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Read about the evidence Aristotle (Aristot. Pol.).
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Read about the evidence Aristotle (Aristot. Pol.).
Read about the evidence Aristotle (Aristot. Pol.).
Demos HomeSummary.Introduction.Glossary.Instructions for readingpassages.Passages: Defining the CityState.Passages: Defining theCitizen.Passages: Defining theSystem of Government.Passages: DefiningDemocracy.Passages: Types ofDemocracy.Passages: CreatingDemocracy.Passages: PreservingDemocracy.Passages: DestroyingDemocracy.Selective Bibliography.—Index of CitationsGeneral Index—Demos Home
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Democracy in the Politics of Aristotle Thomas R. Martin, with Neel Smith & Jennifer F.Stuart, edition of July 26, 2003
(Section 1 of 13)
·∙ Summary ·∙
Ancient Greek democracy has regularlyaKracted the aKention of modern politicalscientists as part of the discussion of the theory and practice ofdemocratic systems of government. By far the most important ancienttext for this discussion is the Politics of Aristotle. Studying whatAristotle has to say about democracy in the Politics is challenging forseveral reasons. First of all, his remarks on the subject are spread widelythroughout this extended work. The challenge is further increased bythe discursive character of Aristotle’s arguments in the Politics, whichfor one thing mix discussions of theoretical principles for systems ofgovernment with observations about actual Greek states of Aristotle’stime (and before it). Finally, there is the strong possibility that thetraditionally accepted order of the eight “Books” or chapters of thePolitics is not the order in which Aristotle meant his arguments to bepresented.
(Section 2 of 13)
·∙ Introduction ·∙
The goal of this article is to provide one possible aid for thosewishing to meet this challenge. It therefore offers a series of topicalheadings under which selected passages relevant to the study of democracy in the Politics arerearranged. That is, under each topic the passages are listed not in the order in which theyoccur in the Politics, but are instead arranged in an order that aKempts to suggest connectionsin thought between Aristotle’s various remarks on democracy. The passages are paraphrasedrather than translated word for word, although the paraphrases of the shorter excerptsaKempt to stay as close to the Greek wording as is practical. Since the paraphrased passagesare meant to serve as jumping-‐‑off points for consideration of the full text of the Politics, eachpassage has an active link to the full text of the Politics. A glossary of Greek terms and a veryselective bibliography of recommended print readings are also included.
Since the approach adopted for this site rearranges the order ofmaterial on democracy from the Politics, it necessarily removes eachpassage from its context in order to suggest connections in thought that might not be easy to
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grasp when the text is read serially from beginning to end. This displacement of the passagessuggests an interpretation of the connections in Aristotle’s thought on democracy in thePolitics. The potential danger of this method, of course, is that reading excerpted andparaphrased passages without considering their full context can be seriously misleading. Itmust be strongly emphasized, therefore, that reading the Politics thoroughly from beginningto end (and more than once!) is the only way to try to understand fully its complex andinterwoven arguments. With this caution firmly in mind, users can consider the arrangementof excerpted passages as a guide to further study of Aristotle’s reflections on ancient Greekdemocracy.
In the environment provided by electronic publication, all readers can immediately confrontour implied interpretation with the underlying evidence and offer suggestions forimprovement by electronic response to the author and contributors. In this way thecollaborative work that produced this article can continue as a scholarly conversation on awide scale.
(Section 3 of 13)
·∙ Glossary ·∙
Every aKempt has been made to be consistent in the translation of crucial Greek terms, suchas polis, but the flexibility of meaning of some of them makes absolute consistency impossible.The following translations are used as consistently as possible:
“Polity” for politeia when Aristotle uses the word in its particular sense to indicate rule by themany in what he defines as the straight or correct system of government of this type. (Bycontrast, he refers to rule by the many in a diverging and thus “erroneous” system as“democracy.”) (See this word in selections from Aristotle, courtesy of the Perseus DigitalLibrary; see this word in all Perseus texts.)
“System of government” for politeia when Aristotle uses the wordin its generic sense, which is conventionally translated into Englishas “constitution.” (This departure from convention is to avoid thepotential ambiguity of the term “constitution,” which as a familiar term in the United Statestoday is usually taken to mean a formal, wriKen document prescribing the structure ofgovernment. The “constitutions” of ancient Greek city-‐‑states were often not wriKen down, atradition found today, for example, in the United Kingdom.) (See this word in Perseusselections from Aristotle; see this word in all Perseus texts.)
“Diverging system of government” for parekbasis. The diverging systems are tyranny,oligarchy, and democracy, which are those systems that “diverge” (parekbaino) from the three“straight systems of government” (orthai politeiai), which are kingship, aristocracy, and polity.(See parekbasis in Perseus selections from Aristotle; see parekbasis in all Perseus texts. Seeoccurences of orthos within five words of politeia in Perseus selections from Aristotle; in allPerseus texts.)
“Excellence” for arete, which is conventionally translated “virtue.” Excellence in the Greeksense can and often does pertain to ethical qualities and morality, but it can also pertain to, forexample, physical strength or courage. (See this word in Perseus selections from Aristotle; seethis word in all Perseus texts.)
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“Partnership” for koinonia, literally “a sharing or taking part in a thing with others.” (See thisword in Perseus selections from Aristotle; see this word in all Perseus texts.)
“Goal” for telos, literally “end, purpose.” (See this word in Perseus selections from Aristotle;see this word in all Perseus texts.)
“Multitude” for plethos, which can also mean “majority” or, by extension, “democracy.” (Seethis word in Perseus selections from Aristotle; see this word in all Perseus texts.)
“People” for demos, which can also, by extension, mean “democracy.” (See this word inPerseus selections from Aristotle; see this word in all Perseus texts.)
(Section 4 of 13)
·∙ Instructions for reading passages ·∙
Important information on links
The links from each passage are to the full text of the Politics in bothan on-‐‑line Greek text and an accompanying English translationmaintained by the Perseus Digital Library at Tufts University.Passages are cited, following the most precise standard form ofreference to the Politics, as a four-‐‑digit number followed by the leKer “a” or “b” (that is, 1253a,1274b, and so on) to indicate a particular section of the work. The precise location of the citedpassage within a section is indicated by the line numbers that follow the citation of thesection. (This reference system is derived from the Greek edition of the Politics published byImmanuel Bekker in Berlin in 1831.)
Two crucial warnings
Each section (e.g., 1253a, 1274b, etc.) is presented as continuous text. The line numbersfollowing the section designation are indicated in the on-‐‑line Greek text in multiples of five,while the corresponding line numbers in the accompanying English translation appear everytwenty lines in brackets, but the line divisions as represented in your Web browser may notcorrespond exactly to this numeration.
Since, for technical reasons, the links must go to the first line of a section and therefore usuallynot to the first line of the cited reference itself, the particular lines referred to may appearrather far down from the beginning of the section. In some cases, the particular lines may befar enough from the beginning of the section that they will not be on the screen when thesection is first displayed, and it will then be necessary to scroll until they appear. Please besure to note the precise line number within the section to which you are linking beforefollowing that link so that you can locate that line by scrolling.
Introduction to the groups of excerpted passages
The first three groups of excerpted passages provide context for the remaining groups. Thefirst of the three concerns elements of the definition of the ancient Greek city-‐‑state (polis) in thePolitics because Aristotle’s discussion of democracy pertains to this type of political state. Thenext group concerns the definition of the citizen because it took citizens to constitute a systemof government in the city-‐‑state, of which democracy was one. The third concerns the
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definition of different systems of government in the city-‐‑state, especially the notion thatdemocracy is, in Aristotle’s view, a “diverging” system of government. The remaining groupsof passages concern democracy itself. In the paraphrases of the passages, square brackets [ ]indicate editorial additions to the ancient text.
The text of the Politics is conventionally divided into eight “Books,” whose proper order isdisputed. These book divisions do not appear in the continuous text to which the passages arelinked. For those who wish to correlate the passages cited below to the book in which theyappear, the following list indicates the division of sections in the books as traditionallynumbered. Since the links go to the beginnings of sections, they will not go to the part of thesection at which a particular book begins. For example, Book 4 begins at 1288b10, but the linkgoes to the beginning of 1288b, from which point it is necessary to scroll forward to reach line10.
Book 1 = 1252a1 to 1260b24
Book 2 = 1260b27 to 1274b28
Book 3 = 1274b32 to 1288b6
Book 4 = 1288b10 to 1301a15
Book 5 = 1301a19 to 1316b27
Book 6 = 1316b31 to 1323a10
Book 7 = 1323a14 to 1337a7
Book 8 = 1337a11 to 1342b34
(Section 5 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Defining the City State ·∙
1253a: 2-‐‑3: Human beings are, by nature, creatures who live in a city-‐‑state (polis). [The sameremark occurs at 1278b19.] 1274b: 33-‐‑34: It is a disputed question what exactly the city-‐‑state is.
1279a: 21: A city-‐‑state is a partnership of the free.
1255b: 16-‐‑20: Rule in a city-‐‑state is the rule of those who are free and equal. This is not thesame as mastery, where one is a slave and the other is a ruler.
1276b: 1-‐‑2: A city-‐‑state is a partnership of citizens in a system of government.
1252a: 1-‐‑7: Every city-‐‑state is a kind of partnership, and every partnership is created for thesake of something good. Political partnership, which is called the city-‐‑state, aims at the mostauthoritative good of all.
1275b: 17-‐‑21: Given the definition of a citizen in 1275a: 22-‐‑23, a city-‐‑state is a multitude of suchpersons large enough for self-‐‑sufficiency of life.
1252b: 29-‐‑30: The city-‐‑state comes into being for the sake of living, but it exists for the sake ofliving “well” (to eu zen). [This phrase implies more than what is usually meant by “livingwell” in English, which is to say “being prosperous.” The Greek phrase implies above all a lifelived in accordance with excellence (arete). Living a prosperous life is not necessarily in
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conflict with this notion but is certainly not the principal implication of living “well” in Greek.See the next passage.]
1280b: 29-‐‑1281a8: A city-‐‑state is clearly not just living together in a shared territory for mutualdefense and the exchange of goods. It is rather a partnership among households, clans, andvillages for living “well,” for the sake of a fully developed and self-‐‑sufficient life. Those whocontribute most to a partnership of this sort have a greater part in the city than those who areequal or greater in freedom or family, but unequal in political excellence, or those who outdothem in wealth, but are outdone in excellence.
1278b: 21-‐‑25: The goal or purpose (telos) of the city-‐‑state certainly encompasses physicalexistence and survival, but it is also more than that, namely, living “finely” (to zen kalos).
1280b: 6-‐‑8: The city-‐‑state that is truly a city-‐‑state must be concerned with excellence (arete).
1323b: 30-‐‑34: The best city-‐‑state is happy and acts finely. It is impossible for those who do notdo fine things to act finely. There is no fine action of man or city-‐‑state apart from excellenceand thinking.
1253a: 37: Justice is a thing of the city-‐‑state.
1282b: 16-‐‑18: The political good is justice, and justice is the common advantage.
(Section 6 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Defining the Citizen ·∙
1275a: 22-‐‑23: A citizen defined in simple terms is someone who can participate in judging[that is, serve as a juror in the court system] and in governing [that is, serve in public office,which here means not just magistracies but also serving in the assembly and on the council insystems of government that have these institutions].
1275b: 5-‐‑7: The definition of citizen just given in 1275a: 22-‐‑23 applies especially to democracyand possibly, though not necessarily, to other systems of government because differentdefinitions would apply in different systems.
1275a: 2-‐‑5: Who is entitled to be a citizen? No agreement exists; someone who would be acitizen in a democracy would often not be a citizen in an oligarchy.
1278a: 8-‐‑25: In the best city-‐‑state, craftsmen (banausoi) will not be allowed to be citizens, sincethey are not really able to live freely, because they are not free from “necessary tasks” [that is,they have to do physical work for a living] and therefore do not have the time to devotethemselves to the activities in which excellence is manifested. This does not mean that theyare poor; craftsmen in fact can be rich, but they still have to engage in making things withtheir own hands, [an activity seen as demeaning by citizens in the social elite].
1278a: 26-‐‑29: In many systems of government, citizens are legally drawn from the ranks offoreigners [that is, both of their parents do not have to be citizens]. In some democracies,citizens need only have a citizen mother, and even illegitimate children (nothoi) can be citizensin many places.
1275b: 35-‐‑37: Cleisthenes of Athens made citizens of metics
Athens.
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Read about the evidence (Aristot. Pol.).(Aristot. Pol.).Aristotle (Aristot. Nic. Eth.).Aristotle (Aristot. Nic. Eth.).
[resident foreigners], who had been foreigners or slaves, followingthe expulsion of the tyrants from Athens [near the end of the sixth century].
1283b: 42-‐‑1284a4: The citizen in common parlance is the person who has a share in ruling andbeing ruled; in the best system of government [namely, a polity, on which see under“Defining Systems of Government”] a citizen is both able and willing to rule and be ruled inaccordance with a life lived with excellence as its aim.
1277a: 26-‐‑27: The excellence of a citizen consists of being able to rule and be ruled well.
1277b: 13-‐‑18: The good citizen must have ability and knowledge concerning both ruling freemen and also being ruled. A good citizen must possess moderation and prudence (sophrosyne)and justice (dikaiosyne) with respect to ruling.
1276b: 28-‐‑29: The task of citizens is the preservation (soteria) of the partnership that is theirsystem of government. [Also under “Preserving Democracy”]
(Section 7 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Defining the System of Government ·∙
1323a: 14-‐‑16: To seek out what is the best system of government, it is first necessary to definewhat is the most desirable life.
1323b: 1-‐‑4: Living happily, whether for human beings it comes from enjoyment or fromexcellence or from both, exists for those persons excessively adorned with character andpurpose but moderate in the acquisition of external goods.
1295a: 25-‐‑1295b: Like the best life, the best system of government isconducted in accordance with excellence. If excellence is the mean,as argued in the Nicomachean Ethics [for example, at 1101a: 14-‐‑16],then a life and a system of government that is “in the middle” isbest. A city-‐‑state has three elements in its population: the rich, the poor, and those in themiddle. The political partnership that is constituted from those in the middle is the best.
1293a: 35-‐‑42: In addition to the four systems of government that [other] people usually bringup in discussing systems of government (namely, monarchy, oligarchy, democracy, andaristocracy), there is a fifth one called polity (politeia), which is also the term used to mean“system of government” in general or in a generic sense. This fifth system of government issometimes overlooked in discussions of the types of systems of government since it does notcome into existence very often.
1289a: 26-‐‑28: As was established previously in the first book of the Politics, there are three“straight” or “upright” [and therefore correct and good] systems of government (orthaipoliteiai): kingship, aristocracy, and polity.
1265b: 26-‐‑28: The system of government called polity is midway between democracy andoligarchy.
1293b: 33-‐‑37: Polity is, to put it simply, a mixture of oligarchy and democracy. The kinds ofpolities that tend towards democracy are customarily referred to by the name of polity, while
those that tend towards oligarchy are called aristocracies.
1307a: 15-‐‑16: The systems of government inclining more toward oligarchy are calledaristocracies, while those inclining more toward the multitude (plethos) [which can also mean“democracy”] are called polities.
1297b: 22-‐‑25: As city-‐‑states increased in size and grew stronger in the heavy-‐‑infantry [hoplite]section of the citizen body, more men gained a share in the system of government. For thisreason what are now called polities were previously called democracies.
1279a: 37-‐‑39: When the multitude governs according to the common advantage, then thissystem of government is called by the term also used to designate systems of government ingeneral, namely, polity.
1288a: 12-‐‑15: The multitude suitable for a polity is one capable of military service that has thenatural ability to rule and be ruled in accordance with law that distributes offices to wealthiercitizens on the basis of merit.
1307a: 5-‐‑8: Polities and aristocracies are undone by diverging from that which constitutesjustice in the two different systems of government, [which is not necessarily the same thing ineach system]. The starting point in a polity is when democracy and oligarchy have been notmixed appropriately [literally, “finely”].
1275b: 1-‐‑3: Diverging and erroneous systems of government are necessarily subsequent, notprior to correct [straight] systems.
1279b: 4-‐‑10: There are three systems of government diverging from the three “straight”systems: tyranny diverging from kingship, oligarchy diverging from aristocracy, anddemocracy diverging from polity. Each diverging system (parekbasis) is structured to operateto the advantage of the ruler(s); for example, democracy is rule to the advantage of the poor.None of the diverging systems aims at the profit of every type of citizen in common.
1289a: 28-‐‑1289b5: Of these three diverging systems of government, tyranny is the worst(which is to say the furthest from polity), oligarchy the next worst, and democracy the mostmoderate.
1279a: 17-‐‑21: While straight systems of government are concerned with the commonadvantage according to what is quite simply just, diverging forms of government are thosethat in error serve the interest of the ruler(s). Diverging forms of government tend to have anelement of despotism, because a city-‐‑state is a partnership of the free.
1290a: 13-‐‑29: Some people claim that, just as there are two main kinds of wind or of musicalharmonies, and the other winds and harmonies are regarded as divergences from these, thereare also two sorts of systems of government, rule by the people and oligarchy. On this view,the, polity diverges from democracy and aristocracy diverges from oligarchy. But it is beKerto postulate instead that there are “straight” systems of government and systems ofgovernment diverging from them.
1259a: 39-‐‑1259b10: The rule that a husband has over his wife, a free person, is the same sort ofrule that exists over free persons in a polity. Since the male is more fit to rule by nature, hewill rule continuously in the household, unless he is somehow unnatural. In contrast, when
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citizens are equals and do not differ, then the roles of ruler and ruled will alternate.
1325b: 7-‐‑8: For those who are alike, the fine and the just is [to rule and be ruled] in turn, forthis is equal and alike.
1282b: 10-‐‑13: Since laws align with the system of government, the laws of straight systems ofgovernment are necessarily just, but those of diverging systems are necessarily not just.
1309a: 36-‐‑39: Justice and the excellence associated with it are not the same in different systemsof government.
1309b: 19-‐‑35: Diverging types of government fail to pay aKention to the middle. Institutionssuitable to a certain type of government can be the downfall of that type of government if theybecome too extreme. Just as a nose [on a statue] can still be appealing to look at if it divergesfrom the straightness that is beautiful but can become not even a nose if an artist pushes it toofar in the direction of the extremes, so, too, a system of government such as democracy thatdiverges from the best system can still be adequate if it is not pushed to an extreme.
1287b: 39-‐‑41: There is no such thing as a person being naturally fiKed for any of the divergingsystems of governments, for they have come into being contrary to nature (physis).
(Section 8 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Defining Democracy ·∙
1294a: 11: Freedom is the defining principle of democracy.
1317a: 40-‐‑1317b13: The underlying principle of democracy is freedom, and it is customary tosay that only in democracies do men have a share in freedom, for that is what everydemocracy makes its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: 1) being ruled and ruling inturn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and 2) to be able to live as onepleases.
1280a: 7-‐‑11: Justice as understood in democracy is equality, but this considers only part ofwhat is just; the same is true of the notion of justice in oligarchy.
1330b: 19-‐‑20: A level location is suitable for a democratic city-‐‑state, an acropolis for anoligarchy or a monarchy.
1321a: 5-‐‑14: A multitude (plethos) has four divisions: farmers, craftsmen, merchants, andlaborers. There are four [divisions of the population] useful for the military: those who ownhorses [cavalrymen], heavy-‐‑armed infantry [hoplites], light-‐‑armed infantry, and those whorow warships in the navy. Light-‐‑armed infantry and rowers are wholly democratic [sectionsof the citizen body].
1278b: 8-‐‑12: The system of government of a city-‐‑state is the arrangement of its variousinstitutions, especially those having authority. In a democracy, the people (demos) haveauthority.
1281a: 40-‐‑1281b6: That the multitude (plethos) should have authority rather than those who arebest and few in number [is a defensible position]. Even though none of the many isindividually a man of excellence, nevertheless they can be beKer when they are all together,
just as a dinner to which many people contribute can be beKer than one furnished from asingle source. With each of the many having a part of excellence and intelligence, when theyjoin together they become like a single person.
1286a: 28-‐‑37: Any one man [of the many] may be inferior [to a man of excellence], but the city-‐‑state is made up of many men. Just as a meal done by many is beKer than a single and simpleone, for this reason a mass (ochlos) can judge many things beKer than any one man. Inaddition, that which is many is less likely to be corrupted. So, although an individual’sjudgment can be corrupted when he is overcome by anger or some other emotion, it isdifficult for all to become angry and make erroneous judgments simultaneously. If all the menare good men and good citizens, they are less corruptible than one man. But the multitudemust be free men and do nothing contrary to law, except in cases where the law necessarilyfalls short.
1281b: 23-‐‑36: What authority should belong to the multitude (plethos) of free citizens, who arenot rich and have not a single claim to excellence? They should not have a share in the highestoffices because their injustice and imprudence would make this unsafe. States are unstable,however, that are filled with those who have no share of political power and are poor.Therefore, it is left for them to share in the deliberative and judicial functions of government[namely, the assembly and the courts]. For when they have all come together, their perception[of political issues] is sufficient, and when they are mixed with the “beKer” citizens, theybenefit city-‐‑states.
1282a: 25-‐‑32: In some systems of government, authority is given to the people (demos) overgreat maKers, such as overseeing the audits of the conduct and accounts of magistrates andchoosing them, for this power is given to the assembly. Thus, citizens of whatever age andrequired to meet only a low financial requirement can participate in the assembly anddeliberate [on political issues] and serve in the courts, while those meeting a high financialrequirement serve as treasurers and generals [the chief civic magistrates] and in the highestmagistracies.
1279b: 18-‐‑19: Democracy is when those who do not own much property, but are poor, haveauthority in the system of government.
1279b: 20-‐‑1280a6: The definitions of democracy and oligarchy according to whether the manyor the few have authority in the system of government appear problematic if one supposesthat it might happen that the majority in a state were wealthy or that the poor would be fewin number but still have authority. In fact, it is only a contingent factor whether the few or themany have authority in a state. The real difference between democracy and oligarchy isbetween poverty and wealth. Wherever the rulers, whether they be a minority or a majority,owe their power to wealth, that is an oligarchy. Wherever the poor rule, that is a democracy.Usually, where the rulers hold power by wealth, they are few, but where the poor rule, theyare many, because few men are rich but all are free [if they are citizens in a city-‐‑state], andwealth and freedom are the grounds on which the two groups lay claim to government.
1290a: 30-‐‑1290b2: Democracy is not necessarily only wherever the multitude has authority.Oligarchy is not necessarily wherever a minority has power over the system of government. Ifthe majority of a city-‐‑state were wealthy and had authority, nobody would call it ademocracy, just as if a small group of poor men had control over a larger rich population,nobody would call it an oligarchy. Rather, democracy is when every free citizen has authority
and oligarchy is when the rich have it.
1290b: 17-‐‑20: Democracy is when there is a majority of free, poor men who have authority torule, while oligarchy is when it is in the hands of the wealthy and well-‐‑born, who are aminority.
1328b: 32-‐‑33: In democracies, everyone has a share in everything.
1297b: 37-‐‑1298a33: There are three parts to all systems of government for which a good lawmaker must try to find the best arrangement: deliberating about maKers common to all,magistracies, and the judicial system. It is democracy when all the citizens can deliberateabout everything, for the people seek this kind of equality. There are different ways of doingthis. One way is by taking turns rather than all together. Another is to have all citizens meettogether but only for the election of magistrates, law making, declarations of war and peace,and audits of magistrates, but to have all other maKers decided by magistrates chosen fromthe entire citizen body either by election or by lot. Another is just like this, except themagistrates are chosen to the extent possible by election from those who are knowledgeable.A fourth way is when all citizens meet to deliberate on all maKers, while the magistratesrender only preliminary decisions, not final ones. The so-‐‑called final type of democracy [onwhich see under “Types of Democracy”], the type of democracy that is analogous to dynasticoligarchy and tyrannical monarchy and exists now [in Aristotle’s time], is arranged in thisfourth way.
1317b: 17-‐‑41: The following arrangements are usually considered consistent with democracy:
1. Election to all offices from among all the citizens.
2. Rule of all over each and of each over all in turn filling magistrates by lot, or at leastthose not requiring knowledge and technical skill not having a financial requirement forholding magistracies, or at least the smallest possible requirement.
3. The same person not repeating the same magistracy, or only rarely, except for militaryoffices.
4. Having the terms of magistracies be short, wherever possible.
5. Choosing jurors from all citizens to adjudicate all maKers, or most maKers, especially themost important ones.
6. The assembly having authority over all maKers or the most important maKers, whilemagistrates have authority over none, or as few as possible.
7. Providing pay for all service in government, or for all functions that exercise authority.
8. Making no distinctions according to a citizen’s birth, poverty, or occupation no publicoffices held for life.
1294b: 3-‐‑4: Democracy allows men to participate in the assembly with either no propertyqualification or a small one.
1297a: 35-‐‑38: To promote democracy, one can use these legislative devices: providingpayment for the poor for aKending the assembly and for jury service and not levying fines onthe rich for not participating.
Plot on a Map Sparta.
Plot on a Map Sparta (in text as “Spartan”).
Plot on a Map Sparta.
Plot on a Map Sparta (in text as “Spartan”).
1301a: 11-‐‑12: The democratic way to arrange a judicial system is to have all juries drawn fromall the citizens and hear all cases.
1294a: 39-‐‑40: In a democracy the poor receive pay for serving on juries and the rich are notpenalized for failing to serve.
1323a: 6-‐‑9: Having a council oversee the election to magistracies that carry authority isdemocratic.
1300a: 31-‐‑34: It is democratic for all citizens to select magistrates from all citizens by electionor by lot or by both methods.
1299b: 24-‐‑27: In a democracy, magistracies are filled from the ranks of the free, while in anoligarchy from the rich and in an aristocracy from the educated.
1294b: 7-‐‑10: Democracy fills magistracies by lot and does not require men to possess aminimum amount of wealth to be eligible to serve.
1273b: 12-‐‑13: It is more democratic—indeed more “polity-‐‑like”—to have a larger number ofpeople hold public office and not to have one person hold multiple magistraciessimultaneously, if the city-‐‑state is not small.
1287a: 4-‐‑5: There can be an office of general (strategia) without limit of time in all systems ofgovernment, even in a democracy.
1300a: 6-‐‑7: It is not democratic, but aristocratic, to have a magistrate to oversee children, orone to oversee women, or any other one to exercise this sort of oversight. For it is not possible[as practical maKer] to prevent the wives of poor men from going out of their homes [becausethey have to work outside the home to earn money to help support their families].
1294b: 19-‐‑39: Many try to talk about Sparta as a democracy becauseit has many democratic elements in the arrangement [of its systemof government]. For example, the children of rich and poor are raised and educated in thesame way. So, too, adults eat and dress the same way, whether rich or poor. As for their toptwo offices, one is elected by the people [that is, ordinary citizens], and the people can beelected to the other. Others call Sparta an oligarchy because it has oligarchic elements also.
1271a: 32-‐‑37: The Spartan common messes were intended to be ademocratic institution, but they did not work out that way.Everyone is required to contribute [to the shared meals], but some of them are too poor to doso. The very poorest cannot easily share in the common messes, yet this is the ancestraldefining principal of their system of government. Thus the very poor do not have a share in it.
1265b: 35-‐‑1266a2: Some see democratic elements in the system ofgovernment at Sparta. Some of these think the board of overseers(ephors) is democratic because it is drawn from all the citizens. Others, however, call the boardtyrannical and think the system of government is run democratically through the commonmesses and the rest of the everyday way of life at Sparta.
1270b: 13-‐‑17: Since the Spartan board of overseers is too powerful,the kings must aKempt to win their support. This has done
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additional injury to the system of government, which has changed from aristocracy todemocracy.
1284a: 3-‐‑37: A man who is clearly superior in excellence to all the rest of the city-‐‑state wouldbe like a god among men. Democratic states instituted ostracism to banish such men for afixed amount of time to prevent them from taking over the city-‐‑state because they werepreeminent in their wealth, their large number of supporters, or some other source of politicalstrength.
(Section 9 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Types of Democracy ·∙
1289a: 8-‐‑10: Multiple types of democracy happen to exist, despite some people saying there isonly one type. [The same remark occurs at 1289a: 22-‐‑25, 1291b: 15-‐‑16, and 1316b: 36.]
1317a: 22-‐‑33: There are two reasons why there are several different types of democracy: theirmajorities or “peoples” are of different kinds (for example, farmers as opposed to craftsmenor laborers), and they can have different combinations of the institutions that make themdemocratic.
1289a: 22-‐‑23: The same laws cannot be advantageous for every type of democracy.
1291b: 30-‐‑1292a13: [This passage appears to list five types of democracy, but the next twopassages list only four.]
The first type of democracy is particularly based on equality,where neither the rich nor the poor has pre-‐‑eminent authority, but both are similar [intheir authority]. Still, since the majority rules and the “people” will be in the majority,this is a democracy.
Another type is when citizens have to meet a financial assessment to qualify for servicein public offices, but the amount is low and any citizen possessing the required amountcan have a share.
Another type is when anyone whose citizenship is not open to dispute [because they aredescended from a family of citizens whose citizenship has never been questioned?] canhave a share, and the law rules.
Another type is when absolutely everyone, so long as they are citizens [and even if theybecame citizens in a special way, such as being made citizens in political revolution, anddid not inherit their citizenship], can have a share in public offices, and law rules.
Another type is the same in the other ways [as in type no. 4?] but the multitude rules, notlaw. This happens when decrees [passed by the multitude] have authority rather thanthe law having authority. Here demagogues arise, and the multitude becomes amonarch.
1292b: 22-‐‑1293a12: [There are only four types of democracy listed in this passage.]
One type of democracy is when farmers and those possessinga moderate amount of property have authority. They govern themselves in accordancewith law because their work leaves them liKle leisure time. They therefore meet in the
Plot on a Map Aphytis (in text as“Aphyteans”).
assembly only as absolutely necessary [to make decisions on maKers not covered by thecode of law]. A share [in the system of government] is open to anyone as soon as theymeet the financial assessment set by law. They cannot be at leisure [for public service ingoverning] unless there is public revenue [to subsidize their participation].
A second type is when anyone whose citizenship is beyond question by his descent isentitled to have a share but only those with leisure [for public service in governing]actually have a share. The laws rule because there is no public revenue.
A third type is when all who are free are entitled to a share in the system of government,but they do not in fact take part for the reason previously stated. Therefore, lawnecessarily rules.
A fourth type is the last type to arise in cities. Since cities have become far larger thanbefore and have public revenue from which to pay subsidies for public service, everyoneis now able to participate. Even the poor have the leisure for public service thanks to thepayments. Their private business and affairs are not an impediment for their publicservice, but such things are an impediment for the rich, who therefore frequently avoidservice in the assembly or the courts. In this way the multitude of the poor winsauthority over the system of government, not the laws.
1296b: 24-‐‑31: Where the quantity of the multitude of the poor is so large as to overbalance thequality of the rich, according to the formula just explained [in the text preceding this passage],there democracy springs up naturally. What type of democracy it is will depend on what typeof population is preeminent. For example, if it is a multitude of farmers, then it will be thefirst type of democracy it is the first kind. If it is a multitude of craftsmen and wage-‐‑earners,then it will be the final type, and so on with the types in between.
1318b: 6-‐‑1319a3: There being four types of democracy, the best is the first in the arrangementpreviously mentioned [namely, in 1292b22-‐‑1293-‐‑1293a12, as listed above]. This type ofdemocracy has a multitude that is mostly farmers or herders, whose work keeps them toobusy to meet frequently in the assembly. They do not wish to serve in offices, where there isno great profit in it. Everyone will elect magistrates and conduct audits of them and serve inthe courts, but those elected to office will meet financial assessments or, if there is no suchrequirement, will be capable people.
1319a: 4-‐‑19: This is the best democracy because of what sort ofpeople (demos) it has. If one would like to institute a farming demos,one should look to the law of the Aphyteans, who divide their liKleamount of land into very small plots so that everyone, even the poor, has enough land to meetthe financial requirement for sharing in citizenship.
1319a: 20-‐‑38: Next best to having a multitude consisting of farmers is to have a herdingpeople. The herding class have strong bodies and dispositions fit for military service. Theother sorts of multitudes from which democracies are constituted are far worse. Forcraftsmen, merchants, and laborers lead lives devoid of excellence, and they are always in themarketplace and in the city and thus able to aKend assemblies. It is easier to create a gooddemocracy in a place where the fields of the city-‐‑state are located at some distance from thecity and the multitude must dwell out in the country [to work in the fields and are thus noteasily able to come to the urban center to aKend meetings]. Even where there is a crowd ofmerchants, assemblies should not be held without the multitude from the country.
Plot on a Map Athens.
Plot on a Map Leucas.
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1319b: 1-‐‑32: The final type of democracy, in which everyone is inthe partnership, is not easy for every city to maintain, nor is it easyfor this type to endure because its laws and its habits are not well composed. Demagoguesexpand its citizen body by allowing in those of illegitimate birth or born to only one citizenparent. If the rabble grow too numerous, they create disorder and can provoke the notablemembers of the population to resistance against the democracy. This type of democracy ismade stronger by introducing institutions to mix everyone up together, as Cleisthenes did atAthens. This type of democracy promotes disorderly living, with a lack of control overwomen, children, and slaves, and a toleration for everyone living as he pleases, for the manyprefer living like this to living with prudence and moderation.
1298b: 13-‐‑19: The democracy today considered the most democratic—namely, the type inwhich the people (demos) has authority even over the laws—arranges things to serve its ownadvantage in the deliberative body: they pay the poor to aKend.
1305a: 28-‐‑32: A change from ancestral democracy to the newest democracy can occur. If thepeople elect the magistrates and there is no minimum financial requirement, then those eagerfor office act as demagogues to accomplish this and give the people authority over the laws.
1266b: 21-‐‑24: The system of government at Leucas became
excessively democratic when offices were no longer filled according to the establishedminimum property requirement based on “old allotments” of land [but instead therequirement was lowered].
1312b: 4-‐‑6: The final type of democracy is a tyranny.
1313b: 32-‐‑41 The final form of democracy has characteristics of tyranny: women dominate inthe household so that they can denounce their husbands, slaves lack discipline, and flaKerers—demagogues—are held in honor. The people wish to be a monarch.
1295b: 39-‐‑1296a5: It is best for citizens in a city-‐‑state to possess a moderate amount of wealthbecause where some have a lot and some have none the result is the ultimate democracy orunmixed oligarchy. Tyranny can result from both these extremes. It is much less likely tospring from moderate systems of government.
1311a: 15-‐‑16: Taking after democracy, tyranny makes war on the notables in the citizen body.
1276a: 12-‐‑14: Some democracies, like tyrannies, rest on force and are not directed toward thecommon advantage.
1277b: 1-‐‑3: In some places in the old days, before the development of “ultimate” democracy,craftsmen were barred from office.
1312b: 35-‐‑38: Ultimate democracy, like unmixed and final oligarchy, is really a tyrannydivided [among a multitude of persons].
(Section 10 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Creating Democracy ·∙
1286b: 11-‐‑22: When there came to be many men alike in their excellence, they ceased to put up
Plot on a Map Istros.
Plot on a Map Tarentum.Argos.Athens.
Plot on a Map Athens.Persia.
Plot on a Map Persia.Salamis.Athens.Syracuse.Chalcis.Ambracia.
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with kingship and instead, seeking something shared, established a polity. As they became[morally] worse and began to make a profit from common affairs [or “resources”], oligarchiesarose, for they made wealth something honorable. Then these oligarchies changed first intotyrannies, and from tyrannies into democracies. For by always bringing power to ever fewerpeople in search of base profit, they made the multitude stronger, which aKacked [theruler(s)], and democracies arose. Now that city-‐‑states have become even larger than before, itis not very easy for any system of government but a democracy to come into existence.
1301a: 28-‐‑31: [Rule by the] people developed because those who are equal in whatever waysuppose that they are quite simply equal [in all ways]. Since they are all free in like manner,they think they are quite simply equal.
1292b: 11-‐‑14: It happens that a system of government may not be democratic in terms of itslaws but is still governed democratically on account of the habit and upbringing of thecitizens.
1296a: 22-‐‑36: When there is factional strife between rich and poor because there is not a strong“middle” [in the citizen body], the conflict leads to either democracy or oligarchy, dependingon who wins. Once the fight is decided, the victors do not establish a shared or equal systemof government; rather, they establish one to their own advantage.
1305a: 37-‐‑1305b11: Mistreating the people can lead to the overthrowof oligarchy and the establishment of [the rule of] the people, as atIstros.
1303a: 1-‐‑10: A system of government can be changed into ademocracy when the size of the multitude of the poor increases, asoccurred at Tarentum, Argos, and Athens.
1273b: 35-‐‑1274a15: Some people say that Solon did away with anexcessively unmixed oligarchy [at Athens] and ended theenslavement of the people (demos), thus founding the ancestraldemocracy, which had a mixture of oligarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. In fact,what he did was to create [the rule of the] people by founding courts whose juries weredrawn from the entire citizen body. Later leaders continued [to increase the power of thepeople], leading to the present [more democratic] democracy. It really was not Solon’sintention for this to happen. But because the people were the source of Athenian navalstrength in the wars against Persia, they began to have high aspirations [for political power]and to choose unworthy demagogues as leaders when socially more respectable citizensopposed this development.
1304a: 17-‐‑34: Changes towards democracy (or another type ofgovernment) can come about when a magistracy or some part ofthe city-‐‑state grows in power. This led to greater democracy atAthens after the war with Persia, when those who rowed in the fleetbecame the cause of the victory at Salamis and of the leadership[over its Greek allies] that Athens earned from its naval strength.So, too, at Syracuse, Chalcis, and Ambracia the people set up democracies after theirparticipation in baKle was the crucial element enabling their city-‐‑state to be victorious in war.
(Section 11 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Preserving Democracy ·∙
1276b: 28-‐‑29: The task of citizens is the preservation (soteria) of the partnership that is theirsystem of government. [Also under “Defining the Citizen”]
1309b: 35-‐‑37: The lawmaker and the political man must know what kind of democraticinstitutions preserve and what kinds destroy democracy.
1308a: 11-‐‑16: The equality that supporters of democracy seek is just and advantageous forpeople who are alike. Where there are many people in government, legal rules of a democraticcast are advantageous, such as limiting term in office to six months so that everyone who isalike can have a share in filling public posts.
1321a: 1-‐‑2: Democracies are generally preserved by having a large citizen body.
1326b: 2-‐‑7: A city-‐‑state must be populous enough to be self-‐‑sufficient, but too large a statecannot be a city-‐‑state because it is not easy to have a system of government in it. It is too largeto be effectively managed militarily, and no herald can shout loud enough [to conduct theassembly meetings of a large population].
1296a: 13-‐‑16: Democracies are more secure than oligarchies and more enduring since theyhave more “middle” people with a greater share in [political] prerogatives.
1309b: 37-‐‑1310a6: To endure, a democracy, like an oligarchy, needs both the rich and the poor.A democracy that destroys the well-‐‑off becomes unstable. Where the people have authorityover the laws, demagogues tear the city in two by fighting with the rich. Instead, they shoulddo the opposite and appear to speak on the behalf of the rich.
1309a: 1-‐‑9: It is democratic for all to be eligible to hold public office. The policy of not allowingoffice holders to profit from their office will mean that the poor will not desire to hold office,but rather they will prefer to tend to their own affairs. Thus, they will become moreprosperous by working, while the notable and wealthy members of the citizen body will holdoffice because they have no need to earn money from public service. In this way the notableswill not be governed by just anyone. Both groups will then have what they want [andtherefore the state will be stable].
1299b: 32-‐‑34: A council (boule) with a large number of members is supportive of democracybecause it does preliminary deliberation for the people so that they can have time for theiroccupations.
1309a: 27-‐‑31: In democracy, as in oligarchy, it is advantageous to give equality or precedencein all aspects of the government except the highest offices to that group which has the leastshare in the system of government. In a democracy, that group would be the rich.
1319b: 33-‐‑1320b17: To preserve a democracy, one should strive not for measures that willmake it absolutely as democratic as possible but rather that will preserve it for the longesttime. The following measures are recommended: any confiscations of property imposed aspunishment in a legal judgment should become property of the gods, not of the public, toprevent corrupt court judgments meant to secure a distribution to the population from theconfiscated property; large penalties should be imposed for frivolous prosecutions to prevent
Plot on a Map Sparta (in text as “Spartans”).
harassment of the rich; if there are no [additional] sources of public revenues besides taxes [onindividuals], confiscations, and corrupt court judgments to pay subsidies to the multitude foraKending the assembly, then only infrequent assembly meetings and brief court sessionsshould be held [to minimize the need to take money from the rich to pay the subsidies]; ifthere are [additional] public revenues, no surplus from them should be distributed to thepoor, for this practice stimulates more demand for this sort of distribution; at the same time,the multitude should be kept from becoming overly poor, since this development createswretched [and thus excess] democracy; money should be provided from public revenues tothe poor so that they can acquire land for farming or learn a craft and become beKer off overtime; the rich should be taxed to provide pay [to ordinary citizens to enable them to aKend]necessary meetings, but the rich should be released from unnecessary public service; the richshould divide the poor citizens among themselves and then give them enough money [fornecessary tools, etc.] so that they can start to work; magistracies should be chosen some byelection and some by lot.
1309a: 14-‐‑20: In democracies, the rich should be spared and not have their property or theirincomes redivided [for distribution to the poor]. They should also be prohibited fromspending money on expensive but useless sponsorships of public occasions (liturgies) such asleading choral groups for musical and dramatic festivals or officiating at torch races, even ifthey want to pay for such sponsorships.
1308b: 10-‐‑19: In all systems of government no one is allowed to become overly great [so as tothreaten the stability of the state]. Acquiring great prerogatives quickly tends to corruptpeople, for not everyone can stand good fortune. Above all, the laws should prevent anyonefrom becoming especially preeminent in the power derived from his supporters or his wealth;if the laws cannot prevent this, then such persons should be sent to spend time abroad.
1308b: 31-‐‑33: It is of the greatest importance in all systems of government to have laws and therest of governmental administration so arranged that magistrates cannot profit financiallyfrom their offices.
1310a: 12-‐‑36: The greatest thing of everything that has been mentioned for preserving asystem of government, although this is the thing everyone slights, is providing education inaccordance with the system of government. For even the most beneficial and widely approvedlaws bring no benefit if they are not going to be inculcated through education and the habitsof the citizens. Education appropriate for a democratic system of government is not to beguided by what brings enjoyment to the partisans of democracy but rather by what makes itpossible to run a system of government democratically. In the democracies that seem to be themost democratic, they do what is not advantageous because they define freedom badly. Fordemocracy is thought to be defined by two things: by the majority having authority and byfreedom. Justice is then thought of as equality, and equality as that whatever the multitudedecides is what is authoritative. Freedom and equality are doing whatever one wishes. So inthis sort of democracy everybody lives as he wants and for whatever goal he craves. This is acontemptible thing. Living according to one’s system of government should not be thought ofas slavery, but rather as preservation.
1337a: 11-‐‑1337b3: Everyone would agree that law makers shouldmake the education of the young a special priority. City-‐‑states thatfail to do this injure their systems of government. The education must suit the system ofgovernment, for this preserves it. Since a city-‐‑state has a single goal (telos), education must, of
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Plot on a Map Cos.Rhodes.Heracleia.Megara.Cyme.
necessity, be the same and be given to everyone. Its oversight should be a public maKer, notas it is now, with everyone overseeing his own children’s education privately and havingthem taught what he believes best. Training for things that are shared should be a sharedactivity done in common. The Spartans might well deserve praise on this score, since they,more than anyone, devote effort to their children, and as a shared task.
1260b: 15-‐‑20: It is necessary to educate women and children with an eye to the system ofgovernment, if the state is to be worthy. For women make up half of the free population, andfrom the children will come the partners in the system of government.
1342b: 34: There are three defining principles for education: the middle, the possible, and theappropriate.
1266b: 29-‐‑31: There is a greater need to level people’s desires rather than their property (bylegislation redividing property holdings or limiting them), and this can be done only whenpeople are sufficiently educated by the laws.
1313a: 41-‐‑1313b6: Education, debate, and social groups dedicated to inquiry and discussionare enemies of tyranny, since they encourage intelligent thought and trust [among citizens].
1263b: 36-‐‑37: Since a city-‐‑state is a multitude, it is necessary to use education to make it into apartnership and a unity.
(Section 12 of 13)
·∙ Passages: Destroying Democracy ·∙
1304b: 20-‐‑1305a7: The main cause of the overthrow of democraciesis the outrageous behavior of demagogues. By aKacking [rich]property owners they motivate them to band together out of fear,and they also spur on the people [to try to bleed the rich]. In thisway democracy has been overthrown at numerous places: Cos, Rhodes, Heracleia, Megara,Cyme. This is more or less the way democracies are destroyed. To win popular support,demagogues propose unjust treatment for the notables and thus force them to band together,by making them give up their property for redivision, or by having them expend theirresources on public service, or by slandering them to force confiscations of their property.
1311a: 22-‐‑26: The same beginnings lead to the overthrow of polities and monarchies alike. Forthose who are ruled aKack monarchies on account of injustice, fear, and contempt.
1301b: 26-‐‑29: Factional conflict (stasis) erupts everywhere on account of inequality, or at leastit does if no proportion exists between those who are unequal. In general, people engage infactional conflict seeking equality.
1303b: 6-‐‑7: In democracies, the notables cause factional conflict because they have [only] anequal share in things even though [in their own eyes] they are not equal [to everybody elsebut feel superior and therefore feel they should possess more political power, etc. than thosewhom they see as their inferiors].
1302a: 31-‐‑34: Factional conflict is the result of fighting to gain profit and honor and to avoidtheir opposites, dishonor and penalties.
Plot on a Map Rhodes.
Plot on a Map Thebes.Megara.Rhodes.
Plot on a Map Athens.Piraeus.
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Plot on a Map Istanbul.
1302b: 21-‐‑24: Fear causes factional conflict, both when men fearpunishment for injustice they have commiKed and also when theyfear being treated unjustly. At Rhodes, for example, the notables rebelled against the peopleon account of legal prosecutions that were being brought against them.
1302b: 27-‐‑33: Factional conflict occurs in democracies when the richfeel contempt for the disorder and anarchy [of the government], asat Thebes and Megara following defeats in baKle and on Rhodespreceding the rebellion [of the notables].
1302b: 15-‐‑18: Factional conflict can arise when there is a person or a group whose powerexceeds that of the city-‐‑state or its government. The institution of ostracism came into being toprevent this.
1308b: 20-‐‑22: Since men’s private lives can lead them to seek the overthrow of the system ofgovernment, a magistracy is needed to oversee those living against the common advantage ofthe city-‐‑state, for example, in a democracy those living lives disadvantageous for democracy.
1303b: 7-‐‑12: City-‐‑states sometimes fall into factions on account oftheir topography. At Athens, for example, the citizens ones living inthe Piraeus [the harbor district] are more democratic than those inthe urban center.
1302a: 8-‐‑13: Democracy is more stable and less prone to factional conflict than oligarchy. In anoligarchy there are two types of possible conflict, namely, conflict between the oligarchsthemselves and conflict between the oligarchs and the people. In a democracy, however, thereis only conflict between citizens favoring democracy and citizens favoring oligarchy, as noserious factional conflict arises in the people [that is, those favoring democracy] againstthemselves.
(Section 13 of 13)
·∙ Selective Bibliography ·∙
Translation and Commentary
Aristotle, The Politics. Translated with an introduction by Carnes Lord. (Chicago, 1984). Anadmirable translation, remarkably close to the Greek but still very readable.
W. L. Newman, The Politics of Aristotle, 4 vols. (Oxford, 1887-‐‑1902). A massive criticalcommentary that has never been equaled. See especially his discussion of Aristotle and Greekdemocracy in vol. 4, pages xxxvi-‐‑lxi.
Interpretative Studies
Pierre Aubenque, “Aristote et la démocratie,” in Individu et société.L’influence d’Aristote dans le monde méditerranéen. Actes du Colloqued’Istanbul Palais de France, 5-‐‑9 Janvier 1986. ed. Thierry Zarcone (Istanbul, 1988 = Varia TurcicaX), pp. 31-‐‑38.
Jonathan Barnes, “Aristotle and Political Liberty,” in Aristoteles’ Politik. Akten des XI.
Symposium Aristotelicum. Friedrichshafen/Bodensee 25.8-‐‑3.9.1987, ed. G. Pavig (GöKingen, 1990),pages 249-‐‑263, with comments by R. Sorabji, pages 264-‐‑76.
Mortimer Chambers, “Aristotle’s ‘Forms of Democracy,’” Transactions of the AmericanPhilological Association vol. 92 (1961), pages 20-‐‑36.
Abraham Edel, Aristotle and his Philosophy (Chapel Hill, 1982), pages 325-‐‑328.
Christoph Eucken, “Der aristotelische Demokratiebegriff und sein historisches Umfeld,” inAristoteles'ʹ Politik. Akten des XI. Symposium Aristotelicum. Friedrichshafen/Bodensee 25.8-‐‑3.9.1987,ed. G. Pavig (GöKingen, 1990), pages 277-‐‑291, with comments by T. H. Irwin, pages 292-‐‑95.
Robert A. Goldberg, Democracy and Justice in Aristotle’s Politics, University of Torontodissertation, 1990; summary in Dissertation Abstracts 51 (1990-‐‑91) 1369A.
Andrew LintoK, “Aristotle and Democracy,” Classical Quarterly 42 (1992), pages 114-‐‑128.
Claude Mossé, “égalité democratique et inégalité sociales. Le Débat à Athènes au IVèmeSiècle,” Metis 2 (1987), pages 165-‐‑176, 195-‐‑206 (esp. pages 201-‐‑206 on the Politics).
R. G. Mulgan, Aristotle’s Political Theory. An Introduction for Students of Political Theory (Oxford,1977), pages 73-‐‑75, and “Aristotle’s analysis of democracy and oligarchy,” in A Companion toAristotle’s Politics, ed. David Keyt and Fred D, Miller, Jr. (Blackwell, Oxford, 1991), pages 307-‐‑322.
Oswyn Murray, “Polis and Politeia in Aristotle,” in The Ancient Greek City State, edited MogensHerman Hansen (Copenhagen, 1993), pages 197-‐‑210.
Martha Nussbaum, “Aristotelian Social Democracy,” in Liberalism and the Good, edited R.Bruce Douglas (New York, 1990), pages 203-‐‑252.
Josiah Ober, “Aristotle’s Political Sociology: Class, Status, and Order in the Politics,” in Essayson the Foundations of Aristotelian Political Science, edited Carnes Lord and David K. O'ʹConnor(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), pages 112-‐‑135.
Demetris Papadis, “Il conceKo di democrazia in Aristotele,” Discorsi 9 (1989), pages 326-‐‑340.
C. I. Papageorgiou, “Four or five types of democracy in Aristotle?,” History of Political Thoughtvol. 11 (1990), pages 1-‐‑8.
David Ross, Aristotle, 5th edition (London, 1949), pages 250-‐‑263.
Arlene W. Saxenhouse, Fear of Diversity. The Birth of Political Science in Ancient Greek Thought(Chicago, 1992), pages 189-‐‑232 (“Aristotle: Diversity and the Birth of Political Science”).
Paul Schollmeier, “The democracy most in accordance with equality,” History of PoliticalThought 9 (1988), pages 205-‐‑209.
Barry S. Strauss, “On Aristotle'ʹs Critique of Athenian Democracy,” in Essays on the Foundationsof Aristotelian Political Science, ed. Carnes Lord and David K. O'ʹConnor (Berkeley and LosAngeles, 1991), pages 212-‐‑233.
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J. Touloumakos, Die theoretische Begründung der Demokratie in der klassischen Zeit Griechenlands(Die demokratische Argumentation in der “Politik” des Aristoteles) (Athens, 1985).
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When using this article as a resource, cite it thus:
Thomas R. Martin, with Neel Smith & Jennifer F.Stuart, “Democracy in the Politics of Aristotle ,” in C.W. Blackwell, ed.,Dēmos: Classical Athenian Democracy (A. Mahoney and R. Scaife, edd., The Stoa: a consortium for electronic publication in the
humanities [www.stoa.org]) edition of July 26, 2003. Contact: [email protected].
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