friends, allies friends, allies and and enemies.enemies.

Cognitive Linguistic theories see metaphor Cognitive Linguistic theories see metaphor as basic to humanas basic to human cognitioncognition and and language behavior (Lakoff and Johnson language behavior (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987) 1980; Lakoff 1987)

Political mind: Political mind: http://fora.tv/2008/06/20/George_Lakoff_on_The_Politichttp://fora.tv/2008/06/20/George_Lakoff_on_The_Political_Mindal_Mind

Metaphors are necessary for our basic Metaphors are necessary for our basic grasp of time,grasp of time, evaluation,evaluation, emotions and emotions and so on so on

Go back in timeGo back in time

in the distant futurein the distant future

in a black moodin a black mood

their hot love cooledtheir hot love cooled

What is a metaphor?What is a metaphor?

Metaphor is usually used to compare two Metaphor is usually used to compare two unlike things, which in result improve unlike things, which in result improve our understanding.our understanding.

Metaphor can be used as “filter” for our Metaphor can be used as “filter” for our perceptions. If inaccurately used, they perceptions. If inaccurately used, they may distort information or cause false may distort information or cause false generalizations.generalizations.

G. Lakoff: G. Lakoff: (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff (Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1987) 1987)

Lakoff argues that our worldviews are based Lakoff argues that our worldviews are based largely on different frames that provide us with largely on different frames that provide us with structure for our thinking. structure for our thinking.

‘‘Because conservatives have framed political Because conservatives have framed political debate in their own terms for the past few debate in their own terms for the past few decades, our country—and its politics—are now decades, our country—and its politics—are now based on a conservative worldview. In order for based on a conservative worldview. In order for progressives to create change, they must re-progressives to create change, they must re-frame the way we think about politics, frame the way we think about politics, ourselves, and America.’ourselves, and America.’

Every word evokes a Every word evokes a frame.frame. A frame is a A frame is a conceptual structure used in thinking. The conceptual structure used in thinking. The word word elephantelephant evokes a frame with an evokes a frame with an image of an elephant and certain image of an elephant and certain knowledge: an elephant is a large animal knowledge: an elephant is a large animal (a mammal) with large floppy ears, a (a mammal) with large floppy ears, a trunk that functions like both a nose and a trunk that functions like both a nose and a hand, large stump-like legs, and so on.hand, large stump-like legs, and so on.

Every frame is realized in the brain by Every frame is realized in the brain by neural circuitry. Every time a neural neural circuitry. Every time a neural circuit is activated, it is strengthened.circuit is activated, it is strengthened.

The more abstract the idea, the more The more abstract the idea, the more layers of "framing" or analogy are layers of "framing" or analogy are required to explain the concept. required to explain the concept.

DDefinitionefinition of of metaphormetaphor

The essence of metaphor is understanding one kind of The essence of metaphor is understanding one kind of thing in terms of anotherthing in terms of another..

It has been described in terms of transfer from one It has been described in terms of transfer from one cognitive domain (donor) to another (recipient) cognitive domain (donor) to another (recipient) domain: People tend to draw upon experiences in one domain: People tend to draw upon experiences in one area of life in order to give fresh insights and area of life in order to give fresh insights and understanding to experiences in another, creating new understanding to experiences in another, creating new conceptual realitiesconceptual realities, e.g., e.g.LifeLife is is battle battle. .

the wolf in a sheep’s clothing.the wolf in a sheep’s clothing...

Example in Conventional Example in Conventional LanguageLanguage

the the ‘ARGUMENT IS WAR‘ARGUMENT IS WAR’ metaphor’ metaphor

She She attackedattacked every weak point in my argument. every weak point in my argument. Your claims are Your claims are indefensible.indefensible. They had to They had to surrendersurrender to the force of our to the force of our

arguments.arguments. I’ve never I’ve never wonwon an argument with him. an argument with him.

Other terms: strategy, barrage of words, Other terms: strategy, barrage of words, winning/losing an argumentwinning/losing an argument

Being in an argument is viewed (and talked Being in an argument is viewed (and talked about) in terms of fighting a war.about) in terms of fighting a war.

TTwowo important points about important points about metaphor:metaphor:

is a tool of cognition, i.e. helps is a tool of cognition, i.e. helps us us to to conceptualise the worldconceptualise the world Allows us to deal with abstractions Allows us to deal with abstractions

by conceptualising them in terms of by conceptualising them in terms of something more something more concrete/basic/perceptual in our concrete/basic/perceptual in our experience of the worldexperience of the world

Metaphorical Mapping Metaphorical Mapping (terminology)(terminology)

A metaphor is a relation between two A metaphor is a relation between two disparate domainsdisparate domains

(Conceptual) Domain(Conceptual) Domain – any kind of – any kind of coherent organization of experiencecoherent organization of experience

SourceSource – domain from which the – domain from which the metaphors are drawnmetaphors are drawn

TargetTarget – domain that we are trying to – domain that we are trying to understand , or where the concepts understand , or where the concepts from the source domains are applied from the source domains are applied

Source/Target relations Source/Target relations (2)(2)

A metaphor is a relation between two disparate A metaphor is a relation between two disparate domains. Conventional metaphors are stored domain domains. Conventional metaphors are stored domain relations.relations.

A target domain can be conceptualised from more than A target domain can be conceptualised from more than one source domain.one source domain.

ARGUMENT IS A BUILDING metaphorARGUMENT IS A BUILDING metaphor

Source domain Source domain Target domain Target domain

ARGUMENT ARGUMENT BUILDING BUILDING

Your argument has a Your argument has a strongstrong foundationfoundationWe We demolisheddemolished their theory their theory

Time ExamplesTime Examples REMEMBER:REMEMBER: direction of metaphors typically direction of metaphors typically

go from basic/perceptual domains to more go from basic/perceptual domains to more abstract domainsabstract domains

Concept of time is abstractConcept of time is abstract

TIME is MONEY metaphorTIME is MONEY metaphor You’re wasting my time.You’re wasting my time. You need to budget your time.You need to budget your time. How do you spend your time these days?How do you spend your time these days? You don’t use your time profitably.You don’t use your time profitably.

Time is a valuable commodity, it is in finite supplyTime is a valuable commodity, it is in finite supply

UP is MORE metaphorUP is MORE metaphorvertical

VERTICAL SPACE QUALITY/QUANTITY

SOURCE DOMAIN TARGET DOMAIN

more

less

up

down

MORE IS UPLESS IS DOWN

MORE is UPMORE is UP CONSCIOUS IS UP - UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWNCONSCIOUS IS UP - UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN Wake up - He fell asleepWake up - He fell asleep

HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP - SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWNHEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP - SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN He's at the peak of health - He came down with the flu.He's at the peak of health - He came down with the flu.

HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP - BEING SUBJECT TO HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP - BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWNCONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWN

I am on top of this situation - He fell from power.I am on top of this situation - He fell from power.

MORE QUANTITY IS UP - LESS QUANTITY IS DOWNMORE QUANTITY IS UP - LESS QUANTITY IS DOWN The number of books printed every year keeps going up - The number The number of books printed every year keeps going up - The number

of errors he made is incredibly low.of errors he made is incredibly low.

HIGH STATUS IS UP - LOW STATUS IS DOWNHIGH STATUS IS UP - LOW STATUS IS DOWN

HIGH STATUS IS UP - LOW STATUS IS HIGH STATUS IS UP - LOW STATUS IS DOWNDOWN

She'll rise to the top - She fell in status.She'll rise to the top - She fell in status.

GOOD IS UP - BAD IS DOWNGOOD IS UP - BAD IS DOWN Things are looking up - Things are at an Things are looking up - Things are at an

all-time low.all-time low.

VIRTUE IS UP - DEPRAVITY IS DOWNVIRTUE IS UP - DEPRAVITY IS DOWN She is an upstanding citizen - That was a She is an upstanding citizen - That was a

low-down thing to do.low-down thing to do.

UNKNOWN IS UP - KNOWN IS DOWNUNKNOWN IS UP - KNOWN IS DOWN That's up in the air - The matter is That's up in the air - The matter is

settled.settled.

Metaphor in Metaphor in categorisation and categorisation and conceptualisationconceptualisation

Metaphors are most of the time below Metaphors are most of the time below our level of conscious awareness.our level of conscious awareness.

““Metaphor is pervasive in everyday Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” (Lakoff & Johnsonin nature.” (Lakoff & Johnson,, 1980:3 1980:3))

Summary of Metaphor in Summary of Metaphor in LanguageLanguage

Metaphors are mappings across conceptual Metaphors are mappings across conceptual domains. Each mapping is a fixed set of domains. Each mapping is a fixed set of correspondences between entities in a source correspondences between entities in a source domain and entities in a target domain. domain and entities in a target domain.

Mappings are not arbitrary, but grounded in the Mappings are not arbitrary, but grounded in the body and in everyday experience and body and in everyday experience and knowledge.knowledge.

Metaphor allows us to understand a relatively abstract or Metaphor allows us to understand a relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. concrete, or at least a more highly structured subject matter. Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we Metaphor is the main mechanism through which we comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning.reasoning.

Metaphor is fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in Metaphor is fundamentally conceptual, not linguistic, in nature. nature.

(From (From George Lakoff. The Contemporary Theory of George Lakoff. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor) Metaphor)

Body metaphorsBody metaphorsMan is the measure of all thingsMan is the measure of all things (proverb)(proverb)

WhenWhen the body is mentioned in literature, the body is mentioned in literature, philosophy or philosophy or similarsimilar disciplines, it is often disciplines, it is often conceptualized as a conceptualized as a plant, an animal, a cage or plant, an animal, a cage or confinement of the soul, a machine, a container of confinement of the soul, a machine, a container of emotionsemotions, , a computera computer, , a communication networka communication network, , etc. etc.

Plato describes humankind as a ‘heavenly Plato describes humankind as a ‘heavenly planplant.’ t.’ (family tree, the root of the tooth...). (family tree, the root of the tooth...). Women are Women are often perceived as fragile often perceived as fragile flowers.flowers.

TThe he human body is often human body is often addressed as a addressed as a metaphor metaphor for societyfor society (e.g. (e.g. the head of the state, the face of the the head of the state, the face of the law,law, a legislative bodya legislative body, , etc.) etc.)

the the body partsbody parts have individual functions. have individual functions. They can become symbolic models of They can become symbolic models of stable meanings in different parts of stable meanings in different parts of one’s experience, e.gone’s experience, e.g..

headhead>> the seat of the intellect; director, the seat of the intellect; director, leaderleader; ; a container of thoughts, ideas, a container of thoughts, ideas, memories. memories.

heartheart >the seat of emotion (sadness, >the seat of emotion (sadness, fear, and love) and the center of braveryfear, and love) and the center of bravery

handhand > power/control, e.g. > power/control, e.g. to have to have someone in one’s handssomeone in one’s hands

heartheartMetaphorically, it refers to a person’s character, or the Metaphorically, it refers to a person’s character, or the

place within aplace within a p personerson where their feelings or emotions where their feelings or emotions ((sadness, surprise, fear,sadness, surprise, fear, love…)love…) are are considered to considered to come. It is also the come. It is also the center ofcenter of bravery/courage:bravery/courage:

You are doing really well-don’t You are doing really well-don’t lose heartlose heart now now. . (=courage), (=courage),

to breakto break someone’s someone’s heartheart (=to cause emotional pain) (=to cause emotional pain) In some languages heart is considered as the centre of In some languages heart is considered as the centre of

the soul (heart=soul), e.g.the soul (heart=soul), e.g. Croatian: Croatian: On je prava On je prava dusa dusa (= soul).(= soul). > She is all > She is all heart.heart.

Linguistic categorization of the body Linguistic categorization of the body reveals that all human beings have a reveals that all human beings have a common set of conceptual metaphors common set of conceptual metaphors ((universal/generic level metaphors)universal/generic level metaphors) that that are based on the following:are based on the following:

common body structure common body structure basic sensory experiencesbasic sensory experiences common features of social organization common features of social organization

and behaviour>common cultural and behaviour>common cultural environmentenvironment

common features of the natural common features of the natural environmentenvironment

globalization (e.g. global village)globalization (e.g. global village)