Interest GroupsInterest Groups Def’n: A private organization that tries Def’n: A private organization that tries

to persuade elected officials to respond to persuade elected officials to respond to the shared attitudes of its membersto the shared attitudes of its members

Examples: AIPAC, American Cancer Examples: AIPAC, American Cancer Society, PUSHSociety, PUSH

Considered dangerous by the Founders Considered dangerous by the Founders (Madison, Federalist 10 and 51)(Madison, Federalist 10 and 51)

Help to stimulate interest in public Help to stimulate interest in public affairs, represent shared attitudes, and affairs, represent shared attitudes, and often provide technical, detailed often provide technical, detailed information to legislators (frequently, information to legislators (frequently, lobbyists will write bills)lobbyists will write bills)

LobbyingLobbying Def’n: Those activities by which group pressures are Def’n: Those activities by which group pressures are

brought to bear on legislators and the legislative brought to bear on legislators and the legislative processprocess

About 20,000 lobby CongressAbout 20,000 lobby Congress Very money-basedVery money-based Lobbyists sometimes bring “grassroots” pressure, are Lobbyists sometimes bring “grassroots” pressure, are

rated on successrated on success Regulation: Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946) Regulation: Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946)

requires lobbyists to register with the clerk of the House requires lobbyists to register with the clerk of the House and Secretary of the Senateand Secretary of the Senate

1954: 1954: U.S. v. HarrisU.S. v. Harris: Supreme Court decision that upheld : Supreme Court decision that upheld the constitutionality of the registration requirement, but the constitutionality of the registration requirement, but only applied it to Congressional lobbyingonly applied it to Congressional lobbying

1995 Act: Still requires two reports/year, including client 1995 Act: Still requires two reports/year, including client names, expenditures. Grassroots still exempted and no names, expenditures. Grassroots still exempted and no enforcement (although Justice department can enforcement (although Justice department can investigate)investigate)

Reasons for Proliferation Reasons for Proliferation of Interest Groups in the of Interest Groups in the

U.S.U.S. The more diversity in society, the greater The more diversity in society, the greater

the diversity of opinions and factionsthe diversity of opinions and factions Federalism multiplies the # of places that Federalism multiplies the # of places that

interest groups can gain access to the interest groups can gain access to the governmentgovernment

The weakness of political parties The weakness of political parties encourages interest groups to bypass the encourages interest groups to bypass the parties and go for the jugular—the parties and go for the jugular—the individual legislatorsindividual legislators

Americans have a proclivity to join Americans have a proclivity to join organizationsorganizations

Differences Between Differences Between Political Parties and Political Parties and

Interest GroupsInterest Groups Parties nominate candidatesParties nominate candidates Interest groups are chiefly concerned Interest groups are chiefly concerned

with influencing policy, not winning with influencing policy, not winning electionselections

Case in point: PACs give to both runners Case in point: PACs give to both runners in an electionin an election

Interest group focus tends to be tightly Interest group focus tends to be tightly focused on a series of interrelated issues.focused on a series of interrelated issues.

Interest groups can share members Interest groups can share members

Interest Group HistoryInterest Group History

Nearly half started after 1970, but interest Nearly half started after 1970, but interest groups were around even at the time of the groups were around even at the time of the RevolutionRevolution

1830s-1840s: lots of religious groups1830s-1840s: lots of religious groups 1860s: Trade/craft unions1860s: Trade/craft unions 1880s/90s: business unions1880s/90s: business unions 1900-1920: biggest era; Chamber of 1900-1920: biggest era; Chamber of

Commerce, NAACP some of the headlinersCommerce, NAACP some of the headliners 1960s: environmental, consumer, and 1960s: environmental, consumer, and

political reform organizationspolitical reform organizations

Reasons for the RISE Reasons for the RISE in Interest Groupsin Interest Groups

Broad economic developments create new interests Broad economic developments create new interests and redefine old ones; Farmers are a good example and redefine old ones; Farmers are a good example (need to market crops widely after 1900), so are (need to market crops widely after 1900), so are Unions—don’t need them until mass production Unions—don’t need them until mass production begins begins

Government policy: Veterans’ Affairs, professional Government policy: Veterans’ Affairs, professional societies spring up as government cedes its authority societies spring up as government cedes its authority

Religion: Antislavery, temperanceReligion: Antislavery, temperance College attendance expansion creates leadersCollege attendance expansion creates leaders Growth of government since the 1930s opens more Growth of government since the 1930s opens more

opportunities for influencing itopportunities for influencing it

Criticisms of Interest Criticisms of Interest GroupsGroups

Influence is disproportional (Gray Influence is disproportional (Gray Panthers)Panthers)

Difficult to establish identity of those Difficult to establish identity of those controlling/benefiting from a group controlling/benefiting from a group (Women’s Alliance for Israel)(Women’s Alliance for Israel)

Usually, a small minority within the Usually, a small minority within the group makes policy group makes policy

Litigation issuesLitigation issues

Interest Group LitigationInterest Group Litigation Often used if an interest group fails in Congress Often used if an interest group fails in Congress

or only gets a weak piece of legislationor only gets a weak piece of legislation Relies on activist judgesRelies on activist judges Major victories in 1950s: School desegregation, Major victories in 1950s: School desegregation,

equal housing, labor market equalityequal housing, labor market equality Consumer groups have used suits against Consumer groups have used suits against

businesses and federal agencies as a means of businesses and federal agencies as a means of enforcing consumer regulationsenforcing consumer regulations

Lawyers file amicus curiae briefs: written Lawyers file amicus curiae briefs: written arguments to a court in defense of 1 side of a arguments to a court in defense of 1 side of a casecase

Class-action lawsuits enable a group of similarly Class-action lawsuits enable a group of similarly situated plaintiffs to compile grievances into 1 situated plaintiffs to compile grievances into 1 lawsuit (Paypal suit)lawsuit (Paypal suit)

Types of Interest GroupsTypes of Interest Groups Public Interest Groups—seek to improve life for Public Interest Groups—seek to improve life for

everyone by encouraging the government to adopt everyone by encouraging the government to adopt certain public policies that will benefit all. (many times certain public policies that will benefit all. (many times try to help defenseless—mentally ill, children, animals, try to help defenseless—mentally ill, children, animals, etc)etc)

Institutional Interests—individuals or organizations Institutional Interests—individuals or organizations representing other organizations (ex: GM). Concerned representing other organizations (ex: GM). Concerned with bread and butter issues for clients (GM-CAFÉ with bread and butter issues for clients (GM-CAFÉ standards)standards)

Agricultural groupsAgricultural groups Professional groups (AMA, ABA)Professional groups (AMA, ABA) Labor Unions—organization of workers in the same Labor Unions—organization of workers in the same

industry (AFL-CIO, UAW)industry (AFL-CIO, UAW) Trade Associations (American Bankers Association)Trade Associations (American Bankers Association) Religious organizations (National Catholic Welfare Religious organizations (National Catholic Welfare

Council, Christian Coalition)Council, Christian Coalition)

Why Join?Why Join? Solidary incentives—sense of companionship (PTA, Solidary incentives—sense of companionship (PTA,

Rotary Clubs have much to do locally, also League of Rotary Clubs have much to do locally, also League of Women Voters, NAACP, American Legion)Women Voters, NAACP, American Legion)

Material Incentives—Money and services (Farm Material Incentives—Money and services (Farm Bureau, AARP provide discounts for members)Bureau, AARP provide discounts for members)

Purposive Incentives—stated goals are appealing and Purposive Incentives—stated goals are appealing and serve a purpose. Members are passionate about serve a purpose. Members are passionate about goals, have a sense of civic duty, and the cost is low goals, have a sense of civic duty, and the cost is low (NOW, NARAL)(NOW, NARAL)

Purposive groups are called ideological interest Purposive groups are called ideological interest groupsgroups

Purposive groups that serve non-members are Purposive groups that serve non-members are commonly called public interest lobbies. They commonly called public interest lobbies. They engage in “research” and lobby.engage in “research” and lobby.

Public interest lobbies do best when government is Public interest lobbies do best when government is hostile (Environmental lobbies, Peace lobbies)hostile (Environmental lobbies, Peace lobbies)

Social MovementsSocial Movements

Def’n: A widely-shared demand for Def’n: A widely-shared demand for change in some aspect of the social change in some aspect of the social or political order (Civil Rights, or political order (Civil Rights, Feminism, can also be Conservative)Feminism, can also be Conservative)

May be triggered by scandals, events May be triggered by scandals, events (Exxon Valdez)(Exxon Valdez)

The Environmental The Environmental MovementMovement

Sierra Club formed 1890sSierra Club formed 1890s 1960s-1970s: beginning of modern 1960s-1970s: beginning of modern

movementmovement Earth Day #1: 1970Earth Day #1: 1970 Nixon created EPANixon created EPA Smallest groups tend to be most Smallest groups tend to be most

liberal and activist (Earth Liberation liberal and activist (Earth Liberation Front)Front)

The Feminist MovementThe Feminist Movement Began in Seneca Falls, 1848, other movements in Began in Seneca Falls, 1848, other movements in

1890s, 1920s, 1960s.1890s, 1920s, 1960s.

3 Types:3 Types: Solidary incentive based (MC women—League of Solidary incentive based (MC women—League of

Women voters): avoid partisanship, dividing Women voters): avoid partisanship, dividing membersmembers

Purposive incentives (NOW, NARAL): Takes strong Purposive incentives (NOW, NARAL): Takes strong positions on divisive issuespositions on divisive issues

Issue-basedIssue-based Example: WEAL (Women’s Equity Action League), Example: WEAL (Women’s Equity Action League),

which concentrates on filing gender-equity lawsuits)which concentrates on filing gender-equity lawsuits)

Has spawned an Anti-Feminist movementHas spawned an Anti-Feminist movement

The Union MovementThe Union Movement Union membership fell after its peak in 1945 (36%)…by Union membership fell after its peak in 1945 (36%)…by

1984, <19% Now: 15%. Why?1984, <19% Now: 15%. Why?

Economic paradigm shiftEconomic paradigm shift Disapproval of unionsDisapproval of unions Unions want union shop: employees must join the union Unions want union shop: employees must join the union

that represent them when hiredthat represent them when hired Unions will persist because they can rely on incentives Unions will persist because they can rely on incentives

like the union shop and workers receive benefits from like the union shop and workers receive benefits from unionsunions

Greater recruitment of white collar workers in recent Greater recruitment of white collar workers in recent years (esp. government employees)years (esp. government employees)

1947 Taft-Hartley Act allows states to pass “right to work 1947 Taft-Hartley Act allows states to pass “right to work laws” (outlaw union membership as a condition of laws” (outlaw union membership as a condition of employment)employment)

Low wages in other countries has led to outsourcing—Low wages in other countries has led to outsourcing—unions who demand too much pay the ultimate price—unions who demand too much pay the ultimate price—their workers’ jobstheir workers’ jobs

Farmers’ MovementFarmers’ Movement

Family farm has given way to massive Family farm has given way to massive agribusinessagribusiness

3% of Americans are farmers3% of Americans are farmers Several broad-based agricultural Several broad-based agricultural

groupsgroups Peanut Growers’ Association, Dairy Peanut Growers’ Association, Dairy

Farmers, etc.Farmers, etc. Department of Agriculture is divided Department of Agriculture is divided

along commodity lines—how along commodity lines—how convenient for lobbyists!convenient for lobbyists!

Business InterestsBusiness Interests 70% of all interest groups represent business70% of all interest groups represent business Generally unified in promoting greater profits; Generally unified in promoting greater profits;

fragmented on specific policy choicesfragmented on specific policy choices 2 umbrella organizations:2 umbrella organizations: National Association of ManufacturersNational Association of Manufacturers Chamber of CommerceChamber of Commerce Trade and product associations fight Trade and product associations fight

regulations that would reduce profits, fight for regulations that would reduce profits, fight for preferential tax treatment, and seek subsidies preferential tax treatment, and seek subsidies and government contractsand government contracts

Foreign corporations/governments also lobbyForeign corporations/governments also lobby

Interest Group Interest Group Procurement Procurement

of Fundingof Funding Foundation grantsFoundation grants Federal grants (liberal get-out-the-vote Federal grants (liberal get-out-the-vote

programs are infamous for this)programs are infamous for this) DIRECT MAILDIRECT MAIL Best example of direct mail: Common CauseBest example of direct mail: Common Cause 2% of letters need to respond to direct mail2% of letters need to respond to direct mail To encourage responses, mailers will put To encourage responses, mailers will put

“teasers” on envelopes, arouse emotions by “teasers” on envelopes, arouse emotions by portraying the enemy, endorsements, portraying the enemy, endorsements, personalize letterspersonalize letters

The Bias Problem of Interest The Bias Problem of Interest GroupsGroups

Interest groups represent upper-class biasInterest groups represent upper-class bias Well-offs are more likely to joinWell-offs are more likely to join Interest groups supporting business and Interest groups supporting business and

professions are better represented than professions are better represented than groups supporting minorities, consumers, groups supporting minorities, consumers, or the disadvantagedor the disadvantaged

Out of 7,000 groups, 50% are Out of 7,000 groups, 50% are corporationscorporations

Farmers enjoy plenty of influence, can at Farmers enjoy plenty of influence, can at least block bills they don’t likeleast block bills they don’t like

Interest Group ActivitiesInterest Group Activities Provide Information—arm legislators with their Provide Information—arm legislators with their

version of “Facts”version of “Facts” Provide political cues—warn Congressmen Provide political cues—warn Congressmen

about implicationsabout implications Rate legislatorsRate legislators Entice Public support, commission public Entice Public support, commission public

opinion pollsopinion polls Lately, emphasis on grassroots supportLately, emphasis on grassroots support Money and PACs also distributed, but this is Money and PACs also distributed, but this is

probably one of the least-effective ways probably one of the least-effective ways (historically this was not the case though)(historically this was not the case though)

Cause trouble (Greenpeace, KKK)—difficult for Cause trouble (Greenpeace, KKK)—difficult for government to measure responsegovernment to measure response

Public Support: Rise of “New Public Support: Rise of “New politics”politics”

Insider strategy used to be most Insider strategy used to be most common: Lobbyist-to-legislatorcommon: Lobbyist-to-legislator

Outsider strategy (grassroots Outsider strategy (grassroots pressure) becoming increasingly pressure) becoming increasingly commoncommon

Key targets: undecided legislator or Key targets: undecided legislator or bureaucratbureaucrat

Some groups attack likely allies to Some groups attack likely allies to embarrass themembarrass them

Regulating Interest Regulating Interest GroupsGroups

Complex reporting requirementsComplex reporting requirements Tax code and campaign finance laws Tax code and campaign finance laws

actually achieve most of the actually achieve most of the regulationregulation

Serious lobbying causes a group to Serious lobbying causes a group to lose its tax-exempt statuslose its tax-exempt status

Political Action Political Action CommitteesCommittees

1973 Campaign finance law had 2 effects 1) 1973 Campaign finance law had 2 effects 1) limited individual contributions and 2) practically limited individual contributions and 2) practically begged corporations, big labor to set up PACsbegged corporations, big labor to set up PACs

Not much evidence that money buys much in Not much evidence that money buys much in politics (can accept funding from whoever you politics (can accept funding from whoever you choose, and in effect, still vote your consciencechoose, and in effect, still vote your conscience

Half of all PACs sponsored by corporationsHalf of all PACs sponsored by corporations Ideological PACs have increased at a higher rate Ideological PACs have increased at a higher rate

than business or labor PACs, and have raised than business or labor PACs, and have raised more money than both…1/3 liberal, 2/3 more money than both…1/3 liberal, 2/3 ConservativeConservative

Except for NRA, top 20 PACs were non-ideologicalExcept for NRA, top 20 PACs were non-ideological Democrats receive more PAC money, but no Democrats receive more PAC money, but no

systematic evidence that “vote buying” has systematic evidence that “vote buying” has occurredoccurred

Republicans rely more on small contributions Republicans rely more on small contributions from more membersfrom more members

““The Revolving Door”The Revolving Door”

1978 Ethics in Government Act (p. 1978 Ethics in Government Act (p. 247) regulates possible conflicts of 247) regulates possible conflicts of interest between senior members of interest between senior members of the Executive Branch.the Executive Branch.

Otherwise, one could go from Otherwise, one could go from government to business and be very government to business and be very influential with old government influential with old government “buddies”“buddies”

This activity may cause public This activity may cause public interest to sufferinterest to suffer

Goals of Interest GroupsGoals of Interest Groups

Try to influence public opinionTry to influence public opinion Work to affect the outcome of Work to affect the outcome of

electionselections Lobby those who make public policyLobby those who make public policy

Frequently they use Frequently they use propagandapropaganda—a —a technique of persuasion aimed at technique of persuasion aimed at influencing individual or group influencing individual or group behaviorsbehaviors

Propaganda TechniquesPropaganda Techniques

Plain folksPlain folks BandwagonBandwagon Name-calling/Mud-slingingName-calling/Mud-slinging Glittering Generalities (broad stmts.)Glittering Generalities (broad stmts.) TransferTransfer Testimonial/EndorsementTestimonial/Endorsement Card-stacking (1 side of an issue Card-stacking (1 side of an issue

only)only)

Chapter 11 Learning ObjectivesChapter 11 Learning Objectives After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, the student should be able to After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, the student should be able to

do each of the following:do each of the following: 1.1. Explain why the characteristics of United States society and government Explain why the characteristics of United States society and government

encourage a multiplicity of interest groups.encourage a multiplicity of interest groups. 2.2. Indicate the historical conditions under which interest groups are likely to Indicate the historical conditions under which interest groups are likely to

form and specify the kinds of organizations Americans are most likely to join.form and specify the kinds of organizations Americans are most likely to join. 3.3. Describe relations between leaders and rank-and-file members of groups, Describe relations between leaders and rank-and-file members of groups,

including why members’ priorities may not determine the leaders’ actions.including why members’ priorities may not determine the leaders’ actions. 4.4. Describe several methods that interest groups use to formulate and carry out Describe several methods that interest groups use to formulate and carry out

their political objectives, especially the lobbying techniques used to gain public their political objectives, especially the lobbying techniques used to gain public support. Explain why courts have become an important forum for public interest support. Explain why courts have become an important forum for public interest groups.groups.

5.5. List the laws regulating conflict of interest and describe the problems List the laws regulating conflict of interest and describe the problems involved with revolving door government employment. Describe the balance between involved with revolving door government employment. Describe the balance between the First Amendment’s freedom of expression and the need to prevent corruption in the First Amendment’s freedom of expression and the need to prevent corruption in the political system.the political system.