Politics Aristotle Book 3

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Politics

By AristotleCommentary:Quite a few comments hae !een posted a!out "olitics#

Download:A te$t-only ersion is aaila!le for download#

Politics

By Aristotle

%ritten &'( B#C#)

*ranslated !y Ben+amin ,owett

*a!le of Contents

Book Three

Part I

He who would inuire into the essence and attri!utes of arious kinds

of .oernments must first of all determine /%hat is a state0/ At present this is adisputed uestion# Some say that the state has done a certain act1 others2 no2 not the

state2 !ut the oli.archy or the tyrant# And the le.islator or statesman is concernedentirely with the state1 a constitution or .oernment !ein. an arran.ement of the

inha!itants of a state# But a state is composite2 like any other whole made up of

many parts1 these are the citi3ens2 who compose it# 4t is eident2 therefore2 that we

must !e.in !y askin.2 %hois the citi3en2 and what is the meanin. of the term0 5orhere a.ain there may !e a difference of opinion# He who is a citi3en in a democracy

will often not !e a citi3en in an oli.archy# 6eain. out of consideration those whohae !een made citi3ens2 or who hae o!tained the name of citi3en any other

accidental manner2 we may say2 first2 that a citi3en is not a citi3en !ecause he liesin a certain place2 for resident aliens and slaes share in the place1 nor is he a

citi3en who has no le.al ri.ht e$cept that of suin. and !ein. sued1 for this ri.ht

may !e en+oyed under the proisions of a treaty# 7ay2 resident aliens in many

places do not possess een such ri.hts completely2 for they are o!li.ed to hae a

patron2 so that they do !ut imperfectly participate in citi3enship2 and we call them

citi3ens only in a ualified sense2 as we mi.ht apply the term to children whoare too youn. to !e on the re.ister2 or to old men who hae !een relieed from state
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duties# Of these we do not say uite simply that they are citi3ens2 !ut add in the one

case that they are not of a.e2 and in the other2 that they are past the a.e2 orsomethin. of that sort1 the precise e$pression is immaterial2 for our meanin. is

clear# Similar difficulties to those which 4 hae mentioned may !e raised and

answered a!out depried citi3ens and a!out e$iles# But the citi3en whom we areseekin. to define is a citi3en in the strictest sense2 a.ainst whom no such e$ception

can !e taken2 and his special characteristic is that he shares in the administration of

+ustice2 and in offices# 7ow of offices some are discontinuous2 and the samepersons are not allowed to hold them twice2 or can only hold them after a

fi$ed interal1 others hae no limit of time- for e$ample2 the office of a dicast or

ecclesiast# 4t may2 indeed2 !e ar.ued that these are not ma.istrates at all2 and that

their functions .ie them no share in the .oernment# But surely it is ridiculous to

say that those who hae the power do not .oern# 6et us not dwell further upon

this2 which is a purely er!al uestion1 what we want is a common term includin.

!oth dicast and ecclesiast# 6et us2 for the sake of distinction2 call it /indefiniteoffice2/ and we will assume that those who share in such office are citi3ens# *his isthe most comprehensie definition of a citi3en2 and !est suits all those who

are .enerally so called#

But we must not for.et that thin.s of which the underlyin. principles differ in kind2

one of them !ein. first2 another second2 another third2 hae2 when re.arded in this

relation2 nothin.2 or hardly anythin.2 worth mentionin. in common# 7ow we seethat .oernments differ in kind2 and that some of them are prior and that others are

posterior1 those which are faulty or pererted are necessarily posterior to thosewhich are perfect# 8%hat we mean !y perersion will !e hereafter e$plained#9 *he

citi3en then of necessity differs under each form of .oernment1 and our definition

is !est adapted to the citi3en of a democracy1 !ut not necessarily to other states# 5or

in some states the people are not acknowled.ed2 nor hae they any re.ular

assem!ly2 !ut only e$traordinary ones1 and suits are distri!uted !y sections amon.

the ma.istrates# At 6acedaemon2 for instance2 the )phors determine suits a!outcontracts2 which they distri!ute amon. themseles2 while the elders are +ud.es of

homicide2 and other causes are decided !y other ma.istrates# A similar principlepreails at Cartha.e1 there certain ma.istrates decide all causes# %e may2 indeed2

modify our definition of the citi3en so as to include these states# 4n them it is theholder of a definite2 not of an indefinite office2 who le.islates and +ud.es2 and to

some or all such holders of definite offices is resered the ri.ht of deli!eratin. or

+ud.in. a!out some thin.s or a!out all thin.s# *he conception of the citi3en now

!e.ins to clear up#

He who has the power to take part in the deli!eratie or +udicial administration of

any state is said !y us to !e a citi3ens of that state1 and2 speakin. .enerally2 a state

is a !ody of citi3ens sufficin. for the purposes of life#

Part II


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But in practice a citi3en is defined to !e one of whom !oth the parents are citi3ens1

others insist on .oin. further !ack1 say to two or three or more ancestors# *his is ashort and practical definition !ut there are some who raise the further uestion:

How this third or fourth ancestor came to !e a citi3en0 ;or.ias of 6eontini2 partly

!ecause he was in a difficulty2 partly in irony2 said- /Mortars are what is made !ythe mortar-makers2 and the citi3ens of 6arissa are those who are made !y the

ma.istrates1 for it is their trade to make 6arissaeans#/


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eery city that has the compass of a nation rather than a city1 Ba!ylon2 they say2

had !een taken for three days !efore some part of the inha!itants !ecame aware ofthe fact# *his difficulty may2 howeer2 with adanta.e !e deferred to another

occasion1 the statesman has to consider the si3e of the state2 and whether it

should consist of more than one nation or not#

A.ain2 shall we say that while the race of inha!itants2 as well as their place of

a!ode2 remain the same2 the city is also the same2 althou.h the citi3ens are alwaysdyin. and !ein. !orn2 as we call riers and fountains the same2 althou.h the water

is always flowin. away and comin. a.ain Or shall we say that the .enerations of

men2 like the riers2 are the same2 !ut that the state chan.es0 5or2 since the state is a

partnership2 and is a partnership of citi3ens in a constitution2 when the form of

.oernment chan.es2 and !ecomes different2 then it may !e supposed that the

state is no lon.er the same2 +ust as a tra.ic differs from a comic chorus2

althou.h the mem!ers of !oth may !e identical# And in this manner we speak ofeery union or composition of elements as different when the form of theircomposition alters1 for e$ample2 a scale containin. the same sounds is said to !e

different2 accordin.ly as the Dorian or the "hry.ian mode is employed# And if

this is true it is eident that the sameness of the state consists chiefly in the

sameness of the constitution2 and it may !e called or not called !y the same name2

whether the inha!itants are the same or entirely different# 4t is uite another

uestion2 whether a state ou.ht or ou.ht not to fulfill en.a.ements when the formof .oernment chan.es#

Part IV

*here is a point nearly allied to the precedin.: %hether the irtue of a .ood man

and a .ood citi3en is the same or not# But2 !efore enterin. on this discussion2 we

must certainly first o!tain some .eneral notion of the irtue of the citi3en# 6ike the

sailor2 the citi3en is a mem!er of a community# 7ow2 sailors hae differentfunctions2 for one of them is a rower2 another a pilot2 and a third a look-out man2 a

fourth is descri!ed !y some similar term1 and while the precise definition of eachindiidual/s irtue applies e$clusiely to him2 there is2 at the same time2 a

common definition applica!le to them all# 5or they hae all of them a commono!+ect2 which is safety in nai.ation# Similarly2 one citi3en differs from

another2 !ut the salation of the community is the common !usiness of them

all# *his community is the constitution1 the irtue of the citi3en must therefore !e

relatie to the constitution of which he is a mem!er# 4f2 then2 there are many formsof .oernment2 it is eident that there is not one sin.le irtue of the .ood citi3en

which is perfect irtue# But we say that the .ood man is he who has one sin.le

irtue which is perfect irtue# Hence it is eident that the .ood citi3en need not of

necessity possess the irtue which makes a .ood man#

*he same uestion may also !e approached !y another road2 from a considerationof the !est constitution# 4f the state cannot !e entirely composed of .ood men2 and


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yet each citi3en is e$pected to do his own !usiness well2 and must therefore hae

irtue2 still in a smuch as all the citi3ens cannot !e alike2 the irtue of the citi3enand of the .ood man cannot coincide# All must hae the irtue of the .ood citi3en-

thus2 and thus only2 can the state !e perfect1 !ut they will not hae the irtue of a

.ood man2 unless we assume that in the .ood state all the citi3ens must !e .ood#

A.ain2 the state2 as composed of unlikes2 may !e compared to the liin. !ein.: as

the first elements into which a liin. !ein. is resoled are soul and !ody2 as soul ismade up of rational principle and appetite2 the family of hus!and and wife2 property

of master and slae2 so of all these2 as well as other dissimilar elements2 the state is

composed1 and2 therefore2 the irtue of all the citi3ens cannot possi!ly !e the

same2 any more than the e$cellence of the leader of a chorus is the same as that of

the performer who stands !y his side# 4 hae said enou.h to show why the two

kinds of irtue cannot !e a!solutely and always the same#

But will there then !e no case in which the irtue of the .ood citi3en and the irtueof the .ood man coincide0 *o this we answer that the .ood ruler is a .ood and wise

man2 and that he who would !e a statesman must !e a wise man# And some persons

say that een the education of the ruler should !e of a special kind1 for are not the

children of kin.s instructed in ridin. and military e$ercises0 As )uripides says:

=7o su!tle arts for me2 !ut what the state reuires# =

As thou.h there were a special education needed !y a ruler# 4f then the irtue of a.ood ruler is the same as that of a .ood man2 and we assume further that the su!+ect

is a citi3en as well as the ruler2 the irtue of the .ood citi3en and the irtue of the

.ood man cannot !e a!solutely the same2 althou.h in some cases they may1 for the

irtue of a ruler differs from that of a citi3en# 4t was the sense of this difference

which made ,ason say that /he felt hun.ry when he was not a tyrant2/ meanin.

that he could not endure to lie in a priate station# But2 on the other hand2 it may!e ar.ued that men are praised for knowin. !oth how to rule and how to o!ey2 and

he is said to !e a citi3en of approed irtue who is a!le to do !oth# 7ow if wesuppose the irtue of a .ood man to !e that which rules2 and the irtue of the citi3en

to include rulin. and o!eyin.2 it cannot !e said that they are eually worthy ofpraise# Since2 then2 it is sometimes thou.ht that the ruler and the ruled must learn

different thin.s and not the same2 !ut that the citi3en must know and share in

them !oth2 the inference is o!ious# *here is2 indeed2 the rule of a master2 which is

concerned with menial offices- the master need not know how to perform these2 !utmay employ others in the e$ecution of them: the other would !e de.radin.1 and !y

the other 4 mean the power actually to do menialduties2 which ary much in

character and are e$ecuted !y arious classes of slaes2 such2 for e$ample2 as

handicraftsmen2 who2 as their name si.nifies2 lie !y the la!or of their hands: under

these the mechanic is included# Hence in ancient times2 and amon. some nations2

the workin. classes had no share in the .oernment- a priile.e which they onlyacuired under the e$treme democracy# Certainly the .ood man and the statesman


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and the .ood citi3en ou.ht not to learn the crafts of inferiors e$cept for their own

occasional use1 if they ha!itually practice them2 there will cease to !e a distinction!etween master and slae#

*his is not the rule of which we are speakin.1 !ut there is a rule of another kind2which is e$ercised oer freemen and euals !y !irth -a constitutional rule2 which

the ruler must learn !y o!eyin.2 as he would learn the duties of a .eneral of caalry

!y !ein. under the orders of a .eneral of caalry2 or the duties of a .eneral ofinfantry !y !ein. under the orders of a .eneral of infantry2 and !y hain. had the

command of a re.iment and of a company# 4t has !een well said that /he who has

neer learned to o!ey cannot !e a .ood commander#/ *he two are not the same2 !ut

the .ood citi3en ou.ht to !e capa!le of !oth1 he should know how to .oern like a

freeman2 and how to o!ey like a freeman- these are the irtues of a citi3en# And2

althou.h the temperance and +ustice of a ruler are distinct from those of a su!+ect2

the irtue of a .ood man will include !oth1 for the irtue of the .ood man who isfree and also a su!+ect2 e#.#2 his +ustice2 will not !e one !ut will comprise distinctkinds2 the one ualifyin. him to rule2 the other to o!ey2 and differin. as the

temperance and coura.e of men and women differ# 5or a man would !e thou.ht a

coward if he had no more coura.e than a coura.eous woman2 and a woman would

!e thou.ht louacious if she imposed no more restraint on her conersation than the

.ood man1 and indeed their part in the mana.ement of the household is

different2 for the duty of the one is to acuire2 and of the other to presere#"ractical wisdom only is characteristic of the ruler: it would seem that all

other irtues must eually !elon. to ruler and su!+ect# *he irtue of the su!+ect iscertainly not wisdom2 !ut only true opinion1 he may !e compared to the maker of

the flute2 while his master is like the flute-player or user ofthe flute#

5rom these considerations may !e .athered the answer to the uestion2 whether the

irtue of the .ood man is the same as that of the .ood citi3en2 or different2 and how

far the same2 and how far different#

Part V

*here still remains one more uestion a!out the citi3en: 4s he only a true citi3enwho has a share of office2 or is the mechanic to !e included0 4f they who hold no

office are to !e deemed citi3ens2 not eery citi3en can hae this irtue of rulin. and

o!eyin.1 for this man is a citi3en And if none of the lower class are citi3ens2 in

which part of the state are they to !e placed0 5or they are not resident aliens2 andthey are not forei.ners# May we not reply2 that as far as this o!+ection .oes there is

no more a!surdity in e$cludin. them than in e$cludin. slaes and freedmen from

any of the a!oe-mentioned classes0 4t must !e admitted that we cannot consider

all those to !e citi3ens who are necessary to the e$istence of the state1 for e$ample2

children are not citi3en eually with .rown-up men2 who are citi3ens a!solutely2

!ut children2 not !ein. .rown up2 are only citi3ens on a certain assumption# 7ay2 inancient times2 and amon. some nations the artisan class were slaes or forei.ners2


7/48

and therefore the ma+ority of them are so now# *he !est form of state will not

admit them to citi3enship1 !ut if they are admitted2 then our definition of the irtueof a citi3en will not apply to eery citi3en nor to eery free man as such2 !ut only to

those who are freed from necessary serices# *he necessary people are either slaes

who minister to the wants of indiiduals2 or mechanics and la!orers who are theserants of the community# *hese reflections carried a little further will e$plain

their position1 and indeed what has !een said already is of itself2 when understood2

e$planation enou.h#

Since there are many forms of .oernment there must !e many arieties of citi3en

and especially of citi3ens who are su!+ects1 so that under some .oernments the

mechanic and the la!orer will !e citi3ens2 !ut not in others2 as2 for e$ample2 in

aristocracy or the so-called .oernment of the !est 8if there !e such an one92 in

which honors are .ien accordin. to irtue and merit1 for no man can practice

irtue who is liin. the life of a mechanic or la!orer# 4n oli.archies theualification for office is hi.h2 and therefore no la!orer can eer !e a citi3en1 !ut amechanic may2 for an actual ma+ority of them are rich# At *he!es there was a law

that no man could hold office who had not retired from !usiness for ten years# But

in many states the law .oes to the len.th of admittin. aliens1 for in some

democracies a man is a citi3en thou.h his mother only !e a citi3en1 and a similar

principle is applied to ille.itimate children1 the law is rela$ed when there is

a dearth of population# But when the num!er of citi3ens increases2 first the childrenof a male or a female slae are e$cluded1 then those whose mothers only are

citi3ens1 and at last the ri.ht of citi3enship is confined to those whose fathers andmothers are !oth citi3ens#

Hence2 as is eident2 there are different kinds of citi3ens1 and he is a citi3en in the

hi.hest sense who shares in the honors of the state# Compare Homer/s words2 /like

some dishonored stran.er/1 he who is e$cluded from the honors of the state is no

!etter than an alien# But when his e$clusion is concealed2 then the o!+ect is that thepriile.ed class may deceie their fellow inha!itants#

As to the uestion whether the irtue of the .ood man is the same as that of the

.ood citi3en2 the considerations already adduced proe that in some states the .oodman and the .ood citi3en are the same2 and in others different# %hen they are the

same it is not eery citi3en who is a .ood man2 !ut only the statesman and those

who hae or may hae2 alone or in con+unction with others2 the conduct of pu!lic

affairs#

Part VI

Hain. determined these uestions2 we hae ne$t to consider whether there is only

one form of .oernment or many2 and if many2 what they are2 and how many2 and

what are the differences !etween them#


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A constitution is the arran.ement of ma.istracies in a state2 especially of the

hi.hest of all# *he .oernment is eerywhere soerei.n in the state2 and theconstitution is in fact the .oernment# 5or e$ample2 in democracies the people are

supreme2 !ut in oli.archies2 the few1 and2 therefore2 we say that these two forms of

.oernment also are different: and so in other cases#

5irst2 let us consider what is the purpose of a state2 and how many forms of

.oernment there are !y which human society is re.ulated# %e hae already said2in the first part of this treatise2 when discussin. household mana.ement and the

rule of a master2 that man is !y nature a political animal# And therefore2 men2 een

when they do not reuire one another/s help2 desire to lie to.ether1 not !ut that

they are also !rou.ht to.ether !y their common interests in proportion as they

seerally attain to any measure of well-!ein.# *his is certainly the chief end2 !oth

of indiiduals and of states# And also for the sake of mere life 8in which there is

possi!ly some no!le element so lon. as the eils of e$istence do not .reatlyoer!alance the .ood9 mankind meet to.ether and maintainthe political community#And we all see that men clin. to life een at the cost of endurin. .reat misfortune2

seemin. to find in life a natural sweetness and happiness#

*here is no difficulty in distin.uishin. the arious kinds of authority1 they hae

!een often defined already in discussions outside the school# *he rule of a master2

althou.h the slae !y nature and the master !y nature hae in reality the sameinterests2 is neertheless e$ercised primarily with a iew to the interest of the

master2 !ut accidentally considers the slae2 since2 if the slae perish2 the rule of themaster perishes with him# On the other hand2 the .oernment of a wife and children

and of a household2 which we hae called household mana.ement2 is e$ercised in

the first instance for the .ood of the .oerned or for the common .ood of

!oth parties2 !ut essentially for the .ood of the .oerned2 as we see to !e the case in

medicine2 .ymnastic2 and the arts in .eneral2 which are onlyaccidentally concerned

with the .ood of the artists themseles# 5or there is no reason why the trainer maynot sometimes practice .ymnastics2 and the helmsman is always one of the crew#

*he trainer or the helmsman considers the .ood of those committed to his care# But2when he is one of the persons taken care of2 he accidentally participates in the

adanta.e2 for the helmsman is also a sailor2 and the trainer !ecomes one of thosein trainin.# And so in politics: when the state is framed upon the principle of

euality and likeness2 the citi3ens think that they ou.ht to hold office !y

turns# 5ormerly2 as is natural2 eery one would take his turn of serice1 and then

a.ain2 some!ody else would look after his interest2 +ust as he2 while in office2 hadlooked after theirs# But nowadays2 for the sake of the adanta.e which is to !e

.ained from the pu!lic reenues and from office2 men want to !e always in office#

One mi.ht ima.ine that the rulers2 !ein. sickly2 were only kept in health while they

continued in office1 in that case we may !e sure that they would !e huntin. after

places# *he conclusion is eident: that .oernments which hae a re.ard to the

common interest are constituted in accordance with strict principles of +ustice2 andare therefore true forms1 !ut those which re.ard only the interest of the rulers


9/48

are all defectie and pererted forms2 for they are despotic2 whereas a state is a

community of freemen#

Part VII

Hain. determined these points2 we hae ne$t to consider how many forms of

.oernment there are2 and what they are1 and in the first place what are the true

forms2 for when they are determined the perersions of them will at once !eapparent# *he words constitution and .oernment hae the same meanin.2 and the

.oernment2 which is the supreme authority in states2 must !e in the hands of one2

or of a few2 or of the many# *he true forms of .oernment2 therefore2 are those in

which the one2 or the few2 or the many2 .oern with a iew to the common interest1

!ut .oernments which rule with a iew to the priate interest2 whether of the one

or of the few2 or of the many2 are perersions# 5or the mem!ers of a state2 if they

are truly citi3ens2 ou.ht to participate in its adanta.es# Of forms of .oernment inwhich one rules2 we call that which re.ards the common interests2 kin.ship orroyalty1 that in which more than one2 !ut not many2 rule2 aristocracy1 and it is so

called2 either !ecause the rulers are the !est men2 or !ecause they hae at heart the

!est interests of the state and of the citi3ens# But when the citi3ens at lar.e

administer the state for the common interest2 the .oernment is called !y the

.eneric name- a constitution# And there is a reason for this use of lan.ua.e# One

man or a few may e$cel in irtue1 !ut as the num!er increases it !ecomesmore difficult for them to attain perfection in eery kind of irtue2 thou.h they may

in military irtue2 for this is found in the masses# Hence in a constitutional.oernment the fi.htin.-men hae the supreme power2 and those who possess arms

are the citi3ens#

Of the a!oe-mentioned forms2 the perersions are as follows: of royalty2 tyranny1

of aristocracy2 oli.archy1 of constitutional .oernment2 democracy# 5or tyranny is a

kind of monarchy which has in iew the interest of the monarch only1 oli.archy hasin iew the interest of the wealthy1 democracy2 of the needy: none of them the

common .ood of all#

Part VIII

But there are difficulties a!out these forms of .oernment2 and it will therefore !e

necessary to state a little more at len.th the nature of each of them# 5or he who

would make a philosophical study of the arious sciences2 and does not re.ardpractice only2 ou.ht not to oerlook or omit anythin.2 !ut to set forth the truth in

eery particular# *yranny2 as 4 was sayin.2 is monarchy e$ercisin. the rule of a

master oer the political society1 oli.archy is when men of property hae the

.oernment in their hands1 democracy2 the opposite2 when the indi.ent2 and not the

men of property2 are the rulers# And here arises the first of our difficulties2 and it

relates to the distinction drawn# 5or democracy is said to !e the .oernment of themany# But what if the many are men of property and hae the power in their hands0


10/48

4n like manner oli.archy is said to !e the .oernment of the few1 !ut what if the

poor are fewer than the rich2 and hae the power in their hands !ecause they arestron.er0 4n these cases the distinction which we hae drawn !etween these

different forms of .oernment would no lon.er hold .ood#

Suppose2 once more2 that we add wealth to the few and poerty to the many2 and

name the .oernments accordin.ly- an oli.archy is said to !e that in which the few

and the wealthy2 and a democracy that in which the many and the poor are therulers- there will still !e a difficulty# 5or2 if the only forms of .oernment are the

ones already mentioned2 how shall we descri!e those other .oernments also +ust

mentioned !y us2 in which the rich are the more numerous and the poor are the

fewer2 and !oth .oern in their respectie states0

*he ar.ument seems to show that2 whether in oli.archies or in democracies2 the

num!er of the .oernin. !ody2 whether the .reater num!er2 as in a democracy2 orthe smaller num!er2 as in an oli.archy2 is an accident due to the fact that the richeerywhere are few2 and the poor numerous# But if so2 there is a misapprehension

of the causes of the difference !etween them# 5or the real difference !etween

democracy and oli.archy is poerty and wealth# %hereer men rule !y reason of

their wealth2 whether they !e few or many2 that is an oli.archy2 and where the poor

rule2 that is a democracy# But as a fact the rich are few and the poor many1 for few

are well-to-do2 whereas freedom is en+oyed !y an2 and wealth and freedom are the.rounds on which the oli.archical and democratical parties respectiely claim

power in the state#

Part IX

6et us !e.in !y considerin. the common definitions of oli.archy and democracy2

and what is +ustice oli.archical and democratical# 5or all men clin. to +ustice of

some kind2 !ut their conceptions are imperfect and they do not e$press the wholeidea# 5or e$ample2 +ustice is thou.ht !y them to !e2 and is2 euality2 not# howeer2

for howeer2 for !ut only for euals# And ineuality is thou.ht to !e2 and is2 +ustice1neither is this for all2 !ut only for uneuals# %hen the persons are omitted2

then men +ud.e erroneously# *he reason is that they are passin. +ud.menton themseles2 and most people are !ad +ud.es in their own case# And

whereas +ustice implies a relation to persons as well as to thin.s2 and a

+ust distri!ution2 as 4 hae already said in the )thics2 implies the same ratio !etween

the persons and !etween the thin.s2 they a.ree a!out the euality of the thin.s2 !utdispute a!out the euality of the persons2 chiefly for the reason which 4 hae +ust

.ien- !ecause they are !ad +ud.es in their own affairs1 and secondly2 !ecause !oth

the parties to the ar.ument are speakin. of a limited and partial +ustice2 !ut ima.ine

themseles to !e speakin. of a!solute +ustice# 5or the one party2 if they are uneual

in one respect2 for e$ample wealth2 consider themseles to !e uneual in all1 and

the other party2 if they are eual in one respect2 for e$ample free !irth2 considerthemseles to !e eual in all# But they leae out the capital point# 5or if men met


11/48

and associated out of re.ard to wealth only2 their share in the state would !e

proportioned to their property2 and the oli.archical doctrine would then seem tocarry the day# 4t would not !e +ust that he who paid one mina should hae the same

share of a hundred minae2 whether of the principal or of the profits2 as he who paid

the remainin. ninety-nine# But a state e$ists for the sake of a .ood life2 and not forthe sake of life only: if life only were the o!+ect2 slaes and !rute animals

mi.htform a state2 !ut they cannot2 for they hae no share in happiness or in a life

of free choice# 7or does a state e$ist for the sake of alliance and security fromin+ustice2 nor yet for the sake of e$chan.e and mutual intercourse1 for then the

*yrrhenians and the Cartha.inians2 and all who hae commercial treaties with one

another2 would !e the citi3ens of one state# *rue2 they hae a.reements a!out

imports2 and en.a.ements that they will do no wron. to one another2 and written

articles of alliance# But there are no ma.istrates common to the contractin. parties

who will enforce their en.a.ements1 different states hae each their own

ma.istracies# 7or does one state take care that the citi3ens of the other are such asthey ou.ht to !e2 nor see that those who come under the terms of the treaty do nowron. or wickedness at an2 !ut only that they do no in+ustice to one another#

%hereas2 those who care for .ood .oernment take into consideration irtue and

ice in states# %hence it may !e further inferred that irtue must !e the care of a

state which is truly so called2 and not merely en+oys the name: for without this end

the community !ecomes a mere alliance which differs only in place from alliances

of which the mem!ers lie apart1 and law is only a conention2 /a surety to oneanother of +ustice2/ as the sophist 6ycophron says2 and has no real power to make

the citi3ens

*his is o!ious1 for suppose distinct places2 such as Corinth and Me.ara2 to !e

!rou.ht to.ether so that their walls touched2 still they would not !e one city2 not

een if the citi3ens had the ri.ht to intermarry2 which is one of the ri.hts peculiarly

characteristic of states# A.ain2 if men dwelt at a distance from one another2 !ut not

so far off as to hae no intercourse2 and there were laws amon. them that theyshould not wron. each other in their e$chan.es2 neither would this !e a state# 6et us

suppose that one man is a carpenter2 another a hus!andman2 another ashoemaker2 and so on2 and that their num!er is ten thousand: neertheless2 if

they hae nothin. in common !ut e$chan.e2 alliance2 and the like2 that would notconstitute a state# %hy is this0 Surely not !ecause they are at a distance from one

another: for een supposin. that such a community were to meet in one place2 !ut

that each man had a house of his own2 which was in a manner his state2 and that

they made alliance with one another2 !ut only a.ainst eil-doers1 still an accuratethinker would not deem this to !e a state2 if their intercourse with one another was

of the same character after as !efore their union# 4t is clear then that a state is not a

mere society2 hain. a common place2 esta!lished for the preention of

mutual crime and for the sake of e$chan.e# *hese are conditions without which a

state cannot e$ist1 !ut all of them to.ether do not constitute a state2 which is a

community of families and a..re.ations of families in well-!ein.2 for the sake of aperfect and self-sufficin. life# Such a community can only !e esta!lished amon.


12/48

those who lie in the same place and intermarry# Hence arise in cities family

connections2 !rotherhoods2 common sacrifices2 amusements which draw mento.ether# But these are created !y friendship2 for the will to lie to.ether is

friendship# *he end of the state is the .ood life2 and these are the means towards it#

And the state is the union of families and illa.es in a perfect and self-sufficin.life2 !y which we mean a happy and honora!le life#

Our conclusion2 then2 is that political society e$ists for the sake of no!le actions2and not of mere companionship# Hence they who contri!ute most to such a society

hae a .reater share in it than those who hae the same or a .reater freedom or

no!ility of !irth !ut are inferior to them in political irtue1 or than those who

e$ceed them in wealth !ut are surpassed !y them in irtue#

5rom what has !een said it will !e clearly seen that all the partisans of different

forms of .oernment speak of a part of +ustice only#

Part X

*here is also a dou!t as to what is to !e the supreme power in the state: 4s it the

multitude0 Or the wealthy0 Or the .ood0 Or the one !est man0 Or a tyrant0 Any of

these alternaties seems to inole disa.reea!le conseuences# 4f the poor2 for

e$ample2 !ecause they are more in num!er2 diide amon. themseles the propertyof the rich- is not this un+ust0 7o2 !y heaen 8will !e the reply92 for the supreme

authority +ustly willed it# But if this is not in+ustice2 pray what is0 A.ain2 when inthe first diision all has !een taken2 and the ma+ority diide anew the property of

the minority2 is it not eident2 if this .oes on2 that they will ruin the state0


13/48

Most of these uestions may !e resered for another occasion# *he principle thatthe multitude ou.ht to !e supreme rather than the few !est is one that is maintained2

and2 thou.h not free from difficulty2 yet seems to contain an element of truth# 5or

the many2 of whom each indiidual is !ut an ordinary person2 when they meetto.ether may ery likely !e !etter than the few .ood2 if re.arded not indiidually

!ut collectiely2 +ust as a feast to which many contri!ute is !etter than a dinner

proided out of a sin.le purse# 5or each indiidual amon. the many has a share ofirtueand prudence2 and when they meet to.ether2 they !ecome in a manner

one man2 who has many feet2 and hands2 and senses1 that is a fi.ure of their mind

and disposition# Hence the many are !etter +ud.es than a sin.le man of music and

poetry1 for some understand one part2 and some another2 and amon. them they

understand the whole# *here is a similar com!ination of ualities in .ood men2 who

differ from any indiidual of the many2 as the !eautiful are said to differ from those

who are not !eautiful2 and works of art from realities2 !ecause in them the scatteredelements are com!ined2 althou.h2 if taken separately2 the eye of one person or someother feature in another person would !e fairer than in the picture# %hether this

principle can apply to eery democracy2 and to all !odies of men2 is not clear#

Or rather2 !y heaen2 in some cases it is impossi!le of application1 for the ar.ument

would eually hold a!out !rutes1 and wherein2 it will !e asked2 do some men differ

from !rutes0 But there may !e !odies of men a!out whom our statement is

neertheless true# And if so2 the difficulty which has !een already raised2 and alsoanother which is akin to it -i3#2 what power should !e assi.ned to the mass of

freemen and citi3ens2 who are not rich and hae no personal merit- are !oth soled#*here is still a dan.er in aflowin. them to share the .reat offices of state2 for their

folly will lead them into error2 and their dishonesty into crime# But there is a

dan.er also in not lettin. them share2 for a state in which many poor men

are e$cluded from office will necessarily !e full of enemies# *he only way of

escape is to assi.n to them some deli!eratie and +udicial functions# 5or this reason

Solon and certain other le.islators .ie them the power of electin. to offices2 andof callin. the ma.istrates to account2 !ut they do not allow them to hold office

sin.ly# %hen they meet to.ether their perceptions are uite .ood enou.h2 andcom!ined with the !etter class they are useful to the state 8+ust as impure food when

mi$ed with what is pure sometimes makes the entire mass more wholesome than asmall uantity of the pure would !e92 !ut each indiidual2 left to himself2 forms an

imperfect +ud.ment# On the other hand2 the popular form of .oernment inoles

certain difficulties# 4n the first place2 it mi.ht !e o!+ected that he who can +ud.e of

the healin. of a sick man would !e one who could himself heal his disease2 andmake him whole- that is2 in other words2 the physician1 and so in all professions

and arts# As2 then2 the physician ou.ht to !e called to account !y physicians2 so

ou.ht men in .eneral to !e called to account !y their peers# But physicians are of

three kinds: there is the ordinary practitioner2 and there is the physician of the

hi.her class2 and thirdly the intelli.ent man who has studied the art: in all arts

there is such a class1 and we attri!ute the power of +ud.in. to them uite as muchas to professors of the art# Secondly2 does not the same principle apply to elections0


14/48


15/48

4n all sciences and arts the end is a .ood2 and the .reatest .ood and in the hi.hest

de.ree a .ood in the most authoritatie of all- this is the political science of whichthe .ood is +ustice2 in other words2 the common interest# All men think +ustice to !e

a sort of euality1 and to a certain e$tent they a.ree in the philosophical distinctions

which hae !een laid down !y us a!out )thics# 5or they admit that +ustice is a thin.and has a relation to persons2 and that euals ou.ht to hae euality# But there still

remains a uestion: euality or ineuality of what0 Here is a difficulty which calls

for political speculation# 5or ery likely some persons will say that offices of stateou.ht to !e uneually distri!uted accordin. to superior e$cellence2 in whateer

respect2 of the citi3en2 althou.h there is no other difference !etween him and the

rest of the community1 for that those who differ in any one respect hae different

ri.hts and claims# But2 surely2 if this is true2 the comple$ion or hei.ht of a man2 or

any other adanta.e2 will !e a reason for his o!tainin. a .reater share of political

ri.hts# *he error here lies upon the surface2 and may !e illustrated from the other

arts and sciences# %hen a num!er of flute players are eual in their art2 there is noreason why those of them who are !etter !orn should hae !etter flutes .ien tothem1 for they will not play any !etter on the flute2 and the superior instrument

should !e resered for him who is the superior artist# 4f what 4 am sayin. is still

o!scure2 it will !e made clearer as we proceed# 5or if there were a superior flute-

player who was far inferior in !irth and !eauty2 althou.h either of these may !e

a .reater .ood than the art of flute-playin.2 and may e$cel flute-playin. in a .reater

ratio than he e$cels the others in his art2 still he ou.ht to hae the !est flutes .iento him2 unless the adanta.es of wealth and !irth contri!ute to e$cellence in flute-

playin.2 which they do not# Moreoer2 upon this principle any .ood may !ecompared with any other# 5or if a .ien hei.ht may !e measured wealth and a.ainst

freedom2 hei.ht in .eneral may !e so measured# *hus if A e$cels in hei.ht more

than B in irtue2 een if irtue in .eneral e$cels hei.ht still more2 all .oods will !e

commensura!le1 for if a certain amount is !etter than some other2 it is clear that

some other will !e eual# But since no such comparison can !e made2 it is

eident that there is .ood reason why in politics men do not .round their claim tooffice on eery sort of ineuality any more than in the arts# 5or if some !e slow2

and others swift2 that is no reason why the one should hae little and the othersmuch1 it is in .ymnastics contests that such e$cellence is rewarded# %hereas the

rial claims of candidates for office can only !e !ased on the possession ofelements which enter into the composition of a state# And therefore the no!le2 or

free-!orn2 or rich2 may with .ood reason claim office1 for holders of offices must !e

freemen and ta$payers: a state can !e no more composed entirely of poor men than

entirely of slaes# But if wealth and freedom are necessary elements2 +ustice andalor areeually so1 for without the former ualities a state cannot e$ist at

all2 without the latter not well#

Part XIII

4f the e$istence of the state is alone to !e considered2 then it would seem that all2 orsome at least2 of these claims are +ust1 !ut2 if we take into account a .ood life2 then2


16/48

as 4 hae already said2 education and irtue hae superior claims# As2 howeer2

those who are eual in one thin. ou.ht not to hae an eual share in all2 nor thosewho are uneual in one thin. to hae an uneual share in all2 it is certain that all

forms of .oernment which rest on either of these principles are perersions# All

men hae a claim in a certain sense2 as 4 hae already admitted2 !ut all hae not ana!solute claim# *he rich claim !ecause they hae a .reater share in the land2 and

land is the common element of the state1 also they are .enerally more trustworthy

in contracts# *he free claim under the same tide as the no!le1 for they are nearlyakin# 5or the no!le are citi3ens in a truer sense than the i.no!le2 and .ood !irth is

always alued in a man/s own home and country# Another reason is2 that those who

are sprun. from !etter ancestors are likely to !e !etter men2 for no!ility is

e$cellence of race# >irtue2 too2 may !e truly said to hae a claim2 for +ustice

has !een acknowled.ed !y us to !e a social irtue2 and it implies all others# A.ain2

the many may ur.e their claim a.ainst the few1 for2 when taken collectiely2 and

compared with the few2 they are stron.er and richer and !etter# But2 what if the.ood2 the rich2 the no!le2 and the other classes who make up a state2 are all liin.to.ether in the same city2 %ill there2 or will there not2 !e any dou!t who shall rule0

7o dou!t at all in determinin. who ou.ht to rule in each of the a!oe-mentioned

forms of .oernment# 5or states are characteri3ed !y differences in their .oernin.

!odies-one of them has a .oernment of the rich2 another of the irtuous2 and so

on# But a difficulty arises when all these elements co-e$ist# How are we to decide0

Suppose the irtuous to !e ery few in num!er: may we consider their num!ers inrelation to their duties2 and ask whether they are enou.h to administer the state2 or

so many as will make up a state0 O!+ections may !e ur.ed a.ainst all the aspirantsto political power# 5or those who found their claims on wealth or family mi.ht !e

thou.ht to hae no !asis of +ustice1 on this principle2 if any one person were richer

than all the rest2 it is clear that he ou.ht to !e ruler of them# 4n like manner he who

is ery distin.uished !y his !irth ou.ht to hae the superiority oer all those who

claim on the .round that they are free!orn# 4n an aristocracy2 or .oernment of the

!est2 a like difficulty occurs a!out irtue1 for if one citi3en !e !etter than the othermem!ers of the .oernment2 howeer .ood they may !e2 he too2 upon the same

principle of +ustice2 should rule oer them# And if the people are to !e supreme!ecause they are stron.er than the few2 then if one man2 or more than one2 !ut not a

ma+ority2 is stron.er than the many2 they ou.ht to rule2 and not the many#

All these considerations appear to show that none of the principles on which men

claim to rule and to hold all other men in su!+ection to them are strictly ri.ht# *o

those who claim to !e masters of the .oernment on the .round of their irtue ortheir wealth2 the many mi.ht fairly answer that they themseles are often !etter and

richer than the few- 4 do not say indiidually2 !ut collectiely# And another

in.enious o!+ection which is sometimes put forward may !e met in a similar

manner# Some persons dou!t whether the le.islator who desires to make the +ustest

laws ou.ht to le.islatewith a iew to the .ood of the hi.her classes or of the many2

when the case which we hae mentioned occurs# 7ow what is +ust or ri.ht is to!e interpreted in the sense of /what is eual/1 and that which is ri.ht in the sense of


17/48

!ein. eual is to !e considered with reference to the adanta.e of the state2 and the

common .ood of the citi3ens# And a citi3en is one who shares in .oernin. and!ein. .oerned# He differs under different forms of .oernment2 !ut in the !est

state he is one who is a!le and willin. to !e .oerned and to .oern with a iew to

the life of irtue#

4f2 howeer2 there !e some one person2 or more than one2 althou.h not enou.h to

make up the full complement of a state2 whose irtue is so pre-eminent that theirtues or the political capacity of all the rest admit of no comparison with his or

theirs2 he or they can !e no lon.er re.arded as part of a state1 for +ustice will not !e

done to the superior2 if he is reckoned only as the eual of those who are so far

inferior to him in irtue and in political capacity# Such an one may truly !e

deemed a ;od amon. men# Hence we see that le.islation is necessarily

concerned only with those who are eual in !irth and in capacity1 and that for

men of pre-eminent irtue there is no law- they are themseles a law# Any would !eridiculous who attempted to make laws for them: they would pro!a!ly retort what2in the fa!le of Antisthenes2 the lions said to the hares2 when in the council of the

!easts the latter !e.an haran.uin. and claimin. euality for all# And for this reason

democratic states hae instituted ostracism1 euality is a!oe all thin.s their aim2

and therefore they ostraci3ed and !anished from the city for a time those who

seemed to predominate too much throu.h their wealth2 or the num!er of their

friends2 or throu.h any other political influence# Mytholo.y tells us that theAr.onauts left Heracles !ehind for a similar reason1 the ship Ar.o would not take

him !ecause she feared that he would hae !een too much for the rest of the crew#%herefore those who denounce tyranny and !lame the counsel which "eriander

.ae to *hrasy!ulus cannot !e held alto.ether +ust in their censure# *he story is that

"eriander2 when the herald was sent to ask counsel of him2 said nothin.2 !ut only

cut off the tallest ears of corn till he had !rou.htthe field to a leel# *he herald did

not know the meanin. of the action2 !ut came and reported what he had seen to

*hrasy!ulus2 who understood that he was to cut off the principal men in the state1and this is a policy not only e$pedient for tyrants or in practice confined to them2

!ut eually necessary in oli.archies and democracies# Ostracism is a measure ofthe same kind2 which acts !y disa!lin. and !anishin. the most prominent

citi3ens# ;reat powers do the same to whole cities and nations2 as the Athenians didto the Samians2 Chians2 and 6es!ians1 no sooner had they o!tained a firm .rasp of

the empire2 than they hum!led their allies contrary to treaty1 and the "ersian kin.

has repeatedly crushed the Medes2 Ba!ylonians2 and other nations2 when their spirit

has !een stirred !y the recollection of their former .reatness#

*he pro!lem is a uniersal one2 and eually concerns all forms of .oernment2 true

as well as false1 for2 althou.h pererted forms with a iew to their own interests

may adopt this policy2 those which seek the common interest do so likewise# *he

same thin. may !e o!sered in the arts and sciences1 for the painter will not allow

the fi.ure to hae a foot which2 howeer !eautiful2 is not in proportion2 nor will theship!uilder allow the stem or any other part of the essel to !e unduly lar.e2


18/48

any more than the chorus-master will allow any one who sin.s louder or !etter than

all the rest to sin. in the choir# Monarchs2 too2 may practice compulsion and stilllie in harmony with their cities2 if their own .oernment is for the interest of the

state# Hence where there is an acknowled.ed superiority the ar.ument in faor of

ostracism is !ased upon a kind of political +ustice# 4t would certainly !e !etter thatthe le.islator should from the first so order his state as to hae no need of such a

remedy# But if the need arises2 the ne$t !est thin. is that he should endeaor to

correct the eil !y this or some similar measure# *he principle2 howeer2 has not!een fairly applied in states1 for2 instead of lookin. to the .ood of their own

constitution2 they hae used ostracism for factious purposes# 4t is true that under

pererted forms of .oernment2 and from their special point of iew2 such a

measure is +ust and e$pedient2 !ut it is also clear that it is not a!solutely +ust# 4n the

perfect state there would !e .reat dou!ts a!out the use of it2 not when applied to

e$cess in stren.th2 wealth2 popularity2 or the like2 !ut when used a.ainst some one

who is pre-eminent in irtue- what is to !e done with him0 Mankind will not saythat such an one is to !e e$pelled and e$iled1 on the other hand2 he ou.ht not to !e asu!+ect- that would !e as if mankind should claim to rule oer ?eus2 diidin. his

offices amon. them# *he only alternatie is that all should +oyfully o!ey such a

ruler2 accordin. to what seems to !e the order of nature2 and that men like

him should !e kin.s in their state for life#

Part XIV

*he precedin. discussion2 !y a natural transition2 leads to the consideration ofroyalty2 which we admit to !e one of the true forms of .oernment# 6et us see

whether in order to !e well .oerned a state or country should !e under the rule of

a kin. or under some other form of .oernment1 and whether monarchy2 althou.h

.ood for some2 may not !e !ad for others# But first we must determine whether

there is one species of royalty or many# 4t is easy to see that there are many2 and

that the manner of .oernment is not the same in all of them#

Of royalties accordin. to law2 8@9 the 6acedaemonian is thou.ht to answer !est tothe true pattern1 !ut there the royal power is not a!solute2 e$cept when the kin.s .o

on an e$pedition2 and then they take the command# Matters of reli.ion are likewisecommitted to them# *he kin.ly office is in truth a kind of .eneralship2 irresponsi!le

and perpetual# *he kin. has not the power of life and death2 e$cept in a specified

case2 as for instance2 in ancient times2 he had it when upon a campai.n2 !y ri.ht of

force# *his custom is descri!ed in Homer# 5or A.amemnon is patient when he isattacked in the assem!ly2 !ut when the army .oes out to !attle he has the

power een of life and death# Does he not say- /%hen 4 find a man skulkin.

apart from the !attle2 nothin. shall sae him from the do.s and ultures2 for in my

hands is death/0

*his2 then2 is one form of royalty-a .eneralship for life: and of such royalties someare hereditary and others electie#


19/48

89 *here is another sort of monarchy not uncommon amon. the !ar!arians2 whichnearly resem!les tyranny# But this is !oth le.al and hereditary# 5or !ar!arians2

!ein. more serile in character than Hellenes2 and Asiadics than )uropeans2 do not

re!el a.ainst a despotic .oernment# Such royalties hae the nature of tyrannies!ecause the people are !y nature slaes1 !ut there is no dan.er of their !ein.

oerthrown2 for they are hereditary and le.al# %herefore also their .uards are such

as a kin. and not such as a tyrant would employ2 that is to say2 they are composedof citi3ens2 whereas the .uards of tyrants are mercenaries# 5or kin.s rule accordin.

to law oer oluntary su!+ects2 !ut tyrants oer inoluntary1 and the one

are .uarded !y their fellow-citi3ens the others are .uarded a.ainst them#

*hese are two forms of monarchy2 and there was a third 8&9 which e$isted in

ancient Hellas2 called an Aesymnetia or dictatorship# *his may !e defined .enerally

as an electie tyranny2 which2 like the !ar!arian monarchy2 is le.al2 !ut differs fromit in not !ein. hereditary# Sometimes the office was held for life2 sometimes for aterm of years2 or until certain duties had !een performed# 5or e$ample2 the

Mytilenaeans elected "ittacus leader a.ainst the e$iles2 who were headed !y

Antimenides and Alcaeus the poet# And Alcaeus himself shows in one of his

!anuet odes that they chose "ittacus tyrant2 for he reproaches his fellow-citi3ens

for /hain. made the low-!orn "ittacus tyrant of the spiritless and ill-fated city2

with one oice shoutin. his praises#/

*hese forms of .oernment hae always had the character of tyrannies2 !ecausethey possess despotic power1 !ut inasmuch as they are electie and acuiesced in

!y their su!+ects2 they are kin.ly#

89 *here is a fourth species of kin.ly rule- that of the heroic times- which was

hereditary and le.al2 and was e$ercised oer willin. su!+ects# 5or the first chiefs

were !enefactors of the people in arts or arms1 they either .athered them into acommunity2 or procured land for them1 and thus they !ecame kin.s of oluntary

su!+ects2 and their power was inherited !y their descendants# *hey took thecommand in war and presided oer the sacrifices2 e$cept those which reuired a

priest# *hey also decided causes either with or without an oath1 and when theyswore2 the form of the oath was the stretchin. out of their sceptre# 4n ancient times

their power e$tended continuously to all thin.s whatsoeer2 in city and country2 as

well as in forei.n parts1 !ut at a later date they relinuished seeral of

these priile.es2 and others the people took from them2 until in some states nothin.was left to them !ut the sacrifices1 and where they retained more of the reality they

had only the ri.ht of leadership in war !eyond the !order#

*hese2 then2 are the four kinds of royalty# 5irst the monarchy of the heroic a.es1

this was e$ercised oer oluntary su!+ects2 !ut limited to certain functions1 the kin.

was a .eneral and a +ud.e2 and had the control of reli.ion *he second is that of the!ar!arians2 which is a hereditary despotic .oernment in accordance with law# A


20/48

third is the power of the so-called Aesynmete or Dictator1 this is an electie

tyranny# *he fourth is the 6acedaemonian2 which is in fact a .eneralship2 hereditaryand perpetual# *hese four forms differ from one another in the manner which 4

hae descri!ed#

8'9 *here is a fifth form of kin.ly rule in which one has the disposal of all2 +ust as

each nation or each state has the disposal of pu!lic matters1 this form corresponds

to the control of a household# 5or as household mana.ement is the kin.ly rule of ahouse2 so kin.ly rule is the household mana.ement of a city2 or of a nation2 or of

many nations#

Part XV

Of these forms we need only consider two2 the 6acedaemonian and the a!solute

royalty1 for most of the others he in a re.ion !etween them2 hain. less power thanthe last2 and more than the first# *hus the inuiry is reduced to two points: first2 is itadanta.eous to the state that there should !e a perpetual .eneral2 and if so2 should

the office !e confined to one family2 or open to the citi3ens in turn0 Secondly2 is it

well that a sin.le man should hae the supreme power in all thin.s0 *he first

uestion falls under the head of laws rather than of constitutions1 for

perpetual.eneralship mi.ht eually e$ist under any form of .oernment2 so that

this matter may !e dismissed for the present# *he other kind of royalty is a sort ofconstitution1 this we hae now to consider2 and !riefly to run oer the difficulties

inoled in it# %e will !e.in !y inuirin. whether it is more adanta.eous to !eruled !y the !est man or !y the !est laws#

*he adocates of royalty maintain that the laws speak only in .eneral terms2 and

cannot proide for circumstances1 and that for any science to a!ide !y written rules

is a!surd# 4n ).ypt the physician is allowed to alter his treatment after the fourth

day2 !ut if sooner2 he takes the risk# Hence it is clear that a .oernment actin.accordin. to written laws is plainly not the !est#


21/48

man2 so a multitude is a !etter +ud.e of many thin.s than any indiidual#

A.ain2 the many are more incorrupti!le than the few1 they are like the .reater

uantity of water which is less easily corrupted than a little# *he indiidual is lia!le

to !e oercome !y an.er or !y some other passion2 and then his +ud.ment isnecessarily pererted1 !ut it is hardly to !e supposed that a .reat num!er of persons

would all .et into a passion and .o wron. at the same moment# 6et us assume that

they are the freemen2 and that they neer act in iolation of the law2 !ut fill up the.aps which the law is o!li.ed to leae# Or2 if such irtue is scarcely attaina!le !y

the multitude2 we need only suppose that the ma+ority are .ood men and .ood

citi3ens2 and ask which will !e the more incorrupti!le2 the one .ood ruler2 or the

many who are all .ood0 %ill not the many0 But2 you will say2 there may !e parties

amon. them2 whereas the one man is not diided a.ainst himself# *o which we

may answer that their character is as .ood as his# 4f we call the rule of many men2

who are all of them .ood2 aristocracy2 and the rule of one man royalty2 thenaristocracy will !e !etter for states than royalty2 whether the .oernment issupported !y force or not2 proided only that a num!er of men eual in irtue can

!e found#

*he first .oernments were kin.ships2 pro!a!ly for this reason2 !ecause of old2

when cities were small2 men of eminent irtue were few# 5urther2 they were made

kin.s !ecause they were !enefactors2 and !enefits can only !e !estowed !y .oodmen# But when many persons eual in merit arose2 no lon.er endurin. the pre-

eminence of one2 they desired to hae a commonwealth2 and set up a constitution#*he rulin. class soon deteriorated and enriched themseles out of the pu!lic

treasury1 riches !ecame the path to honor2 and so oli.archies naturally .rew up#

*hese passed into tyrannies and tyrannies into democracies1 for loe of .ain in the

rulin. classes was always tendin. to diminish their num!er2 and so to stren.then

the masses2 who in the end set upon their masters and esta!lished democracies#

Since cities hae increased in si3e2 no other form of .oernment appears to !e anylon.er een easy to esta!lish#

)en supposin. the principle to !e maintained that kin.ly power is the !est thin.

for states2 how a!out the family of the kin.0 Are hischildren to succeed him0 4f they are no !etter than any!ody else2 that will !e

mischieous# But2 says the loer of royalty2 the kin.2 thou.h he mi.ht2 will nothand on his power to his children# *hat2 howeer2 is hardly to !e e$pected2 and is

too much to ask of human nature# *here is also a difficulty a!out the force which heis to employ1 should a kin. hae .uards a!out him !y whose aid he may !e a!le to

coerce the refractory0 4f not2 how will he administer his kin.dom0 )en if he !e the

lawful soerei.n who does nothin. ar!itrarily or contrary to law2 still he must hae

some force wherewith to maintain the law# 4n the case of a limited monarchy there

is not much difficulty in answerin. this uestion1 the kin. must hae such force aswill !e more than a match for one or more indiiduals2 !ut not so .reat as that of


22/48

the people# *he ancients o!sere this principle when they hae .uards to any one

whom they appointed dictator or tyrant# *hus2 when Dionysius asked theSyracusans to allow him .uards2 some!ody adised that they should .ie him only

such a num!er#

Part XVI

At this place in the discussion there impends the inuiry respectin. the kin. whoacts solely accordin. to his own will he has now to !e considered# *he so-called

limited monarchy2 or kin.ship accordin. to law2 as 4 hae already remarked2 is not

a distinct form of .oernment2 for under all .oernments2 as2 for e$ample2 in a

democracy or aristocracy2 there may !e a .eneral holdin. office for life2 and one

person is often made supreme oer the administration of a state# A ma.istracy of

this kind e$ists at )pidamnus2 and also at Opus2 !ut in the latter city has a more

limited power# 7ow2 a!solute monarchy2 or the ar!itrary rule of a soerei.n oer anthe citi3ens2 in a city which consists of euals2 is thou.ht !y some to !e uitecontrary to nature1 it is ar.ued that those who are !y nature euals must hae

the same natural ri.ht and worth2 and that for uneuals to hae an eual share2 or

for euals to hae an uneen share2 in the offices of state2 is as !ad as for different

!odily constitutions to hae the same food and clothin.# %herefore it is thou.ht to

!e +ust that amon. euals eery one !e ruled as well as rule2 and therefore that an

should hae their turn# %e thus arrie at law1 for an order of succession implieslaw# And the rule of the law2 it is ar.ued2 is prefera!le to that of any indiidual# On

the same principle2 een if it !e !etter for certain indiiduals to .oern2 they should!e made only .uardians and ministers of the law# 5or ma.istrates there must !e-

this is admitted1 !ut then men say that to .ie authority to any one man when all are

eual is un+ust# 7ay2 there may indeed !e cases which the law seems una!le to

determine2 !ut in such cases can a man0 7ay2 it will !e replied2 the law trains

officers for this e$press purpose2 and appoints them to determine matters which are

left undecided !y it2 to the !est of their +ud.ment# 5urther2 it permits them to makeany amendment of the e$istin. laws which e$perience su..ests# *herefore he who

!ids the law rule may !e deemed to !id ;od and Reason alone rule2 !ut he who!ids man rule adds an element of the !east1 for desire is a wild !east2 and passion

pererts the minds of rulers2 een when they are the !est of men# *he law is reasonunaffected !y desire# %e are told that a patient should call in a physician1 he will

not .et !etter if he is doctored out of a !ook# But the parallel of the arts is clearly

not in point1 for the physician does nothin. contrary to rule from moties of

friendship1 he only cures a patient and takes a fee1 whereas ma.istrates do manythin.s from spite and partiality# And2 indeed2 if a man suspected the physician of

!ein. in lea.ue with his enemies to destroy him for a !ri!e2 he would rather hae

recourse to the !ook# But certainly physicians2 when they are sick2 call in other

physicians2 and trainin.-masters2 when they are in trainin.2 other trainin.-masters2

as if they could not +ud.e +ud.e truly a!out their own case and mi.ht !e influenced

!y their feelin.s# Hence it is eident that in seekin. for +ustice men seek for themean or neutral2 for the law is the mean# A.ain2 customary laws hae more wei.ht2


23/48

and relate to moreimportant matters2 than written laws2 and a man may !e a safer

ruler than the written law2 !ut not safer than the customary law#

A.ain2 it is !y no means easy for one man to superintend many thin.s1 he will hae

to appoint a num!er of su!ordinates2 and what difference does it make whetherthese su!ordinates always e$isted or were appointed !y him !ecause he needed

theme 4f2 as 4 said !efore2 the .ood man has a ri.ht to rule !ecause he is !etter2 still

two .ood men are !etter than one: this is the old sayin.2 two .oin. to.ether2 andthe prayer of A.amemnon2

=%ould that 4 had ten such councillors =

And at this day there are ma.istrates2 for e$ample +ud.es2 who hae authority to

decide some matters which the law is una!le to determine2 since no one dou!ts that

the law would command and decide in the !est manner whateer it could# But somethin.s can2 and other thin.s cannot2 !e comprehended under the law2 and this is theori.in of the ne$ted uestion whether the !est law or the !est man should rule# 5or

matters of detail a!out which men deli!erate cannot !e included in le.islation# 7or

does any one deny that the decision of such matters must !e left to man2 !ut it is

ar.ued that there should !e many +ud.es2 and not one only# 5or eery ruler who has

!een trained !y the law +ud.es well1 and it would surely seem stran.e that a person

should see !etter with two eyes2 or hear !etter with two ears2 or act !etter with twohands or feet2 than many with many1 indeed2 it is already the practice of kin.s to

make to themseles many eyes and ears and hands and feet# 5or they makecollea.ues of those who are the friends of themseles and their .oernments# *hey

must !e friends of the monarch and of his .oernment1 if not his friends2 they will

not do what he wants1 !ut friendship implies likeness and euality1 and2

therefore2 if he thinks that his friends ou.ht to rule2 he must think that those

who are eual to himself and like himself ou.ht to rule eually with himself# *hese

are the principal controersies relatin. to monarchy#

Part XVII

But may not all this !e true in some cases and not in others0 for there is !y nature!oth a +ustice and an adanta.e appropriate to the rule of a master2 another to

kin.ly rule2 another to constitutional rule1 !ut there is none naturally appropriate to

tyranny2 or to any other pererted form of .oernment1 for these come into !ein.

contrary to nature# 7ow2 to +ud.e at least from what has !een said2 it is manifestthat2 where men are alike and eual2 it is neither e$pedient nor +ust that one man

should !e lord of all2 whether there are laws2 or whether there are no laws2 !ut he

himself is in the place of law# 7either should a .ood man !e lord oer .ood men2

nor a !ad man oer !ad1 nor2 een if he e$cels in irtue2 should he hae a ri.ht to

rule2 unless in a particular case2 at which 4 hae already hinted2 and to which 4 will

once more recur# But first of all2 4 must determine what natures are suited for.oernment !y a kin.2 and what for an aristocracy2 and what for a constitutional


24/48

.oernment#

A people who are !y nature capa!le of producin. a race superior in the irtue

needed for political rule are fitted for kin.ly .oernment1 and a people su!mittin.

to !e ruled as freemen !y men whose irtue renders them capa!le of politicalcommand are adapted for an aristocracy1 while the people who are suited for

constitutional freedom are those amon. whom there naturally e$ists a warlike

multitude a!le to rule and to o!ey in turn !y a law which .ies office to the well-to-do accordin. to their desert# But when a whole family or some indiidual2 happens

to !e so pre-eminentin irtue as to surpass all others2 then it is +ust that they should

!e the royal family and supreme oer all2 or that this one citi3en should !e kin. of

the whole nation# 5or2 as 4 said !efore2 to .ie them authority is not only a.reea!le

to that .round of ri.ht which the founders of all states2 whether aristocratical2 or

oli.archical2 or a.ain democratical2 are accustomed to put forward 8for these all

reco.ni3e the claim of e$cellence2 althou.h not the same e$cellence92 !ut accordswith the principle already laid down# 5or surely it would not !e ri.ht to kill2 orostraci3e2 or e$ile such a person2 or reuire that he should take his turn in !ein.

.oerned# *he whole is naturally superior to the part2 and he who has this pre-

eminence is in the relation of a whole to a part# But if so2 the only alternatie is that

he should hae the supreme power2 and that mankind should o!ey him2 not in turn2

!ut always# *hese are the conclusions at which we arrie respectin. royalty and its

arious forms2 and this is the answer to the uestion2 whether it is or is notadanta.eous to states2 and to which2 and how#

Part XVIII

%e maintain that the true forms of .oernment are three2 and that the !est must !e

that which is administered !y the !est2 and in which there is one man2 or a whole

family2 or many persons2 e$cellin. all the others to.ether in irtue2 and !oth rulers

and su!+ects are fitted2 the one to rule2 the others to !e ruled2 in such a manner as toattain the most eli.i!le life# %e showed at the commencement of our inuiry that

the irtue of the .ood man is necessarily the same as the irtue of the citi3en of theperfect state# Clearly then in the same manner2 and !y the same means throu.h

which a man !ecomes truly .ood2 he will frame a state that is to !e ruled !yan aristocracy or !y a kin.2 and the same education and the same ha!its will

!e found to make a .ood man and a man fit to !e a statesman or a kin.#

Hain. arried at these conclusions2 we must proceed to speak of the perfect state2and descri!e how it comes into !ein. and is esta!lished#

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25/48

Politics

By Aristotle

Commentary:Quite a few comments hae !een posted a!out "olitics#

Download:A te$t-only ersion is aaila!le for download#

Politics

By Aristotle

%ritten &'( B#C#)

*ranslated !y Ben+amin ,owett

*a!le of Contents

Book Three

Part I

He who would inuire into the essence and attri!utes of arious kinds

of .oernments must first of all determine /%hat is a state0/ At present this is a

disputed uestion# Some say that the state has done a certain act1 others2 no2 not thestate2 !ut the oli.archy or the tyrant# And the le.islator or statesman is concerned

entirely with the state1 a constitution or .oernment !ein. an arran.ement of the

inha!itants of a state# But a state is composite2 like any other whole made up of

many parts1 these are the citi3ens2 who compose it# 4t is eident2 therefore2 that we

must !e.in !y askin.2 %hois the citi3en2 and what is the meanin. of the term0 5orhere a.ain there may !e a difference of opinion# He who is a citi3en in a democracy

will often not !e a citi3en in an oli.archy# 6eain. out of consideration those whohae !een made citi3ens2 or who hae o!tained the name of citi3en any other

accidental manner2 we may say2 first2 that a citi3en is not a citi3en !ecause he lies

in a certain place2 for resident aliens and slaes share in the place1 nor is he a

citi3en who has no le.al ri.ht e$cept that of suin. and !ein. sued1 for this ri.htmay !e en+oyed under the proisions of a treaty# 7ay2 resident aliens in many

places do not possess een such ri.hts completely2 for they are o!li.ed to hae apatron2 so that they do !ut imperfectly participate in citi3enship2 and we call them

citi3ens only in a ualified sense2 as we mi.ht apply the term to children who

are too youn. to !e on the re.ister2 or to old men who hae !een relieed from state

duties# Of these we do not say uite simply that they are citi3ens2 !ut add in the one

case that they are not of a.e2 and in the other2 that they are past the a.e2 or

somethin. of that sort1 the precise e$pression is immaterial2 for our meanin. isclear# Similar difficulties to those which 4 hae mentioned may !e raised and
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26/48

answered a!out depried citi3ens and a!out e$iles# But the citi3en whom we are

seekin. to define is a citi3en in the strictest sense2 a.ainst whom no such e$ceptioncan !e taken2 and his special characteristic is that he shares in the administration of

+ustice2 and in offices# 7ow of offices some are discontinuous2 and the same

persons are not allowed to hold them twice2 or can only hold them after afi$ed interal1 others hae no limit of time- for e$ample2 the office of a dicast or

ecclesiast# 4t may2 indeed2 !e ar.ued that these are not ma.istrates at all2 and that

their functions .ie them no share in the .oernment# But surely it is ridiculous tosay that those who hae the power do not.oern# 6et us not dwell further upon this2

which is a purely er!al uestion1 what we want is a common term includin. !oth

dicast and ecclesiast# 6et us2 for the sake of distinction2 call it /indefinite office2/ and

we will assume that those who share in such office are citi3ens# *his is the

most comprehensie definition of a citi3en2 and !est suits all those who

are .enerally so called#

But we must not for.et that thin.s of which the underlyin. principles differ in kind2one of them !ein. first2 another second2 another third2 hae2 when re.arded in this

relation2 nothin.2 or hardly anythin.2 worth mentionin. in common# 7ow we see

that .oernments differ in kind2 and that some of them are prior and that others are

posterior1 those which are faulty or pererted are necessarily posterior to those

which are perfect# 8%hat we mean !y perersion will !e hereafter e$plained#9 *he

citi3en then of necessity differs under each form of .oernment1 and our definitionis !est adapted to the citi3en of a democracy1 !ut not necessarily to other states# 5or

in some states the people are not acknowled.ed2 nor hae they any re.ularassem!ly2 !ut only e$traordinary ones1 and suits are distri!uted !y sections amon.

the ma.istrates# At 6acedaemon2 for instance2 the )phors determine suits a!out

contracts2 which they distri!ute amon. themseles2 while the elders are +ud.es of

homicide2 and other causes are decided !y other ma.istrates# A similar principle

preails at Cartha.e1 there certain ma.istrates decide all causes# %e may2 indeed2

modify our definition of the citi3en so as to include these states# 4n them it is theholder of a definite2 not of an indefinite office2 who le.islates and +ud.es2 and to

some or all such holders of definite offices is resered the ri.ht of deli!eratin. or+ud.in. a!out some thin.s or a!out all thin.s# *he conception of the citi3en now

!e.ins to clear up#

He who has the power to take part in the deli!eratie or +udicial administration of

any state is said !y us to !e a citi3ens of that state1 and2 speakin. .enerally2 a state

is a !ody of citi3ens sufficin. for the purposes of life#

Part II

But in practice a citi3en is defined to !e one of whom !oth the parents are citi3ens1

others insist on .oin. further !ack1 say to two or three or more ancestors# *his is a

short and practical definition !ut there are some who raise the further uestion:How this third or fourth ancestor came to !e a citi3en0 ;or.ias of 6eontini2 partly


27/48

!ecause he was in a difficulty2 partly in irony2 said- /Mortars are what is made !y

the mortar-makers2 and the citi3ens of 6arissa are those who are made !y thema.istrates1 for it is their trade to make 6arissaeans#/


28/48

A.ain2 shall we say that while the race of inha!itants2 as well as their place ofa!ode2 remain the same2 the city is also the same2 althou.h the citi3ens are always

dyin. and !ein. !orn2 as we call riers and fountains the same2 althou.h the water

is always flowin. away and comin. a.ain Or shall we say that the .enerations ofmen2 like the riers2 are the same2 !ut that the state chan.es0 5or2 since the state is a

partnership2 and is a partnership of citi3ens in a constitution2 when the form of

.oernment chan.es2 and !ecomes different2 then it may !e supposed that thestate is no lon.er the same2 +ust as a tra.ic differs from a comic chorus2

althou.h the mem!ers of !oth may !e identical# And in this manner we speak of

eery union or composition of elements as different when the form of their

composition alters1 for e$ample2 a scale containin. the same sounds is said to !e

different2 accordin.ly as the Dorian or the "hry.ian mode is employed# And if

this is true it is eident that the sameness of the state consists chiefly in the

sameness of the constitution2 and it may !e called or not called !y the same name2whether the inha!itants are the same or entirely different# 4t is uite anotheruestion2 whether a state ou.ht or ou.ht not to fulfill en.a.ements when the form

of .oernment chan.es#

Part IV

*here is a point nearly allied to the precedin.: %hether the irtue of a .ood manand a .ood citi3en is the same or not# But2 !efore enterin. on this discussion2 we

must certainly first o!tain some .eneral notion of the irtue of the citi3en# 6ike thesailor2 the citi3en is a mem!er of a community# 7ow2 sailors hae different

functions2 for one of them is a rower2 another a pilot2 and a third a look-out man2 a

fourth is descri!ed !y some similar term1 and while the precise definition of each

indiidual/s irtue applies e$clusiely to him2 there is2 at the same time2 a

common definition applica!le to them all# 5or they hae all of them a common

o!+ect2 which is safety in nai.ation# Similarly2 one citi3en differs fromanother2 !ut the salation of the community is the common !usiness of them

all# *his community is the constitution1 the irtue of the citi3en must therefore !erelatie to the constitution of which he is a mem!er# 4f2 then2 there are many forms

of .oernment2 it is eident that there is not one sin.le irtue of the .ood citi3enwhich is perfect irtue# But we say that the .ood man is he who has one sin.le

irtue which is perfect irtue# Hence it is eident that the .ood citi3en need not of

necessity possess the irtue which makes a .ood man#

*he same uestion may also !e approached !y another road2 from a consideration

of the !est constitution# 4f the state cannot !e entirely composed of .ood men2 and

yet each citi3en is e$pected to do his own !usiness well2 and must therefore hae

irtue2 still inasmuch as all the citi3ens cannot !e alike2 the irtue of the citi3en and

of the .ood man cannot coincide# All must hae the irtue of the .ood citi3en- thus2

and thus only2 can the state !e perfect1 !ut they will not hae the irtue of a .oodman2 unless we assume that in the .ood state all the citi3ens must !e .ood#


29/48

A.ain2 the state2 as composed of unlikes2 may !e compared to the liin. !ein.: asthe first elements into which a liin. !ein. is resoled are soul and !ody2 as soul is

made up of rational principle and appetite2 the family of hus!and and wife2 property

of master and slae2 so of all these2 as well as other dissimilar elements2 the state iscomposed1 and2 therefore2 the irtue of all the citi3ens cannot possi!ly !e the

same2 any more than the e$cellence of the leader of a chorus is the same as that of

the performer who stands !y his side# 4 hae said enou.h to show why the twokinds of irtue cannot !e a!solutely and always the same#

But will there then !e no case in which the irtue of the .ood citi3en and the irtue

of the .ood man coincide0 *o this we answer that the .ood ruler is a .ood and wise

man2 and that he who would !e a statesman must !e a wise man# And some persons

say that een the education of the ruler should !e of a special kind1 for are not the

children of kin.s instructed in ridin. and military e$ercises0 As )uripides says:

=7o su!tle arts for me2 !ut what the state reuires# =

As thou.h there were a special education needed !y a ruler# 4f then the irtue of a

.ood ruler is the same as that of a .ood man2 and we assume further that the su!+ect

is a citi3en as well as the ruler2 the irtue of the .ood citi3en and the irtue of the

.ood man cannot !e a!solutely the same2 althou.h in some cases they may1 for theirtue of a ruler differs from that of a citi3en# 4t was the sense of this difference

which made ,ason say that /he felt hun.ry when he was not a tyrant2/ meanin.that he could not endure to lie in a priate station# But2 on the other hand2 it may

!e ar.ued that men are praised for knowin. !oth how to rule and how to o!ey2 and

he is said to !e a citi3en of approed irtue who is a!le to do !oth# 7ow if we

suppose the irtue of a .ood man to !e that which rules2 and the irtue of the citi3en

to include rulin. and o!eyin.2 it cannot !e said that they are eually worthy of

praise# Since2 then2 it is sometimes thou.ht that the ruler and the ruled must learndifferent thin.s and not the same2 !ut that the citi3en must know and share in

them !oth2 the inference is o!ious# *here is2 indeed2 the rule of a master2 which isconcerned with menial offices- the master need not know how to perform these2 !ut

may employ others in the e$ecution of them: the other would !e de.radin.1 and !ythe other 4 mean the power actually to do menialduties2 which ary much in

character and are e$ecuted !y arious classes of slaes2 such2 for e$ample2 as

handicraftsmen2 who2 as their name si.nifies2 lie !y the la!or of their hands: under

these the mechanic is included# Hence in ancient times2 and amon. some nations2the workin. classes had no share in the .oernment- a priile.e which they only

acuired under the e$treme democracy# Certainly the .ood man and the statesman

and the .ood citi3en ou.ht not to learn the crafts of inferiors e$cept for their own

occasional use1 if they ha!itually practice them2 there will cease to !e a distinction

!etween master and slae#

*his is not the rule of which we are speakin.1 !ut there is a rule of another kind2


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which is e$ercised oer freemen and euals !y !irth -a constitutional rule2 which

the ruler must learn !y o!eyin.2 as he would learn the duties of a .eneral of caalry!y !ein. under the orders of a .eneral of caalry2 or the duties of a .eneral of

infantry !y !ein. under the orders of a .eneral of infantry2 and !y hain. had the

command of a re.iment and of a company# 4t has !een well said that /he who hasneer learned to o!ey cannot !e a .ood commander#/ *he two are not the same2 !ut

the .ood citi3en ou.ht to !e capa!le of !oth1 he should know how to .oern like a

freeman2 and how to o!ey like a freeman- these are the irtues of a citi3en# And2althou.h the temperance and +ustice of a ruler are distinct from those of a su!+ect2

the irtue of a .ood man will include !oth1 for the irtue of the .ood man who is

free and also a su!+ect2 e#.#2 his +ustice2 will not !e one !ut will comprise distinct

kinds2 the one ualifyin. him to rule2 the other to o!ey2 and differin. as the

temperance and coura.e of men and women differ# 5or a man would !e thou.ht a

coward if he had no more coura.e than a coura.eous woman2 and a woman would

!e thou.ht louacious if she imposed no more restraint on her conersation than the.ood man1 and indeed their part in the mana.ement of the household isdifferent2 for the duty of the one is to acuire2 and of the other to presere#

"ractical wisdom only is characteristic of the ruler: it would seem that all

other irtues must eually !elon. to ruler and su!+ect# *he irtue of the su!+ect is

certainly not wisdom2 !ut only true opinion1 he may !e compared to the maker of

the flute2 while his master is like the flute-player or user ofthe flute#

5rom these considerations may !e .athered the answer to the uestion2 whether the

irtue of the .ood man is the same as that of the .ood citi3en2 or different2 and howfar the same2 and how far different#

Part V

*here still remains one more uestion a!out the citi3en: 4s he only a true citi3en

who has a share of office2 or is the mechanic to !e included0 4f they who hold nooffice are to !e deemed citi3ens2 not eery citi3en can hae this irtue of rulin. and

o!eyin.1 for this man is a citi3en And if none of the lower class are citi3ens2 inwhich part of the state are they to !e placed0 5or they are not resident aliens2 and

they are not forei.ners# May we not reply2 that as far as this o!+ection .oes there isno more a!surdity in e$cludin. them than in e$cludin. slaes and freedmen from

any of the a!oe-mentioned class

Documents

Politics Aristotle Book 3