ORGANIZATIONALPSYCHOLOGY

ORGANIZATIONALPSYCHOLOGYA SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONER APPROACH

Third Edition

Steve M. Jex and Thomas W. Britt

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:Jex, Steve M.Organizational psychology : a scientist-practitioner approach / Steve M. Jex and Thomas W. Britt.—Third edition.

pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-118-72407-1 (cloth)ISBN 978-1-118-72445-3 (ePub)ISBN 978-1-118-72444-6 (ePDF)1. Psychology, Industrial. I. Britt, Thomas W., 1966- II. Title.HF5548.8.J49 2014158.7—dc23

2014018626

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents

Preface xi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 1

What Is Organizational Psychology? 2

Organizational Psychology in Context 4

The Scientist-Practitioner Approach 6

Historical Influences in Organizational Psychology 11

Recent Past and Beyond 22

The Chapter Sequence 23

Chapter Summary 24

Suggested Additional Readings 25

CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS 27

Methods of Data Collection 28

Special Issues in Data Collection 44

Ethics in Data Collection 53

Statistical Methods in Organizational Psychology 54

Special Issues in Statistical Analysis 59

Chapter Summary 67

Suggested Additional Readings 68

v

vi Contents

CHAPTER 3

ATTRACTION AND SOCIALIZATION 69

The Recruitment Process: An Organizational Perspective 70

The Recruitment Process: The Applicant’s Perspective 74

Organizational Socialization 77

The Impact of Diversity on Organizational Socialization 101

The Future of Organizational Socialization Research 102

Chapter Summary 103

Suggested Additional Readings 104

CHAPTER 4

THE WORK–NONWORK INTERFACE 105

Kelsey-Jo Ritter and Steve M. Jex

Some Basic Assumptions About the Work and NonWork Interface 106

The Transition Into Work: Youth Employment 107

Transition to a Career 112

Balancing Work and Nonwork Demands 113

Antecedents of Work-Family Conflict 115

Consequences of Work-Family Conflict 116

Reducing and Preventing Work-Family Conflict 117

The Positive Side of Work-Family Interface 119

Work-Family Balance 121

Transitioning Out of Work: Retirement 121

Chapter Summary 130

Suggested Additional Readings 131

CHAPTER 5

PRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS 133

Defining Productive Behavior 134

Job Performance 134

Measurement of Job Performance 143

Contents vii

Determinants of Job Performance 150

Organizational Citizenship Behavior 160

Innovation and Adaptability in Organizations 166

Chapter Summary 174

Suggested Additional Readings 175

CHAPTER 6

COUNTERPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS 177

Defining Counterproductive Work Behavior 178

The Structure of Counterproductive Work Behavior 178

Causes of Counterproductive Work Behavior 180

Common Forms of Counterproductive Work Behavior 186

Low Base Rate Counterproductive Work Behavior 194

Some Final Thoughts on Counterproductive Work Behavior 204

Chapter Summary 204

Suggested Additional Readings 206

CHAPTER 7

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND EMPLOYEE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 207

A Brief History 208

Approaches and Terminology 209

Occupational Stress Terminology 211

Occupational Stress Models 213

Workplace Stressors 222

Employee Safety 235

Employee Health in Vulnerable Populations 236

Reducing the Impact of Workplace Stressors 237

Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research 242

Chapter Summary 244

Suggested Additional Readings 245

viii Contents

CHAPTER 8

BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES ABOUT WORK AND THE ORGANIZATION 247

Job Satisfaction 248

Organizational Commitment 269

Additional Job Beliefs 280

Chapter Summary 286

Suggested Additional Readings 288

CHAPTER 9

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION 289

Defining Motivation, Basic Assumptions, and Theoretical Approaches 290

Need-Based Theories of Motivation 292

Cognitive Process Theories of Motivation 296

The Behavioral Approach to Motivation 312

Self-Determination Theory 316

Job-Based Theories of Motivation 318

The Practical Value of Motivation Theories 327

Chapter Summary 329

Suggested Additional Readings 330

CHAPTER 10

ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORY 331

Some Basic Assumptions 331

Behaviors Organizations Attempt to Influence 332

Organizational Reward Systems 334

Motivation Through the Design of Work 350

Proactive Motivation and Job Crafting 364

Organizational Disciplinary Procedures 366

Chapter Summary 368

Suggested Additional Readings 369

Contents ix

CHAPTER 11

LEADERSHIP AND INFLUENCE PROCESSES 371

Defining Leadership 371

General Approaches to Leadership 374

Modern Theories of Leadership 380

Power and Influence in Organizations 398

Chapter Summary 408

Suggested Additional Readings 409

CHAPTER 12

TEAM DYNAMICS AND PROCESSES WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS 411

Stages of Team Development 412

Defining Team Effectiveness 415

Models of Team Effectiveness 416

Determinants of Team Effectiveness 428

Within-Team Processes 436

Enhancing the Effectiveness of Teams 446

The Future of Teams in Organizations 450

Chapter Summary 451

Suggested Additional Readings 452

CHAPTER 13

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY AND DESIGN 453

What Is an “Organizational Theory”? 454

Major Organizational Theories 456

Determinants of Organizational Design 463

Recent Innovations in Organizational Design 475

Research on Organizational Design 480

The Future of Organizational Design 481

Chapter Summary 483

Suggested Additional Readings 484

x Contents

CHAPTER 14

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE 487

Defining Organizational Culture 488

Models of Organizational Culture 491

Manifestations of Organizational Culture 493

The Development of Organizational Culture 499

Measuring Organizational Culture 500

Changing Organizational Culture 502

The Impact of Organizational Culture 508

Organizational Climate: The Psychological Experience 512

Chapter Summary 514

Suggested Additional Readings 517

CHAPTER 15

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT 519

What Is Organizational Development and Why Is It Used? 519

A Brief History of Organizational Development 521

The Theory Base of Organizational Development 523

Organizational-Change Interventions 533

Conditions Necessary for Successful Organizational Change 544

Evaluation of Organizational-Development Programs 549

Special Issues in Client–Consultant Relationships 555

Chapter Summary 558

Suggested Additional Readings 559

References 561

Author Index 663

Subject Index 685

Preface

Organizations are complex socialsystems that sometimes performwell and sometimes fail miser-ably. Organizational psychologyis a subfield within the larger

domain of industrial/organizational psychol-ogy that seeks to facilitate a greater under-standing of social processes in organizations.Organizational psychologists also seek to usethese insights to enhance the effectivenessof organizations—a goal that is potentiallybeneficial to all.This book is designed to provide students

with a thorough overview of both the sci-ence and practice of organizational psychol-ogy. It was originally written to serve as theprimary text for a course in organizationalpsychology (graduate, or upper-level under-graduate), but could also meet the needs ofan organizational behavior course as well.Because this book will be used at the grad-uate level, we’ve invested considerable effortto provide a solid research base in all of thechapters. At the same time, we have also triedto write the book in a style that students willfind enjoyable, accessible, and perhaps, attimes, even entertaining.

NEW TO THE THIRD EDITION

Given the positive feedback we have receivedover the past 8 years, we did not feel itwas necessary to introduce drastic changesin the third edition of this book. We did,

however, want to keep up with importantchanges in both the field of organizationalpsychology and important trends in orga-nizations. To that end, we have createda completely new chapter in this editiontitled “The Work–Nonwork Interface.” Inthis chapter we examine how people ini-tially transition into the work role, howthey balance work with other aspects oftheir lives, and ultimately how they tran-sition out of work through retirement. Wefelt this chapter was necessary for two rea-sons. First, the boundaries between workand other aspects of people’s lives are grow-ing more and more permeable due to tech-nology, and this impacts the way peoplebehave in organizations. Second, we believethat youth employment and retirement areincreasingly important topics and wanted tobe one of the first textbooks to cover themin depth. We have also made a consciouseffort to incorporate cross-cultural findingsin each chapter because organizations aregrowing increasingly global in nature, andtherefore it is vital to examine the general-izability of our knowledge base beyond U.S.borders. In Chapters 1 through 5 we providean introduction to the field of organizationalpsychology, examination of the most com-mon research methods used to study behav-ior in organizations, the processes by whichemployees are socialized into organizations,how people balance work with other aspects

xi

xii Preface

of their lives, and finally become productivemembers of organizations.Chapters 6 through 8 offer an exploration

of counterproductive behaviors that employ-ees exhibit, how employees might come toview the workplace as stressful, but also howworkmay also evoke positive feelings such assatisfaction and commitment.Chapters 9 and 10 examine motivation in

the workplace; in Chapter 9 we examinemotivational theories, and in Chapter 10 wedescribe how those theories are applied inorganizations to influence employees’ behav-ior. Chapters 11 and 12 deal with leadershipprocesses in organizations and team dynam-ics and effectiveness, respectively. Thosewho have used previous editions of thebook will note that we have eliminated the“general” chapter on group behavior, whichdrew more from the social psychological lit-erature. This was a tough choice becausewe did have some positive feedback on thatchapter over the years, but we ultimately feltthat there were other good sources availableon basic group processes. We note, however,that some of the material from that generalgroups chapter was retained and incorpo-rated into the teams chapter.Chapters 13 through 15 are focused on

“macro” or organization-level processes.These include the design of organizations,organizational culture and climate, andorganizational change and development.In terms of content, the major changes

involved updating the substantive materialin the chapters. Since the second editionmany new developments have occurred inthe field of organizational psychology, anda great deal of new research has been con-ducted. We have worked hard to conveythese new developments and summarizeimportant new research findings. We havealso continued the feature “People Behindthe Research” in the third edition where we

feature prominent researchers to describehow they became interested in a particulartopic. We introduced this feature in the sec-ond edition because we felt it would be inter-esting to students, andmore importantly, puta “human face” on some of the names thatare cited in the text. Because we received agreat deal of positive feedback about this fea-ture in the second edition we have continuedit in the third edition, although most of theindividuals featured have changed.

CONTINUED UNIQUE FEATURESOF THE BOOK

In this third edition we’ve been careful toretain the features of previous editions ofthe book that we felt made it unique. Forexample, we still have a full chapter onresearch methodology and statistics. Fur-thermore, because the first edition came out,there have been even more methodologicaldevelopments in the field—this further val-idates the decision to include such a chapterin previous editions.The third edition also continues to cover

many topics that are not traditionally partof organizational psychology such as recruit-ment, job performance, and compensation.This was and continues to be done largelybecause of the belief that there is con-siderable interrelationship between the “I”and the “O” sides of the broader field ofindustrial/organizational psychology.A third and final unique feature that has

not changed is the use of “Comment” boxesthroughout the book. Although the con-tent of many of these boxes has changed,the motivation behind them has stayed thesame— to encourage students to think aboutand discuss the chapter material. We bothstrongly believe that students learn muchmore when they are highly engaged in the

Preface xiii

material, and do not feel that reading is achore. Some of the comments relate currentevents, some provide extended commentaryon chapter material, and others are simplydesigned to help the reader get to know theauthors a little better.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would first like to thank thereviewers who provided feedback on our ini-tial proposal for the third edition of thisbook. We incorporated many of their sug-gestions and we appreciate their insights. Wealso wish to thank the many colleagues andstudents who have provided feedback on thesecond edition since it came out in 2008.Many of you have stopped by to chat aboutthe book at conferences, and this feedbackhas been extremely valuable. Although wecannot guarantee that we’ve addressed everycriticism of the second edition, we’ve cer-tainly listened and made an effort to do so.We would also like to thank Tisha Rossi,

our editor at Wiley, for her help duringthe revision process. Tisha provided us withsome very valuable editorial feedback, yetalso allowed us a considerable amount ofdiscretion on the content of the book. Wealso greatly appreciate Tisha’s flexibility ondeadlines. We also thank Tisha’s assistantAmanda Orenstein for her help providingus with tables and figures from previouseditions of the book.The authors also thank especially Alison

Bayne and Kelsey-Jo Ritter from BowlingGreen State University, and Kristen Jennings,Janelle Cheung, and Kandice Goguen fromClemson University for all of their help dur-ing the revision process. Alison thoroughlywent through every chapter and actuallydeveloped some of the new comment boxesin the chapters. She also did a tremen-dous job organizing the many new citations

that were added to this edition, and basi-cally just helping to keep this whole pro-cess organized. Kelsey-Jo was the first authoron the new work–nonwork chapter, and dida tremendous job developing new materialfor the instructor and student websites. Onthe Clemson University front, Kristen Jen-nings and Janelle Cheung conducted exten-sive annotated bibliographies formany of thechapters in the book, and Kandice Goguenhunted down most of the new referencesfor many of the chapters. In addition, allthree students read over final versions of thechapters. They helped us complete the revi-sion with their usual blend of a positive atti-tude and conscientiousness, two attributes Ihope they know I do not take for granted.

A NOTE FROM TOM BRITT

I would first like to thank Steve for givingme the opportunity to jump on board andwork with him on the second revision to thetextbook, and to continue to work on thisthird revision. I have enjoyed collaboratingwith Steve onmultiple projects, and workingtogether definitely comes easy. I am blessedto have my wonderful wife Renea to spendmy life with, and could not have completedthe revision without her unconditional loveand support. I would also like to thankmy twin sons, Noah and Jordan, now 14,for their love and support. They are twoincredible blessings in my life. I would alsolike to thank them for playing so well witheach other when dad was on the computerworking on the revision.

A NOTE FROM STEVE JEX

I would first like to thank Tom for initiallyagreeing to join me on the second editionand continuing into the third edition. Tomis a very talented researcher and writer, and