Aristotle Politics 2.9 Spartan Constitution

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OXFORD WORLD S CLASSIC S

A R I S T O T L E

Politics

Translated

by

ERNEST B A RK E R

Revised with an ntroduction and Notes by

R

F STALLEY

OXTORD

UNIVERSITY PRES S

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e

r e p r o d u c e d i n

a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .

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OF CHICAGO

AN: 363604 ; Aristotle, Barker, Ernest, Stalley, R. F..; Politics

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1 9 9 8 .

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P r e s s .

A l l

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e s e r v e d .

M a y

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OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



POLITICS II . 9 6 7

B: Actual Constitutions which

Approach

the Ideal

Chapters

9-12)

CHAPTER 9

1. The Spartan

constitution.

The

problem

of finding a leisured

class

for the purposes

of government: serfdom

as a solution: the

Spartan

Helots.

The

undue

influence of

women

at

Sparta:

the

bad distribution of property and its bad

effe ts

on the army.

The

defects

of the

Ephorate

the

Council

of

Elders

and the

dual

kingship: defects of the

Spartan system

of

common meals.

The

bad

results

of

Spartan militarism

and the bad

state

of the

public finances at

Sparta.

1269*21

Whe n

w e

conside r

th e

constitution s

o f Spart a an d

Crete—or indeed , fo r tha t m atte r , o f an y othe r

city —tw o

questions emerge.

Th e firs t i s

whether

any o f

thei r provision s

is goo d

o r ba d

whe n judge d

b y th e

standar d

o f th e

bes t

system:

th e secon d i s whethe r an y provisio n run s contra r y

to th e principle s an d characte r o f thei r

constitutions

a s

established. I t i s generall y agree d tha t leisure , o r i n othe r

words freedo m fro m th e necessit y o f labour , shoul d b e avail -

able i n a

well-ordere d city ;

bu t i t i s difficul t t o se e b y

wha t

mode

o f

organizatio n th i s leisur e

i s t o b e secured. Th e

Penestae

[o r

serfs ]

of

Thessaly have ofte n revolted agains t

th e

Thessalians; an d th e Helot s hav e similarl y revolte d agains t

the Spartans , fo r whos e misfortune s the y ar e alway s o n th e

watch, just

a s i f

they

lay in a n

ambush . Nothin g similar ,

it is

true, ha s hithert o happene d i n Crete . Perhap s th e reaso n i s

that

th e neighbourin g cities , althoug h engage d i n m utua l

hostilities, neve r ente r int o an y allianc e w ith revolting serfs: i t

is

not t o th e

interes t

o f

any ,

a s

eac h

ha s

serf s

of it s

own .

Th e

neighbours

o f Sparta o n th e

othe r hand , Argos , Messenia ,

and

Arcadia, hav e been

her

enemies. Likewise

the

early revolts

of

thei r

serf s

agains t

th e

Thessalian s wer e

due to th e

fact tha t

they

wer e stil l engaged i n hostilities wit h th e people s o n thei r

borders, th e Achaeans, th e Perrhaebians, an d the M agnesians.

Even i f

there wer e

no

adde d trouble ,

i n th e

handlin g

o f serf s

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



68

P OLITIC S

ii

9

there

i s the

irksom e business

o f

deciding

o n

wha t footin g

on e

should associat e wit h them : i f the y ar e kep t o n a loos e rein ,

they becom e insolent , an d procee d t o clai m equalit y wit h

their masters: i f they have a hard

life ,

the y

fall

int o conspirac y

and hatred Th e mora l i s plain. Thos e w h o

suffe r

i n this w a y

from havin g a system of serfdom have not discovere d th e best

mode

of

organization .

I 9

b

i Th e indulgenc e permitte d t o wome n i s damagin g

both t o th e purpos e o f the constitutio n an d t o th e happines s

of

th e city . Just a s husband an d

wif e

ar e

parts

o f th e

family ,

so

i t i s clear tha t a cit y shoul d als o b e considere d a s divided

almost equall y in t o th e mal e an d femal e populations . I n al l

constitutions, therefore, where

the

position

o f

wom en

is

poorly

regulated,

on e

hal f

o f the

citize n body m us t

b e

considered

a s

left

untouche d b y the laws . This i s what has actually happened

at Sparta The legislator who made the Spartan cod e intende d

to

m ak e

th e

whol e citizen body hardy ;

bu t i f he fulfille d

tha t

in tention, a s h e obviousl y did , i n regar d t o th e men , h e ha s

wholly

neglecte d t o achiev e it i n regard to th e women , whose

lives are

full

o f every kind o f licence and luxury . The inevitabl e

result,

i n such a constitution , i s the worshi p of wealth, especi-

ally if , a s

happen s wit h mos t militar y

an d

m artia l races ,

th e

citizens

ar e

dominate d

b y th e

women . (Bu t

th e

Celt s

ar e a n

exception t o t hi s genera l rule : so , too , ar e suc h people s a s

openly approv e o f homosexua l attachm ents. ) Ther e wa s

wisdom

i n th e earlies t autho r o f myth s whe n h e paire d Are s

and

Aphrodite :

the fact s

sho w that suc h people s

ar e

pron e

t o

passionate

attachment s

e ithe r

t o me n o r t o

wom en .

I t wa s

attachments o f th e latte r sor t whic h were common i n Sparta ;

and th e

resul t

wa s

that ,

i n th e

day s

o f he r

hegemony , affair s

largely

fel l

into th e hands o f women. But what is the differenc e

between ruler s bein g rule d

b y

wome n

an d

wome n bein g

actually rulers ? The resul t i s the same . Eve n i n th e matte r o f

courage, whic h i s useless in al l life s ordinar y affair s an d onl y

of use , i f i t ha s a use , i n tim e o f war , th e wome n o f Spart a

have

ha d a

mos t misch ievou s

influence .

The y show e d thi s

during

th e

Theba n

invasion; *

unlik e

th e

wome n

o f

othe r

cities, the y wer e

o f n o us e

w hatever ,

an d

cause d mor e con -

fusion

tha n th e enemy.

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



POLITICS

II 9 6 9

I209

b

39

Th e

licenc e enjoye d

b y

w ome n seem s

t o

hav e come

about originall y a t Spart a i n a wa y whic h i t i s eas y t o

understand. Th e me n wer e absent fro m thei r ow n country fo r

long

period s

o n militar y expeditions : the y wer e a t wa r wit h

the Argives , an d the n w it h th e Messenian s an d Arcadians .

W hen th e m e n returne d t o a lif e o f leisur e an d submitte d

themselves t o th e legislato r the y wer e

wel l

p repare d b y thei r

experience

o f

m ilitary

life ( a lif e

whic h requires m any kinds

o f

human excellence) . But , a s th e stor y goes , whe n Lycurgus *

attempted t o b rin g th e wome n withi n th e rang e o f hi s laws ,

they

opposed

h im ,

and he had to

abando n

th e

at tempt . Thes e

are th e

cause s

o f

wha t happened ,

an d ar e

th u s

th e

sourc e

o f

[the Spartans ] error ;

bu t w e

hav e

t o

r emembe r tha t

w e ar e

not

concerne d wit h what can ,

o r

cannot,

b e

excused,

bu t

with

what is right o r wrong .

127 11

Th e

defect s

in th e

positio n

o f

women

i n

Sparta ,

a s

we hav e alread y suggested , see m

not

onl y calculate d

t o

pro -

duce som e lack o f harmony i n the constitution , i f we take

that

by itself , bu t

als o

t o

foste r

th e

growt h

o f

avarice.

On e

might,

indeed, pass fro m th e observation s jus t mad e to a criticism of

the unequa l distributio n o f property . W hil e som e o f th e

Spartans have com e

t o

posses s

fa r to o

muc h property , other s

have bee n reduce d

t o th e

tinies t amoun t ;

an d i n

thi s

wa y the

land

ha s

mostl y passe d int o

th e

hand s

o f a

ver y

fe w

people .

This matte r ha s been badly handle d i n their laws . The legisla-

tor,

ver y

r ightly , made i t imprope r t o bu y o r sel l property i n

land;

bu t h e

als o allowe d

an y

perso n

wh o s o

desire d

t o giv e

or

bequeat h

hi s property— thoug h th e

sam e result s m us t

necessarily follo w i n th e on e cas e as in th e other . Abou t two -

fifths o f th e whol e coun try actually belong s to w omen ; this is

due t o th e

num be r

o f

heiresse s

an d th e

practic e

o f

givin g

dowries. t would hav e bee n bette r to hav e had no dowrie s at

all,

o r t o

hav e

fixe d

them

a t a

small ,

o r a t an y

rat e

a

moderate , amount . A s i t is , a citize n ma y giv e th e daughte r

who inherit s

h i s

propert y

t o an y m a n

w ho m

h e

like s (ric h

o r

poor); an d i f he dies intestate befor e he has don e so , th e ma n

who i s

left

i n the

positio n

o f

guardian give s

her t o

whoeve r

he

chooses.

Th e

resul t

ha s

bee n tha t whil e

th e

t er ritor y coul d

have

supporte d

1,50 0

hors e an d 30,00 0

foot ,

th e actua l

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



70

P OLITIC S

II . 9

number

was

les s tha n 1,000 .

The

histor y

of the

Spartan s

ha s

shown

tha t the effect s of

this arrangemen t hav e bee n

bad for

them.

Th e

cit y

wa s

unabl e

t o

withstan d

a

singl e blow

an d

was ru ine d fo r wan t o f men . I t i s sai d that unde r th e earl y

kings, th e Spartan s wer e i n th e habi t o f sharin g [citizenshi p

with

foreigners] ,

and

that ,

a s a

result , ther e

wa s no

w an t

o f

men,

i n

spit e

o f th e

lon g wars they were

fighting:

indeed the y

are sai d t o hav e numbered , a t on e time , a s m an y a s

10,00 0

citizens. W hethe r thi s statement i s true o r false , Spart a would

have

don e

bette r

t o

kee p

he r

ran k s

filled by

maintainin g

a n

equal d istributio n o f p roperty . Suc h a re for m is , however ,

impeded

b y the la w

concerning

th e

birth-rate . Anxiou s

for th e

Spartans t o be as numerous as possible, the legislato r encour-

aged citizen s

to

hav e

a s

m an y childre n

a s

possible ; the y hav e

a la w tha t th e fathe r o f thre e son s shoul d b e exemp t

fro m

military service ,

an d th e

fa the r

o f

fou r entirel y

fre e fro m al l

taxes. Ye t i t i s obvious that , i f many childre n ar e born , an d

the

lan d

i s

divided accordingly ,

a

large numbe r

o f the

citizens

must necessarily

be

reduced

to

poverty.

I 7

b

6 M oreove r ther e

ar e

deficiencie s

i n th e wa y th e

Ephorate

i s

organized.

The

Ephors

at Sparta

have

a

sovereign

authority

i n

matter s

o f th e

highes t importance;

bu t

the y

ar e

all draw n fro m th e people a t large , an d i t ofte n happen s tha t

very

poo r men , whos e lac k

o f

mean s render s them ope n

t o

bribery, attai n thi s office . The y hav e

ofte n

show n th i s tend -

ency

i n the past ; an d ther e i s a recen t instanc e in th e

affai r

a t

Andros, whe n som e o f th e Ephors , b y takin g bribes , di d

everything in their power to rui n the whole city. Furthermore ,

this

inst itut io n is s o important , an d s o much in th e natur e o f

a dictatorship , tha t eve n th e king s hav e bee n compelle d t o

court

th e

favou r

o f the

Ephors .

A s a

result , damag e

ha s

als o

been don e t o th e whol e constitu tion , which ,

fro m

bein g a n

aristocracy

ha s

tende d

t o

tur n int o

a

democracy .

Bu t th e

Ephorate doe s hol d

th e

constitutio n together .

Th e

peopl e

a t

large

ar e

contente d becaus e the y hav e

a

shar e

i n th e

mos t

important

office ; an d

th i s result , whethe r

i t b e du e t o th e

legislator

o r t o

chance ,

ha s a beneficia l effec t o n

thei r

affairs .

If th e constitutio n i s t o survive , every part o f th e cit y mus t

have a comm on desire for its existence and fo r the continuanc e

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



P O L I T I C S

II 9 7 1

of it s arrangements. Th e king s hav e thi s becaus e o f th e

honour that is paid t o them ; the uppe r classe s have it becaus e

there i s th e C ounci l o f E lders thi s offic e i s a rew ar d fo r

excellence); and th e genera l populatio n hav e i t because o f th e

Ephorate whic h is open to all citizens).

I270

b

26 I t i s righ t an d prope r tha t al l shoul d b e eligible fo r

the

office ,

bu t no t tha t th e electio n shoul d b e conducte d o n

the presen t me thod , whic h i s fa r to o childish. * Again , th e

Ephors

ar e

just ordinar y men,

but

the y have powe r

to

decid e

important cases ;

an d i t

woul d

b e

better , therefore , tha t the y

should

no t

decid e

a t

thei r discretion ,

bu t o n th e

basi s

o f

written rule s se t dow n i n lega l form . Finally , thei r mod e o f

life i s not i n agreement with the aim o f the city . It permits to o

much indulgence , wherea s for th e othe r citizens , th e arrange -

ments

inclin e

so

much

to th e

opposit e extrem e

o f

severity that

men cannot endur e their rigour, an d escap e f ro m th e law into

the

secre t enjoym ent

of

sensual pleasures.

I270

b

35

Th e

institutio n

o f the

Counci l

o f

Elders

ha s

als o

it s

defects. I f th e member s o f th e counci l wer e m en o f probity ,

and adequatel y traine d i n manl y vir tues , i t migh t b e argue d

that th e institu tio n w a s o f benefi t t o th e city . Eve n so , i t

would

be

dubiou s whether councillors should

be

life-judges

in

important cases : th e mind , a s wel l a s th e body , i s subjec t to

old

age .

Bu t

w hen ,

a s a

ma tte r

o f

fact ,

th e

trainin g

o f th e

councillors

i s

such tha t

eve n th e

legislato r

ha s n o

confidence

in

thei r characte r a s goo d men , th e arrangemen t i s unsafe. I t

is

evident fro m experienc e tha t thos e w h o hav e held th e offic e

of councillor have often bee n

influenced

b y bribery and favour-

itism i n dealin g w ith public

affairs .

Thi s i s a reaso n w h y they

should

no t b e

fre e

fro m scru tin y o f thei r conduct . I t i s tru e

that th e Ephor s ca n apparentl y scrutin iz e th e conduc t o f

every

official ;

bu t th i s is too sweepin g a prerogativ e fo r the m

to

possess ,

no r i s i t th e wa y i n

w hich ,

i n ou r

view ,

th e

councillors should

b e

subjected

to

scrutiny .

I27i

a

9 Th e syste m b y whic h the y appoin t councillo r s in -

volves a

childish m etho d

o f selection; * an d

ther e

i s an

impro -

priety i n requirin g that , t o b e eligible , a ma n shoul d openl y

seek election . The man wh o deserve s the

offic e

shoul d have i t

whether h e wan ts it or not . Her e th e legislato r is plainly doing

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



72 P O L I T I S II 9

what

h e did

wi th

the

res t

o f the

co nstitution .

He ha s

impose d

this requiremen t [tha t candidate s seek election ]

on the

election

of

councillors because h e want s to mak e his citizens generally

ambitious o f honours ; fo r n o on e woul d see k t o hol d offic e

unless h e was am bitious. Ye t ambitio n an d avaric e are exactly

the motive s which lead m e n t o commi t nearl y al l intentional

crimes.

I27i

a

i8 Th e

genera l them e

o f

k ingship ,

an d th e

questio n

whether

i t i s

good

o r ba d fo r

citie s

t o

hav e kings,

may b e

lef t

to anothe r occasion . Bu t i t woul d b e bette r i f the y di d no t

come to th e thron e o n th e principle no w

followed

[i n

Sparta];

instead th e choic e o f a kin g should i n every case b e based o n

his manne r o f life . O n th e presen t syste m it i s clear tha t eve n

the

legislato r himsel f must b e o f th e opinio n tha t h e canno t

produce goo d

an d

honourabl e kings.

At an y

rate

h e

show s

no

confidence t ha t the y will b e sufficientl y goo d men ; this i s why

it

wa s th e practic e t o sen d opponent s o f th e king s with them

on

embassies , an d wh y i t wa s considere d tha t factiona l dis -

putes between the kings served as a political safeguard.

I27i

a

i6 Th e lega l a rrangement s mad e b y it s f ounde r fo r

regulating th e syste m o f commo n meal s (or , a s th e Spartan s

call them , phiditia , ma y als o b e criticized . Th e cos t o f suc h

gatherings ough t t o b e defraye d fro m publi c

funds,

a s i t i s in

Crete;

but th e

rul e

a t

Spart a

i s for

eac h

man t o

brin g

hi s own

contribution, i n spit e o f th e

fac t tha t

som e o f th e citizen s ar e

extremely

poor an d

unabl e

to

bea r

th e

expense .

Th e

natura l

result i s th e ver y

opposite

o f th e legisla tor s intention . Th e

system o f commo n meal s is m eant t o b e democratic , bu t with

these regulation s

i t i s the

revers e

o f

democratic . Citizen s

who

are

extremel y poo r

fin d i t difficul t t o

shar e

i n th e

com mo n

meals; an d ye t it is the traditiona l rul e of the constitution tha t

those

wh o

canno t contr ibut e thei r quot a

ar e

debarre d fro m

participating i n it.

1271 37

Othe r writer s have als o censured ,

no t

wi thou t jus-

tice,

the law relating to th e

office

o f admiral. The y are righ t t o

do s o

sinc e

i t i s a

caus e

o f

factiona l

conflict .

Th e

offic e

o f

admiral i s a sor t o f secon d kingship , rivalling the kings , wh o

are

suprem e commanders

fo r

l ife .

1271 41 Ther e

i s

anothe r criticis m

on e

m igh t m ak e

o f th e

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO


Account: s8989984



POLI TI CS II . 1 0 7 3

principle

tha t underlie s

th e

Sparta n legis la tion ,

a

criticis m

also mad e b y Plat o i n hi s Laws.* Th e whol e syste m o f

legislation

i s directe d t o fosterin g onl y on e par t [o r element]

of

goodness , goodnes s i n war , becaus e tha t sor t o f goodnes s

is

useful fo r gainin g power. A s a result th e Spartan s remaine d

secure a s lon g a s they were at war ; but the y collapsed a s soo n

as

the y acquire d

a n

empire . The y

di d no t

kno w

ho w t o us e

their leisure and the y had neve r accustome d themselve s to an y

discipline othe r tha n

an d

superio r

t o

tha t

o f

wa r . Ther e

i s

another defec t at Spart a whic h is equally grave. The Spartan s

hold tha t

th e

goods

fo r

whic h

m e n

striv e

ar e to b e

at taine d

through goodnes s rather tha n badnes s

o f

character. The y

a r e

right i n th inkin g th is ; bu t the y ar e wron g i n supposin g tha t

these goods are greater tha n goodness of charac ter.*

i 7i

b

io

Anothe r defec t

a t

Spa rt a

i s the

s ta t e

o f th e

publi c

finances. Th e publi c treasur y i s empty , a t a tim e whe n they

are compelle d

t o

wag e m ajo r w ars ;

an d th e

taxe s

ar e no t

properly paid . Becaus e m os t o f th e lan d i s i n th e hand s o f

citizens, the y d o no t loo k closel y a t eac h other s payments .

The

effec t

o f th e

legislator s w or k

i s

her e

th e

revers e

o f

beneficial: h e has reduced th e city to penur y while encouraging

private avarice . Thi s

m a y

serv e

a s a n

accoun t

o f th e

Sparta n

constitution, an d thes e ar e th e defect s whic h are particularl y

open to censure.

CHAPTER 1 0

2 The Cretan constitution

Crete possibly

the

model

of Sparta:

similarities

between

the

two.

The

Cretan system

of

common

meals

is superior to the Spartan; but the Cretan

Cosmoi,

who

correspond

to the

Spartan

Ephors, are

inferior

to them. Cretan

feudalism :

confederations

of

nobles: feuds

and

factions: Crete

hitherto s ved from their evil effects by its geogr phic l

isolation.

I 7i

b

Th e C reta n constitu tion * i s clos e t o tha t o f th e

Spartans; i n som e ways it is no wors e but i n most respect s it is

less polished . I t i s sai d tha t mos t

feature s

o f th e Sparta n

constitution wer e copie d

fro m th e

Cre tan . Thi s

m a y wel l b e

C o p y r i g h t

©

1 9 9 8 .

O x f o r

d

U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s .

A l l

r i g h t s r

e s e r v e d .

M a y

n o t

b e


a n y

f o r m

w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n

f r o

m

t h e

p u b l i s h e r ,

e x c e p t

f a i r

u s e s

p e r m i t t e d

u n d e r

U . S .

o r

a p p l i c a b l e

c o p y r i g h t

l a w .


OF CHICAGO

Documents

Aristotle Politics 2.9 Spartan Constitution