ARISTOTLE

POLITICSTranslation,andGlossary

JoeSachswithanIntroductoryEssayby

LijunGuFocusPublishing/R.PullinsCompanyFocusPublishing:AnImprintofHackettPublishingCompanyIndianapolis/Cambridge

AristotlePolitics:Translation,Introduction,andGlossary©2012JoeSachsPreviouslypublishedbyFocusPublishing/R.PullinsCompanyFocusPublishing:AnImprintofHackettPublishingCompanyPOBox44937Indianapolis,Indiana46244-0937www.hackettpublishing.comCoverdrawingbyCindyZawalich,basedonasketchbyRobertAbbottenvisioningAristotle’sdescriptioninBookVII,Chapter12.ISBN:978-1-58510-594-6Alsoavailableinpaperback(ISBN978-1-58510-376-8).Allrightsreserved.TheLibraryofCongresshascatalogedtheprintededitionasfollows:Aristotle.[Politics.English]AristotlePolitics:translation,introduction,andglossary/JoeSachs.

p.cm.Includesindex.ISBN978-1-58510-376-81.Politicalscience--Earlyworksto1800.I.Sachs,Joe,1946-II.Title.III.Title:Politics.JC71.A41S282012320.01’1--dc23

2012014290LastupdatedJune2012

ContentsTRANSLATOR’SPREFACEINTRODUCTIONARISTOTLE’SPOLITICS(BOOKTITLESADDEDBY

TRANSLATOR)BookIThenaturalbasisofthecityBookIIPreviousopinionsaboutthebestcityBookIIICitizenshipandpoliticalruleBookIVThespectrumofdemocraticandoligarchicformsofgovernmentBookVFactionsandchangesofgovernmentBookVI.HowdemocraciesandoligarchiescanbemademoreeffectiveandenduringBookVIICharacteristicsofthebestcityBookVIII.Educationofcitizens

GLOSSARYSUMMARYOFCONTENTSINDEX

TRANSLATOR’SPREFACEItisnowmorethantwentyyearssincethisseriesoftranslationsofworks

ofAristotlebegan,andthescopeofthatprojecthasgrownfarbeyondanythingthatwasoriginallyenvisioned.IoncetoldsomeonethatIhadnointentionoftranslatingtheNicomacheanEthics;Ihadaccomplishedmypurpose,Ithoughtthen,byshowingthatAristotle’sprincipaltheoreticalworks—thePhysics,theMetaphysics,andOntheSoul—couldbereadwithoutanyoftheLatin-basedjargonthatcenturiesoftraditionhadimposeduponthem.AfterIhadinfactaddedtheNicomacheanEthicstothelist,ItoldsomeoneelsethatwasthelastworkofAristotleIwouldtranslate.IwasalwaystellingthetruthasIsawitatthetime,but,asAristotlehassaid,humanthingsarevariableandcannotbeknownwithcompleteprecision.Thepublicationofthepresentworkmaybeseen,atthemomentanyway,ascompletingaseriesoftranslationsofAristotle’sprincipalworksonhumanlife—theEthics,Poetics,Rhetoric,andPolitics.Inonecaseafteranother,Iwaspersuaded,orpersuadedmyself,thatIhadsomethingtocontributetotheunderstandingandappreciationofthesebooks.Theclosestudyinvolvedintranslatingthemhascontinuallyrevealedmoretomeofconnectionsamongthem.AndinthecaseofthePolitics,abookthatmanypeoplehavedevotedtheirlivestostudyingwhilemyownprimaryinterestshaveledmeelsewhere,oneargumentthatwasfinallypersuasivewassimplythatIoughtnottoleavethisoneconspicuousgapinagroupofAristotle’smajorwritings.

GettingahandleonanyofAristotle’sinquiriesisachallengingtask.Myownexperiencewiththemisthattheyusuallybegintocometogetherwhenonefindsadirectionofdialecticalmotion.Typically,Aristotle’sargumentsmovefromstartingpointsthatarewidelybelieved,byordinarypeopleorbythosewhohavestudiedpreviousthinkers,andarriveatconclusionsthatleavethoseinitialopinionsbehind.ReaderswhopraiseAristotleasthephilosopherofcommonsenseoftendonotnoticethathisreasoningcanendupinsomeuncommonplaces,andotherreaderswhoadmirehimonlyasamasterlogicianfailtoseethathealwayshasmorerespectforthecomplexwaysoftheworldweperceivethanforthelogicalarrangementsanyonemightseektofittheminto.Thecommonclaimthathewrites“treatises”cannotbesustainedbyanyonewhohasallowedhimselftobetakenonthewholeridethatanyof

theseinquiriescontains.Buteachofthoseridestakesitsowncourse,andthePoliticsisanespeciallyconfusingridetotake.Aristotlealwaysletshissubjectmatterdeterminehisapproach,andweinturnneedtoleteachofhisbooksteachushowitneedstoberead.ThepartsofthePoliticsdonotdisplayamotionfrombeginningstoconclusions,butseeminsteadtobuildupawholethatremainseverywhereinbalance.

Politicallifeisarealminwhichpracticaljudgmenttakesprecedenceovertheoreticalreasoning,andthatisequallytruewithinAristotle’sstudyofpoliticallife.Muchcanbedetermineddialecticallyaboutbetterandworsewaysoforderinghumancommunities,butcarryingoutanysuchmeasuresinpracticedependsonthecustoms,habits,andcircumstancesofpeopleasonefindsthem.Kingshipandaristocracymayhavebeenviableformsofgovernmentatearlystagesintheformationofcities,butAristotleregardsthemasimpossibleinhisowntime.Whatremainsfromthethreeformsheconsidersrightlydirectedistheformhecallsconstitutionalrule,whichhedescribesasamixtureofdemocracyandoligarchy.Butsinceheclassesthelattertwoformsalongwithtyrannyasdeviationsfromtheaimsofgovernment,constitutionalruleseemstobeacaseinwhichtwowrongsmakearight.AndmuchofthetaskofthePolitics,andofthepoliticalart,istodevelopthejudgmenttomakethatunlikelyresultcometrue.Inpractice,accordingtoAristotle,politicallifeisatug-of-warbetweentherichandthepoor.Heconcludesthateverytimeoneortheothersidedecisivelygetstheupperhand,everybodyloses.Iftheconflictbetweentherichandthepoorcouldberesolvedonceandforallinfavorofoneside,orsupersededaltogetherbysomeneworderofthings,thentherecouldbeadialecticalscienceofpoliticsthatlaidoutthebestwayforeveryonetolive.ButwhilethePoliticsthatAristotlewrotedoeshaveadialecticalside,andwhileitdoescontributetothepracticalpoliticaltask,thatdialecticdoesnotandcannotreplaceoroverridethevarietyofpracticalarrangementsthatcircumstancescallfor.Thisistruenotonlybecausethepoliticalart,likethatofthedoctor,mustbeappliedtohumanbeingswhovary,sothattherecanneverbeasinglerightapproachtocuringtheirills;inthecaseofpoliticallife,somestrongtraditionalhumanopinionswillnecessarilyguideandlimittheorganizationofpoliticalcommunitiesfromtheoutset.ThisiswhatAristotlemeansonthoseoccasionsinBookIwhenhedeclareshewilltakehisbearingsforpolitical

inquirybyfollowingtheusualcourse,orbeatenpath,ofpopularopinion.HereinthePolitics,popularopinionisnotjustapointofdeparturebuttheroadalongwhichthewholejourneyhastobemade.

MostofthetopicsAristotlediscussesinthePoliticscomeupmorethanonce,anditcanbedifficulttoputtogetherthethingshesaysaboutthem.Iamsuggestingthatthisisnotaninquiryinwhichprovisionalbeginningsaregraduallyrefinedintodialecticalconclusions.AndIcertainlydonotbelievethatAristotlespeaksdifferentlytodifferentclassesofreaders,concealinghisinmostthoughtsfromthoseofuswhoareunfittohearthem,orthathechangedhismindovertimeandhisyouthfulthoughtssomehowgotlumpedinwithhismatureones.ThePoliticscontainsanumberofstatementsandimagesthatcaptureAristotle’sapproachtodifferencesofpoliticalopinion.Onthesubjectofdemocraticandoligarchicargumentsaboutjustice,hesaystheclaimsonbothsidesaretruewhileneitheraloneisadequate(III,9).Aboutfood,hesaysthatdinnersarebetterwhenmanypeoplecontributedishes,andthatadietismorenourishingwhenitcontainsamixtureofpureandimpurefoodthaneitheralone;aboutworksofart,hesaysthatthemultitudeisgenerallyabetterjudgeofmusicandpoetrythanexpertsare,andthattheuserisalwaysthebestjudgeofitemsmadeforuse(III,11).AndhesaysthatSocrateswentoff-courseintheRepublicbyassumingthatacommunityoughttosinginunisonratherthaninharmony(II,5).Perhapsthebestsummaryofhiswayofthinkingishisextendedcomparisonoffellowcitizenstoshipmates(III,4):weareallinthesameboat,andwesinkorswimtogether.AndifthisisonlyonestrandamongmanyinAristotle’spoliticalthinking,itscontributiontothemeaningofthewholebecomesallthemoreimportant.WhetherwechoosetothinkofthePoliticsitselfassomethinglikeavoyage,asymphony,orafeast,heretoo,thepreponderanceofimagessuggeststhateverythingthatgoesintothewholeoughttoberegardedasremainingintactinthewhole.

OnetopicaboutwhichAristotlespeaksanumberoftimesinthePoliticsisthegovernmentofSparta,andthismightprovideuswithabriefillustrationofthewaytheworkhangstogether.InBk.II,Chap.9,Aristotleexaminesthatgovernmentinsomedetail,andhefindsseriousfaultsineverySpartanlawandpoliticalarrangementhementions.Still,twochapterslater,heconcludesthatSpartabelongswithinasmallhandfulofgovernmentsthatare“justly

highlyregarded.”ThereisasimilarpairofpassagesneartheendofthePolitics;inVII,15,AristotlecriticizestheSpartans’formofeducationasseriouslymisguided,butthreechapterslater,inVIII,1,hejudgesthemworthyofpraiseforhavingapubliceducationatall.Fromthesebookends,onemightconcludethatAristotleviewsSpartaasbeingontherighttrack,withoutinfacthavingfoundthemostsuccessfulwaysofcarryingoutanyofitspolicies.Butthesituationisworse:inVII,14,AristotleblaststhewholedesignoftheSpartangovernmentasbasedonamisunderstandingoftheendsofhumanlife.Ithasnotonlymissedthemarkbutfailedeventoaimattherighttarget.Andyet,ifoneisstartingtocatchontothekindofworkIamproposingthatthePoliticsis,onemightbeonthelookoutforan“andyet”somewhereinthemiddle.Andthereisone:inIV,9AristotlefindsSpartatobeoneofthoseplacesthatcanseembotholigarchicanddemocraticbecauseitisneither.TheSpartanspulledofftherarestaccomplishmentinthewholepoliticalworld(see1296a36-38)byminimizing,andinmanywayseliminating,thedifferencebetweenthelivesoftherichandthepoor.ThePoliticsmaybesaidtobalancearoundapointsomewherebetweendemocracyandoligarchy,andwhateverSparta’sfaultsandfailuresmayhavebeen,itfoundandspentcenturiesataspotverynearthatpoint.

SoIamclaimingthat,wheneveryoufindconflictingstatementsinthePolitics,themostfruitfulquestiontoaskisnotthedialecticalone—Howdoeshegetfromatob?—buttheorganicone:Whatisthewholebodyofwhichthosestatementsarelimbs?Forthissortofdiscernment,Aristotlerecommends,thebestpreparationisnotatraininginlogicbutlessonsindrawing(1338a40-b2).ItfollowsthatyoushouldnottrustanyonewhosinglesoutpartofwhatAristotlesaysaboutanythingashispoliticalopinion.Toanyquestionsuchas“DoesAristotleendorsearistocracy?”theanswerhastobe“Yes…andno,”followedbysomeexplanationandqualification.Eveninthecaseoftyranny,whichhecondemnsrepeatedlyinthestrongestterms,Aristotlealsomakesthepointthatatyrantcapableoflisteningtoreasonabouthisownlong-termself-interestcanendupbeingahalfway-decentsortofruler(1315b7-10).Ontheotherhand,youshouldnottrustmyadviceeither.IamarecentconverttotheviewofthePoliticsIamnowadvocating.Formuchtoolong,IwascontenttoconcentrateonBooksIandIIIandtreattherestasacollectionoflooselyrelatedessays.Butevenifitweretruethat

thePoliticsisnotacoherentwhole,itwilldoyounoharmtotryfirsttoletitspartscometogetherforyou.Tothisend,thisvolumecontainsanumberofaids.Theindexisselectiveinitschoiceofentries,buttriestoincludeanadequatespanofoccurrencesunderthosethatAristotlelooksatfromdifferingangles.PropernamesofpeopleandplacesareincludedonlywhenAristotle’sreferencestothemstandoutasmemorableorremarkable.Andthereisasummaryofcontentstoprovidesomethinglikeamapofthewholeterrain.Thefootnotessometimescontaincross-referencesornoteconnections,andthereisaglossarymeanttoguideyoutotheprimaryinstancesinwhichAristotle’slanguagedoesnotentirelymatchtheexpectationstowhichourownlanguagemightlead.Ofscholarlyorhistoricalbackgroundforitsownsake,thereisnonehere.Thereareplentyofbooks,easytofind,towhichyoumayturnforthatsortofthing.EverythinghereischosenwiththeaimofimmersingthereadermorefullyinwhatAristotlewrote.

LijunGu’sintroductioncanhelplaunchyouintosuchareading.Hehasbothpracticalandacademicqualificationsforpoliticalstudy,andapassionforthesubject.Itwashewhokepturgingmeforyearstomakethistranslation,andIamgratefultohavehispartnershipinaprojecthehasbeeninonsincebeforeitbegan.Hisintroductionisamodelofhowtoapproachthetaskofassemblingandcomparing,weighingandassessing,towhichthePoliticsinvitesthereader.Andspeakingofgratitude,mythanksgoonceagaintoEricSalem,whohasagainfoundawaytoslowdowntheturningofthecelestialsphereenoughtopermithimtoreadthroughthistranslationforerrorsandlapsesofjudgment.Needlesstosay,hefoundquiteafew,andraisedthequalityofthistranslationashehasdonewithsomanybeforeit.Thetranslationismadefromthe1973printingofSirDavidRoss’sOxfordClassicalText;departuresfromhisreadingsarefewandnoted.Thestandardpaginationofthetwo-columnBekkeredition,usedinallmodernversions,iscarriedinthemargins,withthelinenumbersoftheOCTeditionbetweenthem.ReferencesintheindexaretotheseBekkerpages.Thoughtheglossarywillbefoundwiththebackmatter,itwilldothereadernoharmtolookoveritbeforereadingthetext.

Annapolis,MarylandFall,2011

INTRODUCTIONAmongtheworksofAristotle,thePoliticsunexpectedlyprovestobemore

difficultinsomewaysthantheothers.Partoftheblamecanbelaidontheworkitself;forcomparedtomanyotherworksbyAristotle,andespeciallytoitscousin,theNicomacheanEthics,thePoliticsislooserinstructureandlesspolishedinstyle.Forexample,muchhasbeenmadeofthedisjointednessbetweentheendofBookIIIandbeginningofBookIV(somuchsothatWernerJaegerclaimsthatChapter18ofBookIIIisaninterpolationofadifferentauthor).1Inaddition,thesimilaritybetweenthischapterandthebeginningofBookVIIhasledmanytobelievethatBooksIIIandVIIbelongtooneunit,whereasBooksIV-VIbelongtoadifferentunitandwereinsertedatalaterdate.2TheseandotherapparentinconsistencieshavecausedmuchtroubleinourattemptstointerpretthePolitics.Theyalsohelpexplainwhysomuchoftheliteratureisaboutthequestionofwhethertheworkisacoherentwhole,and,ifnot,whetherthecontradictionsandincoherenciesareintheform,the“doctrine,”orboth.3

Therestoftheblame,however,probablylieswithus.SincesuchcomplaintsarenotlimitedtothePolitics,butareleveled,tovariousdegrees,againstalmostallofAristotle’sworks,theyperhapsrevealadeeperdiscomfort.Thatis,itmaywellbethatthePoliticsappearsdisjointedandconfusednotbecauseitissoitself,butbecausewearesoaccustomedtoacertainwayofseeingpolitics—awaythatthinksofpoliticsasa“commonpower”that“overawes”us,asatoolforpurposesbeyonditself,andultimatelyasa“science”thatisbasedon“clearanddistinct”thingsthathavetheirrootsinourperceptivefaculties.Inaddition,contrarytoAristotle’sotherworks(particularlythePhysicsandMetaphysics),theterminologyinthePoliticsseemsrelativelyfamiliartous.Thisoftenconvincesus—usuallywithoutourevenrealizingit—thatAristotlethinksaboutpoliticsinthesamewaythatwedotoday;asaconsequence,wecometoexpectasimilarfamiliarityinthereasoningandstructureofthebook.Therefore,ifthePoliticsdoesnotconformtothatexpectationbutinsteadappearsdisjointed,wethinkitmustbebecausethemanuscripthasbeendamaged,altered,mis-edited,orinterpolated;orbecausetherearesome“hiddenteachings;”orbecause

Aristotlehimselfgradually“developed”and“matured”inhisthinkingonpolitics.

Theremaywellbemerittosomeoftheseclaims.ButpursuingthemwouldleadusdownapathwhichIamnotpreparedtotake.Adifferentapproachistoask:CanweengagethePoliticsinafruitfulwaybytakingthetextasgiven,therebyavoidingthetrapsofexegeticalexpertiseandmodernprejudices?LetusbeginsuchaninquirybyfirstconsideringAristotle’sapproachtopoliticsingeneralandtheninvestigatingsomeofthekeyissuesinthetext.

I.PoliticsasanOrganicGrowthDespiteusingfamiliartermstodescribepolitics,Aristotleactuallyseesit

inaratherdifferentlight.Tobeginwith,sincepoliticsistheaffairsofthecity,tounderstandpolitics,onemustfirstunderstandthecity.AtthebeginningofBookI,Aristotledescribeshowthecitycomesintobeing.ThisdescriptionofthetransitionfromthehouseholdtothevillageandthentothecityactuallybearsaresemblancetoMachiavelli’sdescriptionoftheemergenceofpoliticalruleinhisDiscoursesonLivy.4Itshouldbenoticed,however,thatAristotlecharacterizesthismovementtowardthecityasagrowth,andinsodoingseparateshimselffromMachiavelliandothermodernthinkers.ForMachiavellidescribesacityasanallianceforsafetyandsecurity,whereasAristotledescribesitasagrowthtowardanorganicwholewithitsendinfullself-sufficiency.Fromplowingthefieldandreproducingchildrentoformingcoloniesandattendingassemblies,thecitycomesintobeingasouractivitiesexpandandgrow.Therefore,alongsidethegrowthofourbody,thereisanothergrowth—thegrowthofouractivity.Justasthegrowthofthebodyproducesaphysicalwhole,thegrowthofouractivityproducesanorganicwholeofitsown—thecity.

Thatouractivityisnotrandomandextraneousbutratherformsanorganicwholemaysoundoddtoourmodernears.Yetitmayseemlesssoifonereflectsuponthefollowingexample:Ifsomeonewalkingdownthestreettripsoverarockandfalls,wewouldtendtocallthisan“accident”(sincenooneplansontrippingoverthingsandthereisnorealreasonorlogicbehindsuchrandomoccurrences).Butifonethinksaboutitmorecarefully,itbecomes

clearthatthisso-called“randomness”neveroccurstoawholeclassofbeings—worms.Therefore,this“trippingover”issomethingthatbelongsaparticulartypeofbeing,namelythosethatraisetheirbodiesabovetheground,particularlythosethatwalkontwolegs.Hence,onemaysaythataparticularbeingbringsalongwithitparticulartypesof“accidents”andatthesametimeeliminatesothers.Inthissense,thereareno“accidents”—eachbeing’sactivitiesfullyconformtoitsnatureandformawhole.

ToAristotle,politicalactivityseemstobeofsuchanature.Itisnotsomerandomactivitythatwehappentodo,butanorganicgrowthinitselfthatconformstoourbeing:Justasthecityistheendofhumanassociationsandformsawholewiththehouseholdandvillage,sotooispoliticstheendofalltypesofruleandformsawholewiththetypesinthehouseholdandvillage.Therefore,contrarytotheHobbesiannotionthatpoliticscauseshumanbeingstobelesscomplete(sincethroughitwelosesomeofourrights),politicsaccordingtoAristotleisjusttheopposite:itistheveryactivitythatcompletesus.Thosewhodonotneedacityceasetobehumanbeings—theyareeitherbeastsorgods.5

Inkeepingwiththecity’ssimilaritytoorganicgrowth,politicsisanorderedactivity,butitisnotanorderderivedfromlogicaldeduction.Likewise,Aristotle’sinvestigationofpoliticshasaguidingprinciple,butitisnotonelonglogicalsequencewithonesinglebeginning.Itmayinvolvemultiplebeginningsandfollowalongmultiplepaths.Thesemultiplebeginningsandpathsaremeanttobegraspedandunderstoodasawhole,eventhoughthepresentationofthisunderstandinghastobebrokenupandarrangedonpagesinasequence.Thisinherenttensionbetweentheunderstandingofthewholeanditspresentationinpartsmaybeattherootofmuchofthediscontentovertheorganizationofthebook.Butifonetakesastepbackandlooksatthebookasawhole,onemightseethatthese“inconsistencies”aretheresultofAristotle’suniquewayofthinkingaboutpolitics.For,asmentionedearlier,themostnaturalbeginningofpoliticsisalwaysthelivinghumanbeingalreadyinreallife—beinginahousehold,beingasonorafather,awifeoramother—notafragmentedbeingreducedtohisperceptivefacultiesandplacedinanimaginary“stateofnature.”Thisisabeginningthatisfamiliartousbothinexperienceandinopinion,andthatiseasilyspokenaboutbymany.ButasAristotlepointsoutelsewhere,whatis

mostfamiliartousisnotalwayswhatismostclearinitself.Theformermayserveuswellasthebeginningofinvestigation,butthelatterispriorinitsintelligibility.6Whilethecityasacompoundbeingisfurtherawayfromusandismadeofparts,itisatthesametimetheplacewherehumanbeingsbecomemoreintelligiblebecauseinitwefullyrealizeourselves.Toinvestigatethecity,Aristotlehasto“uncompound”it.However,this“uncompounding”intoitssmallerpartsisnotthesameasmodernanalysis,norarethesmallerpartsanalyticalunits.Thiscanbeseenintheclaimthatalthoughthecityisprecededbythehouseholdandvillage,itisinanothersenseactuallyprior.Eachofthesepartsdoesnotexistinisolationbutalreadyaimsatthecity.Otherwise,itwouldbelikethestonehand,whichhasthelooksofarealhand,butisinfactdead.7

Withinthisgeneralapproachtopolitics—thatthecityisawholewhosepartscontainanimageofthatwhole,thediscussionsofvariousspecifictopicsfollowasimilarpath.Forexample,thePoliticsendsmoreorlesswithadiscussionofthebestformsofgovernmentinBookVII.Yetthisissueisalreadypresentattheverybeginningastheformsofruleinthehousehold.Ourexperiencesinahousehold—andthedifferentaccountsofandopinionsabouttheseexperiences—serveasthebeginningofourthinkingaboutthebestformofpoliticalrule.But,becauseofthevariousformsofinequalityinthehousehold,itsdifferenttypesofruleareonlyimagesofthetrueformsinthecity.Ifonestaysonlyatthelevelofthehouseholdwithoutmovingtowardthecity(whichisexactlywhathappenstothebarbariantribes),onecannothopetounderstandthebestformsofgovernment.Hence,investigatingthecity,itsorigin,itscomponentsanditscitizenswillultimatelyrequireanewstart.Yet,thisisnotaseparateinvestigation.Thequestionofformsofgovernmentisembeddedineachofthestagesofacity’sgrowthandispresentthroughout.TheendofBookIIIraisesthequestionaboutthebestformofgovernment:BookIVbeginswithabroaddiscussionofthisquestionfromtheviewofonesingleknowledge;BookVIImakesafreshstartonthesamequestion,butwithaneyetohowthebestgovernmentsarerelatedtothebestlife.Viewedseparately,theseappeardisjointedbecauseeachlookslikeanewbeginningalongadifferentpath.Butiftheyarereadtogether,theyeachcontributetotheinquiryandarepartsofawhole.Itisthisdialecticalthinkingthatweavestogetherthepartsandthewhole,themorefamiliarandthemore

intelligible,theopinionsandthephilosophicinquiries.Thisback-and-forthbetweenvariouspartsmayappearsloppy,confusing,andevendisorienting;butitultimatelypushesustoreadthewholeinvestigationcarefullybeforedecidinguponwhatthebestformofgovernmentis.

Beforeendingthissectionandturningtothebookitself,afewwordsonanotherimportantaspectofAristotle’sthinkingonpoliticsareneeded.InBooksIVthroughVII,Aristotlementionstwotypesofbestgovernment:the“bestsimply”andthe“bestpossible.”ThislanguageisfamiliarandperhapsremindsusofthedistinctionmadebyMachiavellibetweenthe“real”andthe“imaginary”republics.8YetitseemsthatAristotle’s“bestsimply”and“bestpossible”regimesaremuchmorenuancedandcomplicated,especiallyinthecaseofthelatter.Inthegeneralarticulation,the“bestpossible”isatypeofmiddleregimebasedona“mixing.”Butthismixingcanmeandifferentthings:Inonesenseitmaybeunderstoodasthemixingofdegreesofwealth;inanother,ofwealthandfreedom;inyetanother,ofwealthandvirtue.Thereisnoformulabecausethe“bestpossible”isnotbasedonarigidclaimabouttheinherentflawinournatureanditsfailuretomeasureupagainstsometheoreticalideal.Rather,itisbasedonthefactthatpoliticalassociationsarereallivingcommunities.Assuch,theyareinevitablyconditionedbytheirseparatehistories,traditions,customs,geographies,etc.,allofwhichwilltendtogiverisetosetsofuniqueprofessionsandtemperaments.Theseinturnwillaffectthepoliticalbehaviorsoftheircitizenbodies.ThisbringsustotheimportantaspectofAristotle’sthinkingonpolitics—practicaljudgment.Sincethe“bestpossible”isnotbasedonauniversalformulaofhumannature,onecannotreallygetitfrombooklearning.Itthusfallstothosewhohavetheexperienceandprudencetostudyitandinquireaboutit.Atruepolitician,therefore,notonlyhastohavetheknowledgeaboutthebestformofgovernment,butalsothelongandwideexperiencesthatarenecessarytomakeasoundjudgmentonhowtomaketherightmixture(whattomixandhowtomixthem)forhisowncity.ThisiswhyAristotlefamouslyclaimsatthebeginningofhisEthicsthatpoliticsisnotasuitablesubjectfortheyoung.9

NowthatwehavelookedatAristotle’sgeneralapproachtopolitics,letusturntosomeofthekeyissuesinthePolitics.

II.“Ahumanbeingbynatureisananimalmeantforthecity”—PoliticsI,2

IthasbeensaidthatpassagesattheendtheNicomacheanEthicssubordinatethePoliticstotheEthics.Isthisreallytrue,ordoesthePoliticsstandonitsownandhaveitsintrinsicvalueseparatefromtheEthics?

Acomparisonoftwopassagesisagoodplacetostart.ThefirstoneisfromtheEthics:

“Andwhatisreferredtoasself-sufficiencywouldbepresentmostofallinthecontemplativelife,forwhilethewiseandthejustperson,andtherest,areinneedofthethingsthatarenecessaryforliving,whentheyaresufficientlyequippedwithsuchthings,ajustpersonstillneedspeopletowardwhomandwithwhomhewillactjustly,andsimilarlywiththetemperateandthecourageouspersonandeachoftheothers,butthewisepersonisabletocontemplateevenwhenheisbyhimself,andmoresototheextentthatheisthemorewise.Hewillcontemplatebetter,nodoubt,whenhehaspeopletoworkwith,butheisstillthemostself-sufficientperson.”(1177a27,italicsadded)CompareittothefollowingpassagefromthePolitics,“Thecompleteassociationmadeofmorethanonevillageisacity,sinceatthatpoint,sotospeak,itgetstothethresholdoffullself-sufficiency,comingintobeingforthesakeofliving,butbeingforthesakeoflivingwell…Foritistheirend,andnatureisanend;forwhateachthingiswhenithasreachedthecompletionofitscomingintobeingisthatwhichwesayisthenatureofeach,aswithahumanbeing,ahorse,ahouse.Andthatforthesakeofwhich,theend,isalsothebest,andself-sufficiencyisbothanendandwhatisbest.”(1152b35,italicsadded)

Thereissomethingcuriousabouttherebeingtwocompletionsforman.Sinceacompletebeingcannotbefurthercompleted,howcanboththecontemplativelifeandthecitybesaidtocompleteman?WiththehelpofapassageinAristotle’sMetaphysics—namely,thattheendofeverybeingisworkandactivity10—wecanfurtherrefinethequestion:whatactivitydoes

contemplativelifelack?Or,toputthequestioninaslightlydifferentway,whatistheactivitywhich,thoughpresentinthecontemplativelife,cannotbefullyexploredintheEthicsand,therefore,mustbearticulatedagaininthePolitics?

IfwethinkthroughhowthecompletiondescribedinthePoliticsdiffersfromthatintheEthics,wewillgainabetterunderstandingofthePolitics.SinceAristotleneverdirectlydiscussesexactlyhowthecitycompletesusorwhatexactlythedeficiencyisthatcannotbeovercomebytheothertypesofassociations,onehastotracehisargumentbacktoChapter2ofBookItoseewhatitentails:

“Nowitisnecessarythattherefirstbeapairingtogetherofthosewhodonothavethepowertobewithouteachother,suchasafemaleandamaleforthesakeofgeneration(andthisnotoutofchoicebutjustasintheotheranimalsandplants,byanaturestrivingtoleavebehindanotherlikeitself),andsomethingnaturallyrulingandruledforpreservation.”(1252a25-31)

Sinceasindividualsweareincompleteintwoways—wecannotgenerateorpreserveourselves—then,bynecessity,therearetwotypesofpairingswerequireforcompletion:thatofmaleandfemaleforgeneration,andthatofnaturallyrulingandruledforpreservation.Untilthecomingintobeingofthecity,Aristotledoesn’tintroduceanyothertypesofpairings.Thismayleadonetoconcludethatthecitycompletesusbecauseitcontainsthesetwotypesofpairings.

Ofthesetwo,itisclearthatthefirsttypeisofonlysecondaryimportance;foralthoughhumanbeingschooseparticularmates,themale-femalepairingitselfisnottheresultofadeliberatechoiceandisthereforenotspecialtobeinghuman,butissharedwithotheranimalsandevenplants.Thismayalsoexplainwhy,whenreferringtohumangenerativepairings,Aristotleusesawordmeaning“coupling”(sunduazesthai)insteadofonemeaningmarriage.Therefore,howeveritcompletesus,itdoessoforthosepartsofusthatweshareincommonwithanimalsandplants,andhencedoesnotcompleteusashumans.

Whatisleftthenisthesecondtypeofpairing,thenaturallyrulingandruled.Hence,letusfornowproceedwiththeassumptionthattheactivity

whoselackrendersusincompleteisthatoftherulingandruled.Indeed,thesecondhalfoftheabovequoteleadsusonestepfurtherinthisdirection,

“Forthatwhichhasthepowertoforeseebythinkingisnaturallyrulingandnaturallymastering,butwhathasthepowertocarryoutthosethingswiththebodyisruledandisnaturallyslavish;hencethesamethingisadvantageoustoamasterandtoaslave.Andbynature,thefemaleandtheslavearedistinct.(Fornaturedoesnothingstingily,thewaythebronze-workersmaketheDelphicknife,butonethingforonejob,sinceinthatway,byservingnotformanyjobsbutforone,eachoftheinstrumentsaccomplishesitsworkinginthemostbeautifulmanner).”(1252a30-b5,italicsadded)

Acarefulreadingofthispassageshowsthatwhatwereoriginallypresentedastwotypesofpairingsarenot,strictlyspeaking,twoseparatekindsatall,forthecomparisonbetweenthefemaleandtheslaveimpliesthatthesecondpairingactuallyunderpinsbothkinds:attherootofthemale-femalepairingliesthepairingofrulingandbeingruled.Thefemale,whowasinitiallypresentedasbeingforthesakeofgeneration,isnowshowntohaveamuchdifferentrole;sheissubjecttoatypeofrulewhichdiffersfundamentallyfromthattowhichaslaveissubject.Onthisview,onemightsaythatthereisonlyonetypeofpairing,thatoftherulingandruled,butittakesdifferentformsbecauseofthedifferenttypesofworkthateachpairingaccomplishes,generationforthatofamaleandfemale,anddailynecessityforthatofamasterandslave.

Therefore,itisbythefulfillmentoftheneedtoruleandberuledthatthecitycompletesus,andhence“ahumanbeingbynatureisananimalmeantforthecity”becausehe/shehasbynaturetheneedtoruleandberuled.11

Onemayraiseaquestionatthispoint:Ifitistherulingandbeingruledthatcompleteus,andifthisisalsopresentinotherassociations(suchasthehousehold)whycannotthefullcompletionbeachievedinthehousehold?Inotherwords,whymusttherebeacity?Oneobviousdifferencebetweentheruleinthecityandthoseintheotherassociationsisthatonlytheformerisaruleamongequals,whiletherestarerulesamongunequals.Theselatterincluderulesbetweentheparentandthechildandbetweenthemasterandtheslave,andtheyarebasedonnaturaldistinctionsbetweentherulingandthe

ruled.For,comparedtotheadultcitizens,“theslavewhollylacksthedeliberativecapacity…andthechildhasit,butincomplete.”12Ifitisthecitywhichcompletesus,theruleamongunequalswhichexistsinthehouseholdandvillagemustbeofsecondaryimportance.AlittlereflectiononwhatAristotlesaysinthefollowingshortsentenceshowsuswhy:

“Whyahumanbeingisananimalmeantforacity,morethaneverysortofbeeandeverysortofherdanimal,isclear.Fornature,asweclaim,doesnothinguselessly,andahumanbeing,aloneamongtheanimals,hasspeech.”(1253a11)13

SincewearenottheonlyanimalsthataredeemedpoliticalbyAristotle,andsincenaturedoesnothinguselessly,thepassageseemstobesayingthatnaturehasalsoprivilegedcertainmembersoftheseother“political”animalsandendowedthemwithforesight.Forexample,anewqueenbeeseemstohavetheforesightofpickingasuitableplaceforanewhive,whereasworkerbeesdonot.Hence,whenthetimecomes,shewillleadandtheworkerswillfollow.Amongtheseanimals,therefore,theruleisfundamentallyunequalandnaturallysobecauseinessenceitisakindofrulewhoseexcellenceisnotbasedonanexcellenceinworkbutonanaturalendowmentandanaturaldistinctionthatcannotbeovercome.Hence,whenwelooktothekindsofruleamonghumanbeings,thesamereasoningcanapply:anyformsofrulethatarebasedonnaturaldistinctions—suchasthosebetweenmasterandslave,andthosebetweenparentsandoffspring—aresimilartothatbetweenthequeenandtheworkerandshouldbedeemedinferior.Aristotlemakesthisclearinanotherpassage:

“Thekindofruleisalwaysbetterwhenthoseruledarebetter,aswhentheoneruledisahumanbeingratherthanabeast,sincetheworkisbetterthatiscarriedoutbythosewhoarebetter,andwhereveronerulesandanotherisruledthereissomethingthatistheirwork”(1254a25,italicsadded)

Unequalrulethereforeisaninferiorrulebecauseitisoverinferiorsubjects,anditconsequentlyproducesinferiorwork.Theruleinthecityisbetterbecauseitisaruleoverbettersubjects,andwiththeruleoverbettersubjectscomesbetterwork.Itisparticularlyimportanttonoticethattheabovepassagestartswiththebetterworkonlyonthepartofthoseruled—aruled

humanbeingcandobetterworkthanadomesticatedanimal—butitendswiththeimpliedbetterworkonbothparts,therulingandtheruled.Aristotledoesnotsaydirectlyinthispassagewhatthebetterworkoftheruleris,butonecangetaverygoodideabyconsideringtwootherpassagesfromBooksIandIII:

“Andwhilethevoiceisasignofpainandpleasure,andbelongsalsototheotheranimalsonthataccount(sincetheirnaturegoesthisfar,havingaperceptionofpainandpleasureandcommunicatingthesetooneanother),speechisfordisclosingwhatisadvantageousandwhatisharmful,andsotoowhatisjustandwhatisunjust.Forthisisdistinctiveofhumanbeingsinrelationtotheotheranimals,tobealoneinhavingaperceptionofgoodandbad,justandunjust,andtherest,anditisanassociationinvolvingthesethingsthatmakesahouseholdandacity.”(1253a11)“Henceinthecaseofpoliticalofficestoo,whenevertheyareorganizedonabasisofequalityandsimilarityamongthecitizens,theyexpecttotaketurnsruling.Informertimes,inawaythatwasnatural,theyexpectedtotaketurnsdoingpublicservice,whilehavingsomeonelookaftertheirgoodinreturn,justas,whenthatpersonwasrulingbefore,someonehadlookedafterhisadvantage.”(1279a10)

Ifonelooksatthesetwopassagesinrelationtoeachother,itbecomesclearthatthesecondoneispredicatedonthefirst:namely,thatacitizencanconvinceanothercitizentotakecareofhisowninterestsisbasedonthecapacityforspeechandtheabilitytopersuadeinmakingclearwhatisadvantageousandjust.Therefore,whiletheruleamongunequalsisbaseduponforceornaturaldistinctions,theruleamongequals(thatis,ruleinthecity)isbaseduponpersuasion.Therefore,whereastheformerrulereliesoninbornforesightorbrutestrength(naturalandofteninsurmountabledifferences),thelatterreliesonreasonandspeech(ourhighestcapacities).Sincethebettercapacityyieldsthebetterwork,ruleamongequalsisbetterandmoreproperlyhuman.Inthissense,Aristotle’stakeonthecityisdifferentfromPlato’s,whoclaimsthatagoodmandoesnotwanttorulebecausetheproperruleaimsattheinterestoftheruled.ToAristotle,thecityispreciselytheplacewhere,throughitspoliticalrule,boththerulerandtheruledcandotheirbestwork—somethingthatisimpossiblewithinthe

confinesofthehouseholdorvillage.Inaddition,theruleinthecityandrulesinthehouseholdorvillagedonot

justdifferindegreealongacontinuum,butinkind.Thatis,itisnotthattheruleinthehousehold,withoutthecity,cancompleteuspartly,andthecity,whenitcomesalong,picksupfromwherethehouseholdleavesoffandcompletesusfully.Infact,itisjusttheopposite:

“Foreveryhouseholdisunderkinglyrulebytheeldest,andsotheircoloniesaretoo,throughtheirfamilyconnection.AndthisiswhatHomeristalkingaboutwhenhesays‘eachoneisalawuntochildrenandwives...’”(1252b23)“…onewhoiscitylessasaresultofnatureratherthanbychoiceiseitherinsignificantormorepowerfulthanahumanbeing.HeislikethepersonreviledbyHomeras‘withoutfellowship,withoutlaw,withoutahearth,”forsomeoneofthatsortisatthesametimenaturallybentonwar,sinceheisinfactlikeanunpairedpieceonachecker-board…andonewhoisnopartofacity,eitherfromlackingthepowertobeinanassociationorfromneedingnothingonaccountofself-sufficiency,isforthatreasoneitherabeastoragod.”(1253a5-29)

Withoutthecity,then,therulesinthehouseholdandvillageactuallybecomedestructivetohumanbeings;forjustliketherelationshipbetweenthegrowthofthewholeandthatoftheparts,wherethelatterisbeneficialonlyinrelationtotheformer(withoutrespecttowhichitcanbecancerousandharmthebody)sotooistherelationshipbetweentherulesinthehousehold/villageandthatinthecity.Iftheunequalrulesinthehouseholddonotaimattheruleamongequalsinthecity,theinferiorworkproducedbythemwillturnhumanbeingsintoCyclopeswithanaturalbenttowardwarandcannibalism.Onlyinthecity,then,arewecompletedashumans,becauseourfundamentalneedtoruleandberuled(thoughpresentindifferentformsintheotherassociations)getstransformedinthecity,sothatitisfulfilledinawaythatisbeneficialtous,ratherthanturningusintoCyclopeanbeasts.

Atthispoint,aquestionmayberaisedaboutanissuethathasnotbeenexploredthusfar—theruleofhusbandoverwife.ForAristotledoesmentionthatthisruleispolitical,whichseemstomeanthatinessenceitisarule

amongequals.Ifthisisunqualifiedlytrue,then,itwouldseemthatonewouldnotneedthecity,forallaspectsoftheneedtoruleandberuledcouldbefulfilledinthehousehold.

ThereisindeedalongstandingdebateoverwhatAristotletrulythinksaboutthisrule.ThesourceofthisdifficultycomespartlyfromvariousclaimsbyAristotlethatseemratherambiguous,14butprimarilyfromanexamplethatAristotleusestodescribetherelationshipbetweenhusbandandwifeinBookI,Chapter12,whichinvolvesthestoryoftheEgyptianKingAmasis,15

“Nowinmostinstancesofpoliticalrulethereisaninterchangeamongthosewhoruleandareruled,sincetheytendbynaturetobeonanequalityandhavenodifference;nevertheless,wheneveronerulesandanotherisruled,theformerwantstheretobeadifferenceinformalities,words,andtokensofrespect,asAmasissaidinthestoryaboutthefootpan.Themaleisalwaysrelatedtothefemaleinthismanner.”(1259b5)

Manyhavearguedthatthisexampleshowsthat,toAristotle,thedifferencebetweenmaleandfemaleisreallyamatterofconvention,justlikethedifferencebetweenthefootpanandthestatue(fortheunderlyingmaterialisthesame).If,however,onelookscarefullyintotheAmasisstory,thisconclusionbecomesquestionable.ThedetailsofthisstoryareinBookII,Section172ofHerodotus’History:

“NowatthefirsttheEgyptiansdespisedAmasisandheldhiminnogreatregard,becausehehadbeenamanofthepeopleandwasofnodistinguishedfamily;butafterwardsAmasiswonthemovertohimselfbywisdomandnotwillfulness.Amonginnumerableotherthingsofpricewhichhehad,therewasafoot-basinofgoldinwhichbothAmasishimselfandallhisguestswerewontalwaystowashtheirfeet.Thishebrokeup,andofithecausedtobemadetheimageofagod,andsetitupinthecity,whereitwasmostconvenient;andtheEgyptianswentcontinuallytovisittheimageanddidgreatreverencetoit.ThenAmasis,havinglearntthatwhichwasdonebythemenofthecity,calledtogethertheEgyptiansandmadeknowntothemthematter,sayingthattheimagehadbeenproducedfromthefoot-basin,intowhichformerlytheEgyptiansusedtovomitandmakewater,and

inwhichtheywashedtheirfeet,whereasnowtheydidtoitgreatreverence;andjustso,hecontinued,hadhehimselfnowfared,asthefoot-basin;forthoughformerlyhewasamanofthepeople,yetnowhewastheirking,andhebadethemaccordinglyhonorhimandhaveregardforhim.”(italicsadded)16

Thestoryindeedconveystheconnotationthatthereisnoinherentdifferencebetweenhighbirthandlowbirth,justasthereisnoinherentdifferencebetweenthegoldmadeintoafootpanandthegoldmadeintoastatue.WhenAristotleappliesthisstorytotherelationsofmaleandfemale,themoraldoesappeartobethatthereisnoinherentdifferencebetweenthemembersofeitherpairandthattheapparentdifferenceistheproductofconvention.

Althoughthisinterpretationisreasonable,itreliesononlyoneofthetwo(ifnotmore)possiblereadingsofthestory(theonewhichlocatestheanalogybetweenthehusbandandwife,andthefootpanandstatue).Ifonereallyreflectsuponit,however,itbecomesclearthatthelogicbehindthisinterpretationrisksrenderingthestoryunintelligiblebyturningAmasisintoafoolratherthanthewisepersonthatHerodotusclaimshimtobe–foriftherespectpaidtothestatueisessentiallyconventional(because,theargumentgoes,thestatueismadeofthesamematerialasthatofthefootpan),thenwoulditnotbedangerousforAmasistoexposeit?For,afterall,howcanheexpectanyrespectfromtheEgyptiansifitispublicallyacknowledgedthatheiscomposedofthesame“material”astheyare?

Analternative(andperhapsmoreplausible)wayofrelatingthestorytowhatAristotlesaysistocomparethehusbandandwifetothe‘footpan-Amasis’andthe‘statue-Amasis;’foralthoughthesetwoAmasesarecomposedofthesame“material,”theyhavedifferentdesires.Thisreading,whichtakesintoconsiderationthedifferencebetweenhumanbeingsandinanimateobjects,helpsbringtolighttwocrucialpointsaboutthepoliticalworldandtheworldofinanimateobjects.First,theinanimategoldisindifferenttowhetheritismadeintoafootpanorastatue,butAmasisisnotindifferenttowhetherheisacommonerorking.Second,inthepoliticalworld,thestatue-Amasis’desirefor“tokensofrespect”fromtheEgyptiansdoesnotautomaticallyfulfillitself.ForwhiletheEgyptianscomeoftheirownwilltopayrespecttothe

statue,itisnotclearatallwhethertheywoulddothesameforAmasis.ItseemsthatAmasisunderstandsthesituationratherwell:HedoesnotjustsittherelikeastatueandwaitfortheEgyptianstocome;hebadethemtohonorhim.

Itmightbeinterestingtonotethatthebiddingdoesnotjustoccurattheendofthestory.Infact,itisclearthattheveryunfoldingofAmasis’design—whichHerodotuscalls“wise”—consistsofaseriesofbiddings:fromhavingthefootpanbrokenup,tohavingitmadeintoastatusandthenmovedtoaverypublicplace.Withouttheabilitytobidandcommand,Amasis’wisdomandforesightwouldnothavecometofruition.Inthissense,thesebiddingsthemselvesbecometheembodimentofAmasis’wisdom.

Viewedinthislight,Aristotle’sreferencetothestorytakesonadifferentmeaning.Ratherthanhintingatatrueequalitybetweenthehusbandandwife,Aristotlemayactuallybeimplyingthatthetruefoundationforequalityinpoliticalruleisnot“material.”JustlikeAmasis,allpoliticalrulersdesire“tokensofrespect,”eventhoughtheyarecomposedofthesame“material”asthoseruled.Althoughthesetokensofrespectmaycreateapparentdifferencesamongcitizens,thesituationisequalizedinthecityascitizenstaketurnsrulingandbeingruled.Inthehousehold,however,thesituationisdifferent;thefemale,forwhateverreasons—betheyphysicalorotherwise—cannotcommand.Therefore,althoughtherulebetweenhusbandandwifeispolitical,theequalitythatunderliesthisruleisnotunqualified,sincethetokensofrespectinthissituationarenotreciprocated.17Inthefollowingtwopassages,wecancometofurtherunderstandAristotle’sdistinctionbetweenmaleandfemale:

“Forthisisdistinctiveofhumanbeingsinrelationtotheotheranimals,tobealoneinhavingaperceptionofgoodandbad,justandunjust,andtherest,anditisanassociationinvolvingthesethingsthatmakesahouseholdandacity.”(1253a11,italicsadded)“Theslavewhollylacksthedeliberativecapacity,whilethefemalehasit,butwithoutauthority.”18

Thefirstpassageisparticularlyimportantsinceitrevealsthatthehousehold,justlikethecity,isnotmerelyaplacefornecessities,butalsoa

placewherethereexiststheperceptionofgoodandbadandjustandunjust.Throughthesetwopassages,Aristotleclearlyindicatesthatthefemalehasthedeliberativecapacity,andnatureplacesheronthesamefootingwiththemaleintermsoftheperceptionofgoodandbadaswellasjustandunjust.Yet,thedifferencebetweenthetwoisnotjustconventional,butreal—though,again,notinthematerialsense.The“withoutauthority”inthesecondquoteimmediatelyremindsusofthe“bidding”intheAmasisstory.Withouttheauthoritytocommand,certaintypesofworkarenotavailabletothefemale,andconsequently,neitheristheopportunitytoruleandberuledinturns.

WhateveronemightthinkofAristotle’sviewaboutwomen,itisworthmentioningthatthelower(political)positionofwomendoesnotnecessarilyleadtotheirdiminishedroleinAristotle’sthinking.InBookI,Chapter2Aristotlesays,

“Amongthebarbarians,though,thefemaleandtheslavehavethesamerank.Thereasonisthattheydonothavethatwhichbynaturerules,buttheirassociationbecomesthatofafemaleslaveandamaleslave.”(1252b5)

Takenbyitself,thispassageseemstoshowthatthecauseforthelowstatusofwomenamongthebarbariansisthattheirmenbynaturecannotrule.However,itdoesnotexplainwhyifthemencannotrule,bothmenandwomenareinaslavishcondition.Ifonereadsthispassageinconjunctionwiththeaforementionedoneabouttherulersbeingbetterwhentheruledarebetter,19thedirectionofthecausalityofthesocialdegradationiscircular—itisjustaspossibletoreadAristotleassayingthatthebarbarianmencannotrulebecausetheyhaveanaturallyflawedwayoftreatingtheirwomen.Itisthedegradingoftheirwomenthatultimatelyleadstothedegradingofthebarbarianmen.

III.TheBestFormofGovernmentIfrulingandbeingruledinthecitycompletesus,thenwhatroledo

differentformsofgovernment,especiallythebestones,play?InBookVII,Aristotlegivestwo“definitions”ofthebestformsofgovernment:

“Nowitismanifestthatthebestregimemustbethatarrangementinwhichanyonemightactbestandliveblessedly.”(1324a23)

“Andsinceourproposedtaskistogetalookatthebestformofgovernment,andthisistheonebywhichacitywouldbebestgoverned,andtheonegovernedbestisthatinwhichthereisthegreatestpossibilityforthecitytobehappy,itisclearthatthequestionofwhathappinessismustnotbepassedover.”(1332a5)

Straightforwardasthesedefinitionsmayseem,theydonotreadilyleadtoaclearunderstandingoftheissue.ThisisinlargepartduetovariousthingsthatAristotlesaysinBookIIIandIVaboutthebestformsofgovernment,whereitisnotclearhowtheyarerelatedtooneanotherortothenotionofbestrulediscussedearlier.

Atfirstglance,Aristotle’sdiscussionofthebestformsofgovernmentcanbeputintotwocategories,eachofwhichhasdifficulties.ThefirstcategoryiswhatAristotlecallsthe“bestsimply:”kingshipandaristocracyinthetruesense.PartofthereasoningispresentedtowardtheendofBookIII:

“Andsinceweclaimtherearethreerightformsofgovernment,thebestofthesewouldnecessarilybetheonemanagedbythebestpeople,andthisisthesortofgovernmentinwhichoneperson,orawholefamilyormultitude,wouldturnouttobesurpassinginvirtuecomparedtoalltheresttogether,thelattercapableofbeingruledwhiletheformerarecapableofrulingwithaviewtothelifemostworthyofchoice…itisclearthatonewouldorganizeacityunderanaristocracyorkingshipinthesamemannerandbythesamemeansthatamanbecomesexcellent.”(1288a33)

Sinceitisnotpossibleforalargenumberofpeopletoeachhavethebestvirtues(exceptthoserelatedtomilitaryexcellence)itisnaturalthatthe“bestsimply”governmentsbearistocracyandkingship.InadditiontothediscussionsofaristocracyinBookIII,thereareothersinpartsofBookIV.Butdespitethis,itisunclearhowseriouslyAristotletakesthese“bestsimply”formsofgovernment.Thereareobviouslysomepracticalconcerns:these“bestsimply”requirealargeamountofresourceswhichmanycitiescannotafford.20Andwithregardtoaristocracyinparticular,Aristotlesays:

“Foritisonlyjusttorefertotheformofgovernmentmadeupofthosewhoarethebestpeoplesimplyonthebasisofvirtue,andnotbysomeparticularassumptionaboutgoodmen,asaristocracy,forinitalone

thesamepersonisagoodmanandagoodcitizen.”(1293b5)Ofcourse,howplausibleitistohaveacitycomposedofallgoodpeople

isthequestion—onewhichAristotleappearstohaverejectedelsewhere.21

ButAristotlealsoseemstoindicatethatbeyondthesepracticalconcernsmaylieanevendeeperreasonfortheimpossibilityofthe“bestsimply”regimes.InBookII,AristotlecriticizesPlato’sRepublicforgivingexclusiveruletotheguardiansandforhavingthecitizensholdallpropertyincommon:

“Foracityisbynatureacertainkindofmultiplicity;bybecomingmoreofaoneitwouldturnfromacityintoahouseholdandfromahouseholdintoahumanbeing.Forwewouldclaimthatahouseholdismoreofaonethanacityis,andasinglepersonthanahousehold;soevenifsomeonewerecapableofdoingthis,itoughtnottobedone,sinceitwouldabolishthecity.Andacityismadeupnotonlyofamultiplicityofhumanbeings,butalsoofhumanbeingsdifferinginform,fornocitycomesaboutfrompeopleallalike.Foracityandanalliancearedifferent.”(1261a18,italicsadded)

YetwhatAristotleherecriticizesispreciselywhatthe“bestsimply,”asdiscussedinthePolitics,resemble.Byexcludingothercitizensfromruling,thesegovernmentsmovethecitytowardunity,andturnitintosomethinglikeahouseholdinthesensethattherulersintheseregimesaresofarabovetherestinvirtuethattheyarelikefatherstotheirchildren.Itseems,then,thatinthese“bestsimply”governments,thereisaninherenttendencytotransformthecity(and,thereby,itself)intowhatitisnot.

InBookIV,Aristotleelaboratesuponthispointbycomparingthecitytoalivinganimal;

“Forweareagreedthateverycityhasnotjustonepartbutmorethanone.Itisthesameas,ifweintendedtogetagraspofthespeciesofanimals,wewouldfirstseparateoutthethingsitisnecessaryforeveryanimaltohave(suchascertainsenseorgans,somethingsuitedtoworkonandabsorbfood,suchasamouthanddigestivetract,andinadditiontothese,partsbymeansofwhicheachofthekindsmoves).”(1290b25)

Thiscomparisonshowsthatthecityismadeofdiversepartsthatare

differentinkind,andthesepartshavetofitsothatthe“animal”canbeareallivinganimal.Butthe“bestsimply”governmentsseemtoviolatethis:

“Foritissurelynotappropriatetokillorexileorostracizesuchaperson,ortoclaimhedeservestoberuledinhisturn.Forwhileitisnotthenaturalthingfortheparttoexceedtothewhole,thisiswhathashappenedwithsomeonewhohassuchagreatsuperiority.”(1288a25,italicsadded)

Inthisview,the“bestsimply”governments—bycontainingwithinthemselvesfarsuperiorparts(theirrulers)—destroytheveryproportionalitythatisnecessaryforthecity(ifitoughttoresemblethelivinganimal).Thereissomethingmonstrousaboutundoingtheverybeingfromwhichonehassprung.Amongsthumanbeingsthisiscalledpatricide,oneofthemostheinousofcrimes.PerhapsthisiswhyAristotleacknowledgesintheabovepassagethatthe“bestsimply,”whenconsideredwithaviewtothebestrule—theruleamongequals—are“unnatural.”Ifthebestruleinthecityistheonewhichcompletesustothehighestdegree,itisdifficulttoseehowthiscanbeachievedthroughthese“bestsimply”governmentsasthesethreatentoalterthenatureofruleinthecitytothepointofitsundoing.

Thesecondcategory—the“bestpossible”governmentsformostcitiesandmostpeople—alsopresentsdifficulties.Manyhaveclaimedthatbythe“bestpossible”Aristotlemeansamixedregimewithalarge“middleclass.”ThisargumentisbasedonpassagesfromBookIV,especiallythefollowingtwo:

“Itisevident,though,thatthemiddleformisbest,sinceitaloneisfreeoffaction.Forwherethemiddlerangeislarge,factionsandschismsamongthecitizensoccurleast.Andlargecitiesaremorefreeoffactionforthesamereason,becausethemiddlepartislarge.”(1296a5-10)“Andinaplacewherethenumberofthoseinthemiddlegroupexceedseitherbothextremestogether,orevenjustoneofthetwo,itispossiblefortheretobelastingconstitutionalrule.Forthereisnofearthattherichwouldeverconspirewiththepooragainstthem,sinceneithersidewouldeverwanttobesubjecttotheotherone,andiftheywerelookingforamorecommunalarrangement,theywouldnotfindanyotherbesidesthisone.Theywouldnotputupwithrulingbyturns

becauseoftheirdistrustofoneanother;butthemosttrustedpersoneverywhereisaneutralarbiter,andtheoneinthemiddleisaneutralarbiter.”(1296b38-1297a8)

Fromthesepassagesandseveralothers,itisquiteobviousthatAristotlehasanapparentpreferenceforacitywithalarge“middlegroup.”Whatthis“middlegroup”means,though,isnotentirelyclear.Forifthe“middlegroup”isreallythesameasthemiddleclassinthemodernsense,andthemiddleregimeisthebestregime,thenthemostimportantthingthatacitycandowouldbetodevelopitseconomyandformalargemiddleclass—inotherwords,tobecomeamodernliberaldemocracy.Ifthisdoesnotsoundright,thenthemeaningofthe“middlegroup”inAristotlewarrantsamorecarefulexamination.

InallrelevantpassagesofBookIV,variousformsofthewordmesos(thewordthatforAristotledenotesa“middlegroup”)areusedtodescribethe“middle,”andindeeditdoescarrythemeaningofamiddlepositionbetweentwoextremes.However,thewordcanalsomean“impartial,”“moderate,”and“undetermined.”Whereasthefirstmeaningisamiddleinaspatialsense,theresthavetheconnotationofamiddleinattitudeandthinking.Likewise,Aristotleusesthesamewordtodescribethe“mean”conditionbetweentwoextremesinmoralvirtues.Takingallthisintoaccount,itseemsplausiblethatwhenAristotleusesmesostodescribethemiddleheintendssomethingmorecomplexthansimplya“middleclass”inthesenseofpropertypossessions.

Let’slookatAristotle’sdescriptionofthe“middle”regime.Bydefinition,the“middle”regime,orconstitutionalrule,is“amixtureofoligarchyanddemocracy.”22InBookIV,Chapter8,Aristotleadds,

“Forsincetherearethreethingsdisputingoverequalityinthegovernment—freedom,wealth,andvirtue…itisclearthatthemixtureofthepairconsistingofthewell-offandtheneedyoughttobecalledconstitutionalrule,whilethemixtureofthethree,comparedtotheothers,mostdeservesthenamearistocracy,asidefromitstrueandprimaryform.”(1294a20)

Onecanseetwothingsfromthis.First,themiddleformofgovernmentisbasednotonahomogeneousmiddlebutona“mixture,”thecomingtogetheroftwo.Second,whereasthiscomingtogetheratfirstappearstoconsistoftwo

groups,thewealthyandtheneedy,whenwerecallAristotle’semphaticcondemnationoftheredistributionofwealthinBookIII,itseemsthatthecomingtogetherofthewealthyandtheneedycannotbeamixtureofpropertypossessionssimply.Infact,wehaveseenAristotlemakingitclearthattherelevantmixtureisnotofproperty,butofprinciples—namely,wealthandfreedom.Justhowwealthandfreedom—whichseemtodifferinkind—canbemixedisaratherperplexingquestion.

Atfirst,Aristotleseemstoindicatethatitcanbeaccomplishedbymixingofficesinthesamewayasonemightfittogetherthepiecesofabrokencoin.

“Forinoligarchies,theyassessafineagainstthewell-offfornotdoingjuryservicesanddonotassignafeefortheneedy,whileindemocracies,theyassignafeefortheneedyandnofineforthewell-off.Tohavethembothisacommongroundandmeanbetweentheseforms,andhenceissuitedtoconstitutionalrule,sinceitisamixtureofboth.”(1294a38)

However,inBookIV,Chapter9,Aristotleoffersashortbutintriguingnewwayofthinkingaboutmixing.Havingjustdiscussedhowtomixofficesfromoneregimewiththosefromtheother,hesays,

“This,then,isthemannerofmixingthem,andwhatmarksoutdemocracyandoligarchyashavingbeenwellmixedisthatitispossibletospeakofthesameformofgovernmentasdemocracyoroligarchy,sinceitisclearthatitisbecausetheyarebeautifullymixedthatpeoplewhospeakthatwayareledtodoso.Themeanalsohasthischaracter,sinceeachoftheextremesisevidentinit,whichisexactlywhathappensintheSpartanformofgovernment.Formanypeopletrytospeakofitasbeingademocracy,sinceitsarrangementincludesanumberofdemocraticfeatures.Firstofall,forexample,inregardtothebringingupofchildren,thoseofthericharebroughtuplikethoseofthepoor,andthemannerinwhichtheyareeducatedisoneforwhichthechildrenofthepooralsohavethemeans.Andlikewiseinthenextstageoflife,andoncetheybecomemen,thesameistrue,sincethereisnowayinwhicharichpersonisdistinguishedfromapoorone;whatpertainstofoodisthesameforeveryoneatthecommonmeals,andtheclothingrichpeoplewearisofsuchasortasanypoorperson

whateveriscapableofproviding.Whatismore,ofthetwohighestoffices,thepopulacechoosestheoneandtakespartintheother(sincetheychoosetheeldersandparticipateintheephorate).Butotherscallitanoligarchybecauseitincludesanumberofoligarchicfeatures;forinstanceallrulingofficesareelectedandnonechosenbylot,andasmallnumberhaveauthorityoverpenaltiesofdeathandexile,andtherearemanyothersuchthings.”(1294b15-35,italicsadded)

Thispassageisworthquotingatlengthsince,intheitalicizedportionespecially,itisclearthatthemixingAristotleisinterestedinislessofofficesandpropertiesthanofactions;namely,itisabouthowtwoextremegroups,therichandthepoor,cancometogetherbyactingtowardamiddleintheireverydaylife—fromraisingandeducatingtheirchildren,totakingtheirdailymeals.Andnotonlydoesitextendhorizontallytocovernearlyallaspectsofdailyliving,italsoextendsverticallytocoverone’sentirelifespan.ItisrathertellingthatalthoughthereisnomentionofamiddlewithrespecttopropertyinSparta,Aristotlestillconsidersthisa“beautifullymixed”middleregime.ThismustmeanthatAristotlethinksthatamiddleregimecanbecomposedofamiddlenotofpropertypossessions,butofactions-throughtwo“extremes”(i.e.,thepoorandtherich)actingtowardthemiddle.Fromthisperspective,then,themiddleregimewouldnotresultfromhavingsimilarpropertiesandoffices(a“middlepossession”)butfromsimilaractions(a“middledoing”).

AmiddleinthissenseisconsistentwithareferenceAristotlemakestotheEthicsinhisdiscussionofthemiddleregime:

“ForifitwasbeautifullysaidintheEthicsthatthehappylifeisoneinaccordwithunimpededvirtue,andthatvirtueisamean,thenthemeaninlife,consistingofameanconditioneverypersoniscapableofattaining,wouldnecessarilybebest,andthesesametermswouldnecessarilyalsoapplytothevirtueandviceofacityandagovernment,sinceaformofgovernmentisonesortoflifeofacity.”(1295a37)

Themeanconditionofvirtueisnotamiddlepointonalinebetweenitstwoextremities,sincehumanactionisnotastaticlineuponwhichonecanstand.Thevirtuecourage,forexample,isnotinitstruesenseafixedpoint

betweentwoextremes(cowardiceandrecklessness),becausewhatoughttobefearedisnotalwaysthesame:chargingtheenemycouldbedeemedcourageousinonesituationbutrecklessinanotherjustasretreatingcouldbedeemedcowardlyinonesituationbutcourageousinanother.23Therefore,simplyreadingbooksand“possessing”adefinitionofcourageareofnohelpatall.Realcourageinvolvesarightknowingofwhattofearandwhentofear,andthiscanonlybeachievedthroughrepeatedactionsconcerningfearfulthingswhileaimingatbecomingcourageous.Hence,Aristotlesaysthatinonesense—andthetruestsense—courageiswhatatrulycourageousmandoes.

Thediscussionofthemiddleregimelikewiseemphasizesdoingandacting.Evenwhenthereisno“middlepossession”ofpropertypresentinacity,themiddleregimecanstillbeformedthroughlongandrepeatedactionsbythetwoextremegroups,asillustratedbytheexampleofSparta.Andthisactingtowardthemiddle,sinceitinvolvestwoextremegroups,willinevitablyinvolveaconstantdeliberationandmakingofchoicesonthepartofthesegroups,affectingthethinkingandattitudeofeach.Hence,theactivityitself,byconstantlyaimingatthemiddle,becomesthemiddleregime.

Inthissense,the“middlepossession”ofpropertybecomesincidentalinthesamewaythatnumbersareincidentalinrelationtothemorefundamentalprincipleslikewealth.InhisdiscussionofoligarchyinBookIII,Chapter8,Aristotledefinesoligarchyintermsofwealth,notthenumberofrulers.Thecharacteristicallysmallernumberofrulersisincidentalto,oranexternalsignof,theprinciplebecauseitjustsohappensthatwealthisusuallyconcentratedinthehandsofthefew.Similarly,actingtowardthemiddlecanbethoughtofastheessentialprincipleofthemiddleregime,whilea“middlepossession”ofpropertiesisincidentaltoit(asasmallnumberofrulersistowealthinanoligarchy).Ifweindeedacceptthismiddleactionastheessentialcharacteristicofthemiddleregime,thenitisbythis—andnotitsincidentalqualityofamiddlepropertypossession—bywhichweoughttounderstandsucharegime.

Themiddleactivityalsoservesasalinkbetweenthebestruleandthebestformofgovernment.InBookIV,chapter11,Aristotlesays,

“Also,thoseinthemiddlerangeareleastlikelytoavoidrulingorbeeagertorule,andboththesethingsareharmfultocities.Andin

additiontothesethings,thosewhohaveanoverabundanceofthegoodsoffortune—strength,wealth,friends,andotherthingsofthatsort—donotwanttoberuledanddonotevenknowhowto….Butthosewhosufferfromanextremestateofneedinessinthesethingsaretoobrokeninspirit.Consequently,thelattersortofpeopledonotknowhowtorule,butonlyhowtoberuledunderaslavishrule,whiletheformersortdonotknowhowtoberuledinanywayatall,butonlytorulethewayslavemastersrule.”(1295b12-22)

Asonecansee,theobstacletothebestkindofrule(citizenstakingturnsrulingandbeingruled)isthehabitual—oftenhostile—attitudeofthedifferentgroupstowardoneanother:envy,arrogance,pettiness,andslavishness.Aristotle’sdepictionoftheSpartanformofgovernmentshowshowthemiddleactivityprovidesremediesfortheseanimosities:Thoughlackinga“middlepossession,”therichandpoorinSpartacometogetherintheactivityofsharingfood,clothing,educationandchild-rearing,allwhilethepoorremainpoorandtherichremainrich.Sincethemiddleactivityistheresultofactiveanddeliberatechoicebytwonon-middlegroupsratherthansomethingsimplyallottedtothemembersofamateriallyhomogenousblocortoasmallnumberofofficeholders,itimpartsagreatereffectuponthesoulsofitsparticipants,andhence,moreeffectivelyalleviatestheoverbearingattitudeoftherichandthebrokenspiritofthepoor,andtherebyeliminatesfactionsthatcanbesoharmfultothecity.Itisinthissensethatthefullmeaningofmesosbecomesclearer:Itisnotmerely(orperhapsnoteven)characterizedbyalargemiddleclass,but,moreessentially,byitsmoderation,impartialityand“undetermined”appearance—onecannottellwhetherthecityisunderanoligarchyorademocracybecause,althoughtherearerichandpoorpeople,itishardtotellwho’swhosinceintheireverydaylife,allacttowardthemiddle.

Hence,oneperhapsshouldnotbesurprisedbyAristotle’sseeminglyoddclaimthatthe“bestpossible”governmentactuallyhasnotoftenexisted.24Forjustasthemeanconditionwhichconstitutesvirtueisattainablebyeveryperson25thoughrarelyachieved,sotooisitwitheverycityandthemiddleregime.

IV.ThePoliticsandItsRelationstotheEthicsand

theRhetoricWherethePoliticsstandsinrelationtotheotherworksofAristotleis

alwaysaninterestingquestion.Forthepurposeofthisintroduction,though,thediscussionwillbelimitedtohowthePoliticsisrelatedtoitstwoclosestcousins,theEthicsandtheRhetoric(asallthreedealwithhumanaffairs).

Let’sbeginbyconsideringtherelationofthePoliticstotheEthics,whichAristotleexplicitlyaddressestowardtheendoftheEthics.Thediscussionseemstohavetwoparts:First,sincevirtuedoesnotcomefromnature,andhabituationisunpleasanttotheyoung,politics—especiallylawmaking—preparespeopleforvirtuebygivingforceandstrengthtogoodhabituation,justasthesoilhastobeworkedonfirstifitistofostertheseed.26Second,sinceoneneedsnotonlyknowledgebutalsoexperiencetobecomevirtuous,politicsprovidesthe“practicallife”inwhichexperiencescanbegainedandvirtuesfosteredandexercised.27BothoftheseaspectsseemtosubordinatethePoliticstotheEthics:thefirstmakesitpreparatoryforvirtue,thesecondusefulforit.

AparallelcanbedrawntothewayAristotletalksabouttherelationofthePoliticstotheRhetoric.ConsiderthefollowingtwopassagesinChapter8ofBookIoftheRhetoric:

“Thegreatestandthemostdecisiveofallthingsthatcontributestobeingabletobepersuasiveandtodoabeautifuljobatgivingadviceistohaveagraspofallformsofgovernment.”(1365b20)“Sothefutureorpresentthingsweneedtostriveforinmakingexhortations,andthethingsamongwhichweneedtofindpersuasiveargumentshavingtodowithwhatisadvantageous,andalsothemeansandmannerforustobeequippedtodealwiththekindsofcharacterandcustomarypracticesinthevariousformsofgovernment,toanextentcommensuratewiththepresentoccasion,havebeenstated;thesethingsareinvestigatedwithprecisioninthePolitics.”(1366a18)

Inthefirstpassage,Aristotlestatesthattheunderstandingofvariousformsofgovernmentisthegreatestandmostdecisivecontributortobeingabletomakepersuasivearguments.Inthesecond,hesaysthatthestudyof

variousformsofgovernment(alongwithotherthings)areinvestigated“withprecision”inthePolitics.Therefore,justastheEthicstreatsissuesrelatedtovirtuewithmoreprecisionthanthelesstheoreticalPolitics(whichdescribesapoliticallifethroughwhichvirtuescanbefosteredandexercised),sotoodoesthePoliticstreatthepoliticallifewithmoreprecisionthantheRhetoric(whichdescribespracticalactivitiesinthepoliticallifesuchasmakingpersuasivearguments).Thisresemblesaproportioninwhichdegreeof‘practicality’definestheequalrelationships:astheEthicsistothePolitics,soisthePoliticstotheRhetoric.Orderedfrommosttoleastpractical,then,itappearsthePoliticsstandsinthemiddle,withEthicsontheonesideandtheRhetoricontheother.

Butifonelookstootherplacesinthesebooks,theirrelationsseemlessorderly,morecomplicatedandyet,inaway,morereciprocal.WhetherthePoliticsisstillinthemiddleamongthesecomplexrelationsisworthexploring.Let’sfirstrevisitthePolitics’relationtotheEthicsandthenitsrelationtotheRhetoric.AtthebeginningofthePolitics,Aristotlestatesthatsincethecityaimsatthemostsovereigngoods,itisthereforethemostsovereignofallassociationsandencompassesallothers.InBookVIII,Chapter9oftheEthics,heexpandsonthisidea:

“Butallcommunitiesarelikepartsofthepoliticalcommunity,forpeoplecometogetherforsomeadvantage,andtoprovideforsomethingthatcontributestolife,andthepoliticalcommunityseemstogathertogetherfromthebeginning,andtoremaintogether,forthesakeofwhatisadvantageous…Sotheothercommunitiesaimatwhatisadvantageousinapartialway;forexample,sailorsaimatwhatresultsfromavoyageformakingmoney,orsomethingofthatsort,andfellowsoldiersaimatwhatresultsfromwarfare,graspingatmoneyorvictoryoracity…Butalloftheseappeartobeunderthepoliticalcommunity,sincethepoliticalcommunityaimsnotatapresentadvantagebutonethatextendstoalloflife.”(1160a9-25)

ThesepassagesseemtoplacetherelationshipbetweentheEthicsandthePoliticsinadifferentlight.Forthecitynowistheentitythatencompassesnotonlyallcommunities,butalsowhatisadvantageousforalloflife.Inapassagequotedearlier,Aristotlegoesevenfurtherinlinkingpoliticstothesoul.

“Andthisleadsstraighttoaconsiderationofthesoul,forthereisinitbynaturesomethingrulingandsomethingruled,ofwhichweclaimtherearedifferentvirtues,asoftheparthavingreasonandtheirrationalpart.Itisevident,then,thatthingsarethesameintheothercasesaswell,sothatmostthingsarerulingorruledbynature.Foritisindifferentwaysthatthefreerulestheslave,themalethefemale,andthemanthechild,andwhilethepartsofthesoularepresentinthemall,theyarepresentindifferingways.Fortheslavewhollylacksthedeliberativecapacity,whilethefemalehasit,butwithoutauthority,andthechildhasit,butincomplete.”(1260a5-15)

ComparedtosimilarpassagesregardingthesoulintheEthics,thisisamuchmoreforcefuldescriptioninthesensethatitmakespoliticsthepatternofthehumansoul.Accordingtothispassage,politicsisnotanexternalactivitythatwedo“outthere,”butaninternalactivityamongpartsofthesoul.Thisrelationshipofthesoulisexhibitedexternallybyvarioustypesofrule—onecanthereforetelltheconditionofaman’ssoulbylookingatthetypeofruleinwhichheisengaged.Politics,then,isthesoulwritlargeandisthemostfundamentalworkofahumanbeing.Ahumanbeingisapoliticalanimalwhoneedstoruleandberuledbecausethehumansoulisofsuchanature.Andthisneedbecomesmorecomplexasonematures.Onewillneedtoknowwhomtoruleandbywhomtoberuled,aswellasatwhichtimeandinwhatmannereachoftheseisfitting.Asthisruling-ruledrelationshipbecomesmorecomplex,virtuealsobecomesmorecomplex.Whatwassimply“courage”nowbranchesoutintodifferenttypesofcourage.Themeaninmoralvirtues,whichchangesaccordingtodifferentcircumstances,mustalsobeaffectedbyrulingandruledrelations.Whatistrulyatworkisnotcourage,butthecouragethatbelongstoonewhoisruling,oronewhoisruled,toamanorawoman.28Therefore,“thosewhospeakingeneraltermsarefoolingthemselves,sayingthatvirtueisthegoodconditionofthesoul,oractingrightly,oranythingofthatsort.”29Forthegeneraltermsdonotmakeclearwhattheappropriateworkisforeachhumanbeing,andpoliticsisthatwhichgivesthemoralvirtuestheirappropriateness.Therefore,politicsistheunderpinningactivitythroughwhichmoralvirtuesbecomerealandachievable.Formoralvirtuesimplytheproperorderingofthesoul,whichinturnimpliestheproperruling-ruledrelationshipamongdifferentpartsofthe

soul.Ifwereturntothemetaphorofthesoilpreparingfortheseed,wecannowseethatthesoilisnotmerelyaphysicalplatformuponwhichtheseedgrows;italso“nurtures”theseed,asAristotlesays.Thesamecanbesaidaboutpolitics—it“nurtures”ethics.Itisthelivingforcethatallowsandassiststheseedtogrowandflourish.Inthisway,therelationshipbetweentheEthicsandthePoliticsisperhapssimilartothatofthehouseholdandcity—forinonewaythehouseholdisprior,butinanotherthecityisprior.Similarly,inonesensetheEthicsisprior,butinanotheritmustpresupposethePolitics.

Wenowturntothesecondtwotermsintheaforementionedproportion,thePoliticsandtheRhetoric,withaspecialattentiontoonetypeofrhetoric—theadvisoryrhetoric.IthasbeensaidthatAristotle’sRhetoricisarefutationofSocrates’viewofrhetoricasexpressedinGorgiasandPhaedrus.30Whetherthisistrueornot—andifitistrue,towhatextenttheydisagree—remainsaquestion.However,thefollowingpassagesfromtheRhetoricseemtoshowthatAristotlediffersfromSocratesinatleastsomerespects:

“Totheextentonetriestomakeeitherdialecticorthisart[rhetoric]intoakindofknowledgeratherthanapower,hewillunwittinglyobliteratetheirnaturebythetransformation,re-makingthemintoknowledgeofsomeunderlyingsubjectmatterratherthanofargumentsonly.”(1359b15)“Eventhoughthesameproceedingappliestospeakingtopublicassembliesandtolawcourt,thebusinessofthepublicassemblyisofgreaterbeautyandgreatercivicimportancethanthatinvolvedinprivatetransactions(1354b25)

Inthefirstpassage,AristotleappearstocontradictSocrates’claimthattruerhetoricshouldbegroundedinknowledge;31inthesecond,heseemstodisagreethattruerhetoriccanonlybepracticedinprivatesettings,claiminginsteadthatpublicrhetorichasagreaterbeautyandarightfulplace.Togethertheseformageneralviewofrhetoric:namely,thatitisnotknowledgebutapowerofseeingwhatispersuasivebroadly(thatis,inanysubjectmatter).Ifitweremadeaproperknowledge,itwouldceasetoberhetoricinthestrictsenseoftheword,sinceitwouldnolongerbecharacteristicallybroadinscope,butrestrictedtoaparticularsubjectmatter.Rhetoric,then,hasaveryspecialplaceamongarts:despitebeinganart,itisnotgroundedinknowledge

andisnotrestrictedtooneparticulartypeofexpertise;rather,itremainsopentoawiderangeofissuesintherealmofhumanaction.Withinthisgeneralsphere,advisoryrhetoricisparticularlyimportantbecauseitsbeautyliespreciselyinthepublicarena.

OnemaywonderwhatgroundthereisforAristotletomakesuchclaims.SincethecurrentinquiryisabouttherelationshipbetweenthePoliticsandtheRhetoric,wewillapproachthequestionfromthisperspective,consideringhereapassagefromeach:

“Fornature,asweclaim,doesnothinguselessly,andahumanbeing,aloneamonganimals,hasspeech.Andwhilethevoiceisasignofpainandpleasure,andbelongsalsototheotheranimalsonthataccount…speechisfordisclosingwhatisadvantageousandwhatisharmful,andsotoowhatisjustandwhatisunjust.”(1253a9)“Theendisdifferentforeachofthese...Fortheadvisoryspeaker,itiswhatisadvantageousorharmful,sincesomeonewhoexhortsisadvisingsomethingasbest,andsomeonewhowarnsiswarningagainstsomethingasworse;otherthings,thatitisjustorunjust,beautifulorshameful,theytakeasside-issuestothat.”(1358b25)

InthepassagefromthePolitics,Aristotleclaimsthathumanbeingsaloneareendowedwiththepowerofspeechforthepurposeofdisclosingwhatisadvantageousandharmful,andweseeinthepassagefromtheRhetoricthatthisisexactlywhatissaidregardingtheendofadvisoryrhetoric.Clearlythen,rhetoric—especiallyadvisoryrhetoric—isauniquelyhumanactivityandhasitssourceinnature.FromthePolitics’pointofview,advisoryrhetoricisabettercauseintherealmofhumanactionbecauseitmoveshumanbeingstoactbyemployingreasonandpersuasionratherthansomethingextraneouslikeforceorcoercion.Inapublicspeech,thisuseofreasonandthepowerofspeechisanexpressionoftheforesighttoseewhatmeansofpersuasionareavailableforanygivenissue32andtheabilitytopresentalternativesandarticulatetheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeach.33Thisabilitytopresentalternativesisinturnrelatedtoanotheruniquelyhumanquality—thesenseoftime.34Advisoryrhetoricisspecificallylinkedtothefuture,for,whenitcomestothistypeofpersuasion,itismeaninglesstopresentalternativesand

oppositesthatwereinthepastorareinthepresentbecauseonlyalternativesinthefuturecanbeacteduponandthereforedeliberatedandadvisedabout.Thisinherentconnectiontooursenseoftimefurtherilluminateswhyrhetoricoccupiesarightfulplaceinhumanarts,sinceitinvolvesakindofforesightandseeingofwhichnootheranimalsarecapable.

Ultimately,however,thelegitimacyofadvisoryrhetoricandrhetoricingeneralhasitsjustificationinoneextraordinaryabilitythatunderliesalltheothersmentionedabove—ourabilitytoreasontooppositeconclusions.Thisabilityissounusualthatitgoesbeyondnotonlyanimalinstinctbutalsomostofthehumanarts.AccordingtoAristotledialecticistheonlyotherartwiththisability,35whichisthereasonwhyrhetoricissaidtobeanalogoustoit.

Yet,asdiscussedearlier,certaintypesofhumanassociations—theprivatedomainsofhouseholdandvillage—donotencouragethisextraordinaryhumanactivity.Thisisbecausetheformsofruleinthehouseholdandvillageareforthemostpartbasedoninequalitiesandnaturaldistinctions,andthesetendtotransformtheseprivateinteractionsintoeitherinstructions(betweenparentsandchildren),orcoercion(betweenmastersandslaves).Eventherulebetweenhusbandandwifeisnotfavorabletotheexerciseofrhetoricbecauseofthelackofauthorityonthepartofwomen.Forrhetorictobefullyexercised,therehastobeaplacewhereindividualscanbetakenoutoftheirnarrowandprivatedomainandplacedwithotherswhoarelikethem.Itisherethatthecrucialroleofpoliticsbecomesapparent:Itisonlyinthecitythatpeoplemeetoneanotherasequals(ascitizens).Furthermore,ofthetwoprimarypublicinstitutionswhererhetoriciscommonlyexercised–thepublicassemblyandthecourt–theformersurpassesthelatterbecauseitistherethatthecitizens’interestsandthecommonpublicinterestsintersect.36Inaproperlyfunctioningpublicassembly,allmembersareequal,physicalstrengthplaysnorole,boththefutureofthecityandtheprivateinterestsathandarediscussed,anddecisionswillaffectbothothersandoneself.Tomoveothermembersonanygivenissue,onehastobeabletopresentwhatheseesasthealternativesandopposites,thereasonsandjustificationsthatleadtoeach,andhowtheyarerelatedtothecommoninterestaswellastoone’sown.Itisonlyinthecity,therefore,thatrhetoricasauniquelyhumanactivitycanbefullyatwork.Itisthenreasonabletosaythatifnaturedoesnothinginvainandshe

endowshumanbeingswiththepowerofspeechtodiscloseadvantageandharm,andifanimportantpartofrhetoric(advisoryrhetoric)isaimedatsuchdisclosures,thenthecityistheplacewherenature’sworkcomestofullfruition.Withoutthecity,naturewouldhavedonesomethinginvain.

Itisworthnoticingthatamongdifferentformsofgovernment,publicassemblyplaysthemostimportantroleinthe“bestpossible”government(constitutionalrule),sinceinitcitizenstaketurnsrulingthecity,makingdecisionsbycomingtogetherfordiscussionanddebate.Itisinterestingtonotethatrhetoric,thecounterparttodialectic,findsthebestplaceforitspracticeinthe“bestpossible”formofgovernment.IfthecontemplationdescribedintheEthicsisprimarilyaprivateactivity,andrhetoricakindofbeholding,37thenrhetoricisperhapsanimitationofcontemplationinthepublicarena.Ifthisistrue,thenthecityingeneral—andtheconstitutionalruleinparticular—providesthegroundwhereprivatecontemplationanditspubliccounterpartmeet.ThePolitics,then,wouldindeedbethemiddletermoftheEthicsandRhetoric,forthroughitthetwotypesofcontemplation—theoreticalandrhetorical,privateandpublic—connect.

V.AboutThisTranslationJoeSachsiswell-respectedforhisstudiesandtranslationsofAristotle.He

taughtforthirtyyearsatSt.John’sCollegebeforehisretirementin2005.HehastranslatedallthemajorworksofAristotle,includingthePhysics(1995),theMetaphysics(1999),OntheSoul(2001),theNicomacheanEthics(2002),thePoetics(2006),andtheRhetoric(2009).Inaddition,hetranslatedPlato’sTheaetetus(2004),Republic(2007),andGorgias(2009).IhaveseeninmyownclassroomhowmuchstudentshavebeenhelpedbytheSachstranslations.I’mfrequentlyapproachedbystudentsandaskedwhythereisn’taSachstranslationforAristotle’sPolitics.ThistranslationwillundoubtedlybewelcomenewstomanystudentsandscholarsofAristotle.

ManyhavelaudedMr.Sachs’othertranslationsfortheiruseofsimpleandlucidlanguage,whichfreesthetextsfromthelongLatintradition.Insodoing,theybringthereadingexperienceasclosetotheoriginalaspossible.Thesamecanalsobesaidaboutthistranslation.However,tothisgeneralsentimentIwouldliketoaddtwothings.First,asMr.Sachspointsout

elsewhere,theLatininfluenceislessseriousinthelesstheoreticalworksofAristotle,suchastheEthics.AquickreadingaffirmsthatthisisalsothecasewiththePolitics:ittoocontainslessjargon.Infact,myownexperiencewiththePoliticsleadsmetobelievethatthecrucialconsiderationintranslatingthePoliticsisactuallytheoppositeoftheusualdifficultywithtranslatingAristotle:aspointedoutearlierinthisintroduction,ifourunderstandingofAristotle’smoretheoreticalworksisimpededbecausethelanguageinthoseworksistooalientous,thenthatofhisPoliticsissobecausethelanguageissometimestoofamiliartous.AprimaryexampleisthefamousstatementbyAristotleinBookI:kaihotihoanthroposphuseipolitikonzoon.Thestandardtranslationofthissentenceisthewell-known“andahumanbeingbynatureisapoliticalanimal.”Althoughthereisnojargoninthistranslation,ithasamodernsoundwhichisalltoofamiliarandsmooth.Thisfamiliaritytendstoproduceafalseconfidencethatthemeaningofthesentenceisself-evident,andthatnofurtherinquiriesandreflectionsarenecessary.Thiscanbeseenfromthatfactthatsometranslatorsevengoasfarastorenderthissentenceas“andmanbynatureisasocialanimal.”TheeffectofthisandsimilartranslationsistofacilitateaprematureconclusionaboutAristotle’sviewofhumannaturethatisverydifficulttoshake.Incontrast,thecurrenttranslationrendersthesentenceas“andahumanbeingbynatureisananimalmeantforthecity.”Thistranslationisfaithfultotheoriginal,butitlosesthesmoothness.Itgivesthereaderpause,whichopensupopportunitiesforfurtherreflection,forifoneistounderstandthissentence,he/shemustfirstlookintowhata“city”is,andthiscanleadinallkindsoffruitfuldirections.

Second,althoughmanyscholarshavealreadycommentedonthevalueofnotesandglossariesintheSachstranslationsingeneral,Istillwouldliketosayafewwordsaboutthenotesinthisparticulartranslation.OneofthedifficultiesinreadingAristotleisthatmanyofhiskeyideasarepresentinallofhisworks,butnotallofthemarefullyarticulatedorreferencedeachtimetheyappearindifferentplaces.ItisasifAristotleassumesthatthereaderisfamiliarwithallofhiswritings.Hence,thereaderisoftenlefttofigureouthowtomaketherightconnectionsonhisown.ItisintheseplacesthatIfindMr.Sachs’notestobemuchmorethanjustexplanationsorcross-references.Theyoftenhelpapassagewhosemeaningmayappearclearatfirstacquireanevendeepersignificance.Inthissense,Mr.Sachs’notesthemselvesmerit

theirownseparatestandingasscholarlycommentaries.AgoodexampleisthenotetothefollowingpassagefromBookI:

“Sosimilarlyforthosethathavecomeintobeing,itisclearthatitisappropriatetoassumethatplantsareforthesakeofanimalsandtheotheranimalsforthesakeofhumanbeings,thetameonesbothforuseandforfood,andifnotallthewildones,atleastmost,forthesakeoffoodandotherassistance,sothatclothesandotherkindsofgearmightcomefromthem.”(1256b18)

Thetextasitismayseemuncontroversial:nobeingsinnaturehaveendsinthemselves;theyallexistforthesakeofothers.However,ifonereadsMr.Sachs’footnotetothispassage,itsmeaningbecomesmoreinteresting:

“ItisacentralclaimofAristotle’stheoreticalworksthatlivingthingsarefortheirownsake.Heinventedthewordentelecheiaasafusionofthenotionsofcompletenessandactivity,orbeing-at-an-endandbeing-at-work.ThatwordistheheartofthedefinitionofthesourceoflifeinOntheSoul(412b4-6),ofthediscoveryoftheprimaryinstancesofbeingintheworldofexperienceintheMetaphysics(1028b9-10,1050b2-3,1050a21-23),andoftheintelligibilityofmotioninthePhysics(201a9-11).ThequestionwhetherlivingbeingsalsohaveendsexternaltothemselvesisraisedinOntheSoulinrelationtotheiroffspring(415a26-b3),andintheMetaphysicsinrelationtotheorganizationofthecosmosasawhole(1072b1-4).ThepositivestatementherethatlivingthingsexistforoursakefollowsthebeatenpathofpopularopinionofwhichAristotleremindsusatthebeginningofthischapter.InthePhysics(194a34-35),hesaysinstead:‘wetreateverythingthereisasthoughitisforoursake.’”(italicsadded)

Withthisfootnote,Mr.Sachsnotonlyprovidesafullerexplanationofthesentence,butalsogivesitamuchbroadercontext.ThesecondreferencetothePhysicsisparticularlyimportantasitsuggestsareadingthatcontradictsthemostimmediatelyapparentmeaning.ThispassageappearsatanimportantmomentinAristotle’sdiscussionofpropertyanditsacquisition,becauseslavesturnouttobeakindofproperty.Ifonegoeswiththefirstreadingofthetext,thenAristotleseemstosuggestthat,aswithsomeanimalsthatexistforthesakeofotheranimalsandhumanbeings,somehumanbeingsalsoexist

forthesakeofotherhumanbeings.IfoneinsteadgoeswiththesecondreadingsuggestedbythePhysics,then,itisquiteplausibletoconcludethatsomehumanbeingsmayappearasthoughtheyareforsakeofothers,butinfacttheyarenot.OnecanreadilyseehowthebroadercontextfurnishedbyMr.Sachs’noteaddslayersofcomplexitythatgreatlyenrichourunderstandingofAristotle’sthinkingonthisissue.

Thistranslationaboundswithclarifyingandenrichingrenditionsandnotesliketheonesjustmentioned.However,IwouldliketoclosebyquotingwhatMr.SachssaysaboutthebeautifulintheprefacetohistranslationoftheEthics.Thebeautiful,saysMr.Sachs,“isnotanobjectofcontemplationsimply,butthesourceofaction.”IbelievethatthisinsightcanbeequallyappliedtothePolitics.LongLatininfluenceandtextuallyinattentivereadinghavepushedAristotledeeplyintothepurviewofafewscholarsandspecialistswhileexcluding“amateurs.”Byemployingplainandthoughtfullanguage,thistranslationclosesthedistancebetweenthereaderandthebook,andinsodoing,remindsusthatAristotle’sPoliticsisnotpoliticalscienceinourunderstandingoftheterm.Whileitisatheoreticalreflectionontheaffairsofthecity,itisequallyabookonpraxis:Politicsisakindofbeing-at-workthatispartoftheoverallhumanthinkinganddoing.

AcknowledgementsIowemuchgratitudetoJoeSachsforbothofferingmetheopportunityto

writethisintroductionandforallthethoughtandcarethathehasgiventoit.ItisthroughhistranslationsthatAristotlefirstbecamealivingthinkertome.Iconsidermyselffortunateforhavingtaughtwithhiminthesameclassroom.HisprofoundknowledgeandinsighthavedeepenedmyinterestinAristotleandenrichedmyunderstandingofhim.AlltheconversationsIhavehadwithhimovertheyearsprovetobenotonlyasourceofenlightenment,butalsoofpleasure.

MythanksalsogotoTimothyJ.Reillywhohasgivenmeticulouscareinreadingthroughthisintroduction.Hismanystylisticaswellassubstantivecommentshavebroughtgreatimprovementtothisintroduction.

LijunGuAnnapolis,MD

_______________________________________1WernerJaeger,Aristotle,FundamentalsoftheHistoryofHisDevelopment,translatedwithauthor’scorrectionsandadditionsbyRichardRobinson,2ndEd,(OxfordUniversityPress,1968),267-268.2Foramoredetailedaccount,see:Aristotle,ThePolitics,translatedandwithanIntroduction,Notes,andGlossarybyCarnesLord,(UniversityofChicagoPress,1984),8-17.3PeterL.PhillipsSimpson,APhilosophicalCommentaryonthePoliticsofAristotle,(theUniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1998),xviii.4NiccoloMachiavelli,DiscoursesonLivy,translatedbyHarveyMansfield&NathanTarcov,(UniversityofChicagoPress,1996),p.11.5Aristotle,Politics,1253a276Forexample,Aristotle,Metaphysics,1029b3-13;andOntheSoul,413ab137Aristotle,Politics,1253a22.8NiccoloMachiavelli,ThePrince,anewtranslationwithintroductionbyHarveyC.Mansfield,(UniversityofChicagoPress,1985),61.9Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics,1095a3.10Aristotle,Metaphysics,1050a2111Onecanclearlyseethedifferencebetweenthistranslationandthosewhichrenderthissentenceas“ahumanbeingbynatureisasocialanimal.”12Aristotle,Politics,1260a15.13Aristotlehasmadesimilarclaimsabout“politicalanimals”insomeofhisotherworks,includingthefollowingfromHistoryofAnimals:“Politicalcreaturesaresuchashavesomeonecommonobjectinview;andthispropertyisnotcommontoallcreaturesthataregregarious.Suchpoliticalcreaturesareman,thebee,thewasp,theant,andthecrane.”(488a8)14Forexample,Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics,1160b33:“Therelationshipbetweenhusbandandwifeappearstobearistocraticinnature.”(italicsadded)15ThereareafewotherexamplesofthissortinthePolitics.Forinstance,thequotefromSophocles’playAjaxat1260a30.

16Herodotus,History,translatedbyDavidGrene,(UniversityofChicagoPress,1987),p.206.17Aquestionmightberaisedastowhethertocommanditselfbelongstotherealmoftheconvention,sincewhocancommandandwhattocommandappeartobeconditionedbydifferenthistories,culturesandcustoms.Yet,thisargumentseemstoassumethattoAristotle,therearesuchthingsinthepoliticalworldthatarenotthusconditioned,anditisagainstthesethatcommandingiscalledconventional.18Aristotle,Politics,1260a14.19Ibid,1254a2520Aristotle,Politics,1288b4221Ibid,1276b3822Aristotle,Politics,1293b35.23ItisrathertellingthattheultimateexampleofcourageinPlato’sworksisthebraveretreatdescribedbyAlcibiadesintheSymposium.24Aristotle,Politics,1293a3925Ibid,1295a3926Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics,1179b2527ibid,1179b1-528ThisisdiscussedindetailinBookI,Chapter13ofthePolitics.29Aristotle,Politics,1260a2530OnearticulationofsuchaviewisattheendofPhaedrus,271D-E.31Plato,Phaedrus,271D32Aristotle,Rhetoric,1355b1033Ibid,1357a834Ibid,1358b1535Aristotle,Rhetoric,1355a3536Ibid,1354b3037Thewordistheôrêsai.Foradetailedexplanationofthisword,seeJoe

Sachs,PlatoGorgiasandAristotleRhetoric(FocusPublishing,R.PullinsCompany,2009),p.137,footnote11.

BOOKIChapter1[1252a]

Sinceweseethateverycityissomekindofassociation,andeveryassociationisorganizedforthesakeofsomegood(sinceeverythingeveryonedoesisforthesakeofsomethingseemingtobegood),itisclearthatallassociationsaimatsomethinggood,andthattheonethatismostsovereignandencompassesalltheothersaimsatthemostsovereignofallgoods.Andthisistheonecalledthecity,thepoliticalassociation.38

Nowthosewhoassumethatthesamepersonisskilledatpoliticalruleasatkingship,householdmanagement,andmasteryofslavesdonotspeakbeautifully.39(Fortheyregardeachofthese[10]asdifferentiatedwithrespecttomanynessorfewnessbutnotinform—amasterbeingoverfew,ahouseholdmanagerovermore,andapoliticalrulerorakingoverstillmore,asifalargehouseholdwerenodifferentfromasmallcity;asforthepoliticalrulerandtheking,whenonehascontrolhimself,theyregardhimasaking,butasapoliticalrulerwhenherulesandisruledbyturnsinaccordancewiththepropositionsofthissortofknowledge.Thesethings,though,arenottrue.)Whatisbeingsaidwillbecleartothosewhoinvestigateitalongtheusualpath,40forjustasitisnecessaryinothercasestodivideacompoundthingupintouncompoundedones(sincetheseare[20]thesmallestpartsofthewhole),sotoowithacity,itisbyexaminingwhatitiscomposedofthatweshallalsoseemoreabouttheserulers,bothinwhatrespecttheydifferfromoneanotherandwhetheritispossibletogetholdofanythinginvolvingart41applicabletoeachofthethingsmentioned.

Chapter2Soifonecouldobservethethingsfromthebeginningastheygrow,then

justasinothercases,sotoointhese,onecouldstudythemmostbeautifullybythatmeans.Nowitisnecessarythattherefirstbeapairingtogetherofthosewhodonothavethepowertobewithouteachother,suchasafemaleandamaleforthesakeofgeneration(andthisnotoutofchoicebutjustasintheotheranimalsandplants,byanaturalstriving[30]toleavebehindanother

likeitself),andsomethingnaturallyrulingandruledforpreservation.Forthatwhichhasthepowertoforeseebythinkingisnaturallyrulingandnaturallymastering,butwhathasthepowertocarryoutthosethings42withthebodyisruledandisnaturallyslavish;hencethesamethingisadvantageoustoamasterandtoaslave.Andbynature,[1252b]thefemaleandtheslavearedistinct.(Fornaturedoesnothingstintingly,thewaythebronze-workersmaketheDelphicknife,43butonethingforonejob,sinceinthatway,byservingnotformanyjobsbutforone,eachoftheinstrumentsaccomplishesitsworkinthemostbeautifulmanner.)Amongthebarbarians,though,thefemaleandtheslavehavethesamerank.Thereasonisthattheydonothavethatwhichbynaturerules,buttheirassociationbecomesthatofafemaleslaveandamaleslave.Thatiswhythepoetssay“itisreasonableforGreekstorulebarbarians,”44onthegroundsthatabarbarianandaslavearebynaturethesamething.

Ahouseholdoftheprimarysort[10]ismadeofthesetwokindsofassociation,andHesiodspokerightlyincomposingtheverse45“firstandforemostahouse,awife,andanoxforplowing,”sinceforpoorpeopleanoxtakestheplaceofaservant.Sothekindofassociationorganizedinaccordwithnatureforeverydaylifeisahousehold,thepeoplewhomCharondasreferstoasfedonthesamebread,andEpimenidesofCreteasfedonthesamecrops.Thefirstkindofassociationcomposedofmorethanonehousehold,toservepurposesnotofadailysort,isavillage.Andthevillageseemstobemostofallanaturalcolonyofthehousehold,thechildrenandchildren’schildrenwhomsomerefertoasfedonthesamemother’s-milk.Andthisiswhycitiesatfirstwereruledbykings,andnations46stillareeven[20]now,sincetheycametogetheroutofpeopleunderkinglyrule.Foreveryhouseholdisunderkinglyrulebytheeldest,andsotheircoloniesaretoo,throughtheirfamilyconnection.AndthisiswhatHomeristalkingaboutwhenhesays“eachoneisalawuntochildrenandwives,”sincetheywerescattered,thewaypeopledweltinancienttimesaswell.47Forthisreasonallpeopleclaimthegodstooareunderaking,becausetheythemselveswereruledbykings,someevennow,othersinancienttimes;justashumanbeingscopythelooksofthegodsfromtheirown,sotoowiththeirlives.

Thecompleteassociationmadeofmorethanonevillageisacity,sinceatthatpoint,sotospeak,itgetstothethresholdoffullself-sufficiency,comingintobeingfor[30]thesakeofliving,butbeingforthesakeoflivingwell.Henceeverycityisbynature,ifinfactthefirstformsofassociationareaswell.Foritistheirend,andnatureisanend;forwhateachthingiswhenithasreachedthecompletionofitscomingintobeingisthatwhichwesayisthenatureofeach,aswithahumanbeing,ahorse,ahouse.48Andthatforthesakeofwhich,theend,isalsowhatisbest,[1253a]andself-sufficiencyisbothanendandwhatisbest.Fromthesethings,then,itisplainthatthecityisoneofthingsthatarebynature,andthatahumanbeingisbynatureananimalmeantforacity;onewhoiscitylessasaresultofnatureratherthanbychanceiseitherinsignificantormorepowerfulthanahumanbeing.HeislikethepersonreviledbyHomeras“withoutfellowship,withoutlaw,withoutahearth,”49forsomeoneofthatsortisatthesametimenaturallybentonwar,sinceheisinfactlikeanunpairedpieceonachecker-board.Whyahumanbeingisananimalmeantforacity,morethaneverysortofbeeandeverysortofherdanimal,isclear.Fornature,asweclaim,doesnothinguselessly,and[10]ahumanbeing,aloneamongtheanimals,hasspeech.Andwhilethevoiceisasignofpainandpleasure,andbelongsalsototheotheranimalsonthataccount(sincetheirnaturegoesthisfar,tohavingaperceptionofpainandpleasureandcommunicatingthesetooneanother),speechisfordisclosingwhatisadvantageousandwhatisharmful,andsotoowhatisjustandwhatisunjust.50Forthisisdistinctiveofhumanbeingsinrelationtotheotheranimals,tobealoneinhavingaperceptionofgoodandbad,justandunjust,andtherest,anditisanassociationinvolvingthesethingsthatmakesahouseholdandacity.Andacityismoreprimarybynaturethanahousehold,andmoreprimarythaneachofus,[20]forthewholeisnecessarilymoreprimarythanitsparts.Forifthewholeisdoneawaywith,therewillnotbeafootorahand,exceptinanambiguoussense,asifoneweretospeakofahandmadeofstone(foronceithasbeendisableditwillbelikethat);butallthingsaredefinedbytheirworkandpotency,sowhentheyarenolongerofthesortdefinedtheycannotbecalledthesamethingsexceptambiguously.Soitisclearboththatthecityisbynatureandthatitismoreprimarythaneachperson,forifeachpersonisnotself-sufficientwhenseparate,hewillbeinaconditionsimilartothatofotherpartsinrelationtothewhole,andonewhois

nopartofacity,eitherfromlackingthepowertobeinanassociationorfromneedingnothingonaccountofself-sufficiency,isforthatreasoneitherabeastoragod.

Sotheimpulsetowardthissortof[30]associationisinallpeoplebynature,butthefirstpersontohaveorganizedonewasresponsibleforthegreatestofgoods.Forjustasahumanbeinginastateofcompletenessisthebestoftheanimals,sotoo,onewhoisseparatedfromlawandajudicialprocessistheworstofthemall.Forinjusticeisthemostseverewhenithasweapons,andahumanbeingisbornhavingweaponsforgoodjudgmentandvirtuewhicharecapableofbeingusedtotheirutmostfortheiropposites.Thisiswhyheisthemostimpiousandsavageanimal,andworstwheresexandfoodareconcerned.51Andjusticebelongsinacity,forajudicialprocessisthesourceoforderforapoliticalassociation,andjusticeisajudgingofwhatisjust.

Chapter3[1253b]Andsinceitisplainwhatthepartsareoutofwhichacityisorganized,it

isnecessarytospeakfirstabouthouseholdmanagement,sinceeverycityiscomposedofhouseholds.Andthepartsofhouseholdmanagementrepeatthoseoutofwhichahouseholdisorganized,whileacompletehouseholdconsistsofslavesandfreepeople.Andsinceeachthingistobesoughtoutfirstinitssmallestinstances,andthefirstandsmallestpartsofahouseholdareamasterandaslave,ahusbandandawife,andafatherandchildren,itwouldbeappropriatetoexamine,withregardtoeachofthesethreeparts,whatitwouldbeandofwhatsortitoughttobe.Andtheseareskillatmastery,skillatmarriage(sincethereisnonameforthemarriedwomanand[10]manasacouple),andthird,skillatchild-rearing(sincethistoohasnospecialnamegiventoit).Solettherebethesethreethatwementioned.Butthereisacertainpartwhichseemstosomepeopletobehouseholdmanagement,andtootherstobethegreatestpartofit,andhowthatstandsneedstobelookedat.Iamtalkingaboutwhatiscalledprovisioning.52Butfirstletusspeakaboutmasterandslave,sothatwemayseebothwhathastodowithnecessaryserviceandwhetherwemightbeabletogetholdofanythinghavingtodowithknowingaboutthemthatisbetterthanthethings

currentlyaccepted.Foritseemstosomethatmasteryofslavesisacertainkindofknowledge,andthathouseholdmanagement,masteryofslaves,politicalrule,andkingshiparethe[20]same,asweweresayingatthebeginning.Buttoothersitseemscontrarytonaturetobeamasterofslaves(sinceitisbyconventionthattheoneisaslaveandtheotherfree,whiletheyarenodifferentbynature),andthatitisconsequentlynotjusteither,sinceitisbyforce.

Chapter4Nowsincepropertyispartofahousehold,skillatacquiringpossessionsis

alsopartofhouseholdmanagement(forwithoutthenecessitiesitisimpossiblebothtoliveandtolivewell);sojustasitwouldbenecessaryinthevariousartsfortheirappropriateinstrumentstobeavailableifoneisgoingtocarrythejobtocompletion,sotoodoesthatapplytoahouseholdmanager.Andamonginstruments,whilesomearesoulless,othersareensouled.(Forinstance,forahelmsman,thetillerisasoullessinstrument,butthelookoutmanisanensouledone,for[30]inthearts,apersoninasubordinateroleisintheformofainstrument.)Apossessiontoo,then,isaninstrumentforlife,andpropertyisanassortmentofinstruments;andaslaveisanensouledpossession,andlikeeverysubordinate,isaninstrumentoverinstruments.Forifeachoftheinstrumentshadthepowertocarryoutitsjobwhencommandedorinanticipationofthecommand,thewaypeoplesaythoseofDaedalusdid,orHephaestus’stripods,whichthepoetsays“cameintothegods’assemblyontheirown,”53sothatshuttleswouldplytheloomandpicksplaythelyre,therewouldbenoneedofsubordinatesfor[1254a]master-craftsmenorslavesformasters.Nowtheinstrumentsmentionedareproductiveinstruments,whileapossessionismeantforaction,forsomeotherthingcomesintobeingfromtheshuttleapartfromtheuseofit,buttheusealonecomesfromclothesorabed.Andfurther,sinceproductionandactiondifferinform,andbothhaveneedofinstruments,itisnecessaryforthesetootohavethesamedifference.Andlifeisactionandnotproduction.Henceaslaveisalsoasubordinateforthingshavingtodowithaction.

Apossessionismeantinthesamesenseasapart.Forapartisnot[10]onlypartofsomethingelsebutalsobelongswhollytosomethingelse,andsimilarlytoowithapossession.Hence,whilethemasterisonlyamasterof

theslaveanddoesnotbelongtohim,theslaveisnotonlyaslaveofthemasterbutdoeswhollybelongtohim.Whatthenatureandcapacityoftheslaveare,then,isclearfromthesethings.Foronewho,thoughahumanbeing,belongsbynaturenottohimselfbuttosomeoneelseisbynatureaslave;andahumanbeingbelongstosomeoneelsewho,thoughahumanbeing,isapossession;andapossessionisaseparateinstrumentforaction.

Chapter5Whetherthereisanyoneofthatsortbynatureornot,andwhetheritisa

betterthingandajustthingforanyonetobeaslave,ornot,butallslaveryiscontrarytonature,needstobeexamined[20]next.Anditisnotdifficulteithertohaveinsightintothisthroughreasonortoobserveitfromwhathappens.Forrulingandbeingruledarenotonlyamongthenecessitiesbutalsoamongthingsthatareadvantageous,andsomethingsdivergerightfromthemomentofbirtheithertowardbeingruledortowardruling.Andtherearemanyformsofrulingandofbeingruled.(Thekindofruleisalwaysbetterwhenthoseruledarebetter,aswhentheoneruledisahumanbeingratherthanabeast,sincetheworkisbetterthatiscarriedoutbythosewhoarebetter,andwhereveronerulesandanotherisruledthereissomethingthatistheirwork.)Forincasesinwhichanythingisorganizedoutofanumberofthings,whethercontinuousorseparated,andbecomessomeonething[30]incommon,somethingthatrulesandsomethingthatisruledbecomeapparentinthemall,andthiscarriesoverfromnatureasawholeintobeingswithsouls.Forthereisakindofrulingeveninthingsthatdonotshareinlife,asinharmony;butthesethingsprobablybelongtoamorepopularsortofinquiry.Andananimalisthefirstthingorganizedoutofasoulandabody,ofwhichtheoneisbynaturetherulingpartandtheothertheruled.Anditispreferablyinthingshavingtheirnaturalconditionthatoneoughttoexaminethingsthatarebynature,andnotindefectiveones;sotheappropriatesortofhumanbeingtostudyisonewhoisbestdisposedinbothbodyandsoul,inwhomthisisevident.Forinthosewhoarecorruptor[1254b]inacorruptcondition,itwouldseemthatthebodyoftenrulesoverthesoul,frombeinginaninferiorconditionthatiscontrarytonature.

Soaswearesaying,thefirstplacetogetaninsightintotheruleofamasterandpoliticalruleisinananimal.Forthesoulrulesoverthebodywith

theruleofamaster,whileintellectrulesoverdesirewithpoliticalorkinglyrule.Inthesecasesitisevidentthatitisanadvantageousthinginaccordwithnatureforthebodytoberuledbythesoul,andforthepartthatoperatesbyfeelingtoberuledbytheintellect,thepartthathasreason,whileanequalorreversedrelationisharmfultothemall.[10]Anditisthesamewayagaininthecaseofahumanbeingandtheotheranimals;thetameanimalsarebetterinnaturethanthewildones,anditisbetterforthemalltoberuledbyahumanbeing,sinceinthatwaytheyattainpreservation.Also,therelationofmaletofemaleisbynaturethatofasuperiorandinferior,andrulerandruled.Anditisnecessarythatitbethesamewayinthecaseofallhumanbeings.Sothosewhostandasfarremovedassoulisfrombodyorahumanbeingfromabeast(andthoseforwhomtheuseofthebodyistheirwork,andforwhomthisisthebestthatcomesfromthem,aresituatedinthisway)areslavesbynature,andforthemitisbetter[20]thattheyberuledbythissortofrule,ifindeeditisbetterforthethingsthathavebeenmentioned.Forsomeoneisbynatureaslaveifheiscapableofbelongingtoanotherperson(andhencealsodoesbelongtoanotherperson),andifhesharesinreasononlytotheextentofperceivingitbutnotofhavingit.54Fortheotheranimalsaresubservientnottoreasonbuttofeelings.Andtheirusefulnessisonlyslightlydifferent,sinceassistancewithnecessitiesbymeansofthebodycomesfromboth,fromslavesandfromtameanimals.

Andnatureintendstomakethebodiesoffreepeopleandslavesdiffer,onesortstrongfornecessaryservice,theotheruprightanduselessfor[30]laborsofthatkind,butusefulforapoliticallife.(Andthatcomestobedividedaswell,intoserviceinwarandinpeace.)Butthingsoftenturnouttheoppositeway,withsomehavingthebodiesoffreepeopleandothersthesouls.Thisatleastisobvious,though,thatifpeoplewerebornsurpassingothersinbodyonlyasmuchtheimagesofthegodsdo,everyonewouldclaimthatthosewhofellshortofthatdeservedtobetheirslaves.Andifthisistrueinthecaseofthebody,itisamuchmorejustthingforthisdistinctiontobemadeinthecaseofthesoul;butitisjustnotsoeasytosee[1255a]thebeautyofthesoulasitiswiththatofthebody.Itisclear,then,thatsomepeoplearefreeandothersslavesbynature,andthatforthelatteritisbothadvantageousandjustforthemtobeenslaved.

Chapter6Butitisnotdifficulttoseethatthosewhosaytheoppositeareinacertain

wayspeakingrightly.For“beingenslaved”and“slave”aremeantintwodifferentsenses.Thereisasenseinwhichaslaveoronewhoisenslavedisamatteroflaw,thelawbeingacertainagreementbywhichpeopleassertthatthingsconqueredinwarbelongtotheconquerors.Butmanyofthoseexperiencedwiththelawschargethosewhosaythat,thewaytheywouldchargearhetorician,withurgingmeasuresthatviolatethelaw,onthegroundsthatitwouldaterriblethingifwhatisovercomebyforceisgoingtobe[10]aslaveandberuledbywhatiscapableofforceandpredominantinpower.Andevenamongthewise,itseemsthatwaytosome,buttheotherwaytoothers.Whatisresponsibleforthisdispute,andwhatmakesthetug-of-warofargumentskeepgoing,isthatinacertainwayvirtue,whenithappenstohaveresources,isalsobestabletouseforce,andwhatpredominatesisalwaysinexcessinsomesortofgood;consequently,itseemsthatthereisnoforcedevoidofvirtue,butwhatisdisputedhastodoonlywithwhatthejustthingis(sinceinthismatteritseemstosomethatthejustthingiskindness,55buttoothersthatthisverythingisjust,namelyfortheconquerortorule).Atanyrate,though,whentheseargumentsaresetoutseparately,[20]theonesetofargumentshasnothingstrongorpersuasiveinittosaythatwhatisbetterinrespectofvirtueoughtnottoruleandbemaster.Butsomewhoclingentirely,astheyassume,toasortofjustice(sincethelawisasortofjustice)setdowntheslaveryresultingfromwarasjust,butatthesametimetheydenyit.Foritispossiblefortheoriginsofwarsnottobejust,andthereisnowaytosaythatsomeonewhodoesnotdeservetobeenslavedisaslave.Otherwiseitwillturnoutthatthoseheldtobeofhighestbirthareslavesanddescendedfromslaves,iftheyshouldhappentobecapturedandsold.Forjustthatreasonpeopledonotwanttocallthemslaves,butdosaysoaboutthebarbarians.Andyetwhentheysaythat,[30]theyarelookingfornothingotherthanthenaturalslavewhichwewerespeakingoffromthebeginning,foritisnecessarytosaytherearesomewhoareslaveseverywhereandothersnowhere.Anditisthesamewaywithbeinghigh-born,fortheyconsiderthemselveshigh-bornnotonlyamongthemselvesbuteverywhere,butconsiderbarbarianshigh-bornonlyathome,asifthereweresomethinghigh-bornandfreesimply,andsomething

notsimplyso.ItisasTheodectes’sHelensaysSprungfromdivinerootsonbothsidesasIam,Whowouldthinkitrighttocallmeaserving-maid?

Whenpeoplesaythat,itisbynothingotherthanvirtueandvicethat[40]theyaredistinguishingslavefromfreeandhigh-bornfrom[1255b]base-born.Fortheythinkthatgoodisbornfromgoodthesamewaythatahumanbeingisbornfromahumanbeingandabeastfromabeast.Butwhilenatureintendstodothis,itisoftennotabletodoso.

Itisclear,then,thatthereissomereasonforthedispute,andtherearenotalwaysnaturalslavesontheonesideandfreepeopleontheother.Itisalsoclearthatthereisadistinctionofsuchakindinsomepeople,amongwhomitisadvantageousfortheonetobeenslavedandtheothertobemaster,andthattheoneoughttoberuledandtheothertorulebythatformofrulebywhichitisnaturaltorule,andthereforetobeamaster,thoughtodosobadlyisdisadvantageoustothemboth.For[10]thesamethingisadvantageoustothewholeastothepartandtothesoulastothebody,whiletheslaveisacertainpartofthemaster,likeanensouledbutseparatedpartofhisbody.Henceforaslaveandamasterwhodeservetoberegardedassuchbynature,thereisbothamutualadvantageandafriendshiptowardoneanother,butwhenitisnotthatway,buttheyareslaveandmasterbylawandbyforce,itistheopposite.56

Chapter7Itisalsoclearfromthesethingsthatmasteryofslavesandpoliticalrule

arenotthesame,andthatallformsofrulearenotthesameasoneanother,assomeclaim.Foronesortisoverpeoplefreebynatureandtheotheroverslaves;also,householdmanagementisamonarchy(sinceeveryhouseholdisruledbyoneperson),[20]whilepoliticalruleisoverpeoplewhoarefreeandequal.Nowsomeoneisnotcalledamasteronaccountofknowledge,butforbeingofacertainsort,andsimilarlywithslaveandfree,buttherecouldbeaknowledgepertainingtobothmasteryandslavery.ThatpertainingtoslaverywouldbejustthesortofthingthepersoninSyracuseusedtoteach,forsomeonethereusedtotakeafeeandgiveslaveboystrainingintheirdailychores;therecouldalsobeakindoflearningthatwentfurtherintosuch

things,suchasrefinedcookingandothersuchitemsofdomesticservice.Fortherearejobsofonekindandjobsofanother,someheldinhigherhonor,someofgreaternecessity;astheproverbsays,“slaveaboveslave,masterabovemaster.”[30]Soallthesesortsofknowledgeapplytotheslave,butknowledgeforamasterisfortheuseofslaves.Foroneisamasternotinacquiringslavesbutinusingslaves.Thissortofknowledgehasnothinggreatorprofoundaboutit,sincethispersonneedstoknowhowtobeinchargeofthethingsaslaveneedstoknowhowtodo.Hence,forallthosewhohavetheopportunitytoavoidbeingbotheredwithitthemselves,amanagertakesonthatoffice,whiletheydevotethemselvestopoliticalorphilosophicactivity.Skillatacquiringslavesisdifferentfrombothofthese—acquiringthemjustly,forinstance,beingacertainskillatwarorhunting.Soletthedistinctionsthatpertaintoslaveandmasterbemadeinthis[40]way.

Chapter8[1256a]Letustakeanoverallviewofpropertyandprovisioningthatfollowsthe

usualcourse,57seeingashowtheslavewasalsoaparticularpartofproperty.Andfirstofall,onemightbehardputtosaywhetherprovisioningisthesameashouseholdmanagement,orpartofit,orsubordinatetoit,andifsubordinate,whetherinthewaymakingshuttlesistoweavingorthewayworkingbronzeistosculpture.(Forthesearenotsubordinateinthesameway:theoneprovidesinstrumentsandtheothermaterial,andbymaterialImeantheunderlyingsomethingoutofwhichaworkisbroughttofinalform,suchaswoolforaweaver[10]andbronzeforasculptor.)Itisevident,then,thathouseholdmanagementisnotthesameasprovisioning,sincetheroleofoneisprovidingandoftheotheritisusing.Forwhatelseapartfromhouseholdmanagementwillbetheskillatusingthingsforthehousehold?Butwhetherprovisioningissomepartofitordifferentinformishighlydisputable.Forifitistheroleofsomeoneskilledatprovisioningtoseewheremoneyandpropertyaregoingtocomefrom,propertyatanyratetakesinmanyparts,andwealthaswell,sothatfirstofallthereisthequestion,isskillatfarming,andthewholeresponsibilityforfoodandproperty,apartofprovisioningoradifferentkindofthing?Butinfacttherearemanyformsoffood,[20]whichiswhytherearealsomanywaysoflifethatbelongtoanimalsaswellashumanbeings.Foritisnotpossibletolivewithoutfood,so

thatthedifferencesamongfoodshaveproduceddifferencesamonganimals.Forsomeofthebeastsareinherdsandothersscattered,whicheverwaygivesanadvantagefortheirfood,sincesomeofthemarecarnivorous,someherbivorous,andothersomnivorous.Soitisforconvenienceandselectivitythatnaturehasmadetheirwaysoflifedistinct,andsincethesamethingsarenotpleasingtoeach,butdifferentthingstodifferentkinds,waysoflifeamongcarnivorousandherbivorousanimalsthemselvesaredivergentfromoneanother.

Anditissimilar[30]withhumanbeingsaswell,forthewaysoflifebelongingtothemaremuchdifferent.Thelaziestarenomads(sincetheirfoodcomestothemwithoutlaborwhiletheyareatleisure,fromtameanimals,thoughwhenitisnecessaryfortheirflockstochangetheirplaceforthesakeofpastures,theytooarecompelledtotofollowalong,asiftheywerefarmingalivingfarm).Othersliveoffhunting,anddifferentgroupsoffdifferentkindsofhunting;some,forexample,liveoffpiracy,andothers,whodwellnearlakes,marshes,rivers,ortherightpartsofthesea,offfishing,stillothersoffbirdsorwildbeasts.Butthelargestclassofhumanbeingsliveofftheearthandcultivatedcrops.[40]Sotherearejustaboutthatmanywaysoflife,thoseatanyratethathaveaproductiveactivityoftheirownanddonotprovidetheirfood[1256b]byexchangeorcommerce:nomadic,piratical,fishing,hunting,andfarming.Somealsolivepleasantlybymakingamixtureofthese,makingupforadeficientwayoflifeinanyrespectinwhichitcomesupshortofbeingself-sufficient;some,forinstance,arenomadicandpiraticalatthesametime,whileotherscombinefarmingandhunting,andsimilarlywiththerest.Astheirneedcontributesitspressures,theypasstheirlivesinsuchamanner.Sopropertyofthissortisobviouslygiventoallbynatureitself,justasitisrightfromthefirstmomentofbirth,sotoowhentheyarefull-grown.[10]Foratbirth,fromthebeginningsomeoftheanimalsalsobringforthenoughfoodtobesufficientuptothetimewhentheoffspringitselfhasthepowertoprovideforitself,aswiththosethatproducelarvaeorlayeggs;thosethatarelive-bearinghavefoodfortheiroffspringinthemselvesuptoacertaintime,inthenatureofwhatiscalledmilk.Sosimilarlyforthosethathavecomeintobeing,itisclearthatitisappropriatetoassumethatplantsareforthesakeofanimalsandtheotheranimalsforthesakeofhumanbeings,58thetameonesbothforuseandforfood,andifnotallthewildones,

atleastmost,forthesakeoffoodandotherassistance,sothat[20]clothesandotherkindsofgearmightcomefromthem.Soifnaturemakesnothingincompleteandnothinguseless,itisnecessarythatnaturehasmadethemallforthesakeofhumanbeings.Henceevenskillatwarwillinacertainsensebeanaturalacquisitiveskill(sinceskillathuntingispartofit),whichoughttobeusedbothagainstanimalsandagainstthosehumanbeingswhoareofsuchanatureastoberuled,butareunwilling,onthegroundsthatthissortofwarfareisnaturallyjust.

Sooneformofnaturalskillatacquisitionisapartofhouseholdmanagement,becauseiteitherneedstohaveavailableortoprovideameanstomakeavailableasupplyofpossessionsnecessaryforlifeanduseful[30]forassociationinacityorhousehold.Anditseemsthattruewealth,atanyrate,ismadeupofthesethings.Forself-sufficiencyinthissortofpropertyforagoodlifeisnotunlimitedthewaySolonclaimsintheverse“noupperlimitofwealthislaiddowninthesightofmen.”Itislaiddown,inthesamewayasfortherestofthearts;fornothingthatisinstrumentaltoanyartisunlimitedineithermultitudeormagnitude,andwealthisthemultitudeofinstrumentsbelongingtoahouseholdmanagerorpoliticalruler.Itisclear,then,thatthereisacertainartofacquisitioninaccordwithnatureforhouseholdmanagersandpoliticalrulers,andforwhatreason.

Chapter9[40]Butthereisanotherkindofskillatacquisitionwhichpeoplereferto

especiallyasprovisioning—anditisjusttorefertoitthatway—onaccountofwhichthereseemstobeno[1257a]limitforwealthandproperty.Manypeopleregarditasoneandthesameastheskilldescribed,becausetheyareclosetogether,butitisneitherthesameastheonementionednorfarremovedfromit.Butoneofthemisnaturalandtheotherisnotnatural,butcomesaboutinsteadthroughacertainkindofexperienceandart.

Letustakeourbeginningaboutitfromthispoint:theuseofeverypossessionistwofold,bothwaysinvirtueofitselfbutnotinvirtueofitselfinthesamemanner,butoneparticulartothethingandtheothernotparticulartoit.Withashoe,forinstance,thereiswearingonthefeetandalsoexchange,[10]andbothareusesofshoes.Forapersonwhoexchangesashoewithsomeonewhoneedsone,inreturnforcurrencyorfood,doesusetheshoeasa

shoebutnotinitsparticularuse,sinceitdidnotcomeintobeingforthesakeofexchange,anditisthesamewaywiththeotherpossessionsaswell.Forthereisaskillatexchangingallthingsthathasitsfirstoriginfromsomethingthatisinaccordwithnature,thefactthathumanbeingshavemoreofsomethingsandlessofothersthanissufficient.(Anditisclearfromthisthatcommercialtradeisnotanaturalpartofskillatprovisioning,sinceitwouldhavebeennecessarythenforthetraderstomakeanexchangeforjusttheamountthatwassufficientforthem.)Sointhefirst[20]association(thatis,thehousehold),itisobviousthatthereisnoworkforexchangetodo,butitbelongstoanassociationfromthepointatwhichitconsistsofmorethanonehousehold.Forthosewhobelongedtothesameonesharedallthingsincommon,whilethoseinseparateones,onthecontrary,hadmanythingsthatdiffered,ofwhichitwasnecessarytomakeexchangesaccordingtotheirneeds,justasmanyofthebarbariannationsstilldo,bybarter.Fortheyexchangeusefulitemsthemselvesforthemselves,andnothingmore,wineforgrainforinstance,givingoneandtakingtheother,andeachoftheotherthingsofthatsort.Skillatthissortofexchange,then,isnotcontrarytonatureandisnotanyformofprovisioning[30](sinceitwasaimedatfillingoutaself-sufficiencyinaccordwithnature).Theothersortofexchange,however,camealongoutofthisoneinareasonableway.Forwhentheassistanceofthosefrommoreforeignplacescamealongtoimportthingsthatwereneededandexportthosetheyhadinexcess,theuseofacurrencywassuppliedoutofnecessity.Foreachofthenaturalnecessitieswasnoteasilytransported,andsofortheirexchangestheyagreedtogiveandtakesomesortofthingthatwascomparabletothosethingsthemselves,which,beingitselfoneoftheusefulthings,hadauseforlivingthatwaseasytohandle,suchasironorsilveroranyothersuchthingtheremightbe,determinedatfirstsimplybysizeandweight,butultimately[40]peoplealsostampedamarkonitinordertosparethemselvesfrommeasuring,forthemarkwasplacedasasignoftheamount.

[1257b]Sofromthepointatwhichacurrencywasprovidedoutofnecessaryexchange,anotherformofprovisioningcameintobeing,thecommercialsort,atfirstprobablyinasimpleway,thenthroughexperiencealreadymoreamatterofart,aboutwhatitemsexchangedinwhatwaywillmakethemostprofit.Thisiswhyitseemsthatprovisioningisespeciallyconcernedwiththecurrency,andthatitsjobistobeabletoseewherea

greateramountofmoneywillcomefrom,sinceitisproductiveofwealthandmoney.59Forpeopleoftenevenassumethatwealthisalargequantityofcurrency,becauseprovisioningandcommercialskill[10]areconcernedwiththat.Sometimes,though,onthecontrary,thecurrencyseemstobenonsense,amatterofconventionthrough-and-throughandnothingnatural,becauseitisworthnothingwhenitsusersalteritandisnotusefulforanyofthenecessities;infact,someonewhoiswealthyincurrencywilloftengowithoutnecessarysustenance.Andyetitwouldbeabsurdforwealthtobethesortofthingthatonecouldhaveinabundanceanddieofstarvation,likethatMidaspeopletellthestoryabout,thatbecauseoftheinsatiablegreedofhisprayer,everythingsetinfrontofhimturnedintogold.Hencepeoplelookforsomeothersortofwealthandprovisioning,andtheyarerighttolookforit.Forthereisadifferentsortofprovisioningandwealthwhich[20]isinaccordwithnature,andthisishouseholdmanagement;butcommercialskillmakesmoneynotineverywaybutonlybyexchangeofusefulgoods,andthisseemstobeconcernedwithcurrency,sincethecurrencyistheelementandlimitingfactoroftheexchange.Andthissortofwealth,thesortthatcomesfromthissortofprovisioning,isinfactunlimited.Forjustasthemedicalartisforbeinghealthytoanunlimitedextent,andeachoftheartsisforitsendtoanunlimitedextent(sincetheywanttoproducethattothegreatestpossibleextent),butasfarasthethingsleadingtotheendareconcerned,anartisnotofunlimitedextent(sincetheendisalimitonthemall),sotoowiththissortofprovisioningthereisnolimitforitsend,andtheendiswealth[30]ofthissortandpropertyconsistingofmoney.

Butwiththesortofprovisioninginvolvedinhouseholdmanagement,ontheotherhand,thereisalimit,sincethisisnotthejobofhouseholdmanagement.Thisiswhyinonesenseitappearsnecessaryfortheretobealimittoallwealth,butinwhathappensweseethingsturningouttheoppositeway.Forallthosewhoengageinprovisioningincreasetheirsupplyofcurrencytoanunlimitedextent.Thereasonisthecloseproximityofthetwosortsofprovisioning,sinceeach,involvingthesamething,crossesoverintotheotherinitsuse.Fortheiruseisofthesameproperty,thoughnotinthesamerespect,buttheendoftheoneisdifferent,whileoftheothertheendisincrease.Soitseemstosomepeoplethatthisisthejobofhouseholdmanagement,andtheyconductthemselvesthroughoutinthebeliefthatthey

haveto[40]preserveorincreasetoanunlimitedextentanestateconsistingofcurrency.Whatisresponsibleforthisattitudeisbeingzealousaboutlivingbutnot[1258a]aboutlivingwell.Sosincethatdesireisofunlimitedextent,theyalsodesirewhatproducesanunlimitedsupplyofthings.Andeventhosewhodevotethemselvestolivingwellseekwhatleadstobodilyenjoyments,sosincethistooappearstobeavailablethroughproperty,allthetimetheyspendisconnectedwithmoney,andthisiswheretheotherformofprovisioningcomesfrom.Forsincethereisenjoymentinextravagance,theyseekwhatproducestheextravagancethatleadstoenjoyment,andiftheyareincapableofprovidingthisthroughprovisioning,theyattemptitthroughothersources,[10]usingeachoftheircapacitiesinawaynotinaccordwithitsnature.Forthenatureofcourageisnottomakemoneybuttoproduceconfidence,andthenaturesofmilitaryandmedicalskillarenottomakemoneybutintheonecasevictory,intheotherhealth.Butsomepeopleturnalltheseintoprovisioning,asthoughthisweretheirendandeverythinghadtopressaheadtotheend.

Aboutthenon-necessarysortofprovisioning,then,whatitisandwhatcausesustobeinneedofithavebeenstated,andaboutthenecessarysort,thatitisdifferentfromthat,anaturalskillofhouseholdmanagementthathastodowithfood,notunboundedlikethatothersortbuthavingalimit.

Chapter10Andtheoriginaldifficulty,whetherprovisioning[20]belongstothe

householdmanagerorpoliticalruler,ordoesnotbutthisneedstobeavailable,isclear.Forjustaspoliticalskilldoesnotproducehumanbeings,buttakesthemfromnatureandusesthem,sotooitisnecessaryfornaturetoprovidetheearthorseaorsomethingelseforfood,whileitbelongstothehouseholdmanagertogetthethingsthatcomefromtheseintotheconditiontheyneedtobein.Foritdoesnotbelongtoskillatweavingtoproducewoolbuttouseit,andtorecognizethesortthatisusableandappropriateoruselessandinappropriate.Foronecouldalsoraisethequestionwhyprovisioningispartofhouseholdmanagementbutdoctoringisnotpartofit,eventhoughthepeopleinthehousehold[30]needtobehealthy,justastheyneedtoliveordoanyoftheothernecessarythings.Butsincethereisasenseinwhichseeingabouthealthbelongstoahouseholdmanagerandtoaruler,andasensein

whichitdoesnot,butbelongstoadoctor,sotooisthereasenseinwhichseeingaboutpossessionsbelongstoahouseholdmanagerandasenseinwhichitdoesnot,buttoasubordinateskill.Andthisoneespeciallyneedstobepresentbynature,aswassaidbefore.Foritisthejobofnaturetosupplyfoodtosomethingthathasbeenborn,sinceforallofthese,theremainderofthatoutofwhichtheyarebornisfood.Hence,skillatacquiringpossessionsfromcropsandanimalsisinaccordwithnatureforeveryone.Butsinceitisoftwoforms,aswesaid,onebelongingtocommerceandtheothertohouseholdmanagement,[40]andoneoftheseisnecessaryandpraised,[1258b]whiletheoneinvolvingskillatexchangeisjustlycriticized(sinceitisnotinaccordwithnaturebuttakenbyonepersonfromanother),usuryisveryreasonablyhatedbecausewhatisacquiredcomesfromthecurrencyitselfandnotfromthethingforwhichitwasprovided.Forcurrencycameintobeingforthesakeofexchange,buttheinterestmakesitbemore.(Andthisiswherethename60istakenfrom,sinceoffspringarelikethosewhogavebirthtothem,andinterestiscurrencythatcomesintobeingoutofcurrency.)Sothisisthemostcontrarytonatureoftheformsofprovisioning.

Chapter11Sincewehavemadeenoughdistinctionshavingtodowithknowledge,itis

[10]necessarytogooverwhathastodowithpracticalusage.Allsuchmattershaveafree-rangingstudybutalsoanecessaryexperience.Andtheusefulpartsofprovisioninginvolvebeingexperiencedwithproperty,andwhereandhowdifferentsortsaremostprofitable,forinstancewhatsortofpropertyinhorses,cattle,orsheep,andsimilarlywiththerestoftheanimals.(Foritisnecessarytobeexperiencedastowhichofthesearemostprofitableincomparisonwithoneanother,andalsowhichonesinwhichplaces,sincedifferentonesthriveindifferentregions.)Next,theyinvolvefarming,andwithinthis,bothsimplecropsandvine-cultivation,aswellaskeepingbeesandotherwingedandaquaticanimals,all[20]thesortsfromwhichitispossibletogetsupport.These,then,arethepartsofprovisioninginitsmostproperandprimarysense,whiletradeisthegreatestpartofcommercialprovisioning.(Andthishasthreeparts:shipping,carrying,andretailmarketing.Amongthese,somedifferfromtheothersbybeingmoresafe,othersbyprovidingagreaterprofit.)Asecondpartismoney-lendinganda

thirdiswagelabor,onesortofwhichinvolvesthemenialcrafts,whiletheotherinvolvesunskilledbutusefullaborwiththebodyalone.Andthereisathirdformofprovisioningbetweenthissortandtheprimaryone,sinceithassomepartinboththenaturalandthecommercialsorts,namelyforthosethingsthatarefromtheearth[30]andderivedfromthingsfromtheearth,andarebarrenbutuseful,suchastimber-cuttingandallsortsofmining.Andthisincludesmanykinds,sincetherearemanyformsofthingsminedfromtheearth.Eachofthesehasnowbeenspokenofingeneral,andwhilegivingaprecisediscussionofthesubjectpartbypartwouldbeusefulwithaviewtothevariouskindsofwork,dwellingonthemwouldbetedious.Themostartfulofthekindsofworkarethosewherechanceispresenttheleast,themostmechanicalthoseinwhichpeople’sbodiesgetthemostwearandtear,themostslavishthosewherethereisthegreatestuseofthebody,andthemostdebasedthosewherethereistheleastneedofvirtueinaddition.

Andsincetherearethingswritten[40]aboutthesemattersbysomepeople,forexampleCharestheParianand[1259a]ApollodorustheLemnianonfarming,aboutbothsimplecropsandvine-cultivation,andsimilarlybyothersonothertopics,letthesethingsbestudiedfromthesewritingsbyanyonewhocaresto.Also,thescatteredwritingsonthemeansbywhichsomehavebeensuccessfulatacquiringprovisionsneedtobecollected.Forallthesethings,suchasthemeansusedbyThalestheMilesian,areofbenefittothosewhoholdprovisioninginhonor.Forthisisanideathatpertainstoprovisioning,butpeopleattributeittohimonaccountofhiswisdom,andithappenstobesomethingofuniversalutility.Forwhenpeoplereproachedhimforhispovertyonthegroundsthatphilosophy[10]wasuseless,theysaythathavingnoticedfromhisastronomicalstudythattherewasgoingtobeanabundanceofolives,hefoundthemeans,whileitwasstillwinter,toputdownalittlemoneyasadepositonalltheolivepressesinMiletusandChios,whichwererentedoutatasmallfeebecausenoonewastakinganinterestinthem.Butwhentheopportunemomentcameandallofasuddenmanyofthemweresoughtoutatthesametime,herentedthemoutonwhatevertermshewantedandamassedalotofmoney,toshowthatitisaneasythingforphilosopherstogetrichiftheywantto,thoughthatisnotwhattheyareseriousabout.SoThalesissaidtohavemadeadisplayofhiswisdominthisway,thoughaswe[20]said,thissortofprovisioningtechniqueisauniversal

one,ifanyoneisabletoarrangeamonopolyforhimself.Andhencesomecitiestooresorttothisdevicewhentheyareinneedofmoney,fortheycreateamonopolyinitemsforsale.InSicily,someonewhohadcashthathadbeendepositedwithhimboughtupalltheironfromtheiron-works,andafterward,whenmerchantscamefromtheirmarkets,healonewassellingit,andwithoutmakingmuchofanincreaseinpricehestilltookinahundredtalentsonanoutlayoffifty.61NowwhenDionysiusbecameawareofthis,heorderedhimtogethismoneyoutofSyracuse,andbynomeans[30]tostaythereanylonger,sincehehaddiscoveredatechniquedetrimentaltoDionysius’sownaffairs.ButthethingThaleshadseenisthesameasthiscase,sincebothmenhadcontrivedtobringaboutmonopoliesforthemselves.Anditisusefulforpoliticalrulerstootorecognizethesethings,sincethereisaneedofprovisionsandfortechniquesofthissortinmanycities,justasinahousehold,onlymoreso.Consequently,someofthosewhoengageinpoliticaladministrationdosointhesewaysonly.

Chapter12Andsincetherewerethreepartsofhouseholdmanagement,one

pertainingtomasteryofslaves,whichhasbeendiscussedearlier,onepaternal,andathirdpertainingtomarriage,[thelattertworemaintobediscussed.]62Andonerulesawifeandchildrenasfreepeople[40]inbothcases,butnotwiththesamemannerofrule,but[1259b]inapoliticalmanner63inthecaseofawifeandakinglymannerinthecaseofchildren.Forthemaleisbynaturemoresuitedtoleadershipthanthefemale,unlesssomethinginhismake-uprunscontrarytonature,andsoistheelderandfull-grownincomparisontotheyoungerandimmature.Nowinmostinstancesofpoliticalrulethereisaninterchangeamongthosewhoruleandareruled,sincetheytendbynaturetobeonanequalityandhavenodifference;nevertheless,wheneveronerulesandanotherisruled,theformerwantstheretobeadifferenceinformalities,words,andtokensofrespect,asAmasissaidinthestoryaboutthefootpan.64Themaleisalways[10]relatedtothefemaleinthismanner.Butruleoverchildreniskingly,fortheprogenitorisaruleronthebasisofloveaswellasofgreaterage,whichispreciselytheformofkinglyrule.ThisiswhyHomerspokebeautifullywhenheaddressedZeus,the

kingofthemall,as“fatherofmenandgods.”Forthekingoughttohavedistinction,andyetbethesameinkind,theverythingwhichcharacterizestheolderinrelationtotheyoungerandtheprogenitorinrelationtotheoffspring.

Chapter13Itisclear,then,thattheseriousconcernofhouseholdmanagementis

greaterforhumanbeingsthanfortheacquisitionofthingswithoutsouls,[20]fortheirvirtueratherthanforthepropertyoftheirswhichwecallwealth,andforthefreepeopleratherthantheslaves.Andasfarasslavesareconcerned,onemightfirstraisethequestionwhetherthereisanyvirtuebefittingaslaveotherthanwhatbelongstoimplementsandservants,anyvirtuemoredeservingofrespectthanthosethings,suchasmoderation,courage,justice,andtheotheractiveconditionsofthatsort,orwhetherthereisnoneapartfromtheirbodilyservices.Forthereisanimpasseeitherway,since,iftherearevirtues,inwhatrespectdotheydifferfromfreepeople?Andiftherearenot,thatwouldbestrange,sincetheyarehumanbeingsandhaveashareinreason.Andprettymuchthesamepointofinquiryalsoconcernsawomanandachild,[30]whethertheytoohavevirtues,andawomanoughttobemoderate,courageous,andjust,andachildcanbedissipatedormoderate,ornot.Sothisissomethingthatneedstobeexaminedaboutonewhoisruledbynatureandonewhorules:whethervirtueisthesameordifferent.Forifbothoughttoparticipateincompletegoodness,65whyshouldtheoneruleandtheotherberuledonceandforall?Foritisnotpossibleforthemtodifferbygreaterandlesssincebeingruledandrulingdifferinformandinnorespectasgreaterandless.Butitwouldbeamazingifoneneededitandtheotherdidnot.Foriftherulerisnotgoingtobemoderateand[40]just,howwillhedoabeautifuljobofruling?Andiftheoneruledisnot,howwill[1260a]hedoabeautifuljobofbeingruled?Forifheisdissipatedandcowardly,hewilldononeofthethingsthatarehisduties.Itisclear,then,thatitisnecessaryforbothtoparticipateinvirtue,butfortheretobedifferencesinthis,justasthereareinthosewhonaturallyrule.Andthisleadsstraighttoaconsiderationofthesoul,forthereisinitbynaturesomethingrulingandsomethingruled,ofwhichweclaimtherearedifferentvirtues,asoftheparthavingreasonandtheirrationalpart.Itisevident,then,thatthingsarethesamewayintheothercasesaswell,sothatmostthingsarerulingorruledbynature.Foritisin

differentwaysthatthefreerules[10]theslave,themalethefemale,andthemanthechild,andwhilethepartsofthesoularepresentinthemall,theyarepresentindifferingways.Fortheslavewhollylacksthedeliberativecapacity,whilethefemalehasit,butwithoutauthority,66andthechildhasit,butincomplete.Itmustlikewisebeassumedthatthisnecessarilyholdsforthevirtuesofcharacteraswell,thateveryoneneedstoparticipateinthembutnotinthesameway,buteachtotheextentthatconcernshisownwork.Hencetheonewhorulesoughttohavecompletevirtueofcharacter(forworkistheresponsibilityofthemaster-craftsmaninanunqualifiedway,andreason67isamaster-craftsman),buteachoftheothersasmuchasfallsto[20]hislot.Soitisclearthatethicalvirtuebelongstoallofthosementioned,andthatmoderationisnotthesameinawomanandaman,andneitherarecourageandjustice,inthewaythatSocratessupposed,68butthereisacourageappropriatetorulingandanothertobeingasubordinate,anditissimilarwiththeothervirtues.

Andthisisclearalsotothosewhoexaminethematterpart-by-partinstead.Forthosewhospeakingeneraltermsarefoolingthemselves,sayingthatvirtueisthegoodconditionofthesoul,oractingrightly,oranythingofthatsort.Thosewhocountupthevirtues,asGorgiasdoes,speakmuchbetterthanthosewhodefineitthatway.Henceoneoughttoconsiderthatthewayitisforeveryoneisthewaythepoet69hasspoken[30]aboutwoman,saying“silencebringsadornmenttoawoman,”whilethisisnolongerthecaseforaman.Andsinceachildisincomplete,itisclearthatvirtuedoesnotbelongtoitspresentselfinrelationtoitselfbutinrelationtoitsendandtheoneguidingitthere;anditissimilarwithaslaveinrelationtoamaster.Wesetitdownthattheslaveisusefulformattersofnecessity,soitisclearthathetooneedsalittlevirtue,enoughthathenotfallshortinhistasksonaccountofdissipationorcowardice.Butifwhatisnowbeingsaidistrue,onemightraisethequestionwhethercraftsmentoowillneedtohavevirtue,sincetheyoftenfallshortintheirtasksonaccountofdissipation.Ordoesthisdifferinthegreatestmanner?Forthe[40]slaveisapartnerinlife,whiletheotherismoreremotefromit,andexactlyasmuchvirtuefallstohislotasslaverydoes.Forthemechanical[1260b]craftsmanhasacertainrestrictedslavery,andwhiletheslaveiswhatheisbynature,noleatherworkeris,noranyoftheother

craftsmen.Itisclearthenthatthemasterneedstoberesponsibleforthissortofvirtueinaslave,andnotthepersonwhohasaskillatteachinghistasks.Hencepeoplearenotspeakingbeautifullywhodepriveslavesofreasonandclaimoneshouldmakeuseofcommandonly.70Forgentleadmonishmentneedstobeusedwithslavesmorethanwithchildren.

Soletthedistinctionsaboutthesemattersbemadeinthisway.Asforahusbandandwifeandachildandfather,andthe[10]virtuethatpertainstoeachofthemaswellaswhatisdonebeautifullyorotherwiseintheirrelationswithoneanother,andhowoneoughttopursuewhatisdonewellandavoidwhatisdonebadly,itisnecessarytogooverallthisintreatmentsofthedifferentformsofgovernment.71Forsinceeveryhouseholdispartofacity,andthesethingsarepartsofahousehold,andoneoughttolookatthevirtueofthepartinrelationtothatofthewhole,thenitisnecessarytoeducatebothchildrenandwomenwithaviewtotheformofgovernment,ifindeeditmakesanydifferencetothecity’sbeingofgoodmoralstaturewhetheritschildrenandwomenareofgoodmoralstature.Butitnecessarilydoesmakeadifference,sincewomenareaone-halfportionofthefreepeopleandassociatesinthegovernment[20]comefromthechildren.Sosincedistinctionshavebeenmadeaboutthesethingsandtherestmustbespokenofinotherplaces,leavingoffthepresentdiscussionsasbeingcomplete,letusmakeanotherbeginningforourdiscussion,andletusfirstconsidertheopinionsthathavebeenputforwardaboutthebestformofgovernment.

_______________________________________38“Political”(politikon)means“oforpertainingtoacity(polis).”Thelatterwordrefersnottoaplacebuttopeople(seeHerodotus,History,Bk.VIII,Ch.61),anditdoesnotcarryanyoftheconnotationsofourword“urban”(seeThucydides,PeloponnesianWar,Bk.I,Ch.10).Thewordpolitikonistranslatedliterallyat1253a2-3and7-8,and1278b19below,whereAristotlestatesthefundamentalprincipleofhisstudyofpoliticalassociation,butelsewhereitsEnglishderivativesareused.39ThisistheassumptionmadebytheEleaticStrangeratthebeginningofPlato’sStatesman(258E-259C).40Thisphrase(hêhuphêgêmenêmethodos)isvirtuallyalwaystranslatedas“ourusualmethod”orwordstothateffect,butinfactitmeans“thebeatenpath”ofpopularorreceivedopinion.Thereisaclearexampleofthismeaningat643b11ofthePartsofAnimals,whereAristotleusesthesameverbtosayitisbettertofollowtheleadofthecommondistinctionsamonggroupsofanimalsusedbyordinarypeoplethantotrytomakeaneatlylogicalclassificationonone’sown.AccordingtothefirstchapterofthePhysics,thesmallestpartsofthewholearethethingsanyphilosophicinquiryisseeking,andarenotavailabletousasstartingpoints.Here,theuncompoundedpartswouldbehumanbeingswhohavenotgrownupinpoliticalassociations.Imaginingapre-politicalhumanconditionwascommonlyindulgedinbypoets(Aeschylus,PrometheusBound441-470;Sophocles,Antigone354-364)andsophists(ProtagorasinPlato’sProtagoras,322A-D),andwasadoptedbySocratesinPlato’sRepublic(369B-371E)toseewhatjusticeisbywatchingacitycomeintobeinginspeech.41Thewordart(technê)referstoabroadrangeofpracticalskills,fromhorseridingtoshoemakingtomathematicalcalculation,allunderstoodasrootedinsomeformoftheoreticalknowledgethatguidesthereliable—artful—productionofsomeartifactorresult.42Rossemends“carryoutthosethings”(tautapoiein)to“work”(ponein),butitseemsbettertostayclosetothemanuscriptsforAristotle’sreferencestonaturalslavery.ItisonlyinthenextclausethatAristotleshiftsfromneuters(forsomethingthatfitsitspossessortoruleorberuled)tothewordsforamasterandaslave.Itistheneedforanotherperson,andhencethelackofone

ofthose“somethings,”thatmakesahumanbeingnaturallyamasterorslave.Itshouldbenotedtoothatthequalificationformasterygivenhereisforesightbythinking(dianoia),notforesightby“themind”asmanytranslationshaveit;AristotlemakesclearinBk.III,Ch.11ofOntheSoulthatheregardsanimalsashavingforesightbywayofimagination.43Nothingisknownaboutthisimplement,butanimalssacrificedatthetempleatDelphiwouldpresumablyhaverangedfrompigeonstobulls.44Euripides,IphigeniaatAulis1400.45WorksandDays405.46Anationora“people”(ethnos),whichcouldbelargeandsubsumeconquerednationsunderitsempire,wasthetypicalformofsovereignassociationinthenon-Greekworld.47Thequotation,OdysseyIX,114-115,referstotheCyclopes,whoweremonstersandcannibals.Homerpointsoutthatthereisnolaw(themis)whereeachlaysdownthelaw.48InthePhysics,193a28-b18,Aristotlearguesthatinanynaturalprocessofgrowthitisnotthematerialsfromwhichbuttheformintowhichitgrowsthatdisclosesthenatureofthegrowingthing.Hencethebeatenpathofanimaginarygenesisofacitywasonlyascaffoldingthatcannowbekickedaway.Atthethresholdofself-sufficiencytheassociationattainsitsnaturalform.49IliadIX,63.50Aristotlecallsthevocalcommunicationofsomeanimalsalanguage(dialektos)inBk.IV,Ch.9oftheHistoryofAnimals.Thisdiscussionofthedistinctionofcitiesfromhivesandherdsshowsthatheregardsspeech(logos)asapowernotprimarilyforcommunicatingbutmoredeeplyfordisclosingtheintelligibleconnectionsamongthings.HesaysinOntheSoulthatanimalsbehaveintelligently(406b24-25),butheascribesthisnottothepoweroflogosbuttoadeliberativeimagination(434a5-10),thoughhesaysthatwhereperceptionandimaginationareconcerneditishardtodrawasharplinebetweenirrationalandrational(alogonoulogonechon,432a30-b2).Thetransitiontojusticeandinjusticeseemstorefertocorrectivejustice,whichAristotledescribesasredressingharmbyrestoringsomeadvantageofwhich

onepersonhasdeprivedanother(NicomacheanEthics,1132a6-19).Anyconsiderationofrightandwronginsuchinequitiescouldonlybeginamongbeingscapableofrecognizingtheirexistence.51InBk.VII,Ch.5oftheNicomacheanEthics,Aristotlearguesthatcertainanimal-likeextremeandaberrantindulgencesgobeyondviceandunrestrainttoabestialcondition,blameableinhumanbeingswhoarecapableofchoosingotherwise.52TheGreekwordischrêmatistikê.Itisusuallytranslatedbyphrasessuchas“money-making”or“skillatbusiness”butAristotlewilldistinguishthatformofitfromamoreprimarykindofknow-howatsecuringtheusableorconsumablegoods(chrêmata)ahouseholdneeds.53IliadXVIII,376.54ThisformulationmakesitclearthatAristotleisnotspeakingofpeoplewithapassivedemeanorbutofthosewithonlyapassiveintellectualcapacity.Modernlawcontainsthenotionofbeing“mentallyincompetent”toownproperty,enterintocontracts,orotherwisebepermittedtocontrolone’sownlife.55This(eunoia)isthereadinginallthemanuscripts,butRossemendsittoanoia(nonsense).Ross’sversionpresumablymakeseveryoneagreewithenslavingtheconquered,somesayingthatitisjust,theothersthatitmakesnosensetothinkjusticehasanythingtodowithit.Themanuscriptreadingseemstomeanthattheconquerorsalwaysintendtodojusticebutdifferoverwhatthatis.Thatversionkeepsthetug-of-wargoing,andfocusesitonthejustthing(todikaion)asdistinctfromthevirtueofjustice.56Thisconclusionisoftenoverlooked.Bytheveryargumentthatjustifiesslaveryasnatural,anyslaverynotbasedonthedefectofintellectualcapacitydescribedat1254b22-23isdisadvantageoustothemasteraswellastotheslave,andasourceofmutualhostilityorhatred.57Asat1252a17-18(seenote),thisphrase(hohuphêgêmenostroposthistime)indicatesthatAristotlewillbeadoptingastartingpointfrompopularorreceivedopinion,andtheconclusionshedrawsherewillallreflecttheassumptionscontainedwithinthatusualwayofthinking.AttheendoftheNicomacheanEthics,whereAristotledescribestheneedforastudyof

politics,hesaysthatunwrittenlaws,nationalcharacter,andaheritageofopinionsandhabitsinevitablyhavestrengthinpubliclifeandarealwaysalreadypresentinthehumanbeingslawmakinghastoworkwith(1180a34-b7).58ItisacentralclaimofAristotle’stheoreticalworksthatlivingthingsarefortheirownsake.Heinventedthewordentelecheiaasafusionofthenotionsofcompletenessandactivity,orbeing-at-an-endandbeing-at-work.ThatwordistheheartofthedefinitionofthesourceoflifeinOntheSoul(412b4-6),ofthediscoveryoftheprimaryinstancesofbeingintheworldofexperienceintheMetaphysics(1028b9-10,1050b2-3,1050a21-23),andoftheintelligibilityofmotioninthePhysics(201a9-11).ThequestionwhetherlivingthingsalsohaveendsexternaltothemselvesisraisedinOntheSoulinrelationtotheiroffspring(415a26-b3),andintheMetaphysicsinrelationtotheorganizationofthecosmosasawhole(1072b1-4).ThepositivestatementherethatlivingthingsexistforoursakefollowsthebeatenpathofpopularopinionofwhichAristotleremindsusatthebeginningofthischapter.InthePhysics(194a34-35),hesaysinstead:“wetreateverythingthereisasthoughitisforoursake.”59Ineffectthissentencetracesatransformationinthemeaningofmoney(chrêmata),fromtheeasy-to-handleusablethingsoftheprecedingparagraphtotheagreeduponandstampedquantitativemeasuresofwealthembodiedinthecurrency.60Interestonmoneywascalledtokos,“offspring.”61Onetalentwasavastsum,setinAthensasequivalentto57.75poundsofsilver,orto6000drachmas.Onedrachmawasconsideredagoodday’swageforaskilledcraftsmanorasailor.TwotyrantsofSyracuse,themajorcityofSicily,afatherandson,hadthenameDionysius.62Somethingismissinginthemanuscripts.63Thisisdescribedfirstat1255b20asruleoverfreeandequalsubjects,sothenaturalsuperiorityAristotleattributestothemalemustleaveroomforanequalityofakindotherthanmerelynatural.64SeeHerodotus,History,II,172.AmasiswasacommoneroflowfamilywhobecamekingofEgypt,andwasatfirstheldinlowesteem.Hehada

goldenfootpanturnedintoanimageofagod,andthentoldthepeoplethattheywereworshippingsomethingintowhichtheyusedtovomitandurinate.65Kalokagathia,thewordthehigh-bornclassesappliedtothemselvestoconnoteacombinationofbeautyofmannersandgoodnessofcharacter.66Thewordakuronwascommonlyappliedtolawsthatwereeitherinvalidorunenforced.Aristotlecouldmeanthatthedeliberativecapacityinawomaniswithoutforceeitherbecauseitisbynatureweakerinherthanfeelingsorbecauseitisconventionallyunrecognizedandunrespected.67Aristotle’sargumenthereiselliptical,anddependsontheaccounthegivesintheNicomacheanEthics.Althoughtheintellectualvirtuesbelongtothepartofthesoulwithreason,thevirtuesofcharacterwhichgoverntheirrationalpartnecessarilyinvolvereasonintheactofchoice.Itispresumablyintheformofthedeliberativecapacitythatreasonactsasthemastercraftsmanofpracticallife,andexcellenceofpracticaljudgmentwouldthusbewhatmakesvirtueofcharactercomplete.68InPlato’sMeno,Menospeaksasthoughthevirtuesofvariouskindsofpeoplehadnothingincommon,andSocratesspeaksasthoughtheyhadnodifferences.Inthedialogues,Socratestypicallyleavesittohislistenerstofindthemiddlegroundwheretruthmightlie,andinreferencestothedialogues,Aristotletypicallytakesthewrittenargumentsatfacevalue.69Sophocles(Ajax,293)hasacharacterquotethislinefromherhusband.70ThisappliestotheAthenianStrangerinPlato’sLaws,777E-778A.71IfAristotleisreferringtohisowntreatmentsofthistopiclaterinthePolitics,heappearsnottohavekeptthispromise.

BOOKIIChapter1[1260b]

Since,inregardtopoliticalassociations,weproposetolookintowhichisthemosteffectiveofthemallforthosecapableoflivingtogreatestpossibleextentasonewouldwish,weoughttoexamineotherformsofgovernmentaswell,[30]boththoseusedbycertaincitiesthataresaidtobeundergoodlawsandanyothersthatmighthappentobespokenofbycertainpeoplethatalsoseemtobebeautifullysetup,sothatonemightseewhatisrightlydoneandusefulandalsosothatlookingforsomethingdifferentfromthemmightnotseemtobeentirelytheactofpeoplewhowanttoengageinsophistry,butwemightbeheldtobeembarkingonthiscourseforthisreason:becausethoseformsofgovernmentnowpresentarenotbeautifullysetup.Thebeginningthatneedstobemadefirstistheonethatisthenaturalbeginningforthisinvestigation.Foritisnecessarythatallcitizensshareeithereverything,ornothing,orsomethingsandnotothers.Nowtosharenothing[40]isobviouslyimpossible,sinceaformofgovernmentissomesortofassociation,andinthefirstplacenecessarilyhasasharedlocation;thereisonelocationfor[1261a]onecity,andthecitizensareassociatesinonecity.Butofallthosethingsthatarecapableofbeingshared,isitbetterforacitythatisgoingtobebeautifullyruntohavethemallshared,orbettertohavesomesharedandnotothers?Foritispossibleforthecitizenstosharechildrenandwomenandpropertywithoneanother,asinPlato’sRepublic,sinceSocratesclaimstherethatchildrenandwomenoughttobeheldincommon,andpropertyaswell.Soisitbetterforthingstobethewaytheynowareinthisregard,ortogobythelawsetdownintheRepublic?

Chapter2[10]Therearemanyotherinconveniencestohavingwomenbecommontoall,

butthereasonforwhichSocratesclaimsthatthingsoughttobelegislatedinthiswaymanifestlydoesnotevenfollowfromhisarguments.Furtherstill,theendwhichheclaimsthecityoughttohaveis,aswasjustsaid,impossible,andnoqualificationsaremadeabouthowoneoughttointerpretit.Iamspeakingoftheclaimthatitisbestforthecitytobeentirelyonetothegreatest

possibledegree,forSocratesadoptsthathypothesis.72Andyetitisevidentthatbyadvancingandbecomingmoreofaoneitwillnotbeacity.Foracityisbynatureacertainkindofmultiplicity;bybecomingmoreofaoneitwouldturnfromacityintoahouseholdandfromahouseholdintoahuman[20]being.Forwewouldclaimthatahouseholdismoreofaonethanacityis,andasinglepersonthanahousehold;soevenifsomeonewerecapableofdoingthis,itoughtnottobedone,sinceitwouldabolishthecity.

Andacityismadeupnotonlyofamultiplicityofhumanbeings,butalsoofhumanbeingsdifferinginform,fornocitycomesaboutfrompeopleallalike.Foracityandanalliancearedifferent.Forthelatterisusefulinvirtueofitssize,evenifitishomogeneousinform(sinceanallianceisbynatureforthesakeofback-up),asifmoreweightwerepressingdownascale.Andacitywillalsobedifferentfromanationinthissortofway,wheneverthemultitudeisnotseparatedintovillagesbutisliketheArcadians.73Butthoseoutofwhomitneedstobecome[30]onearedifferentinform,whichiswhyreciprocalequalitypreservescities,aswassaidearlierintheEthics,74sincethisisnecessarilypresentevenamongthosewhoarefreeandequal;foritisnotpossibleforthemalltoruleatthesametime,buteitherforayearoraccordingtosomeotherarrangementoftime.Soitturnsoutinthiswaythattheyallrule,justasifbyaninterchangeofleather-workersandwood-workersthesamepeoplewerenotalwaysshoemakersandcarpenters.Andsinceitisalsobetterforittobethatwayinmattersthatpertaintothepoliticalassociation,itisclearthat,ifpossible,itisbetterforthesamepeopletoruleallthetime,butincaseswherethisisnotpossiblebecausethey[1261b]areallequalbynature,itisbetterforthemalltohaveashareinruling,anditisatthesametimeajustthing,whetherrulingissomethinggoodorsomethinglowly;thisatleastreflectstheirbeinglikeequalsduringtheirtermsaswellasbeingalikewhenoutofoffice.Forsomeruleandothersareruledinturnasiftheyhadbecomeotherpeople,andinthesamewayamongthoseruling,differentpeopleholddifferentrulingoffices.

Itisclearfromthesethings,then,thatitisnotthenatureofthecitytobeoneinthewaysomepeoplesay,andthatwhatisallegedtobethegreatestgoodincitiesabolishescities,despitethefactthatthegoodofeachthinginfactpreservesit.[10]Anditisclearinanotherwayaswellthatseekingto

unifythecitytoomuchisnotthebettercourse.Forahouseholdismoreself-sufficientthanoneperson,andacitythanahousehold,andwhatitmeanstobeacityistobeatthatpointatwhichtheassociationofamultiplicityofpeopleturnsouttobeself-sufficient.Soifwhatismoreself-sufficientismoreworthyofchoice,thenwhatislessofaoneismoreworthyofchoice.

Chapter3Butevenifthatisbest,fortheassociationtobeonetothegreatest

possibledegree,thatdoesnotappeartobedemonstratedbytheargumentifallpeoplesay“mine”and“notmine”atthesametime;forSocratessupposesthattobeasignofthe[20]city’sbeingwhollyone.But“allpeople”hastwosenses.Ifitismeantinthesenseof“each,”itmightbemorewhatSocrateswantstoproduce.Foreachwillcallthesameboy“son”andthesamewoman“wife,”andsimilarlywithhispropertyandwitheachthingthatcomeshisway.Butpeoplewhohavewomenandchildrenincommondonotactuallyspeakthatway,butallandnoteachofthemarespeaking,andlikewiseallandnoteachabouttheirproperty.Itisclear,then,thatthereisacertainerrorinreasoninginspeakingofthemall.(Forbecauseofthedoublesense,“all”and“both”andalso“odd”and“even”[30]producesyllogismsofthesortdebatersuseinarguments.75)Henceforallpeopletosaythesamethingisinonesensebeautifulbutnotpossible,butinanothersensenotevenindicativeoflike-mindedness.Andasidefromthesethings,thereisadifferentwaysayingitisharmful.Forwhatiscommontothemostpeoplegetstheleastattention.Peopleareconcernedmostaboutthethingsthatareparticularlytheirs,andlesssoaboutthingsheldincommon,orasmuchasbelongstoeachone.Forasidefromotherthings,theyslightthemmoreontheassumptionthatsomeoneelseistakingcareofthem,justasindomesticservicemanyattendantssometimesgiveworseservicethanfewer.Athousandsonsendupbelongingtoeachofthecitizens,andthesenotaseachone’sown,butanyrandomsonbelonging[40]aliketoanyrandomcitizen,sothateveryonewillslightthemalike.

Also,eachone[1262a]means“mine”inrelationtooneofthecitizenswhoisdoingwellorbadlyinproportiontothenumbertherehappentobe,meaning“mine”or“so-and-so’s,”forinstance,asaparticularoneofthethousand,orofhowevermanythecityconsistsof,anddubiouslyatthat,since

itisunclearwhohappenedtohaveachildborn,andonethatsurvivedonceitwasborn.Sowhichwayismoreimportant,foreachoneoftwothousandortenthousandtosay“mine”asreferringtothesameperson,orinstead,thewaypeoplesay“mine”incitiesnow?Foronereferstoashissonthesameperson[10]whomanotherreferstoashisbrother,stillanotherashiscousin,orbysomeotherrelationshipofblood,orthroughanextendedrelationshipbymarriage,hisownfirstofallorofpeoplerelatedtohim,andinadditiontotheseconnections,anotherpersonreferstohimasamemberofthesamefraternalorganizationortribe.Foritismoreimportanttobesomeone’sownparticularcousinthanhissoninthatsense.Anditisnotevenpossibletopreventpeoplefromassumingthatcertainothersaretheirownbrothersandchildrenandfathersandmothers,sincetheywillnecessarilytakegroundsforbeliefaboutoneanotherfromthelikenessestotheirparentsthatturnupinchildren.Andsomeofthosewhowriteaccountsofworldtravelsclaimthatthisverythinghappens,fortheysay[20]thatamongsomepeopleinupperLibyawhoholdwomenincommon,thechildrenwhoarebornarestilldistinguishedbytheirlikenesses.Andtherearesomewomen,andsomeotheranimalsaswell,suchashorsesandcows,whohaveastrongnaturaltendencytoproduceoffspringresemblingtheirfathers,likethePharsalianmarenamedHonest.

Chapter4Also,itisnoteasyforthosewhosetupthissortofassociationtowardoff

suchinconveniencesasassaultsandinvoluntarymanslaughter,aswellthevoluntarykind,andfightsandinsults,noneofwhicharepiousthingswhendonetofathersandmothersandpeoplenotfaroffinkinship,asiftheywerebeingdonetooutsiders.[30]Therewillnecessarilyturnouttobemoreoftheseamongthosewhoareunawarethanamongthosewhoareawareoftheirrelations,andwhileitispossible,whentheydohappenamongthosewhoareaware,foramendstobemadeaccordingtocustom,itisnotpossibleatallamongthosewhoarenot.Anditisstrangethateventhoughhemakessonscommon,hedeprivesloversonlyoftheactofintercourse,butdoesnothinderthemfrombeinginlove,orfromotherdisplaysoffeelingthataremostinappropriatebetweenafatherandsonorabrotherandbrother,sinceevenforthemtobeinloveatallisinappropriate.Itisstrangetoothatheprohibits

theactofintercoursefornootherreasonthanthatthepleasurebecomestoostrong,andsupposesthatitmakesnodifferencethatitisafatherandson[40]orapairofbrothers.

Andhavingwomenandchildrenincommonseemsmorelikelytobeusefulforthefarmers[1262b]thanfortheguardians.Fortherewillbelessaffectionwherechildrenandwomenareheldincommon,butitisthosewhoareruledwhooughttobeinthatconditionwithaviewtotheirbeingobedientandnotrebellious.Andinallrespects,theresultsthatfollowfromsuchalawarenecessarilytheoppositeofthosethatitisappropriateforlawsrightlysetdowntoberesponsiblefor,whichwerethereasonSocratessupposedoneoughttoarrangemattersconcerningchildrenandwomenhisway.Foroursuppositionisthataffectionisthegreatestgoodforcities(sincepeoplefeelingthatwaywouldbetheleastlikelytodivideintofactions),andSocratesgivesthehighestpraisetothecity’sbeingone,[10]whichseemstobetheworkofaffection,andhehimselfclaimsitis.Itisinthisveryway,asweknow,thatAristophanesinthespeechesonlove76talksaboutloverswho,becauseoftheirstrongfeelingofaffection,bothdesiretogrowintoeachotherandbecomeoneoutofthetwothattheyare.Inthiscase,then,itisnecessaryforboth,oroneofthem,topassoutofbeing,butinthecityaffectionwouldnecessarilybewatereddownbythissortofassociation,andleastofallwouldasonsay“mine”aboutafatherorafatheraboutason.Justasalittlesweeteningmixedintoalotofwatermakestheblendingimperceptible,thesamethingalsoresultsforthemutualkinshiponeexpectsfromthese[20]words,sincethereistheleastnecessityinsuchaformofgovernmentforafathertocareaboutanyoneasason,orasonasafather,orbrothersabouteachother.Fortherearetwothingswhichmostofallmakehumanbeingsfeelcareandaffection,somethingthatisone’sownandsomethingthatisone’sfavorite,neitherofwhichcanbepresentforpeoplegovernedinthisway.

Nowasfortheshiftingofthechildrenthatareborn,fromthefarmersandcraftsmentotheguardiansorfromthelattertotheformer,thereisgreatconfusionaboutthewaythiswillbedone.Itisnecessaryforthosedoingthegivingandshiftingtoknowwhomtheyaregivingtowhom.Also,thethingsmentionedlongagowillresult[30]withevengreaternecessityinthesecases,thatis,assaults,loveaffairs,andkillings.Forthosewhoaregiventotheother

citizenswillnolongerrefertotheguardiansasbrothers,children,fathers,andmothers,norwillthosegoingtheotherwaytotheguardiansspeakthatwayoftheothercitizens,soastowardoffdoinganysuchthingsbecauseoftheirkinship.Soletthematterofholdingchildrenandwomenincommonbesettledinthisway.

Chapter5Lookingintothematterofpropertyisnextafterthesethings,toseein

whatwayoneoughttomakearrangementsforthosewhoaregoingtobegovernedunderthebestformofgovernment,andwhetherpropertyoughttobe[40]heldincommonornot.Andonemightexaminethisevenseparatelyfromthelawssetdownaboutchildrenandwomen.Imean[1263a]that,onmatterspertainingtoproperty,evenifthoseotherthingsareheldseparatelyinthewaytheynowarebyeveryone,onemightexaminewhetheritisbetterforitemsofproperty,ortheuseofthem,tobecommon.Forexample,farmlandcouldbeseparatewhilepeoplebringtheyieldfromitintoacommonstocktoconsumeit(whichisexactlywhatsomeofthenationsdo),oronthecontrary,thelandcouldbeheldincommonandpeoplecouldfarmitincommonwhiletheydivideuptheyieldfromitintoprivatestocksforuse(andpeoplesaythatsomeofthebarbariansalsoengageinthisformofcommunalactivity),orboththefarmlandanditsyieldcouldbecommon.Anotherandeasierwaywouldbetohavedifferentpeoplebetheoneswhowork[10]theland;ifpeopleperformedthelaborforthemselves,moreheadacheswouldpresentthemselvesaboutproperty.Foriftheyturnoutnottobeequalbutunequalintheirrewardsandtheirwork,complaintswillnecessarilybemadeagainstthosewhoenjoyortakealotwhilelaboringlittlebythosewhotakelesswhilelaboringmore.Livingtogetherandsharingthingsisdifficultinallhumancircumstances,andespeciallyinmattersofthissort.Peoplewhoshareintravelsmakethisclear,forthemajorityofthem,justabout,fallintodifferences,takingoffenceatoneanotherovertrivialandpettythings.Also,wetakethemost[20]offenceatthoseservantsweusethemostforroutinechores.

Sohavingpropertyheldincommonhastheseinconveniencesaswellasothersofthesort,whilethewaythingsarenow,ifitisgiventhecrowningtouchwithcustomsandanarrangementofcorrectlaws,isnosmall

improvementoverit.Foritwouldhavesomethinggoodfrombothsides,andbybothsidesImeanfromhavingpropertyincommonandfromhavingitprivate.Foritoughttobecommoninacertainway,butprivateingeneral.Responsibilitieswillnotproducemutualcomplaintswhentheyareseparated;theywillproduceanincreasedyieldinstead,sinceeachpersonwillwatchoveritashisown,whileasfortheuseofit,thethingsoffriends[30]willbecommon,astheproverbhasit,asaresultofvirtue.Evennowthisapproachispresentinasketchywayinsomecities,andthusitisnotimpossible,andespeciallyinthosethatarebeautifullyrunsomeofthesethingsarepresentandotherscouldcometobe.Foreventhougheachpersonhasprivateproperty,hemakessomeofitusefultohisfriendsandusesotherthingsincommon.InSparta,forinstance,peopleuseeachother’sslavesastheirown,onemightsay,andhorsesanddogsaswell,andanysuppliestheyneedfromthefieldsintheircountryside.Itisclear,then,thatitisbetterforpropertytobeprivate,buttomaketheuseofitcommon;howitmightcometobethatway—thatis[40]thespecialjobofthelawmaker.

Andinaddition,regardingsomethingasone’sownmakesanindescribabledifferenceasfaraspleasureisconcerned.Foritisnotfornothingthateach[1263b]personhasaloveforhimself;thisissomethingnatural.Selfishnessisjustlyblamed,butthisisnotlovingoneself,butlovingmorethanoneought,aswiththeloveofmoney,foronemightsaythateverybodyloveseverythingofthatsort.Andsurelyitisextremelypleasanttodofavorsandhelpoutfriendsandguestsandassociates,whichhappenswhenpropertyisprivate.Andthesethingsdonotresultwhenpeoplemakethecitytoomuchofaone,andbeyondthat,theyclearlydoawaywithdeedsthatresultfromapairofvirtues,namelyfrommoderationwherewomenareconcerned[10](sincestayingawayfromsomeoneelse’swifeoutofmoderationisabeautifulthingtodo),andfromgenerositywithpossessions.Forobviouslynoonewillbegenerousorperformanygenerousact,sinceadeedofgenerosityisinvolvedintheuseofpossessions.

Thereisasuperficialappealtothissortoflegislation,anditmayseemtobecompassionate.Someonewhohearsaboutitrespondswithdelight,believingtherewillbesomewonderfullovingfeelingineveryoneforeveryone,especiallywhensomeonechargesthattheevilsnowexistingingovernmentsarisebecausewealth[20]isnotheldincommon.Imeanlawsuits

withoneanotherovercontracts,judgmentsbasedonfalsetestimony,andobsequiousnesstowardrichpeople.Noneofthesethingscomefromalackofcommunalproperty,though,butfrombadnessofcharacter,sinceweseepeoplewhohavecommonpossessionsandarepartnersfallingintodisputesfarmorethanpeoplewhohavewealthseparately.Thisisinspiteofthefactthatthepeopleweobserveindisputesarisingoutofpartnershipsarefewincomparisonwiththelargenumberwhoenterintocontractsaboutthepossessionstheyhaveacquiredprivately.Anditisalsojusttospeaknotonlyofthoseevilspeoplewillbesparedbyholdingthingsincommon,butalsoofthegoodthings,anditappearsthatlifewouldbeutterlyimpossible.

And[30]weoughttoacknowledgethatthereasonSocrateswasknockedoffcoursewasthathishypothesiswasnotcorrect.Bothahouseholdandacityoughttobeoneinacertainway,butnotineveryway.Thereisapointatwhichacityproceedinginthatdirectionwillnotbeacity,andapointatwhich,thoughitwillbeacity,thefactthatitisclosetonotbeingonewillmakeitaworsecity.Itisjustasifoneweretoturnaharmonyintounisonorarhythmintoasinglemetricfoot.Butwhilethecityisamultiplicity,aswassaidbefore,oneoughttomakeitcommunalandonethrougheducation.Anditisbizarrethattheverypersonwhoproposedtointroduceaneducation,andbelievedthatthecitywouldbeofhighstaturebythatmeans,wouldsupposeitcouldbesetrightbythesesortsofarrangements,ratherthanby[40]customs,philosophy,andlaws,thewaythelawgivermadethingspertainingtopropertycommunalinSpartaorCrete[1264a]bymeansofsharedmeals.

Andonemustnotignorethispoint,thatoneshouldpayparticularattentiontothelongtimeandmanyyearsduringwhichitcouldnothavegoneunnoticedifthiswasabeautifulwaytodothings.Forpracticallyeverythinghasbeendiscovered,thoughsomethingshavenotbeenunderstood,andothersthatpeopleareawareofarenotputtouse.Thematterwouldbecomeclearmostofallifonecouldseesuchagovernmentbeingsetupinfact,sinceitwouldnotbepossibletoproducethecitywithoutpartitioninganddividingit,intomeal-sharinggroupsorintofraternalorganizationsandclans.Soifthelawisadopted,nothingelsewillresultexceptthatthe[10]guardianswillnotengageinfarming,theverythingtheSpartanstrytobringaboutevennow.Butwhatformthegovernmentasawholewilltakeforthoseassociatedwiththem,Socrateshasnotsaid,anditisnoteasytosay.Andyetthegreatmass

ofthecitycomesprettymuchfromthemassofothercitizens,aboutwhomnothingisdeterminedastowhetherpropertyoughttobeheldincommonbythefarmersorbeheldinprivatebyeachone,orwhetherwomenandchildrenoughttobeprivateorcommon.Ifeverythingiscommontoeveryoneinthesameway,whatdifferencewilltherebebetweenthesepeopleandthoseguardians?Whatextrabenefitwilltherebeforthosewhosubmittotheirrule,orwhatreasonwilltheyhaveforsubmittingto[20]thatrule,unlesstheycomeupwithsomecleverstrategysuchastheCretansuse?Forthelatterallowtheirslavestohaveallthesamethingsotherwise,andonlybarthemfromathleticexerciseandbearingarms.Butif,asinothercities,theyaregoingtohavethingslikethattoo,whatformofassociationistheregoingtobe?Forwithinonecitytherewillnecessarilybetwocities,andtheseopposedtoeachother.Forhemakestheguardiansasortofcorpsonguardduty,whilethefarmers,craftsmen,andtherestarethecitizens,andtheaccusationsandlawsuitsandalltheotherevilshesaysarepresentincitieswillbepresentamongthemtoo.

AndyetSocrates[30]speaksasthough,asaresultofeducation,theywillhavenoneedforalotofregulations,suchasthosegoverningpolicingandcommercialtransactionsandothersuchmatters,eventhoughheassignsaneducationonlytotheguardians.Also,heputsthefarmersincontroloftheirpropertyaslongastheypayarent,buttheyaremuchmorelikelytobefractiousandfullofopinionsthanthehelots,serfs,andslavessomecitieshave.Butasitis,nothingisdeterminedaboutwhetheritisnecessaryforthesearrangementstobealikeornot,oraboutmattersconnectedwiththese—whatformofgovernment,education,andlawsthesecitizenswillhave.Anditisnoteasytofindoutwhatsortofpeoplethesearegoingtobe,butitmakesnosmall[40]differencetothepreservationoftheirassociationwiththeguardians.But[1264b]ifheisgoingtomakewomencommonwhilepropertyisprivate,whoisgoingtomanagethehouseholdthewaythemenmanagetheirfields?Andthisappliesalsoifthefarmers’propertyandwivesarecommon.Anditisabsurdtodrawananalogyfromtheanimalstotheeffectthatwomenoughttohavethesameoccupationsasmen,whentheyhavenothingtodowithhouseholdmanagement.

AnditisriskytoappointtherulersthewaySocratesdoes,sincehemakesthesamepeoplerulepermanently.Thisbecomesacauseoffactioneven

amongthosewhohavenoprominence,andemphaticallyso,ofcourse,with[10]spiritedandwarlikemen.Butitisobviousthathehadtomakethesamepeoplerule,sinceitisnotsometimesinsomepeopleandothertimesinothersthatgoldfromthegodismixedintheirsouls,butinthesamepeoplepermanently.Heclaimsthegodmixedgoldinsomerightwhentheywereborn,silverinothers,andbronzeandironinthosewhoaremeanttobecraftsmenandfarmers.Andeventhoughhedoesawaywithhappinessinthecaseoftheguardians,77heclaimsthelawgiveroughttomakethecityasawholehappy;butitisimpossibleforittobehappyasawholewhenallitsparts,ormostofthem,orsomeofthemhavenohappiness.Forbeinghappyisnot[20]inthesameclassofthingsasevenness;forthisiscapableofbelongingtoawholebuttoneitherofitsparts,whilethisisimpossiblewithbeinghappy.Butiftheguardiansarenothappy,whoelseis?Certainlynotthecraftsmenandthemassoflowlyworkers.SotheformofgovernmentSocratesspokeabouthasthesedifficulties,aswellasothersnolessseriousthantheyare.

Chapter6ThingsareprettymuchalongthesamelineswiththeLaws,butsinceit

waswrittenlater,itwouldbebettertotakealittlelookattheformofgovernmentthereaswell.ForSocrateshasdeterminedquiteasmallnumberofthingsintheRepublic,aboutthecommunalarrangement[30]withwomenandchildren,howthatoughttobedone,andaboutpropertyandthewaytheconstitutionisordered.Forhedividesthemassofthepopulationintotwoparts,onegroupconsistingoffarmersandtheotherthepartthatdefendsthecity,andoutofthelattercomesthepartthatdeliberatesandhasauthorityoverit.Asforwhetherthefarmersandcraftsmenshouldtakepartinnorulingfunctionsatallorinsome,andwhethertheytooshouldbeararmsandhaveashareinfightingwarsornot,Socrateshasdeterminednothingonthesematters,althoughhedoessupposethewomenoughttohaveashareinfightingwarsandtakepartinthesameeducationastheguardians.Asfarastherestisconcerned,hehasfilledhisdiscussion[40]withextraneousmatters,andwithdetailaboutwhatsortofeducationtheguardians[1265a]oughttoget.ButintheLawsthegreatestpartdealspreciselywithlaws,whileitsaysfewthingsabouttheformofgovernment,anddespitewantingtomakethishavemorein

commonwithcities,itlittlebylittlebringsitbackaroundtowardtheothergovernment.Foroutsideofthecommunalarrangementofwomenandproperty,hegivesbothformsofgovernmentthesameprovisionsinotherrespects.Theyarethesameasfaraseducationisconcerned,andinlivingalifefreeofnecessarytasks,andlikewisewithcommonmeals,exceptthatthisdialoguesaysthereoughttobecommonmealsforwomentoo.Alsotheonehas[10]athousandpeoplebearingarmsandtheotherfivethousand.78

NowwhileallSocrates’discourseshavesomethingextraordinaryaboutthem,somethingelegantthatbreaksfreshground,andallinaspiritofinquiry,itisperhapsdifficulttohandleallsubjectsbeautifully,sinceeveninthecaseofthenumberjustmentioned,oneoughtnottoletpassunnoticedthefactthatitwouldrequireaterritoryasbigasthatofBabylonorsomeotherplaceofboundlessextentfromwhichtheywouldfeedfivethousandmenwhodonowork,aswellasanotherthrongjustasbigofwomenandattendantssurroundingthem.Andoneoughttomakehypotheticalproposalshoweveronewishes,butsurelynonethatareimpossible.Itissaidthatthelawgiveroughttosetdownlawswithaneyeontwothings,the[20]territoryandthepeople.Butitwouldalsobeabeautifulthingtoaddaconsiderationoftheneighboringregions,firstofallifthecityhastolivelikeacityandnotinisolation,sinceforwaritwillhavetousenotonlysucharmsasareusefulinitsownterritorybutintheplacesoutsideitaswell;butifonedoesnotadoptsuchawayofliving,eitherasaprivatepersonorinthecommonlifeofthecity,itisstillnolessnecessarytoinspirefearinenemies,andnotjustinthosewhoinvadetheirterritorybutalsowhentheygooutsideit.

Andoneoughttolookattheamountofpropertyaswell,whetheritmightbebettertodeterminethisdifferentlyinsomeclearermanner.Forhesays[30]itoughttobeenoughtolivemoderately,asifoneweretosayenoughtolivewell,sincethatismoregeneral.Yetitispossibletolivemoderatelybutwretchedly,andabetterlimitwouldbe“withmoderationandgenerosity”(forapartfromtheone,luxuriousnesswouldresult,anddrudgeryapartfromtheother),sincethesearetheonlystatesofcharacterworthyofchoicethathavetodowiththeuseofwealth;thereisnosuchthingasusingwealthgentlyorcourageouslyforexample,butthereissuchathingasusingitmoderatelyandgenerously,soitisnecessaryforthesestatesofcharactertoapplytoitaswell.

Anditisalsoabsurdforsomethingthatmakespropertyequaltomakenoprovisionregardingthemultitudeofcitizensbutto[40]leavetheproductionofchildrenaloneassomethingthatwouldbesufficientlybalancedoutatthesameamount,nomatterhowmanyareborn,bycasesofchildlessness,[1265b]sinceitseemsalsototurnoutthatwaynowwithcities.Butthedegreeofprecisionthismatterneedsisnotthesameinthiscaseasinthose,forasthingsare,noonedoeswithoutbecauseofthedividingupofestatesamongwhatevernumberthereare,butinthiscase,whereestatesareindivisible,excesschildrenwouldnecessarilygetnothing,whatevergreaterorlessernumberofthemtheremaybe.Onemightsupposethatoneoughttolimittheproductionofchildrenratherthanwealth,sothatnomorethanacertainnumberareborn,settingthisnumberwithaneyeonthechancesthatsomeofthosebornwouldturnouttodie,andon[10]childlessnessonthepartofothers.Butleavingitalone,asisdoneinmostcities,wouldnecessarilybecomeresponsibleforpovertyamongthecitizens,andpovertybringsinfactionandcrime.PheidonofCorinth,whowasoneofthemostancientlawgivers,thoughtthatevenifalltheportionsoflandhadoriginallybeenunequalinsize,thehouseholdsoughttoremainconstantandequaltothenumberofcitizens,butthingsareoppositeintheseLaws.Butthewaywebelievethingscouldbedonebetterinthesemattersneedstobespokenoflater.79

Andconcerningtherulers,howtheyaregoingtobedifferentfromthosewhoareruledisalsoleftincompleteintheseLaws.Itsays[20]itoughttobethesamewaythewarpcomesfromdifferentwoolthanthewoofdoes,sothatistherelationtherulersoughttohavetothosewhoareruled.80Also,sinceitpermitssomeone’sentirewealthtobecomeuptofivetimesgreater,whyshouldthisnotbepermitteduptosomelimitinthecaseofland?Andoneoughttoconsiderwhetherthedivisionofhomesteadsmightnotbeadvantageoustohouseholdmanagement,foritallotstwohomesteadstoeachpropertyowner,brokenupinseparateplaces,butitisdifficulttomaintaintwohouseholds.

Thewaythewholeisorganizedismeanttobeneitherademocracynoranoligarchybutamiddlegroundbetweenthem,whichpeoplecallconstitutionalrule,81forthegovernmentconsistsofthosewhobeararms.Nowifitsetsthis

upas[30]havingthemostincommonwithcitiescomparedtotherestoftheformsofgovernment,perhapsithasspokenbeautifully,butnotsobeautifullyifitsetsitupasthenextbestformofgovernmentafterthefirst-rankedone.ForonewouldprobablygivehigherpraisetothatoftheSpartans,oreventoonemorearistocraticthanthat.Accordingly,somepeoplesaythatthebestformofgovernmentismadeupofamixtureofalltheforms,andtheypraisethatoftheSpartansforthatreason(forsomeclaimitismadeupofoligarchy,monarchy,anddemocracy,callingtheofficeofkingmonarchyandthatoftheeldersoligarchy,whilesayingitisdemocraticallyruledbyvirtueoftheofficeoftheephors,sincetheephorscomefromthe[40]generalpopulace,butotherssaytheofficeoftheephorsisatyranny,butthecityisdemocraticallyruledbyvirtueofthecommonmealsandtherestoftheireveryday[1266a]life.)82ButintheseLawsitissaidthatthebestformofgovernmentoughttobeputtogetheroutofdemocracyandtyranny,whichoneoughtnottotakeasformsofgovernmentatall,orelsetakeastheworstofall.Thosewhomixinmoreformsspeakbetter,sincetheresultingformofgovernmentwillbebetterwhenitiscompoundedoutofmoreelements.Andinthenextplace,itobviouslyhasnothingmonarchicalatallaboutit,butisoligarchicanddemocratic,thoughittendstoleanmoretowardoligarchy.Thisisclearfromthewaythosewhoruleareappointed.Thepracticeofdrawinglotsfromamongachosengroupiscommontobothforms,butthefactthatthewealthier[10]peoplearerequiredtobeintheassembly,appointtherulersbytheirvotes,anddoanythingelsethatisthejobofcitizens,whiletheothersarerelievedofthoseduties—thatisoligarchic,andamountstoanefforttohavemoreoftherulerscomefromamongthewealthyandthehighestrulersfromthehighestpropertyclasses.Italsomakesthechoosingofthecounciloligarchic.Foreveryoneisrequiredtotakepartinthechoice,buttochoosefromamongthefirstpropertyclass,andthenanequalnumberagainfromthesecondclass;thentheychoosefromthethird,exceptthatnoteveryonefromthethirdorfourthclasswasrequiredtovote,andonlythosefromthefirstandsecondclasswererequiredtochoosefromamongthoseinthefourthclass.Thenfromamongtheseitsaystheyneedtobringout[20]anequalnumberfromeachclass.Soitwillbethecasethatmorecandidates,andbetterones,willbechosenbythosefromthehighestpropertyclasses,sincesomeofthoseinthegeneralpopulacewillnotbevotingbecauseitisnotrequired.83

Thatsuchaformofgovernmentoughtnottobeorganizedoutofdemocracyandmonarchyisalsoclearfromtheseconsiderations,aswellasfromothersthatwillbespokenoflater,whenevertheinvestigationappliestothatsortofgovernment.84Andonthematterofchoosingrulers,havingthemchosenfromamongachosengroupalsohasadanger.Forifsomepeoplewanttojointogether,evenifthereisonlyamoderatenumber,choiceswillalwaysbemadeastheywish.Sothisisthewaythingsareinregardtotheformofgovernmentin[30]theLaws.

Chapter7Therearealsocertainotherformsofgovernment,somedescribedby

privatepersonsandothersbyphilosophersandpeopleengagedinpolitics,allofwhicharecloserthanthosetwotoestablishedformsunderwhichpeoplearegoverned.Fornooneelsehasintroducednovelideasabouthavingchildrenandwomenincommonoraboutcommonmealsforwomen;instead,theystartfrommattersofnecessity.Tosomethematteroflandedestatesseemstobethemostimportantthingtogetbeautifullyarranged,sincetheyclaimthatallfactionaldivisionsareproducedoverthese.PhaleastheChalcedonianwasthefirsttomakeaproposalaboutthis;[40]hedeclaredthatcitizensoughttohaveequalproperties.He[1266b]supposedthiswouldnotbedifficulttodorightoffwhilecitieswerebeingfounded,butmoretroublesomeforthosealreadyestablished,butthattheycouldstillbequicklyequalizedbyhavingtherichgivedowriesbutnotgetthemandthepoorgetthembutnotgivethem.Plato,inwritingtheLaws,supposedoneoughttoallowestatesuptoacertainsize,butthatnoneofthecitizensshouldbeentitledtopossessmorethanfivetimesasmuchasthesmallestestate,aswasmentionedabove.Butthosewhomakelawsofthissortoughtnottooverlookthispoint,whichtheydooverlooknow,thatitisthedutyofthosewhosetlimitsto[10]thesizeofanestatetosetlimitsalsotothequantityofchildren.Forifthenumberofchildrengetsbeyondthecapacityoftheestate,itisnecessaryforthelawtobenullified,andapartfromthenullification,itisbadpolicytohavealotofpeoplegofrombeingrichtobeingpoor,sinceitishardworktokeepsuchpeoplefrombeingrebellious.

Thatauniformityofwealthhassomepoweroverapoliticalassociationissomethingthatsomeoftheancientswereobviouslyawareof;Solon,for

instance,madelawsaboutit,andthereisalawamongothersthatpreventsonefromacquiringasmuchlandasonewants,andsimilarly,lawsthatpreventthesellingofone’sestate.Alongtheselinesisthelawamong[20]theLocriansthatonemaynotsellanestateunlessonecandemonstrateaclearmisfortunethathasbefallenhim,andalsolawstomaintainintacttheoriginalallotmentsofland.ItwasalsotherescindingofthislawinLeucasthatmadetheirformofgovernmenttoodemocratic,sincetheresultwasthatpeoplenolongerenteredintorulingofficesfromthedesignatedpropertyclasses.Butitispossiblewhereanequalityofwealthispresentfortheamounttobeeithertoogreat,andleadtoluxuriousness,ortoosmall,andleadpeopletoliveshabbylives.Itisclear,then,thatitisnotenoughforthelawgivertomakewealthequal;heneedstoaimatamean.Andevenifoneweretoordainmoderatewealthforeveryone,itwouldnotdoanygood;onewouldneedtomakedesiresequal[30]ratherthanestates,butthisisnotpossiblewherepeoplearenotadequatelyeducatedbytheirlaws.ButperhapsPhaleaswouldsaythatthisisexactlywhathewastalkingabout,sincehebelievedequalityneededtobepresentincitiesinthesetwothingstogether,propertyandeducation.Butoneneedstosaywhattheeducationisgoingtobe,anditwoulddonogoodforittobeoneandthesame,sinceitispossibletohaveitbethesameandoneandstillbeofsuchakindthatpeoplewillcomeoutofitwithaninclinationtochoosetooutdootherpeopleinmoneyorhonororboth.

Also,peopleengageinfactionalconflictbecauseofinequalitynotonlyinpropertybutalsoinhonors,thoughforanoppositereason[40]ineachcase;forthemajorityofpeopledosooverpropertybecauseitis[1267a]unequal,butthosewhofeelacutabovetherestdosooverhonorsiftheyareequal,whencetheline“insinglehonorwhetherbadorworthy.”85Andhumanbeingsarenotunjustonlybecauseofnecessities,forwhichheregardsequalityofwealthasaremedy,sothatpeoplewillnotstealbecausetheyarecoldorhungry,butalsoinordertofeelpleasuresandnotdesires.Foriftheyhaveadesireformorethanwhatisnecessary,curingitwillmakethembeunjust,andthatisnottheonlyreason,butevenwithoutdesires,theymaybeunjustinordertoenjoypleasureswithoutpains.Sowhatistheremedyforthesethreesortsofpeople?Foronesort,modest[10]wealthandemployment,fortheothermoderation,andinthethirdcase,ifsomemightwanttoenjoypleasuresdependingonthemselvestheyshouldnotlookforaremedyotherthanfrom

philosophy,sincetheotherpleasuresneedpeople.Infact,peoplecommitthegreatestinjusticesonaccountofexcessesandnotonaccountofnecessities;theydonotbecometyrants,forinstance,sotheywillnotbecold.Andthisiswhythehonorsaregreatnotwhensomeonekillsathiefbutwhenhekillsatyrant.SothetechniqueofPhaleas’sformofgovernmentishelpfulonlywithregardtominorinjustices.

Also,forthemostparthewantstomakearrangementsbywhichpeoplewillbebeautifullygovernedamongthemselves,butitisnecessaryalsotohaveregardtotheirneighborsandallthoseoutsidethecity.[20]Therefore,itisnecessaryforthegovernmenttobeorganizedwithaviewtostrengthinwarfare,aboutwhichhehassaidnothing.Andlikewiseinthematterofproperty,thereneedstobeasufficientamountavailablenotonlyforusesrelatedtothecitybutalsotomeetexternaldangers.Andforjustthisreasontheamountavailableoughtnottobesolargethatthosenearbyandmorepowerfulwilldesireit,whiletheywhohaveitwillnotbeabletowardofftheattackers,orsosmallthattheywillnotbeabletosustainawarevenwiththoselikethemandequalinstrength.Sowhilehehasdeterminednothingaboutit,onemustnotoverlookthismatterofwhatamountofwealthisadvantageous.Andperhapsthebestlimitisanamount[30]suchthattheexcesswillgivethosewhoaremorepowerfulnoprofit-motivetogotowar,soitwouldbethesameasiftheydidnotevenhavethatmuchwealth.Forexample,whenAutophradateswasabouttobesiegeAtarneus,Euboulusurgedhimtoconsiderhowmuchtimehewouldspendtakingtheplaceandreckonuptheexpenseofthattime;hehimself,ifhegotasmallersumthanthat,waswillingtosurrenderAtarneusimmediately.Andbysayingthesethings,hemadeAutophradatesreconsiderandgiveupthesiege.

Sohavingestatesbeequalisoneofthethingsthatcontributestopreventingthecitizensfromformingfactionsagainstoneanother,butitisbynomeanswhatonecouldcallanybigthing.Forthose[40]whofeelacutabovetherestwouldevenbeannoyedattheideathattheydeservedtobeequal,whichisobviouslywhytheyaresooftenaggressiveandrebellious.Andwhatismore,[1267b]thecorruptionofhumanbeingsisinsatiable;atfirstatwoobolsubsidy86isenoughbyitself,butoncethisbecomesatraditionalpractice,peopleconstantlyneedmoreuntiltheygobeyondallbounds.Forthenatureofdesireisinfinite,andthatiswhatmostpeopledevotetheirlivesto

satisfying.Amoreeffectivestartonsuchmattersthanequalizingwealthwouldbetoarrangethingssothat,whilenaturallydecentsortsofpeopledonotwanttohavemorethanothers,theinferiorsortdonothavethepowerto,andthisisthecaseiftheyareweakerbutarenottreatedunjustly.

Buthehasnotspokenbeautifullyevenabouttheequalityofwealth.For[10]heequalizespropertyonlyinland,buttherearealsorichesintheformofslavesandcattle,andcurrencyaswell,andalargestockofitinthoseitemscalledequipment.Soequality,orsomemoderateregulation,needstobesoughtinallthesethings,orallofitneedstobeleftalone.Anditisobviousfromhislawgivingthatheissettingupasmallcity,atleastifalltheskilledcraftsmenaregoingtobepublicslavesandnotmakeupanyportionfillingoutthecity.Butifthereoughttobepublicslavesatall,itoughttobeinthisway:aspeopleengagedinpublicworks,asatEpidamnusandasDiophantusoncesetupinAthens.AsfarasPhaleas’sformofgovernmentisconcerned,[20]then,onecanprettymuchseefromtheseremarkswhetherhehassucceededinsayinganythingbeautifullyornot.

Chapter8HippodamustheMilesian,sonofEuryphon,whodevisedawayof

dividingcitiesandlaidoutthegridofthePeiraeus,becamerathereccentricinotherdetailsofhislifeonaccountofaloveofdistinction—somuchsothatheseemedtosometobelivingtooaffectedly,longofhair,lavishofornament,andyetincheapbutwarmclothesnotonlyinwinterbutaroundsummertimeaswell,whileprofessingtobeanexpertonthewholeofnature.Hewasthefirstofthosewhohadnotrunacitytotryhishandatsayingsomethingabout[30]thebestformofgovernment.Hedesignedacityoftenthousandmeninsize,dividedintothreeparts,forhemadeonepartskilledcraftsmen,onefarmers,andathirdparttodefendthecityandbeararms.Andhedividedtheterritoryintothreeparts:sacred,public,andprivate—asacredpartfromwhichpeoplewouldcarryoutthecustomaryworshipofthegods,acommonpartwhichthecity’sdefenderswouldliveoff,andprivatelandbelongingtothefarmers.Andhebelievedthatthereareonlythreeformsoflawsaswell,sincethethingsoverwhichcasesatlawarisearethesethreeinnumber:outrage,87damage,anddeath.Healsomadealawthattherewouldbeonesupreme[40]courttowhichalllawsuitsthatwerethoughtnottohave

beenbeautifullydecidedhadtobereferred,andhesetthisuptoconsistof[1268a]certainselectedelders.Andhebelievedjudgmentsinthelawcourtsoughtnottobearrivedatbycastingvotes,buteachmembershouldcarryatabletonwhichtowritehisverdict,ifhefoundthedefendantguiltysimply,butleaveitblankifheacquittedsimply,andifitwasnotonewayortheother,hewastoindicatethisbymakingdistinctions.Forhebelievedthewaylawsarenowappliedisnotbeautifullydone,sinceitforcespeopletocommitperjurybyjudgingeitherthiswayorthat.Healsosetdownalawaboutthosewhodiscoveranythingadvantageoustothecity,thattheyshouldgetanhonor,andonethatsupportforthechildrenofthosekilledinwarshouldcomefromthepublictreasury,inthebeliefthatthishadnotyet[10]beenenactedintolawbyanyoneelse(thoughthislawisnowinforceinbothAthensandothercities).Alltherulersweretobechosenbythepopulace,andthethreepartsofthecitymadeupthepopulace;thoseselectedweretolookaftercommonconcernsandmatterspertainingtoforeignersandorphans.

These,then,aremostoftheparticularsofHippodamus’sscheme,andthosemostworthyofcomment.Onemightfirstraiseadifficultyabouthisdivisionofthemultitudeofcitizens.Forthecraftsmen,farmers,andarmsbearersallshareinthegovernment,thoughthefarmershavenoweaponsandthecraftsmenneitherlandnorweapons,[20]sotheywouldpracticallybecomeslavesofthosewhopossessedtheweapons.Soforthemtosharealltheofficeswouldbeimpossible,sincethegenerals,theguardiansofthecitizens,andwhatonemightcalltheofficesofhighestauthoritywouldnecessarilybeappointedfromamongthosebearingarms.Buthowisitpossibleforpeoplewhohavenoshareinthegovernmenttobeamicablydisposedtowardthegovernment?“Wellthen,thosewhopossessarmswilljusthavetobestrongerthantheothertwopartstogether.”Butthatisnoteasyunlesstherearealotofthem,andifthatisgoingtobethecase,whyshouldtheothersshareinthegovernmentandhaveauthorityintheappointmentoftherulers?Andhowarethefarmersofusetothecity?Craftsmen[30]wouldbenecessary,sinceeverycityhasneedofcraftsmen,andtheywouldbeabletosurvivethewaytheydoinothercities,bytheirskill.Ifthefarmersweretoprovidesustenancetothosebearingarmstheywouldreasonablyhavebeenmadeapartofthecity,butasitisdesigned,theyhaveprivatepropertyandtheywillfarmitforprivateuse.Andasforthecommonpropertyfromwhich

thecity’sdefenderswillgettheirsustenance,iftheyaregoingtofarmitthemselves,therewouldbenodifferencebetweenthefightingandfarmingparts,butthelawgiverintendstheretobeone;andiftherearegoingtobesomepeoplewhoaredifferentfromboththeprivatefarmersandthefighters,thiswillbeyetafourthpartofthecity,[40]sharinginnothing,estrangedfromtheirformofgovernment.Butifoneprescribesthatthesamepeopleshouldfarmboththeprivateandthecommonproperty,thequantityofthecropsfromthelandeachone[1268b]willfarmwillbeinadequatefortwohouseholds.Otherwise,whywouldtheynotjusttaketheirsustenanceandsupplythefighterstoo,straightfromtheirownallotmentsofland?Soallthesemattershavealotofconfusioninthem.

Andinregardtojudging,thelawthatconsidersitrighttodecidecasesbymakingdistinctions,evenwhenthechargeismadesimply,isnotbeautifullydesignedeither,andthejurorbecomesanarbitrator.Thisisadmissibleinanarbitration,evenbyanumberofpeople,sincetheyconferwithoneanotheraboutthedecision,butitisnotpossibleinlawcourts;mostlawmakersevenmakeaprovisionopposedto[10]thisthatthejurorsshouldnotconferwithoneanother.Andthenhowwillthedecisionnotbeconfused,whenajurorsupposesthedefendedowessomething,butnottheamountthetestimonyclaimed?Itclaimstwentyminae,butthejurordecidesonten(oritclaimsmoreandhedecidesonless),whileanotherjurorsaysfiveandstillanotherfour—anditiscleartheywilldivideupinjustthatway—andsomepasssentenceforallofitbutothersfornone.Whatisgoingtobethemethodfortotalingupthevotes?Anyway,nothingforcessomeonewhosimplyacquitsorcondemnstocommitperjuryifthechargeisdrawnupsimply,andjustlyso,sincetheone[20]whoacquitsisnotjudgingthattheaccusedowesnothing,butthathedoesnotowethetwentyminae;butthatpersonwhocondemnshimwithoutbelievingheowesthetwentyminaeisatthatpointcommittingperjury.

Tomakealawthatthosewhodiscoversomethingadvantageoustothecityoughttogetanhonor,thoughitseemsattractivetohear,isnotsafe;forithasinittheseedsofmisrepresentationsand,itmaysohappen,changesintheformofgovernment.Butthisrunsintoanotherproblemandadifferentinquiry,forsomepeopleraisethedifficultywhetheritisharmfuloradvantageoustocitiestochangetheirhereditarylaws,ifsomethingelseis

better.Thisiswhyitisnoteasytogoalongwithoutfurtheradowiththelawthatisbeingspokenof,incaseitisnot[30]advantageoustochange,anditispossiblethatsomepeoplewouldproposedoingawaywiththelawsortheconstitutionasamatterofcommongood.Andsincewehavemadementionofthis,itwouldbebettertogointoalittlemoredetailaboutit.Forithasdifficulty,aswesaid,andchangingmightseemtobebetter.Intheotherkindsofknowledge,atanyrate,thishasbeenbeneficial,forinstanceformedicinetohavechangedfromitshereditarypractices,andgymnastictrainingaswell,andalltheartsandskillsingeneral.Sosincepoliticstoomustbecountedasoneofthese,itisclearthattheremustnecessarilybesomethingsimilaraboutitaswell.Andonemightclaimthatasignofthisisrightthereinthefactsthemselves,fortheancientlawswereoverly[40]simplisticandbarbaric.FortheGreeksusedtoweararmor,andbuywomenfromoneanother,andwhateverisleftanywhereoftheancientregulationsisabsolutelysilly;[1269a]inCyme,forexample,thereisalawabouthomicidecases,thatifsomeonebringinganaccusationofmurderproducesacertainnumberofwitnessesoutofhisownfamily,thepersonaccusedisguiltyofmurder.Andingeneral,everyoneisseekingnotwhatishereditarybutwhatisgood,anditislikelythatthefirstpeople,whethertheyweresprungfromtheearthorsurvivedsomedisaster,werelikerun-of-the-mill,unintelligentpeople,asis,infact,saidaboutthosesprungfromtheearth,sothatitwouldbeabsurdtosticktotheiropinions.

Inadditiontothesethings,itisnotbettertoleavewrittenlawsunchangedeither,forjustasintheotherarts,[10]inapoliticalarrangementtooitisimpossibletowriteeverythingdownwithprecision.Forwritingisnecessarilyuniversal,whileactionsareconcernedwithparticulars.Soitisobviousfromthesethingsthatsomelawsoughttobechangedatsometimes,buttothosewholookatitinanotherway,thiswouldseemtobeamatterformuchcaution.Forwhenthebetterthingissomethingsmall,sinceitisbadtogetpeopleinthehabitofundoingtheirlawslightly,itisobviousthatsomeerrorsofthelawgiversandrulersoughttobeleftalone.Foronewillnotbebenefittedasmuchbythechangesasharmedbybeinghabituatedtodisobeytherulers.Andtheprecedentfromtheartsisafalseone,forchanging[20]anartisnotlikechangingalaw;forthelawhasnostrengthtobeobeyedapartfromhabit,andthisdoesnotcomeaboutexceptthroughlengthoftime.Soto

changeeasilyfromtheexistinglawstoother,newlawsistomakethepowerofthelawweak.Andfurther,eveniftheyoughttobechanged,oughtallofthemtobe,andineveryformofgovernment,ornot?Andbyanyrandomperson,orbywhichones?Forthatmakesabigdifference.Soletusletthisinquirygofornow,sinceitisforotheroccasions.

Chapter9AbouttheSpartans’formofgovernmentandtheCretanform,[30]and

justaboutalltheotherformsofgovernmentaswell,therearetwothingstoexamine.Oneiswhetheranythingissetdownbeautifullyornotinthelawswithaviewtothebestwayofarrangingthings,andtheotheriswhetheranythingisatcrosspurposeswiththeunderlyingprincipleandwayofgoingaboutthingsoftheformofgovernmenttheyhaveproposedforthemselves.Itisagreedthatleisurefromnecessitieshastobepresentinacitythatisgoingtobebeautifullygoverned,butinwhatmanneritistobepresentisnoeasythingtogetholdof.FortheThessalians’serfclassusedtoattacktheThessaliansoften,andthehelotsdothesametotheSpartans(foritisasiftheybidetheirtimelyinginwaitfortheirmisfortunes),whilewiththeCretans[40]nosuchthinghasyethappened.Thereason,perhaps,isthattheneighboring[1269b]cities,eventhoughtheymakewarononeanother,areinnocasealliedwiththosewhorevolt,becauseitwouldnotbetotheiradvantagesincetheyhavesurroundingdependentpopulationsoftheirown.ButalltheSpartans’neighbors,theArgives,Messenians,andArcadians,werehostiletothem,andfromthebeginningtherewererevoltsagainsttheThessaliansbecauseoftheirongoingwarswiththepeopleslivingnearby,theAchaeans,Perrhaebeans,andMagnesians.Andeveniftherewerenootherissues,thematteroftheirsupervision,andwhatkindofdealingsoneoughttohavewiththem,islikelytobetroublesome;foriftheyaretreatedpermissivelytheybecomeinsolentandregardthemselves[10]asworthyofequalitywiththoseinauthority,butiftheylivelivesofmiserytheyformplotsandfeelhatred.Itisclear,then,thatpeoplewhomthishappenstoarenotfiguringoutthebestwaytodealwithserfdom.

Also,theirpermissivenesstowardtheirwomenisharmfulbothtotheintentionoftheirformofgovernmentandtothehappinessofthecity.Forjustasamanandawomanarepartofahousehold,itisclearthatoneought

toregardacitytooasbeingdividednearlyintwoinitsmultitudeofmenandwomen;consequently,inthosegovernmentsinwhichmattersinvolvingwomenareinasorrystate,oneoughttoregardhalfthecityasbeingunprovidedforbythelaws.Thisisjustwhathashappenedthere,forwhilethelawgiver[20]wantedthewholecitytobecapableofendurance,anditisobviouslythatwayasfarasthemenareconcerned,hehasbeenutterlycarelessaboutthewomen.Fortheylivelivesofluxurythatareunrestrainedineverywayalifecanbeunrestrained.Soitisnecessarythatpeoplewillhonorwealthinsuchaformofgovernment,especiallywhentheyareinsubjectiontotheirwomen,asmanyofthemilitaryandwarlikeracesare(apartfromtheCeltsandanyotherstheremaybethatopenlyholdsexualrelationsamongmeninhonor).ForitseemsthatwhoeverfirsttoldthestorywasnotunreasonableincouplingAreswithAphrodite,sinceallsuchpeopleareobviously[30]obsessedwithintercoursewitheithermalesorfemales.SothiswasprevalentamongtheSpartans,andwhentheywerethedominantpower,manymattersweremanagedbytheirwomen.Andiftherulersareruledbytheirwomen,howisthatdifferentfromhavingwomenrule?Itendsupbeingthesamething.Audacityisusefulinnoneoftheordinaryroutineoflife,butifatall,inwar,buttheSpartans’womenwerehighlydetrimentaleventothat.TheymadethisevidentintheThebaninvasion,fortheywerenotatallusefulthewaywomeninothercitiesare,butcausedmoredisturbancethantheenemy.Nowthepermissiveness[40]towardtheirwomenseemstohaveturnedupamongtheSpartansfromthebeginning,[1270a]understandablyso.Fortheywereawayforlongtimesoncampaignsoutsidetheirownland,whentheywerewagingwarontheArgivesandthenagainontheArcadiansandMessenians.Whentheywereatleisuretheysubmittedthemselvestothelawgiverhighlytrainedbythemilitarylife(foritinvolvesmanypartsofvirtue),butwherethewomenwereconcerned,theysaythatwhileLycurgustriedtobringthemunderthelaws,hegaveupagainbecausetheywererecalcitrant.Sothesearethecausesofwhathappened,andconsequently,obviously,ofwhatwentwrong,butthat[10]isnotwhatweareexamining—whomoneoughtoroughtnottomakeexcusesfor—butwhatisrightlyorwronglydone.

Anditseemslikely,aswassaidbefore,thatthefactthatmatterswerenotinabeautifulconditionregardingthewomennotonlyproducedacertain

improprietyintheirformofgovernmentinitsownrightbutcontributedinsomedegreetotheirgreedformoney.Forfollowingonthethingsjustmentioned,onemightcriticizethemforthedisparityintheirproperty.Forsomeofthemendedupowningtoolargeanestate,andothersaminisculeone,onaccountofwhichthelandcameintofewhands.Andthistoohasbeenbadlyarrangedbythelaws,forhemadeit[20]adishonorablethingtobuyorsellanexistingestate,anddidsorightly,buthegaveanyonewhowantedtogiveoneawayorbequeathitthelicensetodoso,eventhoughitnecessarilyendedupthesameonewayastheother.Andinfactjustabouttwo-fifthsofallthelandbelongstowomen,sincemanyhavebecomeheiressesandbecauseofthegivingoflargedowries.Andyetitwouldhavebeenbettertohavearrangedfornoneatall,orsmallorevenmoderateones.Butasthingsare,oneispermittedtogiveanheiressinmarriagetowhomeveronewants,andifhedieshavingmadenosuchdispositions,whomeverheleavesashisheircangivehertoanyonehewishes.Consequently,thoughthelandwascapableofsupporting[30]fifteenhundredcavalryandthirtythousandheavyinfantry,theycametobenotevenathousandinnumber.Ithasbeenmadeclearbythefactsthemselvesthattheprovisionsofthisarrangementlefttheminbadshape,forthecitydidnotholdupunderasingleblow,butwasdestroyedasaresultofbeingundermanned.Buttheysaythatundertheirearlierkingstheybroughtothersintothegovernment,andconsequentlydidnotbecomeundermannedatthattime,evenwhentheywereatwarforalongtime;theyclaimthatatonetimetherewereinfacttenthousandintheSpartiateclass.Whetherthesethingsaretrueornot,thebetterwayisneverthelessforthecitytoincreasethenumberofmenbyhavingpropertyevenedout.Butthe[40]lawabouthavingchildrenisalsoanobstacletogettingthisright.[1270b]Forthelawgiver,outofadesirefortheSpartiateclasstobeaslargeaspossible,encouragesthecitizenstoproduceasmanychildrenaspossible,fortheyhavealawthatanyonewhohasfatheredthreesonsisexemptfromguardduty,andanyonewhohasfatheredfourisexemptfromalltaxes.Yetitisobviousthatwhenmanyarebornandthelandisdividedaccordingly,itisnecessarythatmanybecomepoor.

Butmatterspertainingtotheinstitutionofephorsarebadlyarrangedtoo.Forthisofficeisinchargeonitsownofthegreatestconcernsamongthem,butitcomesfromthewholepopulace,sothatordinarypeopleofgreat

povertyoften[10]turnupontheboard,peoplewhobecauseoftheirhardshiphavebeensusceptibletobribery.Theyshowedthisoften,bothinearliertimesandrecentlyamongtheAndrians;88forsome,whohadbeencorruptedbymoney,ruinedthewholecityasmuchtheycould.Andbecausetheofficewastoogreat,equalinfacttoatyranny,eventhekingswereforcedtoseekpopularitywiththem,sothatcollateraldamagewasdonebythistotheirformofgovernment,anditendedupturningfromanaristocracyintoademocracy.Nowthisboarddoesholdthegovernmenttogether,sincethepopulacestayscalmasaresultofsharinginthehighestoffice;sowhetheritisduetothelawgiverorto[20]chancethatithasturnedoutthisway,ithasbeenconducivetotheirinterests.Forifaformofgovernmentisgoingtosurvive,allthepartsofthecityhavetowantittoexistandtocontinuealongthesamelines.Nowthekingsaresoinclinedbecauseofthehonortheyhave,thearistocracy89becauseofthecourtofelders(forthisofficeisaprizeforvirtue),andthepopulacebecauseoftheephorate(foritisappointedfromamongthemall).Anditwasindeedrightforthelatterofficetobechosenfromamongallthepeople,butnotinthewayitactuallyischosen,whichistoochildish.90Whatismore,thoughtheyarerandompeople,theyaresovereigninmajorjudgments,whichisexactlywhyitwouldhavebeenbetter[30]tohavethemjudgenotattheirowndiscretionbutinaccordwithwrittenregulationsandlaws.Andthewaytheephorsliveisnotinagreementwiththetendencyofthecity,sinceitisitselftoopermissive,whileamongtherestofthepeoplethetendencyistogotoofarinthedirectionofseverityinstead,somuchsothattheyarenotabletoendureitbutsecretlyevadethelawinordertoenjoybodilypleasures.

Andwhatpertainstotheirofficeoftheeldersisnotbeautifullyarrangedeither.Forassumingthattheyaredecentpeopleandadequatelyeducatedinmanlyvirtue,onewouldprobablysaytheofficeisadvantageoustothecity,thoughhavingthembeinauthoritythroughoutlifeinmajordecisionsisadebatable[40]point(forthereisoldageinthethinkingpowertoo,justasthereisinthe[1271a]body).Butwhenthewaytheyhavebeeneducatedmakesthelawgiverhimselfdoubtfulaboutwhethertheyaregoodmen,itisnotsafe.Itisobviousthatthosewhohavesharedthisofficehavetakenbribesandshownfavoritisminmanymattersinvolvingthecommoninterest.Thisis

exactlywhyitisbetterthattheynotbeexemptfromreview,astheyarenow.Anditmightseemgoodtohavetheofficeoftheephorsreviewalltheoffices,butthisistoogreatagrantofpowertotheephorate,anditisnotinthiswaythatwearesayingoneoughttoassignthepowersofreview.Andfurthermore,thechoicewhichtheymakefortheeldersischildish[10]inthewayitisdecided,91anditisnotrightforanyonewhowouldbeconsideredworthyoftheofficetobegforithimself,forthepersonworthyoftheofficeoughttoholdofficewhetherhewantstoornot.Butactuallythelawgiverisobviouslydoingtheverythinghealsodoeswiththerestoftheconstitution;forhemakesthecitizensambitiousforhonorandusesthisforthechoiceofelders,sincenoonewhowasnotambitiousforhonorwouldbegtoholdoffice.Andyet,ofthedeliberateactsofinjusticecommittedbyhumanbeings,justaboutthegreatestnumberresultfromambitionforhonorandgreedformoney.

Asforkingship,andwhetheritisbetterforittobepresentin[20]citiesornot,letthatbeanotherdiscussion,butitiscertainlybetterthatitnotbepresentinthewayitisnow,butforeachofthekingstobedeterminedonthebasisofhisownlife.Itisclearthateventhelawgiverdoesnotthinkitispossibletomakethembeautifulandgood;helackstrustinthematanyrate,asiftheywouldnotbesufficientlygoodmen.Thatiswhytheysentouttheiradversariesasfellowambassadors,andconsideredhavingkingsengagedinfactionalconflictsomethingthatpreservedthecity.92

Thelawsaboutthecommonmeals,theso-called“phiditia,”93werenotmadebeautifullyeitherbytheonewhofirstestablishedthem.Thegatheringoughttohavebeenatcommonexpenseinstead,thewayitisinCrete;withtheSpartans,eachpersonhas[30]tobringsomething,eventhoughsomeofthemareexceedinglypoorandnotabletopaythecost,sothatthelawgivergetstheoppositeoftheresultheintended.Forhewantstheset-upofthecommonmealstobedemocratic,butthewaythelawisdesigneditbecomestheleastdemocraticitcanbe.Foritisnoteasyfortheverypoortoparticipate,butthetraditionallimitonthegovernmentamongthemisthis:someonewhoisunabletobearthisexpensecannottakepartinit.

Someothershaveobjectedtothelawaboutnavalcommanders,andobjectedtoitrightly,sinceitbecomesacauseoffaction.Forontopofthekings,[40]whoarepermanentgenerals,thenavalcommandhaspractically

establishedanotherkingship.Onemightalsoobjecttothisunderlyingprinciple[1271b]thelawgiver

adopted(theveryobjectionPlatohasmadeintheLaws),namelythatthewholeorganizationofthelawsisdirectedatapartofvirtue,themilitarypart,sincethisisusefulforconquering.Consequently,theywerepreservedaslongastheywerefightingwars,buttheyweredestroyedoncetheywereruling,becausetheydidnotknowhowtoliveatleisureandhadnothadanyothertrainingdirectedatahigherendthanthemilitarysort.Anditisanerrornolesserthanthisthat,whiletheyholdthegoodthingspeoplefightoverascomingfromvirtueratherthanfromvice,andthisisabeautifullyheld,theyassumethesethingsaremoreimportant[10]thanvirtue,whichisnotbeautifulthinking.

Also,thingsareinbadshapefortheSpartiatesinthematterofcommonfunds.Forthereisnothinginacommontreasuryforthecityevenwhentheyareforcedtofightgreatwars,andtheyarebadaboutpayingtaxes.ForsincemostofthelandbelongstotheSpartiates,theydonotlooktoocloselyintothetaxespaidbyoneanother.Theupshotofthisforthelawgiverhasbeentheoppositeofbeneficial,becausehehasproducedacitydevoidoffundsandprivatecitizensgreedyformoney.SoletthediscussionoftheSpartans’formofgovernmentgothisfar,sincethesearethethingsonemightmostobjecttoaboutit.

Chapter10[20]TheCretanformofgovernmentisprettyclosetothisone,andwhileithas

afewfeaturesthatarenoworse,forthemostpartitislesspolished.ItseemslikelyandisinfactsaidthattheSpartans’formofgovernmentisinmostrespectsanimitationoftheCretanone,andinmostcasesancientthingsarelessfullyworkedoutthannewerones.PeoplesaythatLycurgus,whenheleftoffthetrusteeshipofKingCharillusandwentabroad,spentmostofhistimeonCretebecauseofhisfamilyconnection.FortheLyctianswereSpartancolonists,andthosewhowenttothecolonytookupthearrayoflawsalready[30]presentamongthepeoplelivingthereatthetime.Thisiswhythesubjectpopulationfollowstheminthesamewayeventoday,inthebeliefthatMinosfirstestablishedtheirarrayoflaws.

TheislandseemsbothnaturallysuitedandbeautifullysituatedforruleovertheGreekworld;foritsitsacrossthewholesea,andjustaboutalltheGreeksaresettledaroundthesea.ItisalittlewayfromthePeloponneseinonedirection,andinanotherfromtheregionofAsiaaroundtheTriopianpromontoryandRhodes.HenceMinosestablishedanempireoverthesea,subduingsomeislandsandsettlingothers,andintheendheattackedSicilyandendedhislife[40]therenearCamicus.

TheCretanarrangementisanalogoustotheSpartanone.Thehelotsdothefarmingforthelatter[1272a]andthesubjectpopulationfortheCretans,andtherearecommonmealsinbothplaces,whichinancienttimestheSpartanscallednot“phiditia”butmen’sclubs,exactlyastheCretansdo,whichalsomakesitclearthattheycamefromthere.Andthearrangementoftheirformofgovernmentdidaswell,fortheephorshavethesamepowerastheso-calledcosmoi94inCrete,exceptthatinnumbertheephorsarefivewhilethecosmoiareten.TheeldersareequivalenttotheCretans’elders,whomtheycallthecouncil.Therewaspreviouslyakingship,buttheCretanslaterabolishedit,andthecosmoi[10]holdtheleadershipinwar.Everyonetakespartinanassembly,butithasnoauthorityotherthantoratifytheenactmentsoftheeldersandcosmoi.

ArrangementsforthecommonmealsarebetterdesignedamongtheCretansthanamongtheSpartans.ForinSparta,eachcontributestheprescribedamountperpersonorelsethelawprohibitshimfromtakingpartinthegovernment,aswassaidabove,butinCretethingsaredoneinamorecommunalway.Fromallthecropsandlivestockyieldedbythepubliclands,andfromtheleviespaidbythesubjectpeoples,partisassignedtothegodsand[20]communalpublicserviceandparttothecommonmeals,sothatallofthem—women,children,andmen—aresupportedfromthecommonsupply.Thelawgiverdesignedmanymeasureswiththephilosophicviewthatmoderationineatingisbeneficial,andalsoforthesegregationofwomensotheywouldnothavemanychildren,bringingaboutsexualrelationsamongmen;onthatmatter,therewillbeanotheroccasiontoexaminewhetherhisthinkingwasshoddyornot.95

SoitisclearthatmatterspertainingtothecommonmealsarebetterarrangedamongtheCretansthanamongtheSpartans,butmatterspertaining

tothecosmoiareevenworsethanwiththeephors.Forthebadfeaturetheboardofephorshasbelongstothemaswell[30](sincerandompeoplebecomecosmoi),butthethingthatisadvantageousthereisabsenthere.There,becausethechoiceisfromamongthemall,thepopulacesharesinthehighestofficeandwantstheformofgovernmenttoremainasitis;butheretheydonotchoosethecosmoifromamongthemallbutfromcertainfamilies,andtheeldersfromthosewhohavebeencosmoi.AndonemightstatethesameargumentsaboutthemasaboutthosewhobecomeeldersinSparta:forthemtobeexemptfromreviewandservethroughoutlifeisaprivilegebeyondwhattheydeserve,andforthemtorulenotbywrittenlawsbutattheirowndiscretionisunsafe.Thefactthatthepopulacestayscalm[40]eventhoughtheydonotshareintheofficeisnosignthatthingsarebeautifullyarranged.Thereisnomonetaryprofittobehadbythecosmoiasthereiswiththeephors,sincetheylive[1272b]onanisland,farawayfrompotentialcorruptors.

Whattheydoasaremedyforthisfaultisabsurdandcharacteristicnotofconstitutionalbutdictatorial96rule.Foroftensomepeople,eithersomeoftheirfellow-rulersthemselvesorprivatepersons,conspireandoustthecosmoi,anditisalsoopentothecosmoitoabdicatetheirofficeinmid-term.Itwouldbebetterforallthesethingstotakeplaceinaccordwithlawratherthanatthewillofhumanbeings,whichisnotasafestandard.Theworstofthemallisthepracticeofthesuspensionofthecosmoi97bythepowerful,whichtheyoftenputinplacewhentheydonotwanttoabidebyalegaljudgment;fromthisitisclearthatwhiletheirarrangement[10]hassomesemblanceofaconstitutionitisnotconstitutionalgovernmentbutratheraconfederacyofthepowerful.Theyareinthehabitofintroducingdivisionsbetweenthepopulaceandtheirfriendsinordertobringaboutanarchy,fomentfactions,andfightamongthemselves.Yetwhatdifferenceistherebetweenthissortofthingandhavingthecitynolongerbeacityforacertainlengthoftime,whichmeansdoingawaywiththepoliticalassociation?

Acityinthisconditionisindangerfromthosewhowanttoattackitandhavethepowertodoso.Butaswassaid,itiskeptsafebyitslocation,sinceitsremotenesshashadtheeffectofabanonforeigners.ThisisalsothereasonthesubjectpopulationremainsundertheCretanswhilethehelotsfrequently

rebel.FortheCretans[20]takenopartinexternalimperialrule,andonlyrecentlyhasaforeignwarcrossedovertotheisland,whichhasmadetheweaknessofthelawsthereevident.Soletthismuchbesaidbyusaboutthisformofgovernment.

Chapter11TheCarthaginiansarealsothoughttobebeautifullygovernedinmany

waysthatareexceptionalincomparisontothoseofotherpeople,andespeciallyinsomewaysthatapproximatethoseoftheSpartans.Forthesethreeformsofgovernmentareinsomewayclosetooneanotherandmuchdifferentfromtherest:theCretan,theSpartan,andthirdamongthemthatoftheCarthaginians.Manyofthearrangementsworkbeautifully[30]amongthem,anditisasignofanorderlyformofgovernmentthatthepopulaceremainwithintheordertheconstitutionprescribesandthatnofactionaldivisionthatisevenworthmentioninghascomeabout,andnotyrant.TheresemblancesithastotheSpartanformofgovernmentincludethecommonmealsoftheirclubs,likethephiditia,theofficeofthehundredandfour,liketheephors(butnotworse,forthelatteraretakenfromamongrandompeoplebuttheychoosethisofficeonbasisofexcellence),andthekingsandcouncilofelders,analogoustothekingsandeldersthere,butalsobetterinthatthekingsarenotafamilyoftheirown,andthatarandomone,[40]butchosenfromamongthosethathappentoexcelinanymanner,ratherthanbyage.Fortheyareputinauthorityovergreatmatters,andiftheyaremediocrepeople[1273a]theycandogreatdamage,andsuchpeoplehavealreadydamagedthecityoftheSpartans.

Nowmostoftheobjectionsthatmaybemadetoitfordeviationshappentobecommontoalltheformsofgovernmentmentioned.Ofthingsthatdeviatefromtheunderlyingprincipleofaristocracyandconstitutionalgovernment,someinclineitmoreinthedirectionofthepopulace,otherstowardoligarchy.Overthequestionofwhattoreferornotrefertothepeople,thekingsalongwiththeeldersareincharge,iftheyareallinagreement,butiftheyarenot,thepopulaceisinchargeofthosethings.Andonwhatevermeasurestheydobringtothepeople,they[10]allowthemnotjusttohearthingsenactedbytherulers,butthepeopleareinchargeofdecidingonthem,anditisopentoanyonewhowishestospeakagainstthethingsproposed,

whichispreciselywhatcannothappenintheothergovernments.Ontheotherhand,thefactthatcommitteesoffive,whichareinchargeofmanygreatmatters,areself-appointed,whiletheychoosethegreatestoffice,thatofthehundred,andalsoruleforalongertimethantherest(bothafterthosehaveleftofficeandbeforetheyenterit)isoligarchic.Butthefactthattheyareunpaidandnotchosenbylotmustbesetdownasaristocratic,alongwithanythingelsetheremightbeofthatsort,aswellasthefactthatalllawsuitsarejudgedbytherulers[20](andnotdifferentkindsbydifferentpersonsasinSparta).ThearrangementtheCarthaginianshavethatdeviatesmostfromaristocracytowardoligarchyfollowsacertainlineofthoughtwhichseemsgoodtomanypeople,fortheybelieveoneoughttochooserulersnotonlyonthebasisofexcellencebutalsoonthebasisofwealth,becauseitisimpossibleforsomeonewithoutresourcestodoabeautifuljobofrulingandhavetheleisureforit.Soifchoosingonthebasisofwealthisoligarchicandaccordingtovirtueisaristocratic,athirdarrangementwouldbethisonebywhichthingspertainingtothegovernmentareorganizedbytheCarthaginians,sincetheymakethechoicewithaneyeonthesetwothings,[30]especiallyforthehighestoffices,thekingsandgenerals.

Butoneoughttoconsiderthisdeviationfromaristocracyanerroronthepartofthelawgiver.Forthisisoneofthemostnecessarythingstoseetofromthebeginning,howthebestpeoplewillbeenabledtobeatleisureandnotdoanythingdemeaning,notonlywhiletheyarerulingbuteveninprivatelife.Butifonedoeshavetolookalsotoabundanceofresourcesforthesakeofleisure,itisabadthingforthehighestofoffices,kingshipandmilitarycommand,tobeforsale.Forthislawcauseswealthtobeheldinhonormorethanvirtue,andturnsthewholecityintoamoney-lovingplace.Whatevertheauthoritativepartofthecityassumesis[40]valuable,theopinionoftherestofthecitizenswillnecessarilyfollowtheirs.Andwherevervirtueisnothonoredmostofall,itis[1273b]impossibleforthatplacetohaveastablearistocraticgovernment.Itstandstoreasonthatthosewholaymoneyoutwillgetusedtomakingaprofit,whentheyruleasaresultofbuyingtheposition.Forifsomeonewhoispoorbuthonestwillwanttogetaprofit,itwouldbestrangeifsomeonewhoisworsewouldnotwanttoafterhehasspentmoney.Hencethosecapableofrulingexcellently98oughttobetheonestorule.Andevenifthelawgiverhasneglectedtheresourcesofdecentpeople,itwouldstill

bebettertotakecarefortheirleisure,atleastwhiletheyrule.Anditwouldalsoseemtobeabadthingforthesamepersontorulein

morethanoneoffice,yetthatverythingisprestigiousamongtheCarthaginians.Forone[10]jobiscarriedoutbestbyoneperson.Thelawgiveroughttoseethatthishappens,andnotassignthesamepersontoplaythefluteandbeashoemaker.Sowherethecityisnottiny,itismoresuitedtopoliticallife,aswellasmoredemocratic,formorepeopletoshareinruling;foritisbothmorecommunal,aswesaid,andeachpersoncarriesouthisowntasksmorebeautifullyandquickly.Thisisclearamongmembersofarmiesandnavies,forinbothofthese,rulingandbeingruledspreadouttovirtuallyeveryone.

Andwhilethegovernmentisoligarchic,theyavoidfactioninamosteffectivewaybecausesomepartofthepopulaceisalwaysgettingrichwhentheysendpeopleoutto[20]thecities,sincebythismeanstheycuretheproblemandmakethegovernmentstable.Butthisistheworkofchance,whiletheyoughttobefreeoffactiononaccountofthelawgiver.Asthingsare,ifsomemisfortuneweretoariseandalargenumberofthosewhoareruledrevolted,thereisnoremedythroughthelawstorestorecalm.

SothisisthewayitiswiththeSpartans’formofgovernment,theCretanone,andthatoftheCarthaginians,whichareindeedjustlyhighlyregarded.

Chapter12Amongthosewhohavedeclaredthemselvesinanywayaboutgovernment,

sometooknopartinanypoliticalactionswhatever,butlivedouttheirlivesasprivatepersons.Asfarasthereisanythingworthsayingaboutthem,it[30]hasalreadybeensaidaboutprettymuchallofthem.Butsomebecamelawgivers,eitherfortheirowncitiesorforcertainforeignonesaswell,enteringthepoliticalrealmthemselves.Someofthesebecamecraftsmenoflawsonly,butothers,suchasLycurgusandSolon,ofgovernmentsaswell,fortheyestablishedlawsandgovernmentstoo.ThatoftheSpartanshasbeenspokenof.InthecaseofSolon,somebelievehimtohavebeenalawgiverofgreatstature,sinceheabolishedanoligarchythatwastoounmixed,stoppedthepopulacefrombeingenslaved,andestablishedademocracyboundbytradition,producingabeautifullymixedformofgovernment—forthecouncil

of[40]theAreopagusisoligarchic,theelectionofrulersisaristocratic,andthelawcourtsaredemocratic.AnditseemsthatSolon[1274a]refrainedfromabolishingthoseelementsthatwerepresentbeforehand,thecouncilandtheelectionofrulers,butestablishedthepopulaceinpowerbymakingthelawcourtscomefromallthepeople.Andsomepeoplecriticizehimforthis,onthegroundsthathedestroyedtheotherinstitutionsbymakingthelawcourt,whichwasselectedbylot,sovereignovereverything.Forwhenthisbecamestrong,bygratifyingthepopulaceasthoughitwereatyrant,theytransformedthegovernmentintothepresentdemocracy.EphialtescurtailedthepowerofthecounciloftheAreopagusandsodidPericles,andPericlesinstitutedpaymentsforjuryduty;andinthisway[10]eachofthepopularleadersmadeanadvanceingrowingthecityintothepresentdemocracy.

ButitappearsthatthisdidnothappeninaccordwithSolon’sintentionbutinsteadjustfelloutthatway.ForwhenthepopulacehadbeenresponsiblefornavalsupremacyinthePersianWars,itbecamearrogantandtookupinferiormenaspopularleaderswhendecentmenhadpoliciesopposedtoitswishes.Solonthough,atanyrate,seemstohavegrantedthepopulaceonlythemostnecessarypower,thatofelectingandreviewingtheirrulers,forapopulacethatwasnotinauthorityevenoverthiswouldbeaslaveandanenemy.Buthesetthingsupforalltherulerstocomefromamongdistinguishedandwell-offpeople,fromownersofextensive[20]lands,ownersofteamsofoxen,andfromathirdclasscalledhorsemen;butthefourthclass,themenials,hadnoshareinoffice.99

ZaleucusbecamealawgiverfortheItalianLocrians,andCharondasofCatanaforhisownfellow-citizensandfortheotherChalcidiancitiesinItalyandSicily.Somepeopletrytoconnectthem,onthegroundsthatOnomacritus,aLocrianlivingabroadinpursuitofhisartofsoothsaying,firstbecameproficientatlawgivingbybeingtrainedinCrete,thatThalesbecameacompanionofhis,andthatLycurgusandZaleucuswerestudentsofhisandCharondas[30]ofZaleucus;buttheysaythesethingswithtoolittleattentiontothedates.PhilolaustheCorinthianbecamealawgiverfortheThebans.PhilolauswasofthefamilyoftheBacchiadsandwasaloverofDiocleswhohadbeenvictoriousintheOlympicgames.WhenDiocles,inabhorrenceofhismotherAlcyone’slust,leftthecityandwenttoThebes,heandPhilolausbothlivedouttheirlivesthere.Evennowpeoplepointouttheirtombs,each

easilyvisiblefromtheother,butonewithandtheotherwithoutaviewtowardthelandoftheCorinthians,andstorytheytellisthatthementhemselvesarrangedtheburialthatway,[40]Diocles,outofhatredofthepassion,sothatCorinthwouldnotbevisiblefromhismoundandPhilolausso[1274b]itwouldbevisiblefromhis.SotheycametoliveamongtheThebansforthissortofreason,andPhilolausbecamealawgiverforthembothoncertainothermattersandontheprocreationofchildren,framingwhattheycallthelawsonadoption;thisislegislationdesignedinawaypeculiartohimsothatthenumberofinheritedestateswouldbekeptconstant.

ThereisnothingpeculiartoCharondasexceptlawsuitsforperjury,forhewasthefirsttomakethisalegalcharge,butintheprecisionofhislawsheismorepolishedthaneventhelawgiversofthepresentday.PeculiartoPhaleasistheequalizationofproperties;toPlato,the[10]communityofwomen,children,andproperty,commonmealsforwomen,andalsothelawaboutdrunkenness,thatsoberpeopleshouldbeinchargeofdrinkingparties,aswellasoneabouttrainingformilitaryserviceinsuchawayastomakepeoplebecomeambidextrousbypractice,sinceoneofapairofhandsoughtnottobeusefulwhiletheotherisuseless.AndthereareDraco’slaws,butheframedhislawsforanexistingconstitution;thereisnothinginhislawsatallworthyofmentionapartfromtheharshnessduetothesizeofthepenalty.100Pittacusalsobecameacraftsmanoflawsbutnotofaconstitution;alawpeculiartohimisonethatrequirespeoplewhoaredrunk[20]topayagreaterpenaltyiftheytransgressthanthosewhoaresober.Forsincemorepeoplecommitviolentoutrageswhendrunkthanwhensoberhedidnotlookkindlyontheexcusethatoneoughttobemoreforgivingofthosewhoaredrunk,butlookedtowhatwoulddosomegood.AndAndrodamasofRhegiumbecamealawgiverfortheChalcidiansinThrace;theirlawsabouthomicidesandheiressesarehis,butthereisnothingpeculiartohiminthemthatonecouldname.Soonmattersconcerningformsofgovernment,boththoseholdingswayandthosedescribedbysomepeople,letthemhavebeenhelduptoviewinthisway.

_______________________________________72ItisworthpointingoutthatSocratesdeliberatelyadoptsthisassumptionintheRepublicasawayofmakingamagnifiedimageofthehumansoul,whichAristotleagreeshasastructureofrulingandruledparts(1254b2-9above).ButAristotleisrightinsayingthatSocratesdoesnotexplicitlytellhishearershowtointerpretthecityheconstructstoreflectthesoul,anditisnaturalforreaderstoregarditasapracticalpoliticalprogram.Byaddressingitinthoseterms,AristotleisfollowingtheleadofSocratesandPlatotouncoverthenatureofthecityasdisclosedbythelimitsoftheiranalogy.73Arcadiawastheinland,infertileregionofthePeloponnese,inhabitedbyaprimitivenationofhuntersandherders.DuringAristotle’slifetimetheArcadianshadbuiltacentralfortifiedcitycalledMegalopolis,whichdrewinpeoplefromitsvariousscatteredvillages.74Thereferenceisto1132b31-34oftheNicomacheanEthics,understoodastheinquiryimmediatelypriortothePolitics.Thepointthereisthatitisnotstrictequalitybutaproportionalbalanceofreciprocalcontributionsthatholdscitiestogether.75TheclassicdiscussionofthistopicisinPlato’sHippiasMajor(300E-302B).Whatbelongstoalltogethermaynotbelongtoeachatall,andcertainlynotwiththeintensityofapersonalattachment.Anexampleofthesamefallacyisgivenbelowat1264b19-22.76Thatis,inPlato’sSymposium.77ItisAdeimantuswhomakesthisclaimintheRepublic(419A),whileSocratescautionsagainstbelievingit(420B),beforegrantingittomakeamorecomplexargument.Aristotle’sopinionthathappinessdependsonvirtue,andvirtueonaharmonyofdivergentpartsofthesoul(NicomacheanEthics1098a16-18,1102b27-28)isinfactclosertotheargumentSocratesgives,thoughhecriticizesithereinthewayhedoesthroughoutthesechapters,fromthestandpointofapracticalpoliticalprogram.78IntheRepublic(423A-C),Socratessaysthatevenwithonly1000fighters,acitythatisunifiedcanbestrongerthananyother.IntheLaws(737E),theAthenianStrangerpicks5040asalikelynumberofheadsofhouseholdpreparedtogotowar,inaterritoryofappropriatesizeforacity.Aristotle

roundsofftheAthenianStranger’snumber,whichissevenfactorial,anumberchosentoallowforexactdivisionintopartsinanywayneededforpurposesofmilitaryduties,taxes,ordistributions.79InBookVII,Chapters5,10,and16.80Thewarpisthesetofstiffparallelthreadsaroundwhichthemoreflexiblethreadsofthewoofarewoven.At734E-735AoftheLaws,theAthenianStrangermakestheobviouscomparisontosteadfastnessandsoftnessofhumancharacter;inPlato’sStatesman,beginningat305E,theEleaticStrangerextendstheanalogytothecharacteristicsofdifferenthumanvirtues.81Thisisthegeneraltermforanyformofgovernment(politeia),butitiscommonlyappliedtodemocraciesthatarenotpurebutlimitedbyconstitutionallyprescribedqualificationsforholdingrulingoffices.See1279a37-b4below.82Thereweretwokingsinofficeatanytime,withlimitedpowers;theirchiefprerogativewastoleadanymilitaryadvanceandtrailanyretreat.Twenty-eightelderswerechosenfromamongthehereditarylandownersbyshoutsofthewholeassembledpopulation,andalongwiththetwokingstheyformedasenate.Theephors(literally“supervisors”),fivemenchosenfromamongthecommonpeople,wereintroducedsometimeafterthegovernmentwasinstituted,toholdtheultimatepower;callingthisofficeatyrannyistoregarditliterallyasausurpationofthekingship,eventhoughitwasintroducedbypeacefulmeans.83Theentireprocesswastoextendoverseveraldays,sothoseneedingtoearnalivingwouldnotbelikelytobepresentatitslaterstages,whentherichercitizenswouldbechoosingthenomineesforthecouncilpositionsreservedforthepoorerclasses.84Themostdirectlyrelevantpassageisperhaps1284a3-b25,ontheincompatibilityofdemocracyandmonarchy.85Achilles’complaintatIliadIX,319.86Anobolwas1/6ofadrachma(seenoteto1259a28).MembersoftheAthenianlowerclassesweregiventwoobolstoattenddramaticperformances,andthereisspeculationthattheyalsoreceivedsubsidiesinthatamountatcertaintimesaswelfarepayments.

87TheGreekwordishubris.ItslegalmeaningisdefinedbyAristotleinBk.II,Chap.2,oftheRhetoricasinjuryorinsultcommittedoutofcrueltyinordertocausehumiliationaswellasharm.Athenianlawtreateditasamuchmoreseriouscrimethanoffensescommittedforthesakeofgainorrevenge,anditcouldevenbringthedeathpenalty.88WhatAristotleisreferringtoisnotknown,butthereisspeculationthatsomeephorsmayhavemadeadealwithPersianrepresentativesontheislandofAndros,shortlybeforeamajorvictoryoverthePersiansbyAlexandertheGreat.SpartanpowerhaddecisivelydiminishedafteranearlierdefeatbytheThebans,andremainedincontinualdeclineduringAlexander’sascendancy.89Literally“thebeautifulandgood,”acommonwayGreekaristocraciesreferredtothemselves,usedhereforthehereditaryrulingclasscalledSpartiates.At1271a23belowitisusedliterally,aswasthecorrespondingnounat1259b34-35above.90InPlato’sLaws(692A)theAthenianStrangersaystheephorateamountedtoanofficechosenbylot.At1317b17-21below,Aristotlesaysthatchoosingrulersbylotischaracteristicofdemocracy.Elections,whichpermitthevoterstotakemeritintoaccount,implythatpeoplearenotallequal.91Bytheloudestshoutsofthewholeassembledpopulace.92Thefirstpartofthesentenceprobablyreferstothepracticeofsendingsomeephorsalongonmilitarycampaignstoparticipateinnegotiationswiththeenemy,thesecondtorivalriesbetweenthetwokingsandtheiradherents.93Therearetwoopinionsaboutthemeaningofthisname,makingthemeither“friendly”or“frugal”meals.94Thismightperhapsbetranslated“bastionsoforder.”95ThisisnotareferencetoalaterpassagebutadismissalofthesubjectwithahintofAristotle’sopinion.96Dunasteutikê,characteristicofadunasteia,orsmallgroupofarbitraryrulers(seeBk.IV,Chaps.5-6below).Notadynastybutasharedtyranny.Itisabsurdinthat,asaremedyforarbitrarinessamonglawfullychosenrulers,itsubstitutesarbitraryrulebyafewpowerfulusurpers.97“Suspensionofthecosmoi”(akosmia)isalsothewordfordisorder.Soa

fewpowerfulcitizenscandissolvethegovernmentbydeclaringitineffective.98Thetranslationfollowsthemanuscripts;Rossemendsto“thosecapableofusingidletimebest.”99Solon’slawsformalizedfourclassesofcitizens.Thefirstownedsufficientlandtoyield500measuresofagriculturalproduceperyear;thesecond(Aristotlereversestheorderofthemiddletwoclasses)ownedenoughlandtomaintainhorsesandserveascavalry;thethirdfarmedsomelandoftheirown;thefourth,thegeneralpopulace,hadtoworkforothers.100DracowasconsideredAthens’firstlawgiver,agenerationbeforeSolon.ThepenaltyintheDraconianlawsisreferredtointhesingularbecauseitwasdeathforallcrimes.Legendhasitthatwhenaskedwhyheassignedthispenaltytoalloffenses,hesaid,“BecauseIhadnonegreater.”

BOOKIIIChapter1[1274b]

Forsomeoneexaminingwhateachformofgovernmentisandwhatitscharacteris,nearlythefirstquestiontolookintoconcernsthecity,andwhatacityis.Forasthingsstand,peoplehavedisputes,withsomeclaimingthecitycarriedoutanactionwhileothersclaimitwasnotthecitybuttheoligarchyorthetyrant.Weseealltheactivityofthepoliticianorlawgiverbeingconcernedwiththecity,andaformofgovernmentisaparticulararrangementofthosewholiveinthecity.Butsinceacityisintheclassofcompositethings,andlikeanyoftheothercomposite[40]wholesismadeupofmanyparts,itisclearthatapriortopicofinquiryisthecitizen,sinceacityisamultitudeofcitizens.[1275a]Consequently,whomoneshouldcallacitizenandwhatacitizenisneedtobeexamined.Forthecitizentooisoftenamatterofdispute,becausenoteveryoneagreesthatthesamepersonisacitizen.Therearemanyinstancesinwhichsomeonewhoisacitizeninademocracyisnotacitizeninanoligarchy.Nowthosewhoreceivethistitleinanyqualifiedsense,suchasadoptedcitizens,needtobeleftaside,andthecitizenisnotacitizenbylivinginaplace(forresidentaliensandslavesalsosharethelivingarea).Also,citizensarenotthosewhoshareinlegalrightstotheextentthattheycanbesuedandbring[10]lawsuits(forthisbelongsalsotothoseparticipateasaresultoftreaties,andinmanyplacesevenresidentaliensdonotsharetheserightsfully,butneedtohaveasponsor,andsotheyparticipateinthisformofassociationinanincompletemanner).Itisthesameaswithchildrenwhohavenotyetbeenputoncitizenshiprollsonaccountofageandoldpeoplewhohavebeenrelievedofobligations;theyneedtobecalledcitizensinasense,thoughnotjustsimplybutwithaqualificationadded—“immature”or“retired”oranythingelseofthesort(itmakesnodifferencesincethemeaningisclear).

Wearelookingforthecitizeninanunqualifiedsenseandnotonewhohasany[20]blemishonhistitleofasortthatneedstobeexplainedaway,sinceevenwithpeoplewhohavebeendeprivedofcivicrightsorexileditispossibletoraiseandresolvequestionsofthatkind.Andacitizeninanunqualifiedsenseisdefinedbynoothersinglethingmorethanbytakingpart

injudgingandruling.Andwhilesomerulingofficesaredividedupaccordingtotimeinsuchawaythatthesamepersonisnotpermittedtoholdcertainonestwice,orwithincertainspecifiedtimes,otheroffices,suchasthoseofjurororassemblymember,areunlimited.Perhapssomeonemightclaimthatsuchpeoplearenotrulersanddonottakepartinanyrulingofficeonaccountofthesepositions,yetitwouldberidiculoustodeprivethosewiththehighestauthorityofrulership.Butletitmakenodifference,sincetheargumentis[30]aboutaname.Forthereisnocommonnameforajurorandanassemblymemberbywhichoneoughttorefertothemboth;soforthesakeofadefinitionletthenamebeunlimitedoffice.Andsowesetitdownthatcitizensarethosewhotakepartinofficeinthismanner.

Sothedefinitionthatbestfitsallthosecalledcitizensisprettymuchlikethat,butoneoughtnottooverlookthefactthatinthingswhoseunderlyingprinciplesdifferinkind,withoneofthemprimary,anothersecondary,andanotherfollowingthat,acommonelement,insofarastheyareofthatsort,ispresentinthemeithernotatallorhardlyatall.Andwedoseethatformsofgovernmentdifferfromoneanotherinkind,withsomebeinglessprimary[1275b]andothersmore,sincetheonesthatarefaultyanddeviantarenecessarilylessprimarythantheonesthatarewithoutfault.(Itwillbeclearlaterinwhatsensewemean“deviant.”)Soitisnecessarythatacitizenwouldalsobesomethingdifferentineachformofgovernment.Hencethepersondescribedisacitizeninademocracymostofall,andmaybe,butisnotnecessarilyacitizeninothergovernments.Thepopulacehasnoroleinsomeconstitutions;theydonotcustomarilyholdanassemblyexceptthosethatarespeciallycalled,andtheypartitionthejudgingoflawsuits.InSpartaforinstance,differentephorsjudgedifferent[10]casesinvolvingcontracts,theeldersjudgecasesofhomicide,andsomeotherofficemayjudgeothercases.ItisthesamewayinCarthageaswell,foralltheofficeshavecertainlawsuitsthattheyjudge.Butthedefinitionofacitizenhasawayofbeingrevised,sinceintheotherformsofgovernmentitisnotarulerwithanunlimitedtermwhoisanassemblymemberorjuror,butonewhoislimitedinoffice.Foreitherallorsomeoftheseareassignedthetaskofdeliberatingandjudgingoneitherallmattersorcertainones.Soitisclearfromthesethingswhoacitizenis,forwesaythatonewhohasarighttoshareindeliberativeandjudicialruleisforthatreasonacitizenofthat[20]city,andacity,toputitsimply,isa

multitudeofsuchpeopleadequateforself-sufficiencyinlife.

Chapter2Butbyusage,peopledefineacitizenassomeonebornofcitizensonboth

sidesandnotjustone,whetherfatherormother,whilesometracethisevenfartherback,totwoorthreeormoregenerationsofgrandparents.Butwhenthedefinitionismadeinthisway,forpoliticalpurposesandroughly,somepeopleraisethequestionofhowthatthirdorfourthancestorisgoingtobeacitizen.SoGorgiasofLeontini,perhapsinsomerespectsrecognizingtheforceofthequestionwhileinotherrespectsbeingironic,saidthatjustasmortarsarewhataremadebymortar-makers,sotooLarissaeansarewhataremadeby[30]craftsmen,sincesomeofthemareLarissa-makers.101Itis,however,asimplematter;iftheancestorstookpartinthegovernmentinaccordwiththestateddefinition,theywerecitizens.Itisnotpossibletomake“bornofacitizenfather”or“bornofacitizenmother”fitthefirstinhabitantsorfounders.

Butperhapsthatquestioninvolvesmoredifficultyforthosewhobegantheirparticipationwhenarevolutiontookplace,suchasthosewhomCleisthenesmadeAtheniansaftertheexpulsionofthetyrants,forheadoptedmanyforeignersandimmigrantslavesintothetribes.Thepointofdisputeaboutthemisnotwhoisacitizenbutwhethertheyarecitizensunjustlyorjustly.Andyetonemightstillraisethatoriginalquestionaswell,[1276a]whethersomeonewhoisnotjustlyacitizenisacitizenatall,onthegroundsthat“unjust”hasthesameforceas“fake.”Butsincewealsoseesomepeoplerulingunjustly,whomweclaimdorule,butnotjustly,andthecitizenisdefinedbyacertainsortofrule(forsomeonewhohasashareinthatparticularkindofruleisacitizen,asweassert),itisclearthatonemustcallthosepeoplecitizenstoo.

Chapter3Thematterof“justlyornotjustly”isconnectedwithapointofdispute

mentionedabove.Forsomepeopleraisethequestionofwhenthecityperformedanactionandwhenitwasnotthecity,forinstanceafterademocracycomesintobeingfromanoligarchyor[10]tyranny.Foratsuchatime,somepeopledonotwanttofulfillagreements,onthegroundsthatthey

wereundertakennotbythecitybutbythetyrant,ortodomanyothersuchthings,onthegroundsthatsomeformsofgovernmentexistbyforcebutnotforthecommonadvantage.Butthenifsomecitiesareruleddemocraticallyinthatsamemanner,onemustsaythattheactsofthisgovernmentandthosestemmingfromtheoligarchyandthetyrannyareallalikeactsofthecity.Buttheargumentseemstobeakininsomerespectstothatdifficultyaboutwhenoneshouldsaythecityisthesame,ornotthesamebutdifferent.Andthemostsuperficialwayofinquiringinto[20]thequestionisconcernedwiththeplaceandthepeople,sincetheplaceandpeoplearecapableofbeingsplitup,withsomelivinginoneareaandothersinanother.Sothisistooglibawayforthequestiontobesettled(forsincea“city”isspokenofinmorethanonesense,inquiringinthatwayhasaneasytimeofit).Andsimilarlyinthecaseofhumanbeingsoccupyingthesameplace:whenoughtonetoregardthemasbeingonecity?Forthatiscertainlynotdeterminedbythewalls,sinceitwouldbepossibletoputuponewallaroundthePeloponnese.AndperhapsBabylonisaninstanceofthissort,andeveryplacethathasthecompassofanationratherthanacity;peopleclaimthatonthethirddayafterit[30]wasconquered,acertainpartofthecitywasunawareofthefact.

Butanexaminationintothisquestionwillbeusefulonanotheroccasion(forsomeoneskilledatpoliticsoughtnottooverlookthematterofthesizeofthecity,boththenumberofpeopleandwhetheritisadvantageousforthemtobeofoneormorenationalities).Butwhenthesamepeopleoccupythesameplace,shouldtheybesaidtobethesamecityaslongastheoccupantsareofthesamestock,despitethefactthatsomearealwaysperishingandothersbeingborn,onthesamebasisthatweareaccustomedtospeakofriversandstreamsasthesameeventhoughwaterisalwaysflowinginandflowingout?Orshoulditbesaidforthat[40]sortofreasonthatthepeoplearethesamebutthe[1276b]cityisdifferent?Forifthecityisinfactacertaintypeofassociation,andthisisanassociationofcitizenswithinaformofgovernment,whenthiscomestobeofanotherkindandisadifferentformofgovernment,itwouldseemthatthecitytooisnecessarilynotthesame,justasweclaimthatachorusisdifferentwhenitiscomicononeoccasionandtragiconanother,thoughitisoftenmadeupofthesamepeople.Anditissimilarwitheveryotherkindofassociationandeveryothercompositethingiftheformofthecompositeisdifferent;wesay,forinstancethatamusicalscalemadeupof

thesametonesisdifferentifitisDorianinonecaseandPhrygianintheother.102Soif[10]thisishowitis,itisclearthatacityistobecalledthesamewithaviewtoitsformofgovernmentmostofall;itispossibletocallitbyadifferentnameevenwhenithasthesameoccupants,andbythesameoneevenwhenitconsistsofentirelydifferenthumanbeings.Butwhetheritisjusttofulfillornotfulfillagreementswhenthecitychangestoadifferentformofgovernmentisdifferentstory.

Chapter4Connectedwiththethingsnowbeingspokenofisanexaminationof

whetherthevirtueofagoodmanandthatofanexcellentcitizenshouldbeheldtobethesameornotthesame.Butsurelyifthistopicneedstogetaninquiry,thevirtueofacitizenneedstobegraspedfirstinsomesortofoutline.[20]Andjustasasailorisoneinagroupofassociatedpeople,sotoodoweclaimacitizenis.Anddespitethefactthatsailorsaredissimilarincapacity(sinceoneisarower,anotherahelmsman,anotheralookoutman,andanotherhassomeothersuchtitle),itisclearthatwhilethemostprecisedescriptionoftheirvirtuewillbeparticulartoeachcapacity,acommonaccountwillstillfitthemallsimilarly.Forthesafetyofthevoyageistheworkofthemall,sincethisiswhateachofthesailorsisaimingat.Similarly,then,eventhoughcitizensaredissimilar,thesafetyoftheassociationistheirwork,andtheirformofgovernmentistheassociationtheyshare.[30]Hencethevirtueofacitizenisnecessarilyrelatedtotheformofgovernment.Soifthereisinfactmorethanoneformofgovernment,itisclearthattherecannotbeonecompletevirtueofanexcellentcitizen.Butweclaimsomeoneisagoodmanasaresultofonecompletevirtue.

Itisclear,then,thatitispossibleforsomeonewhoisanexcellentcitizennottopossessthevirtuebywhichhewouldbeanexcellentman.Butitispossibletogettothesamepropositioninstillanotherwaybyraisingaquestionaboutthebestformofgovernment.Forifitisimpossibleforacitytobemadeupentirelyofpeoplewhoareexcellent,eachonestillneedstodotheworkthatbelongstohimwell,andthatmeansdoingsooutofvirtue.[40]Butsinceitisimpossibleforallthecitizenstobealike,itcouldnot[1277a]beasinglevirtuethatbelongstoacitizenandtoagoodman.Forthevirtueoftheexcellentcitizenhastobelongtothemall(sincethatisnecessarilytheway

thecityisbest),butitisimpossiblethatthevirtueofthegoodmanwould,unlessitwerenecessaryforallthecitizensinanexcellentcitytobegoodmen.Further,seeingashowacityismadeupofdissimilarpeople,justasananimalismadeuptobeginwithofasoulandabodyandasoulofreasonanddesire,andahouseholdofamanandawoman,andapropertyofmasterandslave,inthesamewayacitytooisorganizedoutofalltheseandvariousotherkindsofpeople[10]inadditiontothem.Soitisnecessarythatthereisnosinglevirtuebelongingtoallthecitizens,justasthereisnosingleonebelongingtotheleaderofachoraltroopandhisright-handman.

Why,then,itisnotsimplythesameisevidentfromthesethings.Butwilltherebeanypersonforwhomthevirtueofanexcellentcitizenandanexcellentmanwillbethesame?Weclaimthatanexcellentrulerissomeoneofgoodcharacterandgoodjudgment,butthatanexcellentcitizenisnotnecessarilysomeoneofgoodjudgment.Andsomepeoplesaythattheeducationofarulerisdifferentrightfromthestart,justasthesonsofkingsobviouslygeteducatedforhorsemanshipandwar;andEuripidessays“nothingfancyforme…justthethingsrequiredfor[20]acity,”103asthoughthereisaparticulareducationforaruler.Andifthesamevirtuebelongstoagoodrulerandagoodman,andonewhoisruledisalsoacitizen,thesamevirtuecouldnotbelongtoacitizenandamansimply,thoughitcouldforacertainkindofcitizen.Forthevirtueofarulerisnotthesameasthatofacitizen,andperhapsthisiswhyJasonsaidhewashungrywhenhecouldnotbeatyrant,becausehedidnotknowhowtobeaprivateman.

Butsurelybeingabletoruleandberuledispraised,andthevirtueofanadmirablecitizenisheldtobetheabilitytodoabeautifuljobofbothrulingandbeingruled.Soifwesetitdownthatthevirtueofagoodmanpertainstoruling,whilethatofacitizenisofbothsorts,theywouldnotbothbedeservingofpraiseonthesamegrounds.Sosince[30]itsometimesseemsthattheyaredifferent,andthatthethingssomeonewhorulesneedstolearnarenotthesameasforsomeonewhoisruled,whilethecitizenneedstoknowbothsidesandhaveashareinboth,onecanseewheretogofromhere.Forthereissuchathingasruleofamasteroverslaves,andwesaythatthisisthesortthathastodowithnecessities,thingstheonewhoruleshasnoneedtoknowhowtodobutonlyhowtouse;infactthatothercapabilityisslavish—Imeanbeingablealsotodoserviceinactionsofaservilekind.Butwespeak

ofmorethanonekindofslave,sincetheirjobsareofmorethanonekind.Oneportionofthesearethejobsmanuallaborersholddown;theseare,asthenameitselfimplies,peoplewholiveby[1277b]theirhands,andsomeoneskilledinamechanicalcraftisoneofthese.Thisiswhyamongsomepeopleintheolddays,beforedemocracyinanextremeformcamealong,craftsmenhadnoshareinrulingoffices.Sothetasksofthosewhoareruledinthisfashionarethingsagoodpoliticalrulerorgoodcitizendoesnotneedtolearn,exceptfromtimetotimeforusebyhimselfforhisownsake,sincethatdoesnothavethefurtherresultthatonepersonbecomesamasterandanotheraslave.

Butthereisacertainkindofrulebywhichonerulesthosewhoaresimilarinkindandfree.Forthisiswhatwesaypoliticalruleis,whichtherulerhas[10]tolearnbybeingruled;onelearnstoleadcavalrybybeingled,tobeageneralorsquadronleaderorcompanycommanderbybeingcommanded.Henceitissaid,andbeautifullyatthat,thatitisnotpossibleforanyonetorulewellexceptsomeonewhohasbeenruled.Andwhilevirtueintheserolesisdifferent,agoodcitizenneedstohavetheknowledgeandcapacitybothtoberuledandtorule.Thisisthevirtueofacitizen:knowingtheruleoffreepeoplefrombothsides.Sobothofthesebelongtothegoodmanaswell,andiftherearedifferentformsofmoderationandjusticethatpertaintoruling,theydotoo.Foritisclearthatavirtueofagoodpersonwhoisruledbutfree,suchasjustice,couldnotbesingle,buthas[20]formsbywhichonerulesandisruled,inthesamewaythatmoderationandcouragearedifferentinamanandawoman.(Foramanwouldseemtobeacowardifhewereascourageousasacourageouswoman,andawomanwouldseemoverlytalkativeifshewereaswell-behavedasagoodman,sinceevenhouseholdmanagementisdifferentinamanandawoman;forthejoboftheformeristoacquireandofthelattertomaintain.)Practicaljudgmentistheonlyvirtuepeculiartoaruler.Therestnecessarilyseemcommontothosewhoareruledandthosewhorule,butitisnotpracticaljudgmentthatisavirtueinonewhoisruledbutrathertrueopinion.Theoneruledislikeaflutemakerwhiletheruler[30]islikethefluteplayerwhousesit.

Sowhetherthesamevirtueoradifferentonebelongstoagoodmanandanexcellentcitizen,andinwhatwaytheyarethesameanddifferent,areclearfromthesethings.

Chapter5Oneofthedifficultieshavingtodowithacitizenstillremains.Istheonly

personwhoisacitizeninthetruesensesomeonewhohastherighttoshareinarulingoffice,orshouldoneholdthatpeopleinthemechanicalcraftsarealsocitizens?Nowifitistobeheldthatthosewhotakenopartinrulingarecitizens,itisnotpossibleforthatsortofvirtuetobelongtoeverycitizen(sincethissortofpersonisacitizen);butifnosuchpersonisacitizen,inwhatclassshouldeachofthembeheldtobelong?Fortheyarenotresidentaliensorforeigners.Orshallweclaimthatnothingoutoftheway[1278a]resultsfromthisargument?Fortheslavesandfreedslavesarenotinanyoftheclassesmentionedeither.Forthisistrue,thatoneshouldnotholdallthosewithoutwhomtherecouldnotbeacitytobecitizens,seeingashowchildrenarenotcitizenseitherinthesamesenseasmen;thelatterarecitizenssimply,buttheformerpresumptively,sincetheyarecitizensbutincompleteones.Soinancienttimesamongsomepeoplethemechanicalcraftsmanwasaslaveorforeigner,whichiswhymanyareofthatsortevennow.Andthebestcitywillnotmakeamechanicalcraftsmanacitizen.If,however,hetooisacitizen,thenthevirtuewhichwewerespeakingofshouldnotbesaid[10]tobelongtoeverycitizen,notevenjusttoeveryfreecitizen;instead,onlythosewhoarerelievedofjobsinvolvingnecessitiesshouldbesaidtobecapableofit.Inthecaseofnecessities,thosewhoperformsuchservicesforonepersonareslaves,andthoseperformthemincommonaremechanicalcraftsmenandmenials.

Howitstandswiththemwillbeevidenttothosewhoexaminethematteralittlefurtherfromhere,sincewhathasbeensaidmakesitclear.Forsincethereismorethanoneformofgovernment,thereisnecessarilymorethanoneformofcitizen,especiallyinthecaseofcitizenswhoareruled.Soinoneformofgovernmentthemechanicalcraftsmanandmeniallaborerarenecessarilycitizens,butinothersthisisimpossible,forinstanceinanytheremightbethatpeoplecallaristocratic,inwhichhonors[20]aregiveninaccordancewithvirtueandmerit;foritisnotpossibletopursuethethingsinvolvedinvirtuewhilelivingthelifeofamechanicalcraftsmanormeniallaborer.Inoligarchies,though,whilebeingacitizenisnotopentoameniallaborer(sinceparticipationinofficesisbasedonlargepropertyassessments),itisopentoamechanicalcraftsman,formanyofthoseintheskilledcrafts

areinfactrich.TherewasalawinThebesthatsomeonecouldnottakepartinanofficeunlesshehadbeenoutofhistradefortenyears.Butinmanygovernmentsthelawdrawsinevencertainforeigners,sinceanyonebornofacitizenmotherisacitizeninsomedemocracies,andamongmanypeoplesthesameapproachappliesevenincasesofillegitimatebirths.However,[30]sincetheymakesuchpeoplecitizensduetoashortageoflegitimatecitizens(becausetheyusethelawsinthiswayasaresultofunderpopulation),oncetheyhaveadequatenumbersofpeopletheylittlebylittleeliminatefirstthosebornofaslavefatherormother,thenthosewithdescentonthefemaleside,andfinallytheymakecitizensonlyofthosebornofnativetownspeopleonbothsides.

Itisclearfromthesethings,then,thatthereismorethanoneformofcitizen,andthatacitizenmeansmostofallsomeonewhosharesinhonors,inthespiritinwhichHomerwrote“asifIweresometrampbereftofhonor.”104Forsomeonewhohasnoshareinhonorsislikearesidentalien.Butwhereverthissortofthingiscoveredover,thatisforthepurposeofmisleadingtheirfellowinhabitants.Andonthematterofwhetheroneshouldholdthatbywhich[1278b]amanisgoodtobedifferentfromorthesameasthatbywhichacitizenisexcellent,itisclearfromwhathasbeensaidthatinonecitytheyarethesamepersonandinanothertheyaredifferent;andthepersonintheformercaseisnoteverycitizenbutoneinvolvedinpoliticalaffairsandhavingauthority,orcapableofhavingauthority,eitheronhisownoralongwithothers,overthemanagementofcommonconcerns.

Chapter6Sincethesethingshavebeendetermined,thenextthingthatneedstobe

examinedafterthemiswhetheroneshouldholdthatthereisoneformofgovernmentormorethanone,andifmorethanone,whatandhowmanytheyareandwhatthedifferencesareamongthem.Butaformofgovernmentisanarrangementoftherulingofficesofacity,boththeothersandespecially[10]theonewithauthorityoverthemall.Forwhatisinauthorityeverywhereistheadministrationofthecity,andtheadministrationisthegovernment.Imean,forinstance,thatindemocraciesthepopulaceisinauthority,whileinoligarchies,onthecontrary,itisthefew,andwealsoclaimthattheformofgovernmentinthemisdifferent;andwewouldmakethesamestatement

abouttheothersaswell.Sowhatneedstobesetdownfirstasabasisfortheargumentisthatfor

thesakeofwhichacityisorganizedandhowmanyformsofrulepertaintoahumanbeingandanassociationinlife.Nowitwassaidinourfirstdiscussions,inwhichdistinctionsweremadeabouthouseholdmanagementandmasteryofslaves,thatahumanbeingisbynatureananimalmeantforacity.[20]Forthisreason,evenwhentheyhavenoneedofassistancefromoneanother,peoplearenolessdesirousoflivingtogether.Buttheircommonadvantagebringsthemtogethertoo,inproportionasitfallstothelotofeachtohaveapartinlivingbeautifully.105This,then,isthehighestendforthemall,bothincommonandseparately.Buttheyalsocometogetherandholdthepoliticalassociationtogetherforthesakeoflifeitself.Forthereisperhapssomeportionofthebeautifulpresentinandresultingfromthemereandsoleactivityofliving,aslongasthehardshipsthatcomealongwithlifearenottoogreataburden.Itisobviousthatmosthumanbeingswillenduregreatsufferingwhileclingingtolife,asifthereisinitacertainjoyfulnessand[30]naturalsweetness.

Andthetypesofrulethatpeoplespeakofareeasytodistinguish,foreveninpopularwritingsweoftenmakedistinctionsaboutthem.Asformasteryofslaves,eventhoughintruththesamethingisadvantageoustothenaturalslaveastothenaturalmaster,itisstillnonethelessrulewithaviewtotheadvantageofthemaster,andincidentallytothatoftheslave(sinceitisimpossibleformasterytobepreservediftheslaveisdestroyed).Butruleofchildren,awife,andawholehousehold,whichwecallhouseholdmanagement,iseitherforthesakeofthosewhoareruledorforthesakeofsomethingcommontobothrulerandruled;in[40]itsownrightitisforthesakeofthosewhoareruled,justasweseewiththeother[1279a]arts,suchasthoseofthedoctororgymnastictrainer,thoughtheycouldincidentallybefortheirsake.Forthereisnoreasonwhythetrainerhimselfcouldnotsometimesbeoneofthosebeingtrained,thesamewaythehelmsmanisalwaysoneofthesailors.Sowhilethetrainerorhelmsmanlookstothegoodofthosewhoareruled,wheneverhehimselfbecomesoneofthese,heincidentallysharesthebenefit,sincethelatterisasailorandtheformerbecomesoneofthosebeingtrained,eventhoughheisthetrainer.Henceinthecaseofpoliticalofficestoo,whenevertheyareorganizedonabasisofequalityandsimilarity[10]amongthe

citizens,theyexpecttotaketurnsruling.Informertimes,inawaythatwasnatural,theyexpectedtotaketurnsdoingpublicservice,whilehavingsomeonelookaftertheirgoodinreturn,justas,whenthatpersonwasrulingbefore,someonehadlookedafterhisadvantage.Butnowadays,becauseoftheprofitstobemadefromcommonfundsandfromholdingoffice,peoplewanttobeinofficecontinuously,asthoughpeoplewhoweresickendedupbeinghealthybyrulingperpetually.Theywouldprobablyseekofficesinthesamewaytoo.

Itisclear,then,thatitispreciselythoseformsofgovernmentthatlooktothecommonadvantagethatarerightaccordingtosimplejustice,whileallthosethatlookonlytotherulers’own[20]advantagearemisguidedanddeviationsfromtherightformsofgovernment.Thelatterareformsofmastery,butacityisanassociationoffreepeople.

Chapter7Nowthatthesedistinctionshavebeenmade,thenextthingistoexamine

theformsofgovernment,howmanytheyareinnumberandwhattheyare,andfirstamongthemtherightforms.Foroncethesehavebeendistinguishedthedeviationswillalsobeclear.Andsinceaformofgovernmentandanadministrationrefertothesamething,andanadministrationiswhatisinauthorityincities,anditisnecessarythattherebeeitheroneperson,orfew,ormanyinauthority,wheneverthatoneorthosefeworthosemanyrulewithaviewtothecommonadvantage,theseformsofgovernmentarenecessarily[30]right,whilethosethatlooktotheprivateadvantageofeithertheoneorthefeworthemultitudearedeviations.Foreitherthosewhodonottakepartinthemmustnotbecalledcitizensortheymustshareintheadvantage.

Nowweareaccustomedtocallaformofgovernmentthatlookstothecommonadvantagekingship,inthecaseofmonarchies,andinthecaseofrulebymorethanoneperson,butbyfew,aristocracy(eitherbecausethebestpeopleruleorbecausetheyrulewithaviewtowhatisbestforthecityandthosewhoshareinit),butwhenitisthemultitudethatgovernswithaviewtothecommonadvantage,itiscalledbythenamecommontoallformsofgovernment,constitutionalrule.Andthishappensreasonably,sinceitispossibleforoneperson[40]orafewpeopletobeoutstandinginvirtue,butitisdifficultforanymorethanthat[1279b]toberigorousaboutthewholeof

virtue,thoughitispossiblemostofallwithmilitaryvirtue,sincethatcomesaboutinalargenumberofpeople.Thisiswhythewar-fightingpartisthehighestauthorityinthisformofgovernmentandthosewhobeararmstakepartinit.Andthedeviationsfromtheformsmentionedaretyrannyfromkingship,oligarchyfromaristocracy,anddemocracyfromconstitutionalrule.Fortyrannyismonarchywithaviewtotheadvantageofthesoleruler,oligarchyrulewithaviewtothatofthosewhoarewelloff,anddemocracytotheadvantageofthepoor.Noneofthemlookstowhatisprofitabletothem[10]incommon.

Chapter8Butitisnecessarytosaywhateachoftheseformsofgovernmentisata

littlegreaterlength.Forthesubjecthassomedifficultiesaboutit,anditistheproperbusinessofsomeonewhoistreatinganypursuitphilosophically,andnotjustlookingaheadtothepracticeofit,nottooverlookorleaveoutanydifficulty,buttobringtolightthetruthabouteachone.Aswassaid,tyrannyismonarchythatrulesthepoliticalassociationlikeamasterofslaves,andgovernmentisoligarchywhenthosewhohavewealthareauthoritativeinitanddemocracyintheoppositecase,whenthoseinauthorityaretheoneswhodonothaveanabundanceofwealthbutarepoor.[20]Thefirstdifficultyisconcernedwiththedefinition.Ifthemajoritywerewelloffandwereinchargeofthecity,anditisademocracywhenthemultitudeisinauthority—orsimilarlyinturnifthepoorhappenedtobefewersomewherethantherich,butwerestrongerandwereinauthorityinthegovernment,butwhereverthenumberofpeopleinauthorityissmallpeoplesayitisanoligarchy—itwouldseemthatnotsobeautifulajobofdefiningtheformsofgovernmenthasbeendone.Andevenifoneweretocombinefewnesswithbeingwelloffandmanynesswithbeingpoorandnametheformsofgovernmentonthatbasis,oligarchyasthatinwhichthosewhoarewelloffandfewinnumberholdtheoffices,and[30]democracyasthatinwhichthosewhoarepoorandmanyinnumberholdthem,thereisanotherdifficulty.Forwhatarewegoingtosayaboutthegovernmentsjustmentioned,inwhichthericharethemajorityorthepooraretheminorityandineachofthetwocasestheyareinauthorityintheirgovernments,iftherearenootherformsofgovernmentbesidestheonesmentioned?

Theargumentseemstomakeitclear,then,thatthefactthatfewareinauthorityinoligarchiesandmanyindemocraciesisincidental,becausethericharefewandthepoormanyeverywhere(andhencetheallegedcausesturnoutnottobethereasonsfortheirdifferences).Thatonaccountofwhichdemocracy[40]andoligarchydifferfromeachotherispovertyand[1280a]wealth,andnecessarily,whereverpeopleruleonaccountofwealth,whetherthereisalesserorgreaternumberofthem,thisisoligarchy,andwhereveritisthepoor,thisisdemocracy,anditisincidental,aswesaid,thattheformerarefewandthelattermany.Forfewarewelloffbutallshareinfreedom,whicharethereasonsthetwosidesareindisputeovertheformofgovernment.

Chapter9Whatneedstobetakenupfirstiswhatpeoplesaythedefiningmarksof

oligarchyanddemocracyare,andwhatjusticeisinanoligarchicandademocraticsense.Foreveryonegetsholdofsomeaspectofjustice,but[10]theyonlygouptoacertainpointanddonotspeakofjusticeasawholeinanauthoritativesense.Forwhatisjustseems,inaway,tobesomethingequal,anditis,butnotforallpeoplebutforthosewhoareequal.Andtheunequalalsoseemstobejust,becauseitistoo,butnotforallpeoplebutforthosewhoareunequal.Butpeopleleaveoutthis“forwhom”andjudgebadly.Thereasonisthatthejudgmentinvolvesthemselves,anditisgenerallytruethatmostpeoplearebadjudgesintheirowncases.Sosincewhatisjustisjustforcertainpersons,andisdividedamongtheminthesamewayaswiththethings,aswassaidpreviouslyintheEthics,106peopleagreeabouttheequalityofthethingbutdisputethatwhichappliestothepersons;[20]thisisprimarilybecauseofwhatwasjustmentioned,thefactthattheyjudgemattersrelatedtothemselvesbadly,butalsobecauseeachsideholdsthatbyspeakingofsomethingthatisjustuptoacertainpointitisspeakingofwhatisjustsimply.Foronegroup,ifitisunequalinanyrespect,suchasmoney,believesitisunequalineveryrespect,whiletheothergroup,ifitisequalinanyrespect,suchasfreedom,believesitisequalineveryrespect.

Buttheydonotstatethethingthatismostauthoritative.Ifpeoplecametogetherandenteredintoassociationforthesakeofpossessions,theywouldhaveashareinthecityexactlyasmuchastheyhadashareinproperty,andtheargumentoftheoligarchswouldconsequentlyseemtobestrong.Forit

wouldnotbejustforsomeonewhogaveoneminatohaveanequalshareinonehundredminaewiththepersonwhocontributed[30]alltherest,andnotinwhatitbringsinanymorethanintheoriginalamount.But107theydosonotjustforthesakeoflivingbutinsteadforthesakeoflivingwell.Otherwisetherecouldevenbeacitymadeupofslaves,oroftheotheranimals,butasitisthereisnone,becausetheydonotshareinhappinessorinlivinginaccordancewithchoice.Nordotheydosoforthesakeofanalliancetokeepinjusticefrombeingdonetothembyanyone,orforexchangeandmutualutility.OtherwiseeventheEtruscansandCarthaginians,andallthosewhohaveagreementswithoneanother,wouldbelikecitizensofonecity,sincetheydo,atanyrate,havetreatiesaboutimports,agreementsnottocommitinjustice,[40]anddocumentsofalliance.Butnoofficescommonto[1280b]themallaresetup,butdifferentonesamongthedifferentpeoples,andthoseinonegrouppaynoattentiontowhatsortofcharacterthoseintheothergroupsoughttohaveinorderthatnoneofthepeoplecoveredbytheagreementswouldbeunjustorhaveanyvice,butonlytoassurethattheydonoinjusticetooneanother.

Butthosewhopayattentiontogoodordergivecarefulconsiderationtopoliticalvirtueandvice.Andthismakesitclearthatthereneedstobeaconcernaboutvirtueinacitythatbearsthatnametrulyandnotjustforthesakeofargument.Otherwisetheassociationbecomesanalliancethatdiffersfromother,long-distance,alliancesonly[10]byitslocation,andlawbecomesacontractand“amutualpledgeofjustdealings”asthesophistLycophronsaid,andnotthesortofthingthatcouldmakecitizensgoodandjust.Itisobviousthatthisisthewayitis.Forevenifoneweretopullthelocationstogetherintoone,sothatthecityoftheMegariansandthatoftheCorinthianswerejoinedbywalls,itwouldstillnotbeonecity,noteveniftheyintroducedtherightofintermarriagewithoneanother,eventhoughthatisoneofthecommunalpracticespeculiartocities.Andbythesametoken,evenifthereweresomepeoplelivingseparately,butnotsofarapartthattheycouldnotassociate,andtherewerelawsamongthemnottocommitinjusticeamongthemselvesin[20]theirtransactions,andonewas,say,acarpenter,oneafarmer,oneashoemaker,andanothersomethingelselikethat,andtheirnumberwastenthousand,buttheywerenotassociatedinanythingotherthanmatterssuchasexchangeandalliance,notevensowoulditreachthepointof

beingacity.Whatisthereason?Itisnotfromalackofproximitywithinthe

association;foreveniftheyweretomeettogethertoassociateinthismanner,whileeachonestilltreatedhisownhouseholdasifitwereacity,andthemselvesasiftheywereadefensiveallianceassistingeachotheronlyagainstthosewhocommitinjustice,notevensowoulditseemtobeacitytothosewhostudythematterwithprecision,iftheywereinteractingthesamewaywhentheycametogetheraswhenapart.Itisobvious,then,that[30]acityisnotanassociationinaplaceforthesakeofnotdoinginjusticeamongthemselvesanddoingbusiness.Thesethingsnecessarilyhavetobepresentifitisgoingtobeacity,butwhentheyareallpresentitisnotonthataccountacity;acityisinsteadanassociationofhouseholdsandfamiliesinlivingwell,forthesakeofacompleteandself-sufficientlife.Thiswillnotbepossible,however,unlesstheyoccupyoneandthesameplaceandpracticeintermarriage.Thisiswhymarriagescamewithinthepurviewofcities,alongwithfraternalorganizations,religiousrites,andsharedformsofrecreation.Andthissortofthingistheworkoffriendship,becausefriendshipisachoicetolivelifeincommon.Theendaimedatbyacityislivingwell,[40]andthesethingsareforthesakeofthatend.Andacityisanassociationoffamilies[1281a]andvillagesinacompleteandself-sufficientlife.Andweclaimthatthisislivinghappilyandbeautifully.Itmustbesetdown,therefore,thatthepoliticalassociationisforthesakeofbeautifulactionsandnotforthesakeoflivingtogether.Forthisreason,thosewhocontributemosttosuchanassociationplayagreaterpartinthecitythanthosewhoareequaltotheminfreedomorsuperiortotheminbirthbutareunequalinpoliticalvirtue,orthosewhosurpasstheminwealthbutaresurpassedinvirtue.

Soitisclearfromthethingsthathavebeensaidthatallthosewhodisputeabouttheformsofgovernment[10]aretalkingaboutsomepartialaspectofwhatisjust.

Chapter10Whattheauthorityinacityoughttobeisamatterofdifficulty.Foritis

eitherthemultitude,ortherich,orthedecentpeople,orthebestpersonofall,oratyrant.Butalltheseinvolvesomethinghardtoswallow.Forwhatifthepoor,becausetheyarethemajority,divideupthethingsthatbelongtothe

rich?Isthatnotunjust?“WellbyZeus,itwasenactedjustlybytheauthority!”Thenwhatshouldonesaytheutmostinjusticeis?If,aftereverythinghasbeentaken,amajorityonceagaindividesupthethingsthatbelongtotheminority,itisobviousthattheywilldestroythecity.Butitiscertainlynotvirtuethatdestroysthe[20]thingthatpossessesit,andjusticeisnotsomethingthatcandestroyacity,soitisclearthatthislawcannotbejust.Itwouldalsomeanthatwhateveractionsatyrantundertookwouldnecessarilyallbejust;heisstrongerandusesforce,justasthemultitudedoeswiththerich.Butisitajustthing,then,fortheminorityandtherichtorule?Iftheydothesamethings,then,andseizeandtakepossessionofthepropertyofthemultitude,thatisjust;thereforetheotheristoo.Soitisobviousthatallthesethingsarebadandnotjust.Soshouldthedecentpeopleruleandbeinauthorityovereveryone?Thenitisnecessarythattheothers[30]allbedeprivedofhonor,sincetheyarenothonoredwithpoliticaloffices;forwespeakofofficesashonors,andwhenthesamepeoplearealwaysrulingtherestarenecessarilydeprivedofhonor.Soisitbetterforonepersonofthehighestexcellencetorule?Butthatgoesstillfurtherintheoligarchicdirection,sincemorepeoplearedeprivedofhonor.Butperhapsonemightclaimthatitisabadthingfortheauthoritytobeahumanbeingatallandnotthelaw,sinceheisboundtohavethepassionsattendantuponthesoul.Butiflawcanbeoligarchicordemocratic,whatdifferencewillthatmaketothedifficultiesthathavebeenraised?Forthethingsalreadysaidwillfollowjustthesame.

Chapter11Nowontheotherpoints,lettherebeadiscussionsomeothertime.[40]

Buttheclaimthatthemultitudeoughttobeinauthority,ratherthanthosewhoarebestbutarefewinnumber,wouldseemtobemaintainedandtohaveacertaindifficultybutalso,perhapsacertaintruth.Forthemany,noneofwhom[1281b]isamanofexcellentstature,arenonethelesscapablewhentheycometogetherofbeingbetterthanthosewhoareofsuchstature,noteachinparticularbutallcombined,justasdinnersmadeupofcontributionscanbebetterthanthosefurnishedatoneperson’sexpense.Forwhentherearemanypeople,eachcanhaveaportionofvirtueandgoodjudgment,andwhentheycometogetherthemultitudecanbecomelikeasinglehumanbeingwithmanyfeetandhandsandhavingmanysenses,andsimilarlywiththeir

charactersandtheirthinking.Thisiswhythemanyalsodoabetterjobofjudgingworksofmusicandofthepoets;fordifferentpeoplerespondtodifferentparts,andallofthemto[10]alltheparts.Buttheexcellentonesamongmendifferfromeachofthemanyinthisway:justaspeopleclaimthatthebeautifuldifferfromthosewhoarenotbeautiful,andthingspaintedbyartdifferfromactualthings,bybringingthingsscatteredaparttogetherintoone.Forwhentheyareseparated,theeyeofthisparticularperson,andsomeotherpartofsomeoneelse,maybemorebeautifulthanthepaintedone.Nowitisunclearwhetheritispossibleforthissuperiorityofthemanytothefewpeopleofexcellentstaturetobepresentineverypopulaceandeverymultitude.Perhapsoneshouldsay,“byZeus,itisclearthatinsomeofthemitisimpossible!”(Forthesameargumentcouldbeappliedtobeasts,yetwhat[20]differenceisthere,inaword,betweensomeofthemandbeasts?)Butnothingpreventsthethingstatedfrombeingtrueforacertainkindofmultitude.

Andhencebythesemeansonemightresolveboththedifficultymentionedaboveandoneconnectedwithit,namelywhatthingsthemultitudeofthosewhoarefreeandcitizensoughttohaveauthorityover.Thesearethesortofpeoplewhoarenotrichandhavenoclaimtoanysinglevirtue.Forthemtotakepartinthehighestrulingofficeswouldnotbesafe,sincetheywouldbeboundtocommitsomeinjusticesandmakesomemistakesduetoalackofjusticeorgoodjudgment.Buttogivethemnoshareandhavethemnottakepartatallisdangerous,forwhenmanypeopleareinitwhoaredishonoredandpoor,[30]thatcityisnecessarilyfilledwithenemies.Whatisleftisforthemtoshareindeliberatingandjudging.ThisisthereasonSolonandcertainotherlawgiversassignthemtheelectionandreviewofthosewhorule,butdonotallowthemtoruleontheirown.Forwhentheyarealljoinedtogethertheyhavesufficientperception,andwhentheyaremixedwiththeirbetterstheybenefittheircities,justasfoodthatisnotpure,whenmixedwithalittlepurefood,makesthewholemorenourishing;separately,eachgroupisimperfectatjudging.

Butthisarrangementofthegovernmentdoeshaveadifficulty,because,inthefirstplace,[40]judgingwhohasbeencorrectlycuredwouldseemtobelongtothesamepersonwhosejobitwastocurethediseasewhenitwaspresentandmakethesickpersonhealthy,andthatisthedoctor.Anditis

similar[1282a]withtheotherkindsofexperienceandart.Sojustasadoctoroughttoholdhimselfaccountabletodoctors,theotherstooshouldbereviewedbytheirpeers.Butadoctoriseitherapractitioneroramasteroftheart,orthirdlysomeoneeducatedonthesubject,fortherearesomepeopleofthissortwithjustaboutallthearts,andweturnovertheactofjudgingtothosewhoareeducatedinthesubjectnolessthantothosewhoknowit.Sothenitmightseemtobethesamewaywithelectingaswell.Formakingarightchoiceisajobforthosewithknowledge;itbelongs,forexample,togeometerstochooseageometerand[10]tohelmsmentochooseahelmsman.Forsomelaymenmightalsoparticipateinthechoiceforcertainjobsandarts,buttheydonottakeagreaterpartinitthanthosewithknowledge.Sobythisargument,itwouldnotbeappropriatetogivethemultitudeauthorityforeitherelectingorreviewingofficials.Butperhapsthesethingsarenotallbeautifullyargued,becauseofthepreviousargumentthatifthemultitudeisnottooslavish,eventhougheachmemberofitwillbeaworsejudgethanthosewithknowledge,allofthemcombinedwillbeeitherbetterornoworse,andalsobecausewithsomeartsthemakerwouldnotbetheonlyoneorthebestonetojudge.Thesearethoseartsinwhicheventhosewhodonothavethearthaveafamiliaritywithitsproducts.Being[20]familiarwithahouse,forinstance,isnotsomethingthatbelongsonlytotheonewhomakesit;theonewhousesitisevenbetteratjudgingit,anditisthehouseholdmanagerwhousesit.Ahelmsmanisabetterjudgeofarudderthanacarpenteris,andtheguest,notthecook,isabetterjudgeofameal.

Soitwouldprobablyseemthatonecouldresolvethisdifficultyadequatelyinthisway,butthereisanotherdifficultyconnectedwiththisone.Foritseemsabsurdthatpeopleofinferiorcharactershouldbeinauthorityovergreatermattersthandecentpeople,butthegreatestmatteristhereviewingandelectingofthosewhorule.Andaswassaid,thisisturnedovertothepopulaceinsomeconstitutions,sincetheassemblyisinauthorityoverallsuchthings.Yetthosewhotakepartintheassemblyand[30]dothedeliberatingandjudgingcomefromthelowpropertyclassesandareofanyrandomage,whilethosewhocontrolthetreasuryandserveasgeneralsandruleinthehighestofficescomefromthehighclasses.Butonecouldresolvethisdifficultytooinasimilarway.Forperhapsthesethingstooaredonerightly,sinceitisnotthepersonwhojudgesordeliberatesorservesintheassembly

whoisruling,butthecourtordeliberativecouncilorpopulace,andeachofthepersonsmentioned—Imeanthecouncilor,assemblyman,orjudge—ispartofthesebodies.Sothemultitudeisjustlyinauthorityovergreatermatters,sincethepopulaceanddeliberativecouncilandlawcourtaremadeupofmanypeople,andthepropertyassessment[40]ofthemallisgreaterthanthatofeachone,orthefew,whoholdthehighrulingoffices.Soletthesethingsbedetermined[1282b]inthisway.

Andthefirstdifficultystatedmakesnothingelsesoclearasthatlawsrightlylaiddownoughttobeinauthority,whiletheruler,whetherthisisonepersonormorethanone,oughttobeinauthorityoverthosethingsthatlawsareutterlyincapableofspeakingpreciselyabout,sinceitisnoteasytomakeuniversaldeterminationsabouteverything.Nothingisyetclear,however,aboutwhatparticularsortoflawsoughttoberightlylaiddown,andthedifficultyraisedsometimeagostillremains.Forthelawswillbebadorexcellentandjustorunjusttogetherwithandinasimilarfashiontothe[10]formsofgovernment.Thismuchisclear,though,thatthelawsoughttobelaiddownwithaviewtotheformofgovernment.Andsurelyifthatisthecase,itisevidentthatthosethataccordwiththerightformsofgovernmentwillnecessarilybejustandthosethataccordwiththedeviantoneswillnotbejust.

Chapter12Andsinceinallkindsofknowledgeandarttheendissomethinggood,

andisthehighestandgreatestgoodinthemostauthoritativekind,andthisisthepoliticalcapacity,andthepoliticalgoodisjustice,andthisisthecommonadvantage,andjusticeseemstoeveryonetobesomekindofequality,anduptoacertainpointtheyareinagreementwiththewritingsonphilosophyinwhich[20]matterspertainingtoethicsaredetermined(sincetheysaythatjusticeisacertainthingforcertainpeopleandoughttobeequalforequalpeople),oneoughtnottooverlookthematterofwhatsortsofthingstheequalityandinequalityconsistsin.108Forthishasdifficulty,andinvolvespoliticalphilosophy.Perhapssomeonemightclaimthatsuperiorityinanygoodthingrequiresofficestobedistributedunequally,ifpeoplehappenedtobealikeinallotherrespectsandhadnodifferences,sincewhatisjustandinaccordwithmeritisdifferentforpeoplewhodiffer.Butifthisweretrue,any

advantage,evenincoloringorheightoranyothergoodthingwhateverwouldbeanadvantageinjustpoliticalrewardsforthosewhohadthesuperiority.[30]Isthisnotfalseonthefaceofit?Anditisobviousinthecaseofotherkindsofknowledgeandcapacities.Amongfluteplayerswhoarealikeinart,anadvantageinfluteswouldnotbegiventothosewhoarebetterborn,sincetheywouldnotplaytheflutesbetter;oneoughttogivethesuperiorityininstrumentstosomeonewhoissuperiorinthework.Andifwhatisbeingsaidisnotclearyet,itwillbestillmoreobvioustothosewhodrawoutthepoint.Forifthereweresomeonesuperioratfluteplaying,butwithgreatshortcomingsinbirthandlooks,thenevenifeachofthesethings—Imeangoodbirthandbeauty—isagreatergoodthanfluteplaying,andis[40]superiortofluteplayinginagreaterproportionthanheissuperiorinfluteplaying,heshouldneverthelessbegiventheexceptional[1283a]flutes.Forthesuperiorityhastocontributetothework,andwealthandgoodbirthcontributenothing.

Also,bythatargumenteverygoodthingwouldbecomparablewitheveryother.Forifsomeparticularheightwereacriterion,heightingeneralwouldbeacriterionincomparisonwithbothwealthandfreedom;soifthispersonexcelsinheightmorethanthatpersondoesinvirtue,thenevenifvirtueingeneralismoreexcellentthanheight,everythingwouldbecomparable.Forifacertainamountisgreaterthanacertainotheramount,thenclearlysomeamountisequaltoit.Andsincethatisimpossible,[10]itisevidentthatinthecaseofpoliticalofficestoo,itisreasonablethatpeopledonotdisputethemonthebasisofeveryinequality.Forifsomeareslowandothersfast,thereisnoneedonthataccountforonesorttoholdmoreofficesandtheothersortfewer;itisratheringymnasticconteststhatasuperiorityinthesethingstakesthehonors.Itisnecessarytomakethedisputeonthebasisofthosethingsoutofwhichacityisorganized.Henceitisreasonableforthosewhoarewellbornorfreeorrichtolayclaimtohonor.Fortherehavetobefreepeopleandalsopeoplewhopaytaxes,sincetherecouldnotbeacityconsistingentirelyofthepoor,justastherecouldnotbeoneconsistingentirelyofslaves.Andsurelyifthereisaneedforthesethings,itisclearthatthereisalsoaneedfor[20]justiceandpoliticalvirtue.Forwithouttheseitwouldnotevenbepossibleforacitytobemanaged.Orrather,withouttheformeritisimpossiblefortheretobeacityandwithoutthelatteritisimpossibleforone

tobemanagedbeautifully.

Chapter13Inconnectionwiththebeingofthecity,alloratleastsomeofthese

inequalitiesmightseemrighttodisputeabout,butinconnectionwithagoodlife,educationandvirtuewouldbearguedformostjustly,aswassaidabove.Andsincethosewhoareequalinonlyonerespectoughtnottohaveequalityinallrespects,andthoseunequalinonerespectoughtnottohaveinequalityinall,thenallformsofgovernmentofthosesortsarenecessarilydeviant.Anditwasalsosaid[30]abovethateveryonehasajustargumentinacertainway,butnoteveryonehasanargumentthatissimplyjust.Thericharguejustlythattheyhavealargershareoftheland,andthelandissomethingcommon,andwhatismore,theyareforthemostpartmoretrustworthyaboutagreements.Butthefreeandwellbornarguejustlyinthesensethattheyareclosetooneanother,forthebetterbornarecitizenstoagreaterdegreethanthebaseborn,andgoodbirthishonoredbyeachlocalgroup,andalsobecausethosedescendedfrombetterpeoplearelikelytobebetterpeople,sincegoodbirthisvirtueofafamily.Andsimilarly,wewillclaimthatvirtuehasajustargument,sinceweclaimthatjusticeiscommunalvirtue,andfromitalltherest[40]necessarilyfollow.109Andcertainlythemajorityalsohasajustargumentagainsttheminority,sincethegreaternumber,takentogether,arealsostronger,richer,andbetterthanthesmallernumber.

Wellthen,[1283b]iftheywereallpresentinonecity—Imeanthegood,therich,andthewellborn,andacitizenmultitudeasstillanotherthing—willthereorwilltherenotbeadisputeastowhooughttorule?Ineachformofgovernmentamongthosementioned,thedecisionastowhooughttoruleisindisputable,sincetheydifferfromoneanotherbythoseinauthority;one,forinstance,isdistinguishedbybeingruledbytherich,anotherbytheexcellentmen,andthesamewaywitheachoftheothers.Allthesame,though,letusconsiderhowthisoughttobedeterminedwhentheseareallpresentatthesametime.Andifthose[10]havingvirtuewereutterlyfewinnumber,inwhatwayoughtonetomakethedecision?Shouldtheirfewnessnotbeconsideredasitbearsontheirjob,andwhethertheyarecapableofmanagingthecity,orelsesomanyinmultitudethatacitycouldbemadeupofthem?Butthereisacertaindifficultyrelatedtoalldisputesoverpoliticalhonors.For

itmightseemthatthosewhoconsiderthemselvesworthyofrulingonaccountofwealth,orsimilarlyonaccountoffamily,havenojustargumentatall,foritisclearthatifinturnthereissomeonepersonricherthanallofthem,thenobviouslybythissamejusticethatonepersonwillhavetorulethemall,andlikewisewiththethosewhomaketheirargumentonthebasisoffreedomwhenonepersonsurpassesthemall[20]ingoodbirth.Andperhapsthissamethingwillhappeneveninaristocraciesinthecaseofvirtue;forifsomeonepersonwereabettermanthantherestofthoseintheadministration,eventhoughtheywereexcellent,thenbythesamejusticethatonepersonwouldhavetobeinauthority.Andbythesametoken,ifthemultitudeoughttobeinauthoritybecausetheyarestrongerthanthefew,andoneperson,ormorethanonebutfewerthanthemany,werestrongerthantherest,thentheyoughttobeinauthorityinsteadofthemultitude.

Soallthesethingsseemtomakeitevidentthannoneofthesecriteriaisright,accordingtowhichpeopleconsiderthemselvesworthyofrulingwhileeveryoneelsedeservestoberuled[30]bythem.Forevenagainstthosewhoconsiderthemselvesworthytobeinauthorityovertheadministrationongroundsofvirtue,andsimilarlyagainstthosewhobasetheirargumentonwealth,themasseswouldhaveanargumentofsomejusticetomake;fornothingpreventsamultitudefromsometimesbeingbetterthanthefeworthewealthier,notone-by-onebutasawhole.Henceitisalsopossibleinthiswaytomeetthedifficultywhichsomepeopleinquireaboutandpropose.Forsomepeopleraisethequestionwhether,ifalawgiverwantstolaydownlawsthatarerightinthehighestdegree,heoughttomakethoselawsfortheadvantageofthebetterpeopleorofthegreaternumber,whenthingsturnoutthewaythatwasstated.[40]Perhapswhatisrightneedstobegrasped,andwhatisrightisperhapswhatisfortheadvantageofthewholecityandforthecitizensincommon.Nowacitizen,inthesensecommontoallformsofgovernment,issomeonewhosharesinrulingand[1284a]beingruled,butissomeonedifferentineachform;inthebestformofgovernment,itissomeonewhohasthecapacityforandchoosestoberuledandtoruleforalifeinaccordwithvirtue.

Ifthereissomeonepersonwhosogreatlysurpassestherestbyasuperiorityinvirtue—ormorethanonebutnotenoughtobeabletomakeupafullcity—somuchsothatthevirtueandpoliticalcapacityofalltherestare

notcomparabletotheirs(ifthereismorethanone)ortohisalone(ifthereisone),theycannolongerbeheldtobepartofacity.Fortheywouldsufferinjusticebybeingheldtodeserveequalshareswhentheyareso[10]unequalinvirtueandpoliticalcapacity.Suchapersonwouldlikelybelikeagodamonghumanbeings.Itisclearfromthisthatlawgivingtooisnecessarilyforthosewhoareequalinkindandcapacity,andthatforpeopleofthatsortthereisnolaw,fortheyarealawinthemselves.Itwouldberidiculousforanyoneeventotrytogivelawsforthem.FortheymightperhapsreplythewayAntisthenessaysthelionsdidwhentheharesmaderabble-rousingspeechesclaimingthatalldeservetohaveequalshares.Anditisforthissortofreasonthatdemocraticallyruncitiesimposeostracism.Fortheyseemtopursueequalityasthehighestofallthings,[20]andsotheyusedtoostracize,tobanishfromthecityforadefiniteperiodoftime,thosewhoseemedtobesuperiorinpoweronaccountofwealthorabundanceoffriendsoranyotherkindofpoliticalstrength.AstoryisalsotoldthattheArgonautsleftHeraclesbehindforsuchareason,fortheArgowasnotwillingtocarryhimwiththeothersailorssincehesogreatlyoutweighedthem.110Hence,too,thosewhocriticizetyrannyoughtnottobeconsideredsimplyrightinblamingtheadvicePeriandergaveThrasybulus.TheysayPeriandersaidnothingtothemessengerwhowassenttohimforadvice,butremovedthe[30]earsofcornthatstoodout,tomakethefieldlevel;whenthemessenger,whowasignorantofthereason,reportedwhathadhappened,Thrasybulusgotthepointfromitthatheoughttogetridoftheoutstandingmen.Thisisadvantageousnotjusttotyrants,anditisnotjusttyrantswhodoit,butitissimilarwitholigarchiesanddemocraciesaswell.Forostracismhas,inacertainmanner,thesameforceascuttingdownandexilingthosewhoaresuperior.Thosewhowieldauthorityinpowerdothesamethingtocitiesandnations,astheAtheniansdidwiththepeopleofSamos,[40]Chios,andLesbos,forassoonastheyhadtheirempireunderfirmcontroltheybroughtthemintosubmissioninviolationoftheirtreaties;andthe[1284b]kingofthePersiansoftenusedtocutdowntheMedesandBabyloniansandotherswhogotbigideasbecausetheyhadoncebeeninpower.

Theproblemisonethatconcernsallformsofgovernmentingeneral,eventherightforms.Forwhilethedeviantonesactthiswayinlookingoutfortheirprivategood,thesamewayofactingappliestothoselookingtowardthe

commongood.Andthisisclearinthecaseoftheotherartsandkindsofknowledgeaswell;fornopainterwouldallowananimaltohaveafootthatexceededitsproportion,evenif[10]ifitweresurpassinginbeauty,norwouldashipbuilderdosowithasternoranyotherpartofaship,andtheconductorofachoruswouldnotletsomeonewithastrongerandmorebeautifulvoicethanthewholechorusbeamemberofit.Sothereisnoreasonwhy,onthisaccount,monarchswouldnotbeinconcordwiththeircitiesiftheydothis,providedthattheirownruleisbeneficialtotheircities.Hence,incaseswheresuperiorityisacknowledged,theargumentinfavorofostracismhassomepoliticaljustice.Andwhileitisbetterforthelawgivertoorganizethegovernmentfromthebeginninginsuchawaythatithasnoneedforthissortofremedy,thesecondbestcourse,111iftheoccasionshouldarise,istotrytosetthingsright[20]bysomesuchcorrectivemeasure.Thisisexactlywhatdidnothappenwiththecitiesthatusedtomakeuseofostracisms,sincetheywerenotlookingtowhatwasadvantageoustotheirowngovernments,butusingitforfactionalpurposes.

Sointhedeviantformsofgovernment,itisobviousthatthisisadvantageousandjustfromaprivatepointofview,butperhapsitisalsoobviousthatitisnotsimplyjust.Butinthebestformofgovernmentthisisagreatimpasse;ifthesuperiorityisnotinothergoodssuchasstrengthandwealthandabundanceoffriends,butsomeonecomesalongwhoisoutstandinginvirtue,whatistherightthingtodo?Fornoonewouldclaimpeopleoughttothrowoutandexilesomeonelike[30]that,butneitherwouldtheyruleoversuchaperson.ThatwouldbeaboutthesameasiftheyconsideredthemselvesworthyofrulingoverZeusbydividinguphisrulingfunctions.Whatisleft,therefore,isexactlywhatseemstobethenaturalthing:foreveryonetoobeysuchapersongladly,withtheresultthatsuchpeoplewouldbeperpetualkingsintheircities.

Chapter14Andperhapswhatwouldgobeautifullyaftertheargumentsthathavebeen

discussedistochangecourseandexaminekingship,sinceweclaimthisisoneoftherightformsofgovernment.Whatneedstobeexaminediswhetheritisadvantageousforacityandalandthatisgoingtoberunbeautifullytoberuledbyakingornot,buttohavesomeotherformofgovernmentinstead,

[40]orwhetheritisadvantageousinsomecasesbutnotinothers.Andfirstitisnecessarytodistinguishwhetherkingshipisofsomeonekind,or[1285a]whetherithasmorethanonevariety.Anditiseasytodeterminethismuch,atleast,thatitincludesmorekindsthanoneandthatthereisnotonesinglemannerofrulinginthemall.ForintheSpartanformofgovernmentthereseemstobeapreeminentinstanceofkingshipunderlaw.Thekingisnotinauthorityoverallthings,butwheneverhegoesoutsidethelandheistheleaderinmatterspertainingtowar;also,matterspertainingtothegodsareassignedtothekings.Sothiskingshipissortofapermanentgeneralshipofsupremecommanders.Thekinghasnoauthoritytoputpeopletodeathexceptforcowardiceonmilitaryexpeditions,inactualcombat,[10]aswasthecaseinancienttimes.Homermakesthisclear,sinceAgamemnonputupwithhearinghimselfabusedinassemblies,butwhentheywentouthehadauthoritytoputpeopletodeath.Hesays,anyway,“AnyoneI[see]farawayfrombattle…willhavenochanceofescapingthedogsandbirds,fordeathisinmypower.”112Sothisisoneformofkingship,generalshipforlife,andsomeofthesearebyfamilydescent,otherselective.

Anotherformofmonarchybesidesthisoneispresentinthesortsofkingshipsthereareamongsomeofthebarbarians.Theseallhaveaboutthesamepowerasintyrannies,buttheyareinaccordwithlawandtraditional.For[20]sincetheircharactersaremoreslavishbynature—barbariansthanGreeks,andthoseinAsiathanthoseinEurope—theyputupwithrulelikethatofamasteroverslaveswithoutdiscontent.Sotheyareonthisaccounttyrannical,butaresecureonaccountofbeingtraditionalandinaccordwithlaw.Theirguardsarekinglyratherthantyrannicalforthesamereason.Forcitizensserveasarmedguardsfortheirkings,whiletyrantshaveaforeignguard,sincetheonesortruleaccordingtolawoverwillingsubjects,theothersoverunwillingones,sowhiletheformerhaveaguardfromamongthecitizens,thelatterhaveaguardoverthecitizens.

Sothesearetwoformsofmonarchy,andanotherisonethereusedtobeamongtheGreeksofearlytimes,underthosepeoplecallcaretakers.113Thisis,simplyput,electivetyranny,anddiffersfromthebarbarianformnotinnotbeinglawfulbutonlyinnotbeingtraditional.Somewererulersforlifeinthisoffice,othersfordefiniteperiodsoftimeorforcertainactions;the

Mytilenians,forinstance,onceelectedPittacusagainsttheexilesthatAntimenidesandthepoetAlcaeusled.Alcaeusmakesclearinoneofhisround-songsthattheychosePittacusasatyrant,forhecomplainsthat“theassembledthrongwithgreatacclamationsetup[1285b]thelow-bornPittacusastyrantofagutlessandill-fatedcity.”Theseareandweretyrannicalonaccountofbeinglikeruleofamasteroverslaves,butkinglyonaccountofbeingelectedbywillingsubjects.Andtherewasafourthformofkinglymonarchyintheheroicage,whentherewerewillinglyacceptedhereditarykingsinaccordwithlaw.Sincethefirstonestocomealongwerebenefactorsofthemultitudeasaresultofartsorwarorbybringingthemtogetherorprovidingthemwithland,theybecamekingsoverwillingsubjects,andtheirdescendantsbecamehereditarykings.Theywereinauthorityforleadershipinwar[10]andoverthosesacrificesthatwerenotconductedbypriests,andinadditiontothosethings,theyjudgedlawsuits.Somedidthiswithoutswearinganoath,othersunderoath,andthesealoftheoathwastheliftingofascepter.Thoseinancienttimesruledperpetuallyovercity,regional,andforeignaffairs,butlaterthekingsgaveupsomeofthesefunctionsandthemassestookawayothers,andinothercitiesthesacrificesweretheonlythingslefttothekings;wheretherewasanythingworthcallingkingship,theyhadonlyleadershipovermilitarymattersbeyondtheirborders.

[20]Sothesearetheformsofkingship,fourinnumber.Oneisthatoftheheroicage,andthiswasoverwillingsubjectsforcertainlimitedfunctions;thekingwasageneralandajudge,andinauthorityoverthingspertainingtothegods.Asecondisthebarbarianform,andthisisruleofamaster,byfamilydescent,accordingtolaw.Athirdiswhatpeoplerefertoascaretakerrule,andthisiselectivetyranny.AndfourthamongthemistheSpartanform,andthis,toputitsimply,isperpetualgeneralshipbyfamilydescent.Thesearedifferentfromoneanother,then,inthisway.Butthereisafifthformofkingship,whenthereisoneperson[30]whoisinauthorityovereverythinginthesamewayeachpeopleandeachcityissovereignovercommonconcerns,andthisisarrangedalongthelinesofhouseholdmanagement.Forjustashouseholdmanagementisasortofkingshipofahousehold,kingshipconductedinthismannerishouseholdmanagementofacityandapeople—oneormore.

Chapter15Sotwoformsofkingship,onemightsay,areaboutallthatneedtobe

examined,thislastoneandtheSpartanform,sincemostoftheothersarebetweenthese.Fortheyareinauthorityoverfewerthingsthanfull-scalekingshipandmorethantheSpartankind.Sothemattertobeexaminedjustaboutcomesdowntotwothings.Oneiswhetheritisadvantageousornotforcitiestohaveapermanentgeneral,whetherthisisbyfamilydescent[1286a]orbyturns,andtheotheroneiswhetheritisadvantageousornotforonepersontobeinauthorityoverallthings.Nowtheoneaboutthissortofgeneralshiphasthelookofexamininglawsratherthanaformofgovernment,sinceitispossibleforthistocomeupinallformsofgovernment,soletthefirstonebesetaside.Butthemodeofkingshipthatisleftisaformofgovernment,andsoonemustlookintothisandrunoverthedifficultiesinherentinit.Thebeginningoftheinquiryisthis:whetheritismoreadvantageoustoberuledbythebestmanorthebestlaws.

Nowtothosewhoconsiderit[10]advantageoustoberuledbyaking,itseemsthatlawsspeakonlyofwhatisuniversalandgivenodirectionsforparticularcircumstances.Consequently,inanyartwhatever,itisfoolishtogovernthingsbywrittenrules.InEgypt,doctorsarerightlypermittedtochangeatreatmentafterthefourthday,butiftheydosobeforethatitisattheirownrisk.Soforthesamereasonitisobviousthatthebestformofgovernmentisnotoneunderwrittenrulesandlaws.Butsurelythatsortofuniversalaccountoughttobepresenttothosewhorule.Andthatwhichhasnopassionateingredientinitatallissuperiortothatinwhichitisinnate,andwhilethisisnotpresentinthelaw,everyhumansoulnecessarily[20]containsit.Perhapsinresponsetothisonemightclaim,though,thatonepersonwoulddoamorebeautifuljobofdeliberatingaboutparticularthings.Soitisclearthathemustnecessarilybealawgiverandlawsmustbelaiddown,buttheymustnotbeinauthorityinanymatterinwhichtheygobeyondtheirscope,althoughtheyneedtobeauthoritativeinotherrespects.Butonthosematterswhichthelawisnotabletodecideatall,ordecidewell,shouldtheonebestpersonrule,orallthepeople?Evennow,peoplecometogetherandjudgeanddeliberateandmakedecisions,andthesedecisionsareallaboutparticularthings.Whatiscontributedbyanyofthemone-by-oneisperhapsinferior,but

acityismadeupofmanypeople,andforthisreason,[30]inthesamewayafeastconsistingofcontributionsismorebeautifullymadethanasimplesingleone,acrowdjudgesbetteronmanymattersthananyoneperson.

Also,alargequantityismoreincorruptible;likealargeramountofwater,sotoothemultitudeishardertocorruptthanafewpeople.Andwhenonepersonisovercomebyangeroranyothersuchpassion,hisjudgmentisnecessarilycorrupted,butittakessomedoingforeverybodytogetangryandgoastrayatthesametimeandinthesamedirection.Butletitbeassumedthatthemultitudearefreepersons,notactinginanywayoutsidethelawotherthanonmattersitnecessarilyleavesout.Andifthisisnoteasyinalargegroup,stilliftherewereanumberwhowerebothgoodmenandgoodcitizens,whichwouldbemoreincorruptible,[40]theoneruler,orratherthosewhoaremorethanoneinnumberand[1286b]andallgood?Isitnotobviousthatitisthegreaternumber?“Buttheywouldhavefactions,whileasinglepersonisimmunetofaction.”Buttocounterthis,perhapsitshouldbepositedthattheyareexcellentinsoul,asitwaswiththatoneperson.Soifrulebymorepeoplethanone,whoareallgoodmen,istobesetdownasaristocracy,whilethatofonepersoniskingship,aristocracywouldbemorechoiceworthyforcitiesthankingship,whetheritsruleiswithorwithoutforceofarms,aslongasitispossibletogetanumberofpeoplealikeinvirtue.

Andperhapsitwasforthisreasonthatpeoplewereruledbykingsinearliertimes,becauseitwasararethingtofindmenwhofarsurpassedtherestinvirtue,bothforotherreasonsandbecausethecities[10]theylivedinatthattimeweresmall.Also,theymadepeoplekingsasaresultoftheirpublicservices,whichispreciselytheworkofgoodmen.Butwhentherecametobemanypeoplealikeinvirtue,theynolongerputupwithakingbutsoughtsomethingcommunalandsetupaconstitution.Andwhenpeoplebecameworseandenrichedthemselvesfrompublicfunds,itwasreasonableatthatpointfromthatcauseforoligarchiestoarise,sincetheytookwealthtobeamarkofhonor.Andfromthesetheychangedfirstintotyranniesandfromtyranniesintodemocracy,forbyconstantlydrawingthingsintofewerhandsonaccountofgreed,theymadethemultitudestronger,somuchsothattheyattackedthemanddemocraciescameinto[20]being.Andnowthatcitieshavegottentobelarger,itwouldprobablynotbeeasyanymoreforanyotherformofgovernmenttocomeintobeingexceptdemocracy.

Butifsomeoneweretoholdthatitisbestforcitiestoberuledbykings,howwillmattersstandinregardtotheirchildren?Shouldthefamilyhavethekingshipaswell?Butiftheyturnouttobethesortofpeoplesomehavehappenedtobe,thatwouldbeharmful.“Thensinceheisincharge,hewillnotpassitontohischildren.”Butthisisnolongereasytobelieve,foritisadifficultthing,andrequiresagreaterdegreeofvirtuethanwhatisinkeepingwithhumannature.Andthereisalsoadifficultyaboutpower,namelywhethersomeonewhoisgoingtobekingneedstohavesomeforcearoundhimbywhichhewillbeable[30]tocompelthosewhoarenotwillingtoobey.Howelsewoulditbepossibletoadministerhisrulingoffice?Forevenifbylawhewasinauthority,andheactedinnowayathisownwillcontrarytolaw,itwouldstillbenecessaryforhimtohaveavailableapowerbywhichhecoulddefendthelaws.Nowitisprobablynotdifficulttodeterminethesethingsinthecaseofakingofthissort.Forheoughttohaveaforce,andthatforceoughttobemadesogreatastobestrongerthananyonepersonoranygroupofseveraltogether,butweakerthanthemultitude.Thisisthemannerinwhichtheancientsgavebodyguardswhentheysetupsomeonewhomtheycalledacaretakerortyrantofthecity,andwhenDionysiusaskedforbodyguards,someone[40]advisedtheSyracusanstogivehimthatmany.

Chapter16[1287a]Theargumenthasnowgottentothesortofkingwhoactsinallmatters

accordingtohisownwill,andanexaminationmustbemadeofthistopic.Theso-calledkingaccordingtolawisnotaformofgovernment,aswehavesaid(sinceapermanentgeneralshipiscapableofbeingpresentinallforms,indemocracyandaristocracyforinstance,andmanygovernmentsputonepersoninchargeoftheadministration—thereisanofficeofthatsortatEpidamnus,andtoasomewhatlesserextentatOpus).Butasforwhatiscalledfull-scalekingship,thisbeingthatinwhichthekingrules[10]everythingbyhisownwill,itseemstosomethatitisnotnaturalforonepersontobeinauthorityoverallcitizens,wherethecityisorganizedoutofpeoplewhoarealike.Foritisnaturalthatthesamethingwouldbejustforthosewhoarealikebynature,andthattheywouldhavethesameworth.Soifhavingequalfoodorclothingisharmfulforthosewhoareunequalintheirbodies,itisthesamewaywiththingsthathavetodowithhonors,and

likewiseharmfulforpeoplewhoareequaltohavewhatisunequal.Forthisreasonitisnomorejustforthemtorulethanberuled,andthereforeitisjustforthemtodothesamethingsbyturns.Andthisalreadyislaw,sinceanorderlyarrangementisalaw.Thereforehavingthelawruleismorechoiceworthythanhavinganyoneofthecitizens[20]doso,andbythesameargument,evenifitisbetterforsomeofthemtorule,theyshouldbesetupasprotectorsandservantsofthelaws.Foritisnecessarythattherebesomerulers,buttheyclaimitisnotjustforthattobeonepersonsolongasallthepeoplearealike.Andasforthosethingsthelawdoesnotseemcapableofdetermining,ahumanbeingwouldnotbecapableofknowingthemeither.Butthelaweducatespeopleforthisverypurpose,andsetsuprulerstojudgeandadministerwhatitleavesoutasjustlyastheirjudgmentpermits.Furthermore,thelawsallowthemselvestobecorrectedbywhateverseemstothosewithexperiencetobebetterthanwhattheylaydown.Soitseemsthatonewhobidslawtoruleisbiddingagodandreasontorule[30]bythemselves,whileonewhobidsahumanbeingtoruleisaddingabeast.Forthatisthesortofthingdesireis,andspiritedpassionwarpseventhebestmenwhentheyrule.Thatiswhythelawisintellectwithoutappetite.

Andtheexamplefromtheartsseemstobeafalseone,whenitisclaimedthatdoctoringbywrittenrulesisbad,andthatitispreferabletorelyonthepeoplewhohavethearts.Forsuchpeopledonotdoanythingcontrarytoreasonoutoffriendship,butearntheirfeesbyhealingthesick,whilethoseinpoliticalofficeshabituallyactinmanymattersforspiteorasfavors.Evenwithdoctors,ifpeopleeversuspecttheyhadbeenpersuadedbysomeone’senemies[40]todestroyhimforprofit,theywouldratherseekatreatmentinthatcasebywrittenrules.Andwhendoctorsaresick,theybringin[1287b]otherdoctorsforthemselves,andgymnastictrainersdothesamewhentheyareintraining,sincetheyareunabletojudgethetruthwhenthejudgingconcernstheirownaffairsandtheyareunderstress.Soitisclearthatinseekingwhatisjust,peopleareseekingthemean,sincelawisthemean.Also,lawsbasedoncustomsaremoreauthoritativeanddealwithmoreauthoritativemattersthanwrittenlaws,soifitissaferforahumanbeingtorulethantogobywrittenrules,thisisstillnotsaferthangoingbycustom.

Andsurelyitisnoteasyforonepersontowatchovermanythings;thereforetherewillhavetobeanumberofpeopleappointedbyhimasrulers.

[10]Sowhatisthedifferencebetweenhavingthatinplacerightfromthestartandhavingonepersonmaketheappointmentsthatway?Andthereisalsowhatwasmentionedbefore,thatifitisjustfortheexcellentmantorulebecauseheisbetter,thensurelytwogoodmenwouldbebetterthanone.Thisisthepointof“whentwogotogether”andAgamemnon’sprayer“thatImighthavetensuchcounselors.”114Evennow,therearerulersempoweredtodecide,likeajudge,certainmatterswhichthelawisincapableofdetermining;butnoonedisputesthatthelawwouldbethebestrulerandjudgeonthosemattersitiscapableofdetermining.Butsince,whilesomemattersarecapableofbeingencompassedbythelaws,there[20]areothersforwhichthisisimpossible,theselatterarethethingsthatmakepeopleraisethequestionandinquirewhetheritismorechoiceworthyforthebestlaworthebestmantorule.Formakinglawsonmatterspeopledeliberateaboutissomethingimpossible.Andpeopledonotargueagainstthis,claimingthatitisnotnecessaryfortheonewhodecidessuchmatterstobeahumanbeing,butonlyclaimthatitshouldnotbejustonepersonbutmany.Foreveryonewhorulesdoesabeautifuljobofmakingdecisionsifhehasbeeneducatedbythelaw,anditwouldperhapsseemtobeabsurdifsomeonecouldseebetterwithtwoeyes,judgebetterwithtwoears,andactbetterwithtwofeetandhandsthanmanypeoplewithmany.Forevennow,monarchsmakemanyeyes[30]andearsandhandsandfeetforthemselves,sincetheymaketheirfriendscollaboratorsintheirrule.Iftheywerenotfriendstheywouldnotactinaccordwiththemonarch’sintention,butiftheyarefriendsofhisandofhisrule,afriendissomeoneequalandalike,soheisassumingthatthosewhoareequalandalikeoughttorulealike.Sothisisprettymuchwhatpeoplesaywhodisputeagainstkingship.

Chapter17Butperhapsthingsarethiswayinsomecasesbutnotinothers.Forthere

isacertainsituationthatnaturallycallsformasteryasbothjustandadvantageous,anotherforkingship,andanotherforconstitutionalgovernment.Butthereisnonethatcallsfortyrannyby[40]nature,orforanyoftheotherformsofgovernmentthataredeviations,sincetheseariseinviolationofnature.Butfromwhathasbeensaid,[1288a]itisclearatanyratethatamongpeoplewhoarealikeandequalthereisnothingadvantageousor

justabouthavingonepersonbeinauthorityovereverything,whethertherearenolawsandheislikealawhimself,oreveniftherearelaws,nomatterwhetherheandhissubjectsaregood,orneitherhenortheyaregood,orevenifheissuperiorinvirtue,exceptinonecase.Whatthiscaseisneedstobestated,thoughithasalreadybeenmentionedinacertainwaybefore.

Butfirst,distinctionsmustbemadeastowhatitisthatcallsforkingship,whatforaristocracy,andwhatforconstitutionalgovernment.Andwhatcallsforkingshipisthesortofmultitudethatnaturallyproducesafamilylineexcellinginvirtuethatfitsitforpoliticalleadership.[10]Whatcallsforaristocracyisamultitudethatnaturallyproducesastockofpeoplecapableofbeingruledasfreepersonsbythosefittedbyvirtueforleadershipinpoliticalrule.Andwhatcallsforconstitutionalgovernmentisamultitudeinwhichtherenaturallyarisesamilitarystockcapableofbeingruledandrulingunderalawthatdistributesofficesaccordingtomeritamongthosewhoarewelloff.115Sowheneverawholefamily,orevenoneparticularpersonamongtherest,turnsouttobesurpassinginvirtuetosuchanextentthathisvirtueexceedsthatofeveryoneelse,itisinthatcasejustforthatfamilyorthatonepersontobekingandhavekinglyauthorityoverallthings.Foraswassaidbefore,[20]thisishowitis,notonlybasedonthesortofjusticepeoplecustomarilyputforwardwhentheysetuparistocratic,oligarchic,andevendemocraticgovernments(sincetheyallmakeclaimsofmeritbasedonsuperiority,thoughnotthesamesuperiority),butalsobasedonwhatwasarguedabove.Foritissurelynotappropriatetokillorexileorostracizesuchaperson,ortoclaimhedeservestoberuledinhisturn.Forwhileitisnotthenaturalthingfortheparttoexceedtothewhole,thisiswhathashappenedwithsomeonewhohassuchagreatsuperiority.Sotheonlythingleftisforsuchapersontobeobeyedandforhimtobeinauthoritynotbyturnsbutsimply.[30]Soaboutkingship,whatdifferentkindsithas,whetheritisorisnotadvantageousforcities,andwhichones,andhow,letthingsbedeterminedinthisway.

Chapter18Andsinceweclaimtherearethreerightformsofgovernment,thebestof

thesewouldnecessarilybetheonemanagedbythebestpeople,andthisisthesortofgovernmentinwhichoneperson,orawholefamilyormultitude,

wouldturnouttobesurpassinginvirtuecomparedtoalltheresttogether,thelattercapableofbeingruledwhiletheformerarecapableofrulingwithaviewtothelifemostworthyofchoice,andsinceitwasshowninourfirstdiscussionsthatinthebestcitythevirtueofamanandthatofacitizenarenecessarilythesame,itisclearthatonewouldorganize[40]acityunderanaristocracyorkingshipinthesamemannerandbythesamemeansthatamanbecomesexcellent.Hencetheeducation[1288b]andstatesofcharacterthatmakeamanexcellentwillbejustaboutthesameasthosethatfitamanforpoliticalorkinglyrule.

Nowthatthesethingshavebeendetermined,oneneedstotrytospeakaboutthebestformofgovernment,andsayinwhatmanneritmaynaturallyariseandhowitmaybeestablished.116

_______________________________________101Theordinarywordforcraftsmanisdemiourgos,apublicworkmanasopposedtoahouseholdslaveorservant,butsomecitiesusedthesamewordfortheirofficials,withameaningsimilartoourownphrase“publicservant.”HenceGorgiaswasmakingthepointthatcitizensareanypeoplethecurrentofficeholderssaytheyare.102AGreekscaleconsistedofinterlockingperfectfourthsdividedintosub-intervals.Evenwhenallthetonesusedarethesame,thechoiceofdifferentfundamentaltonescouldproducemusicindifferentmodes.Aristotledescribessomedifferencesamongthemodesat1340a40-b5below.103AfragmentfromthelostplayAeolus.104IliadIX,648andXVI,59.105IntheNicomacheanEthics(1115b12-13,1122b6-7),Aristotlesaysthattheendatwhichallvirtuesofcharacteraimisthebeautiful(tokalon).Hecharacterizesitasthehighestformofgood,distinctfromallinstrumentalgoodsbecauseitischosenforitsownsake,anddistinctfrompleasurebecauseofitsseriousness.Abeautifulactionisonethatgetseverythingright.FromthebeginningofthePolitics(1252b29-30)Aristotlehasbeensayingthatacityisnotmerelyforthesakeoflivingbutforthesakeoflivingwell(toeuzên).Herehisnotionoflivingwellismademoredefinite;hedoesnothaveinminda“highstandardofliving”inthematerialsensebutthefulldevelopmentofthehumanpotentialthatproducesacompleteandhappylife.(See1280b40-1281a2below.)TwiceearlierinthePoliticshehaslinkedthebeautifulwithvirtue(1260b8-11,1263b10-11).Tosingleoutthebeautifulastheaimofthecityisequivalenttorecognizingthepoliticalassociationasthemediuminwhichhumanvirtuecancomeintobeing.106InBk.V,Chap.3oftheNicomacheanEthicsAristotlediscussesdistributivejustice,usingthewordfordistribution(nomêordianomê)insteadoftheverbdiaireinthatheuseshereforthedividingupofcommunalresources,andespeciallyofhonors,andespeciallyamongthemofrulingoffices,accordingtosomenotionofwhodeservesthem.IntheEthicshearguesthatjusticeinsuchmattersconsistsnotinanysimpleequalityofthingsdistributedbutinanequalityofratios,suchthatthethingsgrantedaretooneanotherinarelationthatmatchestherelativemeritsofthepersonsreceiving

them.Hecallsthissortofequalitygeometrical,asopposedtothesimplearithmeticequalitygoverningthecorrectivejusticeofcourtdecisions,whichseektorestorewhatavictimhaslostormakethepunishmentofanoffenderfitthecrime.107Aristotlebeginsthissentencewithan“if”butnevergetstoa“then”clause.108ThislongconditionalsentenceseemstotakeitsbeginningfromBk.I,Chap.2above,andlinkitwithBk.V,Chap.3,oftheNicomacheanEthics.109IntheNicomacheanEthics,Aristotledistinguishesasenseinwhichjusticeisobediencetolaw(1129b11-12),whichcommandsalltheexternalactsoftheothervirtues(1129b19-25).110TheshiphadinitstimbersapieceofthespeakingoakofDodona.ThePeriander/Thrasybulusstoryistold,withtherolesreversed,inHerodotus’sHistory(V,92).111Literally,“thesecondwayofsailing,”(deuterosplous),aphraseusedbySocratesinafamouspassageinPlato’sPhaedo(99D).Itwascommonlyusedtomeanthatwhenthewindfails,yougetoutyouroars.112IliadII,391-3,withpartomittedandthelastclauseadded.113Thewordisaisumnêtai.Itsderivationisnotknown,butthepartsofitmaybearsomesuchsenseas“thosemindfulofwhatisdue.”114IliadX,224andII,372.115ThetranslationdepartsfromRoss’stextinpreferringthosemanuscriptsthatcalltheappropriatestockofpeoplemilitary.Thisisjustifiedbyreferenceto1279a37-b4.Militaryvirtueistheonlykind,accordingtoAristotle,thatcanbepresentthroughoutalargepopulation,anditgiveshigherresponsibilitiestothosewhocanaffordtoequipandtrainthemselveswithheavyarms.116ThetransitionanticipatedhereispickedupatthebeginningofBk.VII,andsomemodernscholarsandtranslatorshavepresumedtorearrangetheorderofthebooks.ButitischaracteristicofAristotle’sworkstoascenddialectically,interweavingindependentstrandsofargument,anditmakessensetobackupandreviewexistinggovernmentsandinstitutionsbefore

completingthemoretheoreticaltreatmentoftheinherentnatureofallpoliticalassociation.

BOOKIVChapter1[1288b][10]

Inallartsandallkindsofknowledgethathavenotcomeaboutpiecemealbutarefullydevelopedwithregardtosomeoneclassofthings,itisthebusinessofasinglekindtostudywhatissuitablewithineachclass—forinstance,whatsortsoftrainingareadvantageousforwhatsortofbodyaswellaswhatthebesttrainingis(sincethebestkindisnecessarilysuitedtoabodythatismostbeautifullyformedbynatureandbestfurnishedwithresources),andalsowhatsinglekindisbestforthegreatestnumberamongthemall(sincethistooisthetaskofthetrainer’sart),andfurther,ifsomeonehasadesireforfitnessorknowledgenotreachingthelevelinvolvedincompetition,itisnolessthebusinessofthecoachortrainertoprovidethatcapacity.Andweseethis[20]likewiseindoctoringandshipbuildingandclothingandeveryotherart.

Soitisclearthatwiththebestformofgovernmentaswell,itbelongstothesamekindofknowledgetostudywhatitisandofwhatsortitwouldbeifitweremostinaccordwithone’swishesandhadnoexternalimpediments,andalsowhatformissuitedtowhatpeople(sinceitisperhapsimpossiblethatmanywouldachievethebestone,andconsequentlyagoodlawgiverandanyonewhoisastudentofpoliticsinthetruesenseoughtnottooverlookeithertheformthatismosteffectivesimplyorthebestformthatcancomefromtheunderlyingconditions).Also,thirdly,thereisagovernmentbasedonanassumption(foroneoughttobeabletostudywhatisgiven,bothhowitmighthavecomeintobeingfromthebeginningandinwhatmanner,[30]onceithascomeintobeing,itmightbepreservedforthelongesttime;Iamspeakingofthesortofcaseinwhichsomecityhasendedupnotgovernedbythebestformofgovernment,beingunprovidedwiththenecessaryconditionsforit,orevenbythebestpossibleinthecircumstances,butbysomeinferiorform).Andbesidesallthesethings,oneoughttorecognizetheformofgovernmentthatbestsuitsallcities.

Andsomostpeoplewhohavemadepronouncementsaboutformsofgovernment,evenwhentheyhavespokenbeautifullyinotherrespects,goastraywhenitcomestowhatisuseful.Foroneoughttostudynotonlythe

bestbutalsothepossible,andlikewisetheformthatiseasiertobringaboutandmorecommontoallpeople.Atpresent,someseekonlytheultimateform,whichrequires[40]alotofequipment,whilethosewhospeakofsomethingmorecommonjustpraisetheSpartanformofgovernment,orsomeotherone,[1289a]throwingouttheexistingarrayofforms.Buttheyoughttoputforwardanarrangementofasortthatwouldbeeasyforpeopletobepersuadedaboutandtointroduceoutoftheirexistingcircumstances,sinceitisnolessworktoreorganizeagovernmentthantoputonetogetherfromthestart,justasunlearningsomethingisnolessworkthanlearningitfromthestart.Henceinadditiontothethingsmentioned,someonewiththepoliticalartalsooughttobeabletohelpexistinggovernments,aswasalsosaidbefore.Butthisisimpossibleforsomeonewhodoesnotknowhowmanyformsofgovernmentthereare.Asitis,somepeoplethinkthereisonekindofdemocracyandonekindofoligarchy,butthisis[10]nottrue.Soonemustnotleaveoutofconsiderationthevarietieswithintheformsofgovernment,howmanythereare,andhowmanywaystherearetocombinethem.

Anditisalsothebusinessofthissamesortofjudgmenttolookintolaws,boththosethatarebestandthosethatsuiteachformofgovernment.Forlawsoughttobeadaptedtoformsofgovernment,andnotgovernmentstolaws,andthatishowpeoplesetthemup.Foraformofgovernmentisanarrangementforcitiesaboutthemannerinwhichrulingofficesaredistributed,whattheauthorityinthegovernmentis,andwhattheendsoughtbyaparticularcommunityis,whilethelawsbywhichrulersoughttoruleandguardagainstthosewhoviolatethemareseparatefromthedeclarationsthat[20]setforththeformofgovernment.Soitisclearthatitisnecessarytohaveanunderstandingofthevarietiesanddefinitionofeachformofgovernmentforthepurposeofsettinguplaws,sinceitisnotpossibleforthesamelawstobeadvantageoustoalloligarchiesanddemocracies,ifinfactthereisnotonekindofdemocracyoroligarchybutmorethanone.

Chapter2Andsinceinourfirstinquirywedistinguishedthreerightformsof

government,kingship,aristocracy,andconstitutionalrule,andthreedeviationsfromthem,tyrannyfromkingship,oligarchyfromaristocracy,anddemocracy[30]fromconstitutionalrule,andaristocracyandkingshiphave

beenspokenabout(forstudyingwhathastodowiththebestformofgovernmentisthesamethingasspeakingabouttheseterms,sinceeachofthetwoismeanttobeorganizedonthebasisofvirtuefurnishedwithresources),anditwasalsodeterminedearlierwhatdifferencesaristocracyandkingshiphavefromeachother,whatremainsistogooverconstitutionalrule,whichisreferredtobytheircommonname,aswellastheotherformsofgovernment,oligarchy,democracy,andtyranny.

Anditisobviouswhichistheworstofthesedeviantformsandwhichsecondworst.Fornecessarily[40]thedeviantformoftheonethatisfirstandmostdivinewouldbetheworst,andkingshipnecessarilyeitherhasthenamealonewithout[1289b]beingkingship,oriskingshipinvirtueofagreatsuperiorityinthepersonrulingasking.Sonecessarilytyranny,beingtheworst,isthefarthestremovedfromaconstitution,andoligarchyisthesecondworst(sincearistocracyisveryfarfromthisformofgovernment),whiledemocracyisthemosttolerable.Andoneoftheearlierthinkershasalreadypointedthisout,butnotbylookingtothesamecriterionweare.Forhejudgedthat,whenalltheformsofgovernmentaredecent,suchasanhonestoligarchyandsoon,democracyistheworst,butwhentheyareallbaditisbest.117Butweclaimthattheseformsarecompletelymisguided,[10]andthatitisnotbeautifullyputtosayoneoligarchyisbetterthananother,butonlylessbad.Butlettheverdictonthissortofthingbedismissedfornow.

Whatneedstobedeterminedfirstbyusishowmanyvarietiestherearewithintheformsofgovernment,ifindeedthereareanumberofformsofdemocracyandoligarchy;next,whichismostcommonandwhichmostchoiceworthyafterthebestformofgovernment,andifanyotherformturnsouttobearistocraticincharacterandbeautifullyorganized,andatthesametimesuitableformostcities,whatitis;next,whichoftheothersistobechosenforwhichcities(foritmaybethatforsome,democracyisnecessaryratherthanoligarchy,andforothers,thelatterratherthantheformer);[20]andafterthat,inwhatmanneronewhowantstheseformsofgovernment—Imeandemocracyineachofitsformsandoligarchyinits—oughttosetthemup;andfinally,whenwehavemadementionofallthesethingswiththebrevitytheyadmit,anattemptneedstobemadetogooverwhatkindsofdestructionandpreservationbelongtogovernments,bothincommonandtoeachkindseparately,andbywhatcausesitisespeciallyinthenatureofthese

thingstohappen.

Chapter3Whatisresponsiblefortherebeingmorethanoneformofgovernmentis

thatthenumberofpartsofeverycityismorethanone.Forweseethatallcitiesarecomposedfirstofallofhouseholds,andthentoothatwithinthis[30]group,somearenecessarilywelloff,otherspoor,andothersinbetween,andofthewelloffandthepoor,onegroupisarmedandtheotherunarmed.Andweseethatthegeneralpopulaceisengagedineitherfarming,thebusinessofthemarketplace,ormechanicaltrades.Andamongtheeminentpeopletherearedifferencesbasedonwealthandtheextentoflandedproperty,withrespecttoraisinghorses,forexample,sincethisisnoteasytodowithoutbeingrich.Thisiswhy,inancienttimes,therewereoligarchiesinallthosecitieswhosepowerdependedontheirhorses;peoplesuchastheEretrians,theChaldeans,theMagnesiansontheMaeander,andmanyothersinAsiausedhorses[40]fortheirwarsagainstneighboringcities.Also,inadditiontothedifferencesbasedonwealth,therearedifferencesbasedoneitherfamilyor[1290a]virtue,oranythingothersuchthingthatmayhavebeenmentionedasbeingpartofacityinourremarksaboutaristocracy,fortherewespecifiedhowmanynecessarypartseverycityconsistsof.Sometimesallofthesepartstakepartinthegovernment,sometimesalesserorgreaternumberofthem.Soitisobviousthattherewouldnecessarilybeanumberofgovernmentsdifferingfromoneanotherinform,sincethesepartsdifferamongthemselvesinform.Foraformofgovernmentisanarrangementofrulingoffices,andthesearealldistributedinaccordeitherwiththepoweroftheconstituentpartsorwithsomesortofequalitytheyshare[10]amongthem—Imeaneitheramongthepoor,amongthewelloff,orinsomerespectcommontoboth.Therefore,therearenecessarilyexactlyasmanyformsofgovernmentastherearearrangementsreflectingsuperioritiesanddifferencesamongtheparts.

Buttherearethoughttobetwomostofall;justasinthecaseofwindssomearecallednorthandotherssouthwhiletherestaredeviationsfromthese,sotooamongformsofgovernmenttherearetwo:thegeneralpopulaceandoligarchy.Forpeoplecategorizearistocracyasaformofoligarchy,sinceitisacertainkindofrulebyfew,andtheso-calledconstitutionalruleasa

formofdemocracy,justas,amongthewinds,theytakeaneastwindasnortherlyandawestwindassoutherly.And[20]thewaysomepeoplespeakofthemusicalmodesissimilar;theretootheysetdowntwoforms,DorianandPhrygian,andcalltheotherscalesDoricorPhrygic.Sothisistheassumptionpeoplearemostlyinthehabitofmakingaboutformsofgovernment,butthewaywedistinguishthemistruerandbetter:thatwhileoneortwoformsarebeautifullyorganized,therestaredeviations,inonesensefromwell-blendedharmonyandinanotherfromthebestconstitution,theformsthataretootightandtoomuchlikemasteryofslavesbeingoligarchic,andthosethataretooslackandsoftbeingpopularlyruled.

Chapter4[30]Butoneshouldnotregarddemocracyinsuchasimplewayassomepeople

habituallydonow,asbeinginplacewhereverthemultitudeisinauthority(sinceinoligarchiesandeverywhere,thegreaterpartisinauthority)orregardoligarchyasbeinginplacewhereverfewareinauthorityoverthegovernment.Foriftherewerethirteenhundredpeopleinall,andathousandofthemwererichandgavenoshareinrulingtothethreehundredwhowerepoor,eventhoughtheywerefreeandliketheminotherrespects,noonewouldclaimtheywereruleddemocratically.Likewise,ifthepoorwerefewbutstrongerthantherichwhoweregreaterinnumber,noonewouldrefertosuchathingasanoligarchyiftheothers,despitebeing[40]rich,hadnoshareinhonors.Sowhatoughttobesaidinsteadisthat[1290b]thereispopularrulewheneverthefreeareinauthorityandoligarchywhenevertherichare,butthattheformerhappenincidentallytobemanyandthelatterfew,sincetherearealotoffreepeoplebutfewrichones.Forotherwise,ifrulingofficesweredistributedonthebasisofsize,assomeclaimtheyareinEthiopia,oronthebasisofbeauty,thatwouldbeanoligarchy,sincethenumberofbeautifulortallpeopleissmall.Itisnotsufficient,though,todefinetheseformsofgovernmentbythosecriteriaalone,butsincethereareanumberofpartsofbothpopularruleandoligarchy,itneedstobefurtherspecifiedthatwhenthefree[10]arefewandruleagreaternumberwhoarenotfree,asinApolloniaontheIonianGulf,orinThera,thatisnotpopularruleeither.Forineachofthesecities,thosewhoweredistinguishedbyhighbirthandwerethefirstsettlersofthecolonieswereinthepositionsofhonor,eventhoughtheywere

fewamongmany.Norisitoligarchyiftherichrulebecausetheyaresuperiorinnumber,aswasformerlythecaseinColophon,forbeforethewaragainsttheLydiansoccurred,themajorityheldlargeestatesthere.Rather,thereisdemocracywheneverthosewhoarefreeandpooraregreaterinnumberandareinauthorityintherulingoffice,andthereisoligarchywheneveritisthosewhoarerichandbetter[20]bornandfew.

Sothefactthatthereismorethanoneformofgovernment,andthereasonwhy,havebeenstated.Butletusgoontosaythattherearemoreformsthanthosementioned,andsaywhattheyareandwhy,takingastartingpointmentionedbefore.Forweareagreedthateverycityhasnotjustonepartbutmorethanone.Itisthesameas,ifweintendedtogetagraspofthespeciesofanimals,wewouldfirstseparateoutthethingsitisnecessaryforeveryanimaltohave(suchascertainsenseorgans,somethingsuitedtoworkonandabsorbfood,suchasamouthanddigestivetract,andinadditiontothese,partsbymeansofwhicheachofthekindsmoves).Theniftherewereonlythatmany,butthereweredifferences[30]amongthem(Imean,forinstance,acertainnumberofkindsofmouthanddigestivetractandofsenseorgans,andalsoofpartssuitedtoproducemotion),thenthenumberofcombinationswillnecessarilymakeupthenumberofkindsofanimals,sinceitisnotpossibleforthesameanimaltohavemorethanonevarietyofmouthorlikewiseofears.Sowhenallthepossiblelinkagesofthesehavebeentaken,theywillproducespeciesofanimals,andexactlyasmanyspeciesofanimalsastherearecombinationsofnecessaryparts.

Soitisthesamewaywiththeformsofgovernmentmentioned.Forcitiestooarecomposednotofonebutofmanyparts,ashasbeensaidrepeatedly.Onepart[40]iscalledfarmersanddealswithfood[1291a]andasecondisthepartcalledmechanicalworkers.Thisisthepartthatdealswiththeartswithoutwhichitisimpossibleforacitytobelivedin,butwhilesomeoftheseartshavetobepresentbynecessity,othersaremeanstoluxuryortolivingbeautifully.Athirdinvolvesthebusinessofthemarketplace,andbythisImeanthepartthatoccupiesitselfwithsalesandpurchasesandcommerceandretailing,afourthisthemenialpart,andafifthclassisthemilitarydefense,which,nolessthanthoseothers,mustnecessarilybepresentiftheyarenotgoingtobeenslavedbyanywhocomeagainstthem.Mustitnotbeanimpossibilityforanythingthatisworthcallingacitytobeslavishbynature?

[10]Acityisself-sufficient,andsomethingslavishisnotself-sufficient.ForthisreasonthewaythismatterisspokenofintheRepublicisclever

butnotadequate.ForSocratesclaimsacityismadeupoffourmostnecessaryparts,andsaystheseareaweaver,afarmer,ashoemaker,andahousebuilder,andtheninturn,sincethesearenotself-sufficient,addsametal-workerandpeopletoseetothenecessarylivestock,andthenamerchantandaretailer.Andthesebecomethefulltotalofhisfirstcity,asifeverycitywereorganizedforthesakeofnecessitiesandnotmoresoforthesakeofwhatisbeautiful,118andasiftherewasequalneedforshoemakersandfarmers.Hedoesnotassign[20]itapartformilitarydefenseuntil,withitsterritoryincreasingandintrudingonitsneighbors,theygetthemselvesintowar.Butsurelyevenamongthefourpeopleandhowevermanyareinassociationwiththem,itisnecessaryfortheretobesomeonewhoadministersandjudgeswhatisjust.Soifoneweretoholdthatasoulispartofananimalmorethanabodyis,thenthingsofthissort—somethingskilledatwar,somethingtotakepartinthejudgmentofjustice,andinadditiontothesesomethingthatdeliberates,whichispreciselytheworkofpoliticalunderstanding—mustbeheldtobepartofcitiesmorethanthethingsthatextendasfarasnecessaryuse.Andwhetherthesethingsarepresentinvariousseparatepeopleorinthesamepersonsmakesnodifference[30]totheargument,sinceitoftenturnsoutthatthesamepeoplebeararmsandengageinfarming.Soifindeedthelatteraswellastheformermustbeheldtobepartsofthecity,itisobviousthataheavy-armedforceisanecessarypartofacity.

Aseventhpart119consistsofthepeoplewhoarecalledwelloff,andprovidespublicservicesbymeansofitsproperty.Aneighthisthepublic-officialpartthatdoespublicservicesinrulingoffices,ifindeeditisimpossiblefortheretobeacitywithoutrulers.Soitisnecessaryfortheretobesomepeoplewiththecapacitytoruleandbepublicservantsforthecityeithercontinuouslyorbyturnsinthissortofservice.Andtheremainingpartsaretheoneswejustnowhappenedtosingleout,thatdeliberateandthatjudge[40]mattersofjusticeforpeopleindisputes.Soifthesethingsneedtobedoneincities,andbedoneinabeautifulandjustmanner,[1291b]itisnecessaryfortheretobesomepeoplewhosharethevirtueofcitizens.Nowit

seemstomostpeoplethatdifferentcapacitiesarecapableofbeingpresentinthesamepersons,sothatthesameonesmaybe,forinstance,militarydefendersandfarmersandskilledworkmen,oralsoengageinbothdeliberatingandjudging;andtheyalllayclaimtovirtueandbelievethemselvescapableoffillingmostrulingoffices.Butforthesamepersonstobepoorandrichisimpossible.Hencethesegroups,thewell-offandtheneedy,seemtobetheprincipalpartsofacity.Also,sinceforthemostparttheformerarefewandthelatter[10]many,thesepartsappeartobeattheoppositeextremesofthecomponentsofthecity.Sotheyalsobasetheformsofgovernmentontheascendancyoftheseparts,andthereseemtobetwoforms,democracyandoligarchy.

Nowithasbeensaidabovethatthereismorethanoneformofgovernment,andforwhatreasons.Letusnowstatethatthereismorethanoneformofdemocracyandofoligarchy.Andthisisclearfromthethingsthathavebeensaid.Forthereareanumberofformsofpopulace,andanumberofformsofthosewhoarecalledeminent.Oneformofpopulace,forinstance,consistsoffarmers,anotherofskilledworkers,anotherofthegroupoccupiedwith[20]buyingandsellinginthemarketplace,andanotheroccupiedwiththesea,amongwhomonegroupisconcernedwithwarfare,anotherwithmerchandise,anotherwithpassengertravel,andyetanotherwithfishing.Inmanyplacesaparticularoneofthesegroupsisquitenumerous,suchasfishermeninTarentumandByzantium,battleshipcrewsinAthens,merchantseameninAeginaandChios,andferryboatcrewsinTenedos.Inadditiontothesethereisthegroupofday-laborers,whohavesolittlepropertythatitisimpossibleforthemtotaketimeoff,andalsoafreeelementnotdescendedfromcitizensonbothsides,andanyothersuchformofmultitudetheremaybe.Withtheeminentpeopletherearewealth,highbirth,virtue,education,andvariousdistinctionsspokenofonthesame[30]basis.

Afirstsortofdemocracy,then,isonereferredtomoststronglyonthebasisofequality.Thelawinthissortofdemocracydeclaresthat“equal”meansthattheneedyarenomoreinascendancythanthewell-off,andthatneitherofthetwoisinauthoritybutbotharetreatedalike.Forifinfact,assomepeopleassume,freedomismostfullypresentinademocracy,andequalityaswell,thewayinwhichthiswouldbethecasemostofallwouldbeforeveryonetosharealiketothefullestextentinthegovernment.Andsince

thepopulaceisthemajority,andtheopinionofthemajorityisauthoritative,thismustnecessarilybeademocracy.Sothisisoneformofdemocracy.Anotherinvolvesrulingofficesbasedon[40]propertyassessments,buthastheselow;anyonewhopossessestherequisiteamounthastobegiventherighttotakepart,butanyonewholosesittakesnopart.[1292a]Anotherformofdemocracyhasallcitizensofundisputeddescenttakepart,whilethelawrules.Anotherformofdemocracyhaseveryonetakepartinrulingoffices,aslongastheyarecitizens,whilethelawrules.Anotherformofdemocracyisthesameinotherrespects,butthemultitude,ratherthanthelaw,isinauthority.Thisariseswhendecreesareauthoritativeandnotlaws,andhappensbecauseofdemagogues.Forinplacesruleddemocraticallyunderlaw,therecanbenodemagogue,butthebestcitizensareintheforefront.[10]Butwherethelawsarenotauthoritativedemagoguesarise.Forthepopulacebecomesamonarchwhenitturnsfrommanyintoasinglecomposite,sincethemanyareinauthoritynotasparticularpersonsbutalltogether.

ItisunclearinwhatsenseHomermeans“rulebymanyisnotgood,”andwhetherheisspeakingofthissortofruleorthatinwhichthereareseveralpeoplewhoruleeachonhisown.120Butthissortofpopularrule,beingmonarchical,seekstoactlikeamonarchsinceitdoesnotruleunderlaw;itbecomeslikeamasterofslaves,andconsequentlyservileflatterersarehonored.Thissortofpopularruleistheanalogueoftyrannyamongmonarchies.Hence,too,theircharacteristhesame:bothactlikeslavemastersoverthebettersortofpeople,decrees[20]arelikethecommandsthere,andademagogueandaservileflattererarethesameandplayanalogousroles.Eachofthetwoisespeciallystrongwiththerespectivekindofruler—flattererswithtyrantsanddemagogueswithpopulationsofthissort.Theyaretheoneswhoareresponsibleforthefactthatdecreesandnotlawsareauthoritative,byreferringeverythingtothepopulace.Theyendupbecomingpowerfulbyhavingthepopulacebeinauthorityovereverything,whiletheythemselveshaveauthorityovertheopinionofthepopulace,sincethemultitudeispersuadedbythem.Also,theoneswhomakeaccusationsagainstofficeholdersclaimthepopulaceoughttobethejudge,andtheinvitationischeerfullyaccepted,withtheresultthat[30]allofficesareutterlyundone.Onewhoclaimsthatthissortofdemocracyisnoformofgovernmentatallwouldseemtobemakingareasonableobjection.Forwherelawsdonotrule,

thereisnogovernment.Thelawoughttoruleovereverygeneralmatter,whileofficeholdersandtheparticulargovernmentdecideparticularmatters.Soifdemocracyisoneoftheformsofgovernment,itisclearthatthiswayofrunningit,inwhicheverythingismanagedbydecrees,isnotevendemocracyintheprevalentsense,sincenodecreeiscapableofbeinggeneral.Solettheformsofdemocracybedistinguishedinthisway.

Chapter5Asforformsofoligarchy,onehastherulingofficesbasedon[40]

propertyassessmentssolargethatthepoor,thoughtheyarethemajority,takenopart,whileanyonewhoownsthatmuchisallowedtotakepartinthegovernment.Itisof[1292b]anotherformwhenofficesarefilledfromlargepropertyassessmentsandtheychoosetheremainingofficials.(Iftheydothisfromamongthemall,thisseemstobemorearistocratic;ifonlyfromamongcertaindesignatedpeople,moreoligarchic.)Itisadifferentformofoligarchywhenasonsucceedshisfather,andafourthwhenwhatwasjustmentionedisthecaseandlawdoesnotrule,buttherulersdo.Thisisthecounterpartamongoligarchiesoftyrannyamongmonarchies,andamongdemocracies,ofthesortofdemocracywespokeoflast.People[10]callthissortofoligarchyaconfederacyofthepowerful.

Thereare,then,thismanyformsofoligarchyanddemocracy,butonemustnotoverlookthefactthatithasturnedoutinmanyplacesthat,whiletheformofgovernmentresultingfromthelawsisnotpopularrule,itisstillgovernedinpopularfashionbecauseofcustomandupbringing.Similarly,inturn,amongotherpeople,whilethegovernmentasaresultofitslawsinclinestothesideofpopularrule,byupbringingandcustomsitisruledoligarchicallyinstead.Thisturnsoutmostoftenafterchangesinformsofgovernment.Thepeopledonotpassfromoneformtotheotherimmediately,butarecontentatfirsttogettheupperhandononeanotherinsmallways,[20]sothatthepre-existinglawsremainwhilethegroupthathaschangedthegovernmentisinpower.

Chapter6Andthefactthattherearethismanyformsofdemocracyandoligarchyis

clearjustfromthethingsthatwerementioned.Foritisnecessaryeitherthat

allthepartsofthepopulacementionedshareinthegovernment,orthatsomedoandsomedonot.Nowwhenthepartthatfarmsandownsamodestestateisinauthorityinthegovernment,theyaregovernedbylaws,becausetheyhavewhatittakestolivewhiletheyareworking,buttheyareunabletotaketimeoff;consequently,theyestablishthelawandconveneonlynecessaryassemblies.Andothersareallowedtotakepartwhenever[30]theyacquirethepropertyassessmentdesignatedbythelaws;bythisprovision,everyonewhopossessesitisallowedtotakepart.Ifitisnotallowedatallforeveryonetotakepart,itisoligarchic,butnot121iftheyareallowedbutitisimpossibleforthemtotakethetimeoffbecauseofalackofrevenue.Sothisisoneformofdemocracy,forthesereasons.Adifferentformcomesaboutfromthenextdivision,sinceitispossibleforeveryonewhoisanundisputedcitizenbybirthtobeallowedtotakepart,whileonlythosecapableoftakingthetimeoffdoso.Henceinthissortofdemocracythelawsrulebecausethereisnorevenue.Athirdformallowseveryonewhoisfreetotakepartinthegovernment,althoughtheydonot[40]dosoforthereasonmentionedalready,sothatitisnecessaryforthelawtoruleinthisformtoo.Afourthformofdemocracy[1293a]isonethataroseincitieslastintime.Becausecitiescametobemuchlargerthantheywereinthebeginningandanabundanceofrevenuewasavailable,everyonetakespartinthegovernmentonaccountoftheascendancyofthemultitude,andtheydoshareinitanddogovernbecauseeventhepoorareabletotakethetimeoff,sincetheygetafee.Infactthissortofmultitudehasthemostleisure,sincecarefortheirprivateaffairsdoesnotencumbertheminanyway,whileitdoesencumbertherich,somuchsothattheyoftendonotparticipateintheassemblyorinjuryservice.Hencethemultitudeofpoorpeople,[10]andnotthelaws,cometobeinauthorityoverthegovernment.

Sotherearethismanyformsofdemocracy,ofthesesorts,onaccountofthesenecessities,andtherearethefollowingformsofoligarchy.Whenagreaternumberofpeoplehaveestates,butofaninferiorqualityandnotverybig,thatisthefirstformofoligarchy,sincetheyconfertherighttotakepartonanyonewhopossessesone,andbecauseofthemultitudeofpeopleparticipatingintheadministration,itisnecessaryforthelaw,ratherthanhumanbeings,tobeinauthority.Fortheyaresomuchfartherremovedfrommonarchy,havingneithersomuchpropertythattheycantaketimeoffand

neglectit,norsolittlethattheyhavetobesupportedbythecity,[20]thattheyconsideritanecessitythatthelawshouldrulethem,andnottheythemselves.Butifthosewhohaveestatesarefewerthaninthepreviouscase,andtheestateslarger,thesecondformofoligarchyarises.Forsincetheyarestrongertheyexpecttohavetheupperhand,andsotheychoosefromtheothercitizenstheoneswhogainentrytotheadministration,butbecausetheyarenotyetsostrongthattheycanrulewithoutlaw,theymakealawtothiseffect.Ifthesituationgetsratchetedupbytheirbeingfewerandhavinglargerestates,athirdstageofoligarchyarises,thatinwhichtheykeeptherulingofficestothemselves,byalawordainingthattheofficesofthosewhodiebeinheritedbytheir[30]sons.Butwhenthesituationgoessofarthatitisstrainedtothelimitbythebulkoftheirestatesandtheirmultitudeoffriends,thissortofconfederacyofthepowerfulisclosetomonarchy,andhumanbeingscometobeinauthorityratherthanthelaw.Andthisisthefourthformofoligarchy,thecounterparttothelastformofdemocracy.

Chapter7Therearestilltwoformsofgovernmentbesidesdemocracyandoligarchy;

oneofthemeveryonespeaksof,anditwasmentionedasoneofthefourforms.(Thefourtheyspeakofaremonarchy,oligarchy,democracy,andfourththeformtheycallaristocracy.)Butafifthistheonereferredto[40]bythenamecommontothemall(fortheycallitconstitutionalrule),thoughbecauseitdoesnotoftenarise,itescapesthenoticeofthose(suchasPlato)whoattempttocountuptheformsofgovernment,andtheydealwithonly[1293b]fourofthegovernments.Nowitisbeautifullyappropriatetocalltheformwewentoverinourfirstdiscussionsaristocracy.Foritisonlyjusticetorefertotheformofgovernmentmadeupofthosewhoarethebestpeoplesimplyonthebasisofvirtue,andnotbysomeparticularassumptionaboutgoodmen,asaristocracy,forinitalonethesamepersonisagoodmanandagoodcitizen,whilethepeoplewhoaregoodintheothersaresoinrelationtotheirownformsofgovernment.Nevertheless,therearegovernmentsthathavecertaindifferencesbothfromthosethatareoligarchicallyruledandfromthesortcalledconstitutionalrule,andtheyarecalledaristocracies.[10]Forwhereofficeholdersarechosennotjustonthebasisofwealthbutalsoonthebasisofexcellence,thisformofgovernmentdiffersfrombothandiscalled

aristocratic.Foreveningovernmentsinwhichvirtueisnotmadeamatterofcommonconcern,therearestillcertainpeoplewhoarewellregardedandthoughttobedecentsorts.Sowherethegovernmentlookstowealth,virtue,andthegeneralpopulace,asinCarthage,thisisaristocratic;andthisisthecasealsointhosesuchasSpartathatlooktoonlytwothings,tovirtueandthepopulace,andwherethereisamixtureofthese,ofdemocracyandvirtue.Sobesidesthefirstandbestsortofgovernment,therearealsothesetwoformsofaristocracy,[20]andthirdlytherearethoseformsofso-calledconstitutionalrulethattipthescalemoretowardoligarchy.

Chapter8Whatremainsisforustospeakabouttheformofgovernmentthathasthe

name“constitutionalrule,”andabouttyranny.Wehaveadoptedthisordereventhoughtheformerdoesnotamounttoadeviantform,andthearistocraciesjustmentioneddonoteither,becausethetruthis,theydoallfallshortoftheformofgovernmentthatisrightinthehighestdegree,andthentoobecausetheformsthatdeviatefromthese(theoneswespokeofinthechaptersatthebeginning)tendtobecountedinalongwiththem.Asfortyranny,itisreasonableforittobemadementionoflastbecauseitleastofallisaformofgovernment,whiletheinquiry[30]wearepursuingisconcernedwithformsofgovernment.Sothereasonthingshavebeenputinthisorderhasbeenstated,anditisnowuptoustomakeevidentwhathastodowithconstitutionalrule.Themeaningofitwillbemoreclearwhenitisdistinguishedfromoligarchyanddemocracy,sinceconstitutionalrule,toputitsimply,isamixtureofoligarchyanddemocracy.Butpeopleareinthehabitofcallingthosemixturesthatleanmoretothesideofdemocracyconstitutionalrule,whiletheycallthosethatleanmoretowardoligarchyaristocraciesbecauseeducationandhighbirtharemoreoftenfoundamongthosewhoarewelloff.Also,thosewhoarewelloffseemtohavethethingsforthesakeofwhichunjustpeoplecommitinjustice,andforthatreasonpeoplerefertothemas[40]“beautifulandgood”122andeminent.Sosincearistocracyismeanttoassignthesuperiorroletothebestamongthecitizens,peoplesayofoligarchiestoothattheydrawmoreuponthosewhoarebeautifulandgood.And[1294a]itseemstobeanimpossibilityforacitytobewellregulatedifitisnotrunalongaristocraticlinesbutbyitsworst

elements,andlikewiseforacitythatisnotwellregulatedtoberunaristocratically.Forthereisnogoodregulationifthelawsarewelllaiddownbutnotobeyed.Hencewhenthelawslaiddownareobeyed,thatshouldbethoughtofasoneaspectofawell-regulatedcondition,andwhenthelawspeopleabidebyarebeautifullylaiddown,thatshouldbethoughtofasanother,sinceitispossibleforlawstobeobeyedevenwhentheyarebadlylaiddown.And“lawsbeautifullylaiddown”admitsoftwosenses,sincetheymaybeeitherthebestpossibleorthebestsimply.

Aristocracyisthoughttoconsistprimarilyinhaving[10]honorsdistributedinaccordwithvirtue,sincethedistinguishingmarkofaristocracyisvirtue,ofoligarchywealth,andofpopularrulefreedom.Theenactmentofwhatseemsgoodtothemajorityispresentinthemall,forinoligarchyandaristocracyaswellasamongthepopulace,thatwhichseemsgoodtothegreaterpartofthosetakingpartinthegovernmentisauthoritative.Soinmostcitiestheformofconstitutionalruleiscalledbythewrongname,123sincethemixtureitaimsatisonlyofthewell-offandtheneedy,orofwealthandfreedom,becauseinmostplaces,inpracticethosewhoarewelloffareheldtooccupytheplacebelongingtothebeautifulandgood.Forsincetherearethreethingsdisputingoverequality[20]inthegovernment—freedom,wealth,andvirtue(sincethefourth,whichpeoplecallhighbirth,goeswiththelattertwo,forhighbirthiswealthandvirtueofancientstanding)—itisclearthatthemixtureofthepairconsistingofthewell-offandtheneedyoughttobecalledconstitutionalrule,whilethemixtureofthethree,comparedtotheothers,mostdeservesthenamearistocracy,asidefromitstrueandprimaryform.

Ithasbeenstated,then,thatthereareotherformsofgovernmentbesidesmonarchy,democracy,andoligarchy,anditisevidentwhatthesearelike,andwhatdifferencesaristocracieshaveamongthemselves,andconstitutionalrulefromaristocracy,andthatthesearenotfarapartfromeachother.

Chapter9[30]Followinguponthethingsthathavebeensaid,letusdiscussthemannerin

whichtheformcalledconstitutionalrulebecomesdistinctfromdemocracyandoligarchy,andhowoneoughttosetitup.Atthesametime,theattributesbywhichdemocracyandoligarchyaredefinedwillalsobecomeclear,since

whatneedstobedoneistograspthedividinglinebetweentheseandthenmakeacompositeofthembytakingasortofjigsawpiece124fromeachofthetwo.Andtherearethreepatternsforcompositionormixture.Onemayinonepatterntakebothoftwothingsthateachusesaslaw,asinthecaseofjudging.Forinoligarchies,theyassessafineagainstthewell-offfornotdoingjuryserviceanddonotassignafeefortheneedy,whileindemocracies,[40]theyassignafeefortheneedyandnofineforthewell-off.Tohavethembothisacommongroundandmeanbetweentheseforms,andhenceis[1294b]suitedtoconstitutionalrule,sinceitisamixtureofboth.Thisthenisonewayofcouplingthem.Anotheristotakeamiddlecoursebetweenarrangementsthetwoofthemmake,asforservinginanassembly.Thosewhoserveinoneformdosowithoutanypropertyqualificationoraminisculeone,thoseintheotherwithalargeone;thecommongroundistohaveneitherone,butaqualificationintermediatebetweenthetwo.Athirdway,withapairofarrangements,istotakesomepartsoftheoligarchiclawandsomepartsofthedemocraticone.Imean,forinstance,itseemsdemocraticforofficestobechosenbylotandoligarchicforthemtobeelected,anddemocraticnottohave[10]apropertyqualificationbutoligarchictohaveone.Accordingly,itisamarkofaristocracyorconstitutionalruletotakeoneelementfromeach,makingtheofficeselectedasinanoligarchy,butfreeofapropertyqualificationasindemocracy.

This,then,isthemannerofmixingthem,andwhatmarksoutdemocracyandoligarchyashavingbeenwellmixedisthatitispossibletospeakofthesameformofgovernmentasdemocracyoroligarchy,sinceitisclearthatitisbecausetheyarebeautifullymixedthatpeoplewhospeakthatwayareledtodoso.Themeanalsohasthischaracter,sinceeachoftheextremesisevidentinit,whichisexactlywhathappensintheSpartanformofgovernment.Formanypeople[20]trytospeakofitasbeingademocracy,sinceitsarrangementincludesanumberofdemocraticfeatures.Firstofall,forexample,inregardtothebringingupofchildren,thoseofthericharebroughtuplikethoseofthepoor,andthemannerinwhichtheyareeducatedisoneforwhichthechildrenofthepooralsohavethemeans.Andlikewiseinthenextstageoflife,andoncetheybecomemen,thesameistrue,sincethereisnowayinwhicharichpersonisdistinguishedfromapoorone;whatpertainstofoodisthesameforeveryoneatthecommonmeals,andtheclothingrich

peoplewearisofsuchasortasanypoorpersonwhateveriscapableofproviding.Whatismore,ofthetwohighestoffices,[30]thepopulacechoosestheoneandtakespartintheother(sincetheychoosetheeldersandparticipateintheephorate).Butotherscallitanoligarchybecauseitincludesanumberofoligarchicfeatures;forinstanceallrulingofficesareelectedandnonechosenbylot,andasmallnumberhaveauthorityoverpenaltiesofdeathandexile,andtherearemanyothersuchthings.Anditoughttobethecaseinagovernmentthathasbeenbeautifullymixedthatitseemstobeboththingsandneither.Anditoughttobepreservedthroughitselfandnotbyexternalmeans,andthroughitselfnotbecausethosewhowantitthatwayarethemajority(sincethiscouldbethecaseeveninabadformofgovernment),butbecausenoneofthepartsofthecitywantsadifferentformofgovernment[40]atall.Sothemannerinwhichoneoughttosetupconstitutionalrule,andlikewisethegovernmentsdeservingthenameofaristocracies,hasnowbeenstated.

Chapter10[1295a]Thethingleftforustospeakofistyranny,notbecausethereismuchto

besaidaboutit,butsothatitmaytakeitspartintheinquiry,sincewealsosetitdownasapartofthearrayofformsofgovernment.Wedelineatedkingshipinourfirstdiscussions,inwhichwemadeanexamination,inregardtothekindofkingshipmostcommonlyspokenof,whetheritisdisadvantageousoranadvantagetocities,andwhoshouldbesetupasaking,whereheshouldbedrawnfrom,andhowthisshouldbedone.Andweseparatedouttwoformsoftyrannyinthecourseofexaminingkingship,becausetheirpowercrossesoverinacertainway[10]towardkingship,sinceboththeseformsofruleareinaccordwithlaw.Foramongsomeofthebarbarians,theychoosesupremecommandersasmonarchs,andinthepastamongtheancientGreekssomemonarchs,whompeoplecalledcaretakers,cametopowerinthisway.Thesehavesomedifferencesfromoneanother,buttheywerekinglyinbeingunderlawandinhavingasoleruleroverwillingsubjects,buttyrannicalinrulingaccordingtotheirownwilllikeamasteroverslaves.Butthereisathirdformoftyranny,theonethatseemstobetyrannyinthehighestsenseandisthecounterparttofull-scalekingship.Andthisisnecessarilythesortoftyrannythereis[20]wheneveramonarchyisnotsubjecttoreviewandrulesoverall

thosewhoaretheruler’sequalsandbetterswithaviewtoitsownadvantageandnotthatofthosewhoareruled.Forthisreasonitisinvoluntary,sincenofreepersonwillinglyputsupwiththatsortofrule.Soforthereasonsgiven,therearetheseandthismanyformsoftyranny.

Chapter11Whatisthebestformofgovernment,andwhatisthebestlifeformost

citiesandmosthumanbeings?Thequestionsareposednottothosewhomeasurebyastandardofvirtuethatisbeyondordinarypeople,orbyaneducationthatrequiresafortunatenatureandresources,orbyhavinginplaceagovernmentonemightwishfor,butbyalifethatis[30]possibleformostpeopletoshareandaformofgovernmentwhichmostcitiesarecapableoftakingpartin.Asforthegovernmentsthatpeoplecallaristocracies,aboutwhichwewerejustspeaking,somefalloutsidethereachofmostcities,whileothersborderontheformcalledconstitutionalrule,sothatitisappropriatetospeakofthembothasthoughtheywereone.

Judgmentaboutallthesethingsisdrawnfromthesameelements.ForifitwasbeautifullysaidintheEthicsthatthehappylifeisoneinaccordwithunimpededvirtue,andthatvirtueisamean,125thenthemeaninlife,consistingofameanconditioneverypersoniscapableofattaining,wouldnecessarilybebest,andthesesametermswouldnecessarilyalso[40]applytothevirtueandviceofacityandagovernment,sincea[1295b]formofgovernmentisonesortoflifeofacity.Andinallcities,thecityhasthreeparts—thosewhoareexceptionallywelloff,thosewhoareexceptionallyneedy,andthoseinthethirdgroupinbetweenthese.Nowsinceitisagreedthatmeasureandthemeanarebest,126itisclearthatevenwiththegiftsoffortune,amoderatepossessionisbestofall.Forthatmakesiteasiesttobeobedienttoreason,whereasanextremedegreeofbeauty,strength,highbirth,orwealth,ortheoppositesofthese,anextremedegreeofbeggarlinessorweaknessorexceptionaldishonormakeithardtofollowreason.Fortheonesorttendmoretobecomeinsolentand[10]viciousonagrandscale,whiletheothersortaretooapttobecomedishonestandsuccumbtopettyvices;andactsofinjusticestemfromeitherinsolenceordishonesty.Also,thoseinthemiddlerangeareleastlikelytoavoidrulingorbeeagertorule,andboththese

thingsareharmfultocities.Andinadditiontothesethings,thosewhohaveanoverabundanceofthegoodsoffortune—strength,wealth,friends,andotherthingsofthatsort—donotwanttoberuledanddonotevenknowhowto.Andthisisalreadypartofthemstraightfromwhentheyarechildrenathome,fortheresultofluxuryisthattheydonotgetinthehabitofbeingruledevenintheirschoolrooms.Butthosewhosufferfromanextremestateofneedinessinthesethingsaretoobrokeninspirit.Consequently,thelattersortofpeopledonotknowhowtorule,butonlyhowtoberuled[20]underaslavishrule,whiletheformersortdonotknowhowtoberuledinanywayatall,butonlyhowtorulethewayslavemastersrule.Soacitycomestoconsistofslavesandmastersandnotoffreepeople,withonegroupresentfulandtheothercontemptuous.

Thesethingsarethefarthestremovedfromfriendshipandpoliticalassociation,forassociationhasafriendlycharacter,sincepeopledonotwanttoassociatewiththeirenemiesevenonajourney.Acityisinfactmeanttobemadeupofpeoplewhoareequalandaliketothegreatestpossibleextent,andthisispresentmostofallamongthoseinthemiddlerange.Consequently,thatcityisnecessarilythebestgovernedwhichconsistsofthosepeopleoutofwhomweclaimacityisnaturallyorganized.Andthesearethemostsecureofthecitizensinacity.For[30]theydonotcravethethingsthatbelongtoothersthewaythepoordo,andothersdonotcravetheirsthewaythepoorcravethethingsbelongingtotherich.Andbynotbeingplottedagainstorplottingagainstothers,theypasstheirlivesfreeofdanger.ForthisreasonPhocylidesmadeabeautifulprayerinsaying“Manythingsarebestforthoseinthemiddle;Iwanttobesomeoneinthemiddleinacity.”127

Thereforeitisclearthatthepoliticalassociationthatmakesuseofthemiddlegroupisbest,andalsothatthesortofcitiesthatcanbewellgovernedarethoseinwhichthemiddlerangeislarge,especiallyifitismorepowerfulthanboththeotherparts,orifnot,morepowerfulthanoneofthetwo,sincebybeingaddedtothatsideitmakesthescaletipandpreventstheoppositeexcessesfromhappening.Hencethegreatest[40]goodfortuneisforthoseinvolvedinthegovernmenttohavepropertythatismoderateandsufficient,[1296a]sincewhereversomepeopleownagreatmanythingsandothersnone,whatcomesaboutiseitherextremepopularruleorunmixedoligarchy,oratyrannyarisingfrombothexcesses.Fortyrannyarisesoutofboththe

mostrecklesssortofdemocracyandoligarchy,butmuchlesssooutofthemiddlesortsorthoseclosetothem.Weshallstatethereasonlaterinthechaptersdealingwithchangesinformsofgovernment.Itisevident,though,thatthemiddleformisbest,sinceitaloneisfreeoffaction.Forwherethemiddlerangeislarge,factionsandschismsamongthecitizensoccurleast.Andlargecitiesare[10]morefreeoffactionforthesamereason,becausethemiddlepartislarge.Butinsmallcitiesitiseasytodivideallthecitizensintotwogroups,sothatnomiddlerangeisleft,andjustabouteveryoneisneedyorwelloff.Democraciesarealsomorestablethanoligarchiesbecauseofthemiddlegroup,sincetherearemoreofthemindemocraciesthaninoligarchies,andtheytakeagreatershareofthehonors.Whenever,intheabsenceofthisgroup,theneedygrowtoogreatinnumber,thingsgetintoabadconditionandtheyarequicklyruined.Oneoughttotakeasasignofthisthefactthatthebestlawgiversarefromthemiddlerangeofcitizens.ForSolonwasoneofthese,[20]asisclearfromhispoetry,aswereLycurgus(forhewasnotaking)andCharondasandjustaboutthegreatestnumberoftheothers.

Itisalsoclearfromthesethingswhymostgovernmentsareeitherdemocraciesoroligarchies.Forsincethemiddlegroupisoftensmallinnumberinthem,whichevergroupgetstheupperhand,whetheritisthosewhohavepropertyorthepopulace,alwaysmovesawayfromthemiddleandbringsthegovernmentintolinewithitsownmembers,sothatitbecomeseitherpopularruleoroligarchy.Inadditiontothesethings,becauseoftheoccurrenceoffactionsandbattleswithoneanotherbythepopulaceandthosewhoarewelloff,whichevergroupturnsouttobemorepowerfulthantheopposingsidesetsup[30]agovernmentthatisnotcommonorequal,buttakestheupperhandinthegovernmentasitsprizeofvictory,andmakesiteitherademocracyoranoligarchy.Also,eachofthetwopowersthathavecomeintopositionsofleadershipinGreecehavelookedtotheirownformsofgovernmentandsetupeitherdemocraciesoroligarchiesinthecities,lookingoutnotforthecities’advantagebutfortheirown.128Consequently,forthesereasonsthemiddleformofgovernmentneveroccursoronlyonfewoccasionsandinfewplaces.Inthepowersthathaveattainedleadershipuptonow,onlyonemanhasallowedhimselftobepersuadedtopermit[40]thissortofarrangement,129andbynowacustomhaseventakenholdamongthosein

the[1296b]citiesthattheydonotwantequality,buteitherseektoruleorendurebeingmastered.

Whatthebestformofgovernmentis,then,andforwhatreason,isclearfromthesethings.Andamongtheotherforms,sinceweclaimthereismorethanonesortofdemocracyandmorethanonesortofoligarchy,whichofthemshouldberankedfirst,second,andsooninsuccessionforbeingbetterandworse,isnotdifficulttoseenowthatthebestformhasbeendetermined.Fortheoneclosesttothismustalwaysbebetter,whiletheoneatagreaterdistancefromthemiddlemustbeworse,solongasoneisnotjudgingonsomehypothesis.Andby[10]“onsomehypothesis”Imeanthatoften,thoughanotherformofgovernmentismoreworthyofchoice,nothingpreventsadifferentformfrombeingmoreadvantageoustocertainpeople.

Chapter12Whatformofgovernmentisadvantageousforwhatpeople,andwhatsort

forwhatsortofpeople,isthenextthingtogooverafterwhathasbeendiscussed.Butfirst,thesamepointneedstobestatedaboutallofthemingeneral,namelythatthepartwantingthecity’sformofgovernmenttoremaininplaceneedstobestrongerthanthepartthatdoesnotwantthat.Andeverycityismadeupofqualityandquantity.ByqualityImeanfreedom,wealth,education,andhighbirth,andbyquantity,superiorityinnumber.Anditispossiblethat,whilethequality[20]ispresentinoneofthepartsoutofwhichthecityisorganized,andthequantityinanotherpart(thelowbornbeinggreaterinnumberthanthehighborn,forinstance,ortheneedygreaterinnumberthantherich),thelatterstilldoesnotexceedtheformerinquantityasmuchasitfallsshortinquality.Inthiscaseacomparativejudgmentoftheoneagainsttheotherneedstobemade.Andinaplacewherethenumberoftheneedyexceedstheproportiondescribed,itisnaturalfortheretobeademocracy,andtheparticularformofdemocracythatappliestotheexcessineachpopulation;if,forexample,thenumberoffarmerspredominates,thefirstsortofdemocracyisnatural,butifthenumberofmechanicalworkersandwage[30]earnersdoes,thelastsortis,andsimilarlywiththeothersinbetweenthese.Butinaplacewherethenumberofwelloffandeminentpeopleexceedsinqualitymorethanitfallsshortinquantity,oligarchyisnatural,andinthesamemanner,theparticularformofoligarchythatapplies

tothepredominantpartwithintheoligarchicgroup.Andthelawgiveralwaysoughttoincludethemiddlegroupinhisformof

government;ifhelaysdownoligarchiclaws,heshouldaimthematthoseinthemiddle,andifhelaysdowndemocraticones,heshouldbringthemintohislaws.Andinaplacewherethenumberofthoseinthemiddlegroupexceedseitherbothextremestogether,orevenjustoneofthetwo,itispossible[40]fortheretobelastingconstitutionalrule.Forthereisnofearthat[1297a]therichwouldeverconspirewiththepooragainstthem,sinceneithersidewouldeverwanttobesubjecttotheotherone,andiftheywerelookingforamorecommunalarrangement,theywouldnotfindanyotherbesidesthisone.Theywouldnotputupwithrulingbyturnsbecauseoftheirdistrustofoneanother;butthemosttrustedpersoneverywhereisaneutralarbiter,andtheoneinthemiddleisaneutralarbiter.Agovernmentwillbemorelastingtothedegreethatitisbettermixed.Evenamongthosewhowanttoproducearistocraticgovernments,manygoastraynotonlyingivingthelargerroletothosewhoarewelloff,butalsoin[10]misleadingthepopulace.130Forinthecourseoftimeatrueevilwillnecessarilyresultfromfalsegoods,andtheencroachmentsofthericharemoredestructivetothegovernmentthanthoseofthepopulace.

Chapter13Thetrickspeoplecomeupwithforthesakeofpretensesdirectedatthe

populaceinconstitutionalrulearefiveinnumber,havingtodowiththeassembly,offices,lawcourts,arms,andgymnastictraining.Withtheassembly,thetrickistoalloweveryonetobeintheassembly,buttoimposeafineonlyonthewell-offiftheydonottakepartinit,oramuchgreateroneonthem;withoffices,[20]itistoallowtheneedytodeclinethemonoathofhardship,butnottoallowthosewhomeetapropertyqualificationtodoso;withlawcourts,itistohaveafineforwell-offpeoplewhodonotserveonjuries,butanexemptionfortheneedy,oralargefinefortheformerandasmalloneforthelatter,asinCharondas’slaws.Insomeplaces,everyonewhosignsupisallowedtobeintheassemblyandserveonjuries,butpeoplewhosignupanddonotserveineithertheassemblyorthecourtsincurlargefines,sothattheywillavoidsigningupbecauseofthefine,andnotserveintheassemblyorcourtsbecauseofnotsigningup.Andtheymakelawsalongthe

samelinesabout[30]bearingarmsanddoinggymnastictraining.Fortheneedyareallowednottopossessarms,butthereisafineforthewell-offfornotpossessingthem,andthereisnofinefortheformeriftheydonotdogymnastictrainingbutthereisafineforthewell-off,sothatthelattertakepartbecauseofthefinewhiletheformertakenopartbecauseofnotfearingone.Sotheseareoligarchictricksusedinlegislation,butindemocraciestherearetricksoppositetothese.Fortheyprovideafeetotheneedytoserveintheassemblyandonjuries,andassignnofineforthewell-off.So,obviously,ifonewantstomixthemjustly,oneoughttoputtogetherthingsfrombothsides,[40]andprovideafeeforonegroupandafinefortheother,sincebythesemeanstheywouldallparticipate,whilebytheothermeansthegovernmentcomesto[1297b]consistofonlyoneside.

Andthegovernmentoughttoconsistonlyofthosebearingarms,butitisnotpossiblesimplytodefineapropertyqualification,andsaythatmuchneedstobeavailable;instead,afterinvestigatingthemaximumamountthatsofallsoutthattherewillbemorepeopletakingpartinthegovernmentthannottakingpart,oneshouldassignthat.Forthepoorarewillingtokeepcalmevenwhentheyhavenoshareinhonors,solongasnoonetreatstheminsolentlyortakesawayanyoftheirproperty.Butthisisnoeasything,foritdoesnotalwaysturnoutthatthosewhotakepartintheadministration[10]arecourteouspeople.Andpeopleareinthehabit,whenthereiswar,ofhesitatingtoserve,iftheygetnofoodandtheyareneedy;ifoneprovidesthemwithfood,though,theyarewillingtogotowar.

Insomeplaces,thegovernmentisdrawnnotonlyfromthosewhobeararmsbutalsofromthosewhohavedoneso.AmongtheMalians,thegovernmentwasdrawnfromthese,thoughtheofficeswerechosenfromamongthesoldiers.AndthefirstformofgovernmentthataroseamongtheGreeksafterthekingshipswasdrawnfromamongthewarriors,andatfirstfromamongthecavalrymen,becausewargotitsstrengthandsuperiorityfromthecavalrymen.Foraheavy-armedforceisuseless[20]withoutorganization,andamongtheancientsexperienceinsuchmattersasformationswasnottobefound,sothatthestrengthwasinthecavalry.Butasthecitiesgrewandgainedmorestrengthintheirarmedmen,morepeopletookpartinthegovernment.Anditisforthisreasonthatwhatwenowcallconstitutionalrule,peopleofearliertimesusedtocalldemocracy.Itwasreasonableforthe

ancientgovernmentstobeoligarchicandkingly,since,becauseofunderpopulation,theydidnothavemuchofamiddlegroup,andit,beingsmallinnumberandweakinorganization,putupwithbeingruled.

Thereasonthereareseveralformsofgovernment,then,andwhy[30]thereareothersbeyondtheonesspokenof(sincedemocracyisnotoneinnumber,andlikewisewiththerest),andalsowhattheirdifferencesareandthereasontheyturnoutthatway,andinaddition,whichoftheformsofgovernmentmaybesaidtobebestinmostcases,andwhichoftheotherformsfitswhatsortsofpeople,havebeenstated.

Chapter14Andletusspeakofthethingsthatcomenextinturn,bothincommonand

separatelyforeachformofgovernment,takingastartthatappliestothemall.Nowineveryformofgovernmenttherearethreepartsaboutwhichalawgiverofseriousstatureneedstomakeastudytoseewhatisadvantageousforeach.Whentheseareinabeautifulcondition,thegovernmentisnecessarilyinabeautifulcondition,and[40]formsofgovernmenthavedifferencesamongthemselvesaccordingtodifferencesintheseparts.Oneofthesethreepartsistheanswertothequestion:whatisitthatdeliberates[1298a]aboutcommonconcerns?Thesecondiswhathastodowithoffices,thatis,whichonesthereoughttobeandwithauthorityoverwhatmatters,andwhatsortofchoiceoughttotakeplaceforthem.Andthethirdis,whatisitthatdoesthejudging?Thedeliberativepartisinauthorityoverwarandpeaceandmakinganddissolvingalliances;laws;death,exile,andconfiscationofproperty;andchoosingandreviewingofficeholders.Andnecessarily,eitherallthesedecisionsareassignedtoallthecitizensoralltosome(forinstancetooneormoreoffices,ordifferentonestodifferentoffices),orsomeofthemtoallandsometosome.

Now[10]forallthecitizenstodeliberate,andaboutallthings,ischaracteristicofpopularrule,sincethepopulaceseeksthatsortofequality,butthereareanumberofwaysforthemalltodecide.Onewayisbyturnsratherthanalltogether,asisdoneintheconstitutionofTeleclestheMilesian;andinotherconstitutionsthecollectiveadministrationconvenesanddeliberates,buteveryoneenterstheofficesbyturns,fromthetribesandtheirabsolutelysmallestparts,untilitgoesthrougheveryone.Inthesecases,they

allconveneonlyforestablishinglawsandonmatterspertainingtotheconstitution,andtohearproclamationsfromtheofficials.Anotherwayis[20]foralltodeliberatetogether,buttoconveneonlyforelectionsofofficials,lawmaking,mattersofwarandpeace,andreviewsofofficials,whiletheofficials,whoareeitherelectedfromamongthemallorchosenbylot,deliberateonothermattersassignedtoeachofthem.Anotherwayisforthecitizenstomeetabouttheofficialsandtoreviewthem,anddeliberateaboutwarandalliances,whileonothermatters,asmanyelectedofficialsaspossiblemanageaffairs;suchofficialsruleinthosemattersinwhichpeoplewithknowledgearenecessary.Andafourthwayisforeveryonetoconveneanddeliberateabouteverything,[30]whiletheofficialsdecideonnothingbutonlydothepreparatorywork;thisisexactlythewaythelastformofdemocracymanagesthingsnow,theformweclaimisanalogoustoanoligarchythatisaconfederacyofthepowerfulandamonarchythatistyrannical.Allthese,then,aredemocraticwaysofproceeding.

Forsomepeopletodeliberateabouteverythingisoligarchic,andthishasanumberofdifferentforms.Forwhenpeoplearechosenonthebasisofmoderatepropertyqualifications,andarenumerousbecauseofthemoderatenessofthatqualification,andtheydonotmakechangeswherethelawforbidsitbutfollowthelaw,andanyonewhomeetsthepropertyqualificationisallowedtotakepart,thensuchagovernmentisanoligarchybutis,[40]bybeingmoderate,onethatinclinestowardconstitutionalrule.Butwhennoteveryonetakespart[1298b]indeliberatingbutonlythosewhoareelected,buttheyruleinaccordwithlawasintheprecedingcase,itisoligarchic.Andwhentheverypeoplewhohavetheauthoritytodeliberatechoosethemselves,orwhenasonsucceedshisfather,andtheyareinauthorityoverthelaws,thisarrangementisnecessarilyoligarchicintheextreme.Butwhencertainpeopleareinauthorityovercertainmatters,when,forinstance,everyoneisinauthorityoverwarandpeaceandreviewingofficialsandtheofficialsovereverythingelse,andtheyareelectedandnotchosenbylot,thegovernmentisanaristocracy.Andifelectedpeopleareinauthorityoversomematters,butonothermattersitispeoplechosenbylot,andchosenbyloteithersimplyorfromapredeterminedgroup,orthoseelectedandthosechosenbylot[10]haveauthorityincommon,theninsomecasesthisisconstitutionalruleincliningtowardaristocracyandinothersitis

simplyconstitutionalrule.Thepartthatdeliberates,then,isdistinguishedinrelationtotheformsofgovernmentinthisway,andeachgovernmentmanagesitaccordingtothedistinctiondescribed.

Andforthesortofdemocracythatisnowadaysconsideredtobeademocracymostofall(Imeanthesortinwhichthepopulaceisinauthorityevenoverthelaws),forthesakeofdeliberatingbetter,itisadvantageoustodothesamethingthatisdoneinoligarchieswiththelawcourts.Fortheyassignafinetothosetheywanttoserveonjuriestomakesuretheydoserve,andpopulargovernmentsassignafeetotheneedy.Itistotheiradvantagetodothisfortheassembliesaswell,[20]foreveryonewilldeliberatebetterwhentheydeliberateincommon,thepopulacewiththeeminentpeople,andtheywiththemultitude.Itisalsoadvantageousforthosewhodeliberatetobeelected,orchosenbylot,inequalnumbersfromtheparts,andadvantageoustoo,ifthepopularpartofthecitizensfarexceedstheotherpartinnumber,eithernottogiveafeetothemallbutonlytoasmanyasbalanceouttheeminentcitizens,ortoeliminatetheexcessbylot.Inoligarchies,itisadvantageouseithertodraftinsomeassemblymembersfromthepopulaceortoprovideforanofficialgroupofthesorttheresometimesisinconstitutionalrule,whichtheycallpre-councilsorguardiansofthelaw,andtodealonlywiththosematters[30]thesegroupshavedeliberatedoninadvance.Forthiswaythepopulacewilltakepartindeliberating,butwillhavenopowertoundoanythingintheconstitution.Alsothepopulacemightvotejustonthosethingsbroughtbeforethem,oronnothingcontrarytothese,orelsetheymightallcontributetheiradvicewhileonlytheofficialsdeliberate.Andwhatoughttobedoneistheoppositewayofwhathappensinconstitutionalrule:theyoughttogivethemultitudeauthoritytovotethingsdownbutnoauthoritytovotethemintoeffect,butletthembereferredbacktotheofficials.Butinconstitutionalruletheydothingsupside-down,forthefewhaveauthoritytovotethingsdownand[40]noauthoritytovotethingsintoeffect,buttheyalwaysreferthembackto[1299a]themultitude.Soonthedeliberativeandauthoritativepartofthegovernment,letdistinctionsbemadeinthisway.

Chapter15Nextafterthesethingsisthedivisionofoffices.Forthispartofthe

governmentinvolvesmanydifferencesinthenumberofoffices,whatthey

haveauthorityover,andasfarastimeisconcerned,howmuchbelongstoeachoffice(forsomeconstitutionsmakethemsixmonthsorless,othersayearormorelong-lasting),andwhethertheofficesoughttobepermanentorlong-lastingorneither,orwhetherthesamepeopleoughttoholdthemmultipletimesor[10]notthesamepersontwicebutonlyonce,andalsoregardingtheappointmentofofficials,fromwhichgroupstheyoughttocomeandbywhomtheyoughttobechosenandhow.Inalltheserespects,oneoughttobeabletodistinguishthenumberofwaysthingsarecapableofbeingdone,andthenfitthevarioussortsofwaystotheformsofgovernmenttheyareadvantageousto.

Butitisnoteasyeventodeterminewhatthingsoneoughttocalloffices,sincethepoliticalassociationrequiresmanypeopleinchargeofthings,andnotallofthosewhoareelectedorchosenbylotshouldbeclassedasrulingofficials.Forinstance,firstofall,therearepriests,andthishastobeclassedassomethingdifferentfromthepoliticaloffices.Sponsorsofdramaticfestivalsarealsoelected,andsoareheraldsand[20]ambassadors.Somepublicconcernsarepolitical,andeitherinvolveallthecitizensinsomeaction,aswithageneraloverthoseinthemilitary,ordealwithapart,aswiththeoverseersofwomenandchildren;othersrelatetohouseholdmanagement,forcitiesoftenelectgrain-rationers,131andothersaresubsidiarypositionstowhichcitiesthatarewelloffappointslaves.Toputitsimply,thepositionsthatespeciallyoughttobespokenofasrulingofficesarethosewhichareassignedcertainmattersonwhichtodeliberate,decide,andgiveorders,andespeciallythelast,sincegivingordersismorecharacteristicofaruler.Butwhilethesethingsmakevirtuallynodifferenceinpractice(fornoverdicthaseverbeenhandeddownonthosewhodisputeover[30]thename),theydomeritsomefurthertheoreticalstudy.

Whatsortsofoffices,andhowmany,arenecessaryifthereisgoingtobeacity,andwhatsorts,whilenotnecessary,arestillusefulforexcellentgovernment,arequestionsonemightraiseinsteadinconnectionwitheveryformofgovernment,andespeciallyaboutsmallcities.Forinlargeones,itispossibletoassignoneofficeforonejob,andthisoughttobedone;forsincetherearemanycitizens,manypeopleareabletoenteroffice,sothatsomeperformrulingfunctionsatlongintervalsoftimeandothersonlyonce,andeachjobgetsbettercarefromsomeonewhosesolebusinessitis[1299b]than

fromsomeonebusywithmanythings.Butinsmallcitiesitisnecessarytocombinemanyofficesintofew,sincewithunderpopulationitisnoteasyformanypeopletobeinoffice.Forwhowilltheirnextsuccessorsbe?Sometimes,though,smallcitiesneedthesameofficesandlawsaslargeones,exceptthat,whilethelatterneedthesameofficesfilledoften,intheformerthisneedcomesalongatlongintervalsoftime.Hencenothingpreventsthemfromassigninganofficemanycaresatthesametime,sincetheywillnotgetinthewayofoneanother,andwiththeirunderpopulationitisnecessaryforthemtomaketheoffices[10]likeskewer-lamps.132Soifwecansayhowmanyofficesitisnecessaryfortheretobeineverycity,andhowmanyarenotnecessarybutoughttobethere,someonewhoknowsthesethingscouldmoreeasilycombineintoasingleofficethesortsofofficialfunctionsitisfittingtocombine.

Itisalsofittingthatthefollowingpointnotbeoverlooked,namely,whichsortsofthingsmanylocalofficesoughttolookafter,andwhichsortsasingleofficeoughttohaveauthorityovereverywhere—whether,forgoodorderforexample,thereoughttobeamarketconstableforthemarketplaceandanotherofficialforanotherplace,orthesameoneeverywhere.Andthereisalsothematterofwhetheroneoughttodivideofficesinrelationtotheactiontheyareconcernedwithorinrelationtopeople;Imean,forinstance,whetherthereshouldbeoneofficeinchargeofgoodorderordifferentones[20]forchildrenandwomen.Andinrelationtotheformsofgovernment,thereisthematterofwhetherthekindsofofficesalsodifferineachorhavenodifference—whether,forinstance,thesameofficesareinauthorityindemocracy,oligarchy,aristocracy,andmonarchy,thoughnotdrawnfromequalorsimilarpeoplebutfromdifferentgroupsinthedifferentones,sayfromeducatedpeopleinaristocracies,richpeopleinoligarchies,andfreepeopleindemocracies,orsomeoftheofficeshappentobedeterminedbythoseverydifferences,sothatinsomecasesthesameonesareadvantageousandinothercasesdifferentones.Foritisfittingthatthesameofficesbelarge[30]inoneplaceandsmallinanother.Buttherearesurelyalsosomeofficesthatarepeculiartotheformofgovernment,suchasthatofthepre-councilors;forthisisnotdemocratic—acouncilissuitedtopopularrule.Theredoesneedtobesomesortofbodythatwilltakecareofdeliberatinginadvanceforthepopulace,soitcanbeabsorbedinitsbusiness,butifthisissmallinnumberit

isoligarchic;butitisnecessaryforpre-councilorstobefewinnumberandhenceoligarchic.Butwhereboththeseofficesarepresent,thepre-councilorsserveasacheckonthecouncilors,sincethecouncilorissuitedtopopularruleandthepre-councilortooligarchy.Andthepowerofthecouncilisalsooverturnedinthosesortsofdemocraciesin[1300a]whichthepopulaceitselfconvenesandtransactsallbusiness.Thisusuallyhappenswhenthereisanabundanceofpaymentforthosewhoserveintheassembly,sincetheyhavethefreetimetogatherfrequentlyanddecideeverythingthemselves.Andtheoverseersofchildrenandwomen,andanyotherofficialstheremaybewithauthorityforthatsortofmanagement,arearistocratic.Theyarenotdemocratic(forhowisitpossibletokeepthewomenofthepoorfromgoingout?),oroligarchic(forthewomenoftheoligarchsliveinluxury).

Letthismuchbesaidaboutthesemattersfornow;whatneedstobedoneistotrytogooverappointments[10]ofofficialsfromthebeginning.Therearedistinctionswithinthreedefiningcharacteristics,which,whenputtogether,necessarilytakeinallthewaysofappointingthem.Oneofthesethreeiswhothepeoplearewhoappointtheofficials,asecondiswhomthoseappointedaredrawnfrom,andtheremainingoneisinwhatmanneritisdone.Andtherearethreedistinctionswithineachofthesethree.Foreitherallorsomeofthecitizensappointthem,andeitherfromamongallorfromamongsomedesignatedgroup(onthebasis,forinstance,ofapropertyqualification,oroffamily,orvirtue,orsomeothersuchthing,thewaypeoplewereappointedamongtheMegariansfromamongthosewhocamebacktogetherfromexileandjoinedinfightingagainstthepopulace),andthesethingsaredoneeitherbyelectionorbylot.Andthesethingsmayinturn[20]bepairedtogether;Imeanthatsomemayappointsomeofficeswhileallappointothers,andsomemaybedrawnfromamongallandothersfromamongsome,andsomebyelectionandothersbylot.

Outofthese,therewillbesix133wayswithineachdistinction.Foreitherallappointfromallbyelection,orallfromallbylot,orallfromsomebyelection,orallfromsomebylot(andiffromall,eitherbyturns,forinstanceaccordingtotribes,districts,orfraternalgroups,untilitgoesthroughallthecitizens,orelsefromalltogether),oralsosomearedoneonewayandothersanother.If,inturnitissomewhodotheappointing,thisiseitherfromallbyelection,fromallbylot,fromsomebyelection,fromsomebylot,orsome

onewayandothersanother—bywhich[30]Imeaninsomecasesfromallbyelectionandinothersbylot,orinsomecasesfromsomebyelectionandinothersbylot.Sotherecometobetwelveways,apartfromthetwopairings.Threeofthesekindsofappointmentsarecharacteristicofpopularrule:foralltoappointfromamongallbyelectionorlotorboth,thatis,someoftheofficesbylotandothersbyelection.Butfortheappointmentsnottobemadebyalltogether,eitherfromallorfromsome,eitherbylotorelectionorboth,orsomefromallandsomefromsome,eitherbylotorelectionorboth(wherebybothImeansomebylotandsomebyelection)ischaracteristicofconstitutionalrule.Andforsometoappointfromallbyelectionorlotorboth(withsomeofficesbylotandothersbyelection)[40]inclinestowardoligarchy,andmoretowardoligarchywhenitisbyboth;butforthemtoappointsomeofficesfromamongallandothersfromamongsomeischaracteristicofaristocraticallyinclinedconstitutionalrule,[1300b]orsomebyelectionandsomebylot.Forsometoappointfromsomebyelectionisoligarchic,andsimilarlyforsometoappointfromsomebylot(thoughthisdoesnotoccur),andalsoforsometoappointfromsomebybothmeans.Butforsometoappointfromallorallfromsomebyelectionisaristocratic.

Sothewaysofappointingofficialsarethismanyinnumber,anddistinguishedinthiswayamongtheformsofgovernment.Whichareadvantageousforwhichandhowtheappointmentsoughttotakeplacewillbeevidentalongwiththepowersoftheofficesandwhattheyare.134Bythepowerofanoffice,Imean,forexample,authority[10]overrevenuesorauthorityoverdefense,foradifferentformofpowerisinvolvedingeneralship,forinstance,thanintheofficehavingauthorityoveragreementsinthemarketplace.

Chapter16Thejudicialpartistheremainingoneofthethreetodiscuss.Andthe

waysofhandlingthisneedtobetakenuponthesamepremise.Andtherearedistinctionsamonglawcourtswithinthreedefiningcharacteristics:fromamongwhomtheirmembersaredrawn,aboutwhatthingstheyjudge,andhowtheyareappointed.Byfromamongwhom,Imeanwhetherfromallorfromsome,byaboutwhatthings,thenumberofformsoflawcourts,andbyhow,whetherbylotorbyelection.First,then,letthenumberofformsof

lawcourtsbedistinguished.Theyareeightinnumber:oneisforreviewingofficials,[20]anotherincaseanyonecommitsanyinjusticeagainstcommoninterests,anotherforthosethingsthatbearontheconstitution,afourthforthosedisputingthingshavingtodowithpenaltiesforbothofficialsandprivatepersons,afifthhavingtodowithprivatetransactionshavingsomemagnitude,andbesidestheseoneforhomicideandonepertainingtoforeigners.Andtheformsofhomicidecourt,whetherconsistingofthesamejudgesordifferentones,areforpremeditatedorinvoluntaryhomicides,forcasesthatareadmittedbutwherethereisdisputeaboutwhethertheyarejust,afourthforchargesbrought,ontheirreturn,againstpeopleexiledforhomicide,asthecourtinPhreatto135inAthensissaidtohavebeen,thoughfewcourtsofthatsort[30]haveturnedupinalltimeeveninlargecities.Ofthecourtforforeigners,onepartisforforeignersagainstforeignersandtheotherforforeignersagainstnativecitizens.Also,besidesallthese,thereisaformofcourtdealingwithsmalltransactions,thoseamountingtoadrachmaorfivedrachmasoralittlemore.Foradecisionhastobemadeaboutthesecasestoo,butitdoesnotrequireamultitudeofjudges.

Butletwhatpertainstothesecourts,andthoseforhomicidesandforeigners,beputaside,andletusspeakaboutthepoliticalones,becausewhenthesearenotbeautifullyhandled,factionaldivisionsariseandchangesofgovernmenthappen.Anditisnecessaryeitherforalltodecideonallthemattersthatweredistinguished,basedonelection[40]orlot,orallonthemallwithsomechosenbylotandothersbyelection,orallonsomeofthesamematters,eitherchosenbylotor[1301a]elected.Theseways,then,arefourinnumber,andthereareasmanymoreiftheyaredecidedbypartofthecitizenry.Forthosewhojudgeaboutallthingsmayinturnbedrawnfromsomecitizensbyelection,oraboutallthingsfromsomecitizensbylot,orsomeofthembylotandothersbyelection,orsomecourtsdealingwiththesesamethingsmayconsistofbothallottedandelectedcitizens.These,then,aswassaid,arethewayscorrespondingtothosethatwerementioned.Also,thesameonesmaybeconjoined;Imean,forinstance,somecourtsdrawnfromall,somefromsome,andothersfromboth(if,forexample,somedrawnfromallandsomefromsomeweremembersofthesamecourt),andeither[10]bylot,byelection,orboth.

Thenumberofwaysitispossibletohandlethelawcourtshasbeenstated.

Thefirstsortsofcourts,thosedrawnfromallanddealingwithallthings,aredemocratic;thesecondsorts,thosedrawnfromsomeanddealingwithallthings,areoligarchic;andthethirdsorts,thosedrawnfromallonsomemattersandfromsomeonothers,arearistocraticorsuitedtoconstitutionalrule.

_______________________________________117InPlato’sStatesman(302E-303B),theEleaticStrangerarguesthattheweaknessofdemocracymakesitworsethananydecentgovernmentthathaspowerinfewerhands,butsaferthananycorruptone.118Seethefootnoteto1278b23above.Aristotleisreferringtothepassagebeginningin369BoftheRepublic,inwhichSocratesdescribeswhatGlauconmemorablycallsacityofpigs.Socrates,asafirstandminimalhypothesis,imaginesacitythatsatisfiesonlythesimplestneedsoflifeandhealth;theinadequacyofthatcityprovokesaspontaneousresponsefromtheyoungmenheisspeakingto,whothentakepartinsearchingforamoreacceptableaccount.119Nosixthparthasbeenmentioned,buttheendofBk.VII,Chap.8,below,givesasimilarlistthatincludespriests.120ThelinequotedisspokenbyOdysseusatII,204oftheIliad,whenhehasturnedtheAchaeansbackfromadisorderlymobintoanarmy,andrestoredthesupremecommandtoAgamemnon.Aristotlemayfinditsapplicationambiguousinapoliticalcontext,buthecitesitwithnosuchhesitationattheendofBk.XIIoftheMetaphysics.121Somethingismissinginthemanuscripts,andRosshesitantlysuggeststhe“not.”The“revenue”mentionedisexplainedbelowaspublicfundstopayforserviceintheassembly.122Seethefootnoteto1270b24above.123ThetranslationfollowsRoss’seditorialinsertion.Thetextisunclear,butItakethemeaningoftheargumentinthisparagraphtobethatpoliteia(constitutionalrule)isanamethatrightlyappliestoaformthatblendstwocriteriaforholdingofficethatcanbeconstitutionallyspecified,propertyownershipandfreebirth.Itisnotamatterofdefinitionthatexcludesthethirdcriterion,butthefactthatvirtueisdifferentinkindfromtheothertwo.Wheresomeonefromthepoorerclasscanbevotedintohigherofficeonthebasisofmerit,thegovernmentisaformofaristocracy.Butifthosevotingmistaketheadvantagesofwealthforvirtue,thebasisforhigherofficeisstillinfactthepropertyqualificationcharacteristicofconstitutionalrule.124Thewordsumbolon,usuallytranslated“tally,”referredtotheirregularly

shapedhalvesofabrokencoindividedbetweentwopartiestoacontract.125Byreferringtothemean(tomeson),Aristotleisexcludingintellectualexcellenceandspeakingofvirtueofcharacter.Theprincipalsuchvirtuesarecourage,temperance,andjustice.Thesearenotattributesofamiddlingormediocresortofperson,noraretheyoutofthereachofanyperson.Theyaremeansinthesensethattheybelongtoastateofcharacterthatisnotcontrolledbymomentaryimpulsesoffear,desireforpleasure,orgreed,buthasnotovercomethoseimpulsesbysubstitutingforthemarigiddisciplineofself-denial.Thelifeofvirtue,asAristotledescribesitintheNicomacheanEthics,isalifeofunimpededself-fulfillment,livedthroughthepowerofchoice.Anyonewholivesitiscalleddecent(epieikês)orgood(agathos)byAristotle;butthereisanotherword,spoudaios,thathereservesforpeopleofshiningexcellence.SeeBk.III,Chap.4,above,whereAristotleexplicitlysaysthatexcellenceasacitizendoesnotrequireintellectualvirtue(1277a14-16).126AninscriptiononthetempleofApolloatDelphiread“measureisbest.”Asforwealthandpovertyinparticular,onemaynoteSocrates’argumentintheRepublic(421C-422A)thatbothconditionsblighthumanlives.127AmoreelegantandthoughtfulversionofthesamesentimentmaybefoundinSocrates’prayerattheendofPlato’sPhaedrus.128TheAthenianempireatseaandtheSpartanallianceonlandwerebuttressedbythelocaldemocraticoroligarchicfactions,respectively,oftheirconstituentcities,andtheyhelpedbringthosegroupstopower.SeeThucydides,PeloponnesianWar,Bk.I,Chap.19.129Thereisnoagreementamongscholarsaboutwhotheonemanis.MuchoftheirspeculationmaybebesidethepointAristotleismakinghere,whichseemstoapplyonlytoAthenianandSpartanpolicytowardthecitiesalliedwiththem.ItispossiblethatheisthinkingofBrasidas,theSpartancommanderwhotoldthepeopleofAcanthusthathisaimwastoliberatethemfromtheAthenians,notsubjectthemtotheirownoligarchicparty.SeeThucydides,PeloponnesianWar,Bk.IV,Chap.86.130Thefollowingchapterdetailsthetricksabadlymixedconstitutionmightusetolimittheparticipationofthecommonpeople,whilegivingthemtheillusionofaroleinthegovernment.InBk.X,Chap.1,oftheNicomacheanEthics,Aristotlemakesanargumentsimilartotheonehere,againstthosewho

thinkthatthecommonpeopleoughttobetoldthatpleasureisabadthing.131Orpossiblyinspectorsofweightsandmeasures.132Presumablyaroasting-spitmadetodoubleasalamp-stand,foruseonmilitarycampaigns.ThisisnotquitethesamesortofthingastheDelphicknifementionedat1252b2,anall-purposeimplementforcarving,butsomethingdesignedtocombinetwounrelatedfunctions.133Themanuscriptshavethenumberfour,butthetextofthisentireparagraphisuncertain,andexactlywhatisbeingcountedwhenisunclear.ThetranslationfollowsRoss’sversion,whichincorporatesanumberofemendations.(Thereis,incidentally,araretypographicalerrorinawordinline25oftheOxfordClassicalText,andanunpairedparenthesisinline39.)134ThisisareferencetoBk.VI,Chap.8,butthereisnoexplicitdiscussionthereofthequestionspostponedhere.135“InPhreatto”meantonthedeckofaship,fromwhichthedefendantaddressedjudgeswhostoodonlandinthePeiraeus,becausetheproceedingswereofficialactsofAthenswhiletheaccusedwasnotallowedtobeinAthens.SeeAristotle’sConstitutionofAthens,57.

BOOKVChapter1[1301a]

Justaboutalltheothertopicsweproposed[20]havebeendiscussed.Thethingsthatneedtobelookedintonextafterwhathasbeendiscussedarethesourcesfromwhichchangesinformsofgovernmentarise,howmanyandofwhatsorttheyare,whatkindsofdestructionbelongtoeachform,andintowhatsortstheyaremostlikelytochangefromwhatsorts,aswellaswhatkindsofpreservationthereareforthemincommonandseparatelyforeach,andalsobywhatmeanseachformofgovernmentcouldmostappropriatelybepreserved.Andonemustfirsttakeasastartingpointthatmanyformsofgovernmenthavecomeintobeingbecause,whileallpeoplespeakwithonevoiceaboutjusticeandproportionalequality,theygoastrayaboutthem,aswassaidearlier.136Popularrulecamefrompeople’ssupposingthattheywereequalsimplyiftheywereequal[30]inanyrespectwhatever(forbecausetheyareallalikefree,theyconsiderthemselvesequalsimply).Andoligarchycamefrompeople’sassumingtheywerewhollyunequaliftheywereunequalinoneparticularrespect(forbecausetheyareunequalinpropertytheyassumetheyareunequalsimply).Sothentheonegroupclaims,onthegroundsthattheyareequal,thattheydeservetotakeanequalpartinallthings,whiletheothergroupseekstohaveagreatershareonthegroundsthattheyareunequal,sincewhatisgreaterisunequal.Sowhiletheirclaimsallhaveacertainjustice,theyarealloffthemarkifjusticeistakeninanunqualifiedsense.Andforthisreason,wheneveroneortheothergroupdoesnotparticipateinthegovernmentinthemanneroftheassumptionithappenstohold,theyhavefactionalconflict.Ofallthese,theoneswhocoulddivideoffasafactionwiththemostjustice,[40]butdosotheleast,arethosewhoexcelinvirtue,[1301b]forthemostreasonableclaimtobeunequalsimplywouldbelongtothemalone.Buttherearesomewho,becausetheyexcelonthebasisoffamily,claimthatowingtothissortofinequalitytheydonotdeserveequaltreatment,sincetheyseemtobehigh-bornpeoplewhohavethevirtueandwealthoftheirancestors.

These,then,sotospeak,arethesourcesandspringsoffaction,andpeopledivideintofactionsasaresultofthem.Andchangescomefromthemintwo

ways.Sometimestheyaredirectedattheformofgovernment,tochangefromtheestablishedoneintoanother,suchasintoanoligarchyfromademocracyorademocracyfromanoligarchy,orfromtheseintoconstitutionalrule[10]oraristocracyorfromthelatterintotheformer;butsometimestheyarenotdirectedattheestablishedformofgovernment,andpeoplechoosetokeeptheestablishedonethesame,butwantthistobeintheirowncontrol,aswitholigarchyormonarchy.Theymayalsohavetodowithmoreandless;forinstance,ifthereisanoligarchy,tochangeitintoonethatisruninamoreoligarchicway,orintoonethatislessso,orifthereisademocracy,intoonethatisruninamoreorlessdemocraticway,andsimilarlywiththerestoftheformsofgovernment,eithertotightenorloosenthem.Theymayalsohavetodowithcausingachangeinsomepartofthegovernment,forexampletosetuporabolishacertainoffice,thewaysomepeoplesayLysandertried[20]todoawaywiththekingshipinSparta,andKingPausaniastriedtodoawaywiththeofficeofephors;andatEpidamnustherewasapartialchangeintheformofgovernment(fortheyputinacouncilinplaceofthetriballeaders,butevensotherulingofficialsaretheonlymembersoftheadministrationrequiredtogointothemeetinghallwhenanofficeisvotedon,anditwasalsooligarchicthattherewasonerulingofficial137inthisgovernment).Everywhere,factionisduetoinequality,ifitdoesnotbelongtounequalpeopleinaproportionalway(foraperpetualkingshipisunequalifitispresentamongequals),sinceinallcasesitispeopleseekingequalitywhoengageinfactionalconflict.

Butequalityisoftwokinds,one[30]beinginnumberandtheotheraccordingtomerit.By“innumber”Imeanthatwhichisthesameandequalinmultitudeormagnitude,andby“accordingtomerit”thatwhichisinthesameratio.Forinstance,threeexceedstwoandthelatterexceedsoneequallyaccordingtonumber,butinratio,fourexceedstwoandthelatterexceedsoneequallyinratio,sincetwoisanequalpartoffourasoneisoftwo,becausebotharehalves.Andwhilepeopleareinagreementthatwhatisjustsimplyiswhataccordswithmerit,theydifferinthewaythatwasstatedbefore,somebelievingthattheyarewhollyequaliftheyareequalinanyrespect,andothersconsideringthemselvestomeritallthingsunequallyiftheyareunequalinsomerespect.Hencetwoformsofgovernmentcomeabout[40]mostofall:popularruleandoligarchy.Forhighbirthandvirtuearepresent[1302a]infewpeople,butthosethingsinthegreaternumber;fornowherearetherea

hundredwhoarehighbornandgood,butinmanyplacesmanyarewelloff.Butforequalityineverythingtobeassignedsimplyoneitherbasisisabadthing,andthisisobviousfromthewaythingsturnout,fornotoneofthegovernmentsofthesesortsisenduring.Andthereasonforthisisthatitisimpossiblenottomeetsomebadendafterthefirstmistakeismadeatthebeginning.Thatiswhyitisnecessarytomakeuseofnumericalequalityinsomemattersandequalityofmeritinothers.

Allthesame,democracyismorestableandmorefreeoffactionthanoligarchy.Forin[10]oligarchies,twosortsoffactionarise,oneamongthemselvesandanotheragainstthepopulace,whileindemocraciesthereisonlyfactionagainsttheoligarchy,andwhateversortoffactiontherecouldbeinthepopulaceitselfagainstitselfthatisevenworthyofmentiondoesnotarise.Also,theformofgovernmentdrawnfromthemiddlerangeisclosertothatofthepopulacethantothatofthefew,anditisthemoststableofgovernmentsofthesesorts.

Chapter2Sincewearelookingintothethingsfromwhichfactionalconflictsand

changesinformsofgovernmentcome,thegeneralsourcesandcausesofthemneedtobetakenupfirst.Andonemaysaytheseareprettymuchthreeinnumber,eachofwhichneedstobedistinguishedinoutline[20]first.Foronemustunderstandwhatconditionpeopleareinwhentheyengageinfactionalconflict,theendforthesakeofwhichtheydoso,andthirdlywhatinitialoccasionsariseforturmoilamongcitizensandfactionsagainstoneanother.Andonemustholdsomethingwehappentohavespokenofalreadytobethemostgeneralcauseoftheirbeingdisposedtowardchange.Forthosewhoaimatequalityformfactionsiftheybelievethat,despitebeingequal,theyhavelessthanthosewhoholdtheupperhand,whilethosewhoaimatinequalityandpredominancedosoiftheyassumethat,despitebeingunequal,theydonothavemorebutanequalorlesseramount.(Andthereisawayinwhichitisjusttodesirethesethings,andawayinwhichitisunjust.)Thosewhoareinthelesserposition[30]formfactionssotheymightbeequal,andthosewhoareequalinordertobeinthegreaterposition.Whatconditionpeopleareinwhentheyformfactions,then,hasbeenstated.Thethingsoverwhichtheyformfactionsareprofitandhonor,andtheoppositesoftheseaswell.For

peoplealsoformfactionsintheircitiestoavoiddishonorandfines,ontheirownbehalforthatoftheirfriends.Andthecausesandsourcesofchanges,whichleadpeopletobedisposedinthewaydescribedoverthethingsmentioned,turnouttobeinonesenseseveninnumber,butinanothersensemore.Twoofthemarethesameastheonesdescribed,butnotinthesameway;forpeopleareprovokedagainstoneanotherbyprofitandhonornotinorderthat[40]theymightobtainthemthemselves,aswassaidbefore,but[1302b]alsobecausetheyseeothersgettingmoreofthesethings,somejustlyandothersunjustly.Theyarealsoprovokedbyinsolence,fear,superiority,contempt,anddisproportionategrowth,andalsoinadifferentway138bycanvassingforvotes,nottakingthingsseriously,smalldifferences,anddissimilarity.

Chapter3Amongthese,itisprettyobviouswhatsortofpowerinsolenceandprofit

have,andhowtheyarecauses.Forwhenthoseinrulingofficesactinsolentlyandtakemorethantheirshare,peopleformfactionsbothagainstoneanotherandagainsttheformsofgovernmentthatgavethemlicensetodoso.Andtheirtakingmorethantheirsharecomessometimesfrom[10]privatepersonsandsometimesfrompublicfunds.Anditisalsoclearinwhatmannerhonorhaspower,andhowitisacauseoffaction.Forpeopleformfactionswhentheythemselvesaredishonoredandseeothershonored;andthesethingshappenunjustlywhenpeopleareeitherhonoredordishonoredcontrarytowhattheydeserve,butjustlywhenitisinaccordwithwhattheydeserve.Factioncomesfromsuperioritywheneveranyone(whetheronepersonormore)isgreaterinpowerthanwhataccordswiththecityandthepowerofitsadministration,sinceitisusualforamonarchyorconfederacyofthepowerfultoariseoutofsuchpeople.Thisiswhypeopleinsomeplaces,suchasArgosandAthens,usuallyresorttoostracism,althoughitisbettertoseetoitfromthebeginningthatnoone[20]presentinthecityattainssuchgreatsuperiority,ratherthanallowingittohappenonlytoremedyitafterward.Peopleformfactionsoutoffearbothwhentheyhavecommittedinjusticeandareafraidtheywillpaythepenalty,andwhentheyareabouttosufferinjusticeandwanttogetinfirstbeforeithappenstothem,thewaytheprominentpeopleinRhodesorganizedagainstthepopulacebecauseofthelawsuits

broughtagainstthem.Andpeopleformfactionsandgoontheattackonaccountofcontemptinoligarchies,forexample,whenthosewhohavenoshareinthegovernmentaregreaterinnumber,becausetheysupposethemselvestobestronger,andindemocracieswhenthosewhoarewelloffbecomecontemptuousofthedisorderandunruliness.InThebes,forinstance,afterthebattleat[30]Oenophyta,thedemocracywasdestroyedbybeingbadlygoverned,andthatoftheMegarianswasoverturnedbecauseofdisorderandunruliness,andthesamethinghappenedinSyracusebeforethetyrannyofGelon,andtopopularruleinRhodesbeforethecoup.

Changesinformsofgovernmentalsooccurbecauseofdisproportionategrowth.Forjustasabodyiscomposedofpartsandneedstogrowinproportionsothatitssymmetrywillbemaintained,andifitdoesnotitisdestroyed(asitwouldbeifitsfootwerefouryardslongandtherestofitsbodytwofeettall),orsometimesitchangesintotheshapeofadifferentanimalifitweretogrowoutofproportionnotjustinsize[40]butqualitativelyaswell,sotooisacitycomposed[1303a]ofparts,anincreaseinanyofwhich,suchasthemultitudeofneedypeopleindemocraciesorconstitutionallyruledgovernments,oftengoesunnoticed.Andthishappenssometimesbecauseofchanceevents,asinTarentum,wheremanyprominentpeopleweredefeatedandkilledbytheIapygiansalittleafterthePersianwars,andademocracyaroseoutofaconstitutionalgovernment;andinArgos,theywereforcedtotakeinsomeofthesurroundingpopulationbecauseofthosewhowerekilledontheseventh139byCleomenesofSparta;andinAthens,whentheysufferedmisfortunesonland,theprominentpeoplebecamefewer,becausetheyservedinthemilitaryonthebasisof[10]thecitizenregistryaroundthetimeoftheSpartanWar.140Thishappensindemocraciestoo,butlessso.Forwhenmorepeoplecometobewellofforpropertiesgetlarger,theychangeintooligarchiesandconfederaciesofthepowerful.

Andformsofgovernmentchangeevenwithoutfactionalconflict,bothasaresultofcanvassingforvotes,141asatHeraea(forthiswaswhytheymadetheofficesbechosenbylotinsteadofelected,becausetheywerechoosingthosewhowerecanvassedfor),andasaresultofnottakingthingsseriously,whenpeopleallowthosewhoarenotfriendlytothegovernmenttocomeintoofficesofauthority,thewaytheoligarchyinOreuswasoverturnedwhen

Heracleodorusbecameoneoftheofficials,andreorganized[20]theoligarchyintoconstitutionalruleandevendemocracy.Theyalsochangelittle-by-little,bywhichImeanthatoften,whenpeopleoverlooksomethingsmall,agreattransformationincustomscomesaboutunnoticed,asinAmbraciatherewasasmallpropertyqualification,butintheendpeopletookofficewithnone,ontheviewthatthesmallonewassoclosetononethatitmadenodifference.

Dissimilarityofracesalsocontributestofaction,untiltheygettheirbreathinginsync.142Forjustasacitydoesnotcomeintobeingfromarandommultitudeofpeople,sotooitdoesnotcomeintobeingatarandomtime.Thisiswhy,uptonow,thosethathaveacceptedjointcolonistsorlatersettlershaveinmostcasessplitintofactions.Forinstance,theAchaeanscolonizedSybarisjointlywiththeTroezenians,butthen,whentheAchaeans[30]becamemorenumeroustheythrewouttheTroezenians,whichwasthesourceofthecursethatcameupontheSybarites.AndatThuriitheSybaritessplitintofactionswiththeirjointcolonists,fortheythoughttheydeservedtohavemorebecausetheterritorywastheirs,andtheyweredrivenout.143AndwhenthelatersettlersofByzantiumwerecaughtplottingagainsttheByzantines,thelatterthrewthemoutbyarmedforce.TheAntissaeansalsothrewoutbyarmedforcetheexiledChianstheyhadallowedin,andwhentheZanclaeanstookintheSamians,therefugeesthemselvesthrewthemout.ThepeopleofApolloniaontheBlackSeagotinvolvedinfactionalconflictwhentheybroughtinnewsettlers;theSyracusans,afterthetimeofthetyrants,whentheymade[1303b]citizensoftheirforeignmercenaries,splitintofactionsandcameintobattle;andwhenthepeopleofAmphipolistookinsettlersfromamongtheChalcideans,mostofthemwerethrownoutbythem.(Inoligarchies,thebulkofthepeopleformfactionsinthebeliefthattheyaretreatedunjustlybecausetheydonotsharethingsequally,aswassaidbefore,despitebeingequal,andindemocraciestheprominentpeopledosobecausetheydosharethingsequally,despitenotbeingequal.)

Sometimes,too,citiessplitintofactionsonaccountofterritory,whenthelandisnotnaturallysuitedtobeasinglecity,asatClazomenae,wherethoseatChytrumopposedthose[10]ontheisland;sotoowiththepeopleofColophonandNotium.EvenatAthens,thepeoplelivinginthePeiraeusarenotlikethoseintownbutmoreinclinedtopopularrule.Forjustasinwar,

crossingsoverditches,evenwhentheyareverysmall,breakupthebattlelines,so,itseems,everydifferencemakesadivision.Andthegreatestdivisionisperhapsthatofvirtueandvice;nextiswealthandpoverty,andsoonewithonegreaterthananother,andoneofthemistheonementioned.

Chapter4Andwhilefactionsdonotariseoversmallmatters,theycomefromsmall

occasionsandproducedivisionsoverlargematters.Andevensmallthingsgainstrengthespeciallywhentheyariseamongthoseinpositionsof[20]authority,ashappenedinSyracuse,forexample,inancienttimes.Fortheformofgovernmentchangedwhentwoyoungmenwhowereinrulingofficescameintofactionalconflictoveramattereroticinorigin.Forwhenoneofthemwasoutoftown,theother,whowashisclosefriend,wonovertheboyheloved;heinturn,furiousattheother,persuadedhiswifetocometobedwithhim,andfromthatbeginningtheydrewineveryoneintheadministrationandsplitintofactions.Thatiswhyitisnecessarytobewaryofsuchthingswhentheyaregettingstarted,andbreakupfactionsamongpowerfulleaders.Themistakecomesatthebeginning,andthebeginningissaidtobehalfofthewhole,144[30]sowhenthereisevenasmallmistakeatthatpointitisproportionallymagnifiedintheotherparts.Ingeneral,whentherearefactionsamongprominentpeople,theymakethewholecityjoininthefun,145ashappenedinHestiaeaafterthePersianwarswhentwobrothersquarreledaboutthedistributionoftheirinheritance;theonewhowasmoreneedy,onthegroundsthathisbrotherwasnotdeclaringthevalueoftheestateorofthetreasuretheirfatherhadfound,drewthepopularpartyinwithhim,whiletheother,whohadgreatwealth,drewinthewell-off.AndinDelphi,asourceofalllaterfactionscamefromaquarrelstemmingfrom[1304a]amarriage.Foramanwhointerpretedsomemishapashewascomingforhisbrideasanomenwentawaywithouttakingher,andherkin,takingthisasamortalinsult,plantedsomesacredobjectsonhimwhilehewassacrificingandthenkilledhimasasacrilegiousthief.AndinMytilene,asourceofmanyevils,andofthewaragainsttheAtheniansinwhichPachestookovertheircity,arosefromafactionalsquabblestemmingfromheiresses.ForwhenTimophanes,oneofthewell-offcitizens,diedandlefttwodaughters,Dexander,whowasturneddownanddidnotgetthemforhissons,startedafactionalconflictandstirred

uptheAthenians,[10]ofwhosecityhewastherepresentative.AtPhocistooafactionalconflictstemmingfromanheiressinvolvedMnaseas,thefatherofMnason,andEuthycrates,thefatherofOnomarchus,andthisconflictbecametheoriginoftheSacredWarforthePhocians.AndatEpidamnustheformofgovernmentchangedasaresultofanengagement;forsomeonewhohadpromisedhisdaughterinmarriage,whenthefatherofherbetrothedbecameoneoftheofficialsandfinedhim,joinedinleaguewiththosewhowereexcludedfromthegovernmentbecausehefelthehadbeenbadlymistreated.

Therearealsochangesintooligarchyorintopopularorconstitutionalrulethatresultwhenagoverningbodyoraportionofthecitygetsagoodreputationforanythingorgrowsinsize.[20]Forexample,thecounciloftheAreopagusseemstohavemadethegovernmentofAthensmorestrictafteritgotagoodreputationinthePersianwars,andtheninturn,whenthemobofsailorswasresponsibleforthevictoryatSalamis,whichledtoapositionofleadershipduetopoweratsea,itmadethedemocracystronger.AndinArgos,whentheprominentpeoplegotagoodreputationforthebattleagainsttheSpartansinMantinea,theytriedtooverturnthepopularrule.AndinSyracuse,whenthepopulacewasresponsibleforvictoryinthewaragainsttheAthenianstheychangedfromconstitutionalruletodemocracy.AndinChalcis,thepopulace,[30]alongwiththeprominentpeople,deposedthetyrantPhoxusandimmediatelytookholdofthegovernment.AndinAmbracia,inthesamewayagain,thepopulacejoinedinthrowingoutthetyrantPerianderwiththosewhohadattackedhim,andbroughtthegovernmentaroundtoitself.Andingeneral,thismustnotbeoverlooked,thatthosewhohavebeenresponsibleforpower,whetherprivatepersons,rulingbodies,tribes,orgenerallyanypartorgroupwhatever,setfactionalconflictinmotion.Foreitherthosewhoenvythemforbeinghonoredinitiatetheconflict,ortheythemselvesareunwillingtostayonanequalfootingbecauseoftheirdistinction.Andformsofgovernmentalsochangewheneverthepartsofthecitythatseemtobeopposedbecomeequal[1304b]toeachother,asinthecaseofthewealthyandthepopulace,whenthereisnomiddlegroup,oraverysmallone.Forifoneortheothersidehasamuchsuperiorposition,theremainingoneisunwillingtotaketheriskagainstthesidethatisobviouslystronger.Andthisisalsowhythosewhoareoutstandinginvirtuedonotcauseanyfactionaltroubletospeakof,sincetheyarefewagainstmany.

Universally,then,thisisthewayitiswiththesourcesandcausesoffactionandchangeinallformsofgovernment.Andpeoplesometimeschangetheirformsofgovernmentbyforce,sometimesbydeceit,andbyforceeitherrightfromthebeginningorbyresortingtocompulsionafterward.[10]Anddeceitcomesintwoformsaswell,forsometimestheypulloffacompletedeceptionatfirstandchangethegovernmentwhilepeoplearewilling,thenclampdownwithforceafterwardwhenpeopleareunwilling.Thereisthecase,forexample,oftheFourHundred,146whodeceivedthepopulacebyclaimingthekingofPersiawasgoingtoprovidemoneyforthewaragainsttheSpartans,andtriedtoclampdownonthegovernmentafterpeopleboughtthelie.Butsometimes,afterpersuadingpeopleatthebeginning,theypersuadethemagainafterwardandruleoverwillingpersons.

Insimpleoutlineforallformsofgovernment,then,changesendupoccurringasaresultofthethingsmentioned.

Chapter5Butitisnecessarytostudytheconsequencesofthesethingsbydividing

themup[20]foreachparticularformofgovernment.Anddemocracieschangemostoftenbecauseoftherecklessbehaviorofdemagogues.147Insomecases,bymakingunjustifiedprivateaccusationsagainstthosewhohavewealth,theycausethemtounite(foracommonfearbringseventheworstenemiestogether);inothercasestheyincitethemultitudeincommon.Andonemayseemanyoccasionswherethishashappenedintheseways.ForinCosthedemocracychangedwhencorruptdemagoguesarose(fortheprominentpeopleorganizedagainstthem),andinRhodesaswell;forthedemagoguesprovidedpayforpublicserviceandpreventedpayingwhatwasduetothenavalcommanders,whowereforced[30]bythelawsuitsbroughtagainstthemtoorganizetooverthrowthepopulargovernment.148AndpopularrulewasalsooverthrownonaccountofdemagoguesinHeracleaimmediatelyafteritwascolonized,fortheprominentpeopleweredrivenoutbybeingunjustlytreatedattheirhands,butthentheexilesgatheredtogether,cameback,andoverthrewthepopulargovernment.AndthedemocracyinMegarawasoverthrowninprettymuchthesameway,forthedemagoguesexpelledmanyoftheprominentcitizenssothattheycouldconfiscatetheir

possessions,untiltheymadesomanyexilesthattheycameback,werevictoriousinbattleoverthepopulace,andsetupanoligarchy.Thesamethingalsohappenedat[1305a]CymeinthecaseofthedemocracythatThrasymachusoverthrew.Andonewhostudiesthechangesinotherdemocracieswouldseethisisprettymuchthewaytheyhappen.Forsometimes,bytreatingtheprominentpeopleunjustlyinordertogratifythepeople,theydrivethemtoorganizebyredistributingeithertheirestatesortheirincomethroughleviesforpublicbenefits;andsometimestheyresorttoslandersothattheycanconfiscatethepropertyoftherich.

Intheolddays,whenthesamepersonwouldbecomeademagogueandageneral,popularrulechangedintotyranny.Forprettymuchthegreatestnumberoftheearlytyrantscamefromdemagogues.[10]Andthereasonthishappenedthenbutnotnowisthatinthosedaysthedemagoguesweredrawnfromthosewhoservedasgeneralsandwerenotyetskilledatspeaking,whilenowadays,withthespreadofrhetoricalskill,thosewhoarecapableofspeakingbecomedemagogues,butduetotheirinexperienceinwarfaretheydonotattemptanythingbeyondthat,unlesssomesuchthinghashappenedsomewheretoaslightextent.Andtyranniesalsoarosemoreoftenformerlythannowbecausegreatofficeswereinthehandsparticularpersons,ashappenedfromthepresidencyinMiletus,forthepresidenthadauthorityovermanygreatmatters.Also,becauseinthosedayscitieswerenotlargeandthepopulacelivedintheir[20]fieldswheretheywerebusywiththeirwork,thechampionsofthepopulace,whentheywereskilledatwarfare,attemptedtyranny.Theyalldidthisbywinningthetrustofthepopulace,andthemeansofwinningtrustwastheirhostilitytotherich;inAthens,forinstance,Peisistratusstirredupfactionalconflictagainstthepeopleoftheplain,149inMegara,Theagenesslaughteredtheherdsofthewealthywhenhecaughtthemgrazingofftheirownlandsbytheriver,andDionysiusearnedhistyrannybydenouncingDaphnaeusandtherich,usinghostilitytowintrustassomeonewhowasonthesideofthepeople.

Democraciesalsochangefromtheancestralkindtothelatestsort.Forwheretheoffices[30]areelected,andthereisnopropertyqualification,andthepopulaceelectsthem,thosewhocampaignforvotesbringthingstosuchapassbytheirdemagoguerythatthepopulaceisinauthorityevenoverthelaws.Aremedy,topreventthisfromhappeningormakeithappenlessisforthe

tribestochoosetherulers,ratherthanthepopulaceasawhole.Justaboutallthechangesindemocracies,then,happenforthesereasons.

Chapter6Oligarchieschangemostoftenintwomostobviousways.Oneoccurs

whentheytreatthemultitudeunjustly,forthenanychampionissufficient,especiallywhenit[40]turnsoutthattheleadercomesfromtheoligarchyitself,aswithLygdamisinNaxos,whoafterwardbecameatyrantoverthe[1305b]Naxians.Thesourceoffactiontakesdifferentformswhenitcomesfromothers.Forsometimestheoverthrowcomesfromwithinthegroupofthosewhoarewelloffthemselves,butarenotincludedintherulingoffices,whenthosewhoholdthehonorsareexceedinglyfew.Thishashappened,forinstance,inMassalia,inIstrus,inHeraclea,andinothercities.Forthosewhohadnoshareintheofficeskeptcausingcommotionuntilfirsttheolderbrothers,andlatertheyoungeronesalso,gotashare.Forinsomeplacesafatherandsoncannotholdofficeatthesametime,andinsomeanolderandyounger[10]brothercannot.TheoligarchyinMassaliabecamemorelikeconstitutionalrule,theoneinIstrusendedupturningintopopularrule,andtheoneinHeracleawentfromasmallernumberofparticipantstosixhundred.AndinCnidustheoligarchychangedwhentheprominentpeopleformedfactionsamongthemselvesbecausesofewweretakingpart,andaswasmentioned,asoncouldnottakepartifafatherdid,andnonebuttheeldestiftherewereanumberofbrothers;andwhiletheirfactionswereinconflictthepopulacegotinvolved,tookupachampionfromamongtheprominentpeople,andattackedandconqueredthem,sincewhatissplitbyfactionisweak.AndinErythrae,intheoligarchyoftheBasilidaeinancienttimes,[20]eventhoughthingswerewelllooked-afterbythoseinthegovernment,thepopulacestillchangedtheformofgovernmentbecausetheywerediscontentedatbeingruledbysofew.

Oligarchiesarealsochangedfromwithintheirownrankswhentheybecomedemagoguesoutofrivalry.Anddemagoguerytakestwoforms,oneofwhichiswithinthefewthemselves,forademagoguemayariseevenwhentheyareveryfew.Forinstance,intheThirtyinAthens,thosearoundChariclesgrewstrongbydemagogueryaimedattheThirty,150andthosearoundPhrynicusdidsointhesamewayamongtheFourHundred.Theother

formoccurswhenthosewhoarewithintheoligarchyaimtheirdemagogueryatthemob;inLarisa,forexample,theguardiansofthecitizensengagedindemagoguerywiththemob[30]becausetheyweretheoneswhoelectedthem.Thishappensinallthoseoligarchiesinwhichthosewhoelecttheofficesarenotthosefromamongwhomtheofficeholderscome,butthosewhoholdofficecomefromlargepropertyqualificationsorpoliticalclubs,whilethosewhoelectthemarethecitizenswhobeararmsorthepopulace.ThisisexactlywhathappenedinAbydos,andithappenswhereverthelawcourtsarenotfilledfromtheadministration,forwhenpeopleactlikedemagoguestogetverdicts,theychangetheformofgovernment,whichhappenedalsoinHeracleaontheBlackSea.Anditalsohappenswheneversomedrawtheoligarchyintoasmallergroup,forthosewhoseekanequalshareareforcedtobringinthepopulaceashelpers.

Changesfromanoligarchyalsocomeaboutwhenever[40]oligarchsuseuptheirprivatefortunesbylivingindissipation,forpeopleofthatsortseektomakeinnovations,andeitherattemptatyrannythemselvesor[1306a]backsomeoneelseinstartingone,asHipparinusdidwithDionysiusinSyracuse.InAmphipolissomeonewhosenamewasCleotimusbroughtinpeoplefromChalcidiaassettlers,andwhentheycameheincitedthemtofactionalconflictagainstthosewhowerewelloff;andinAegina,themanwhomadethedealwithChares151attemptedtochangetheformofgovernmentforareasonofthissort.Sometimestheymakesomeattempttochangethingsdirectly,butsometimestheystealcommonfunds,withtheresultthateithertheyorthosewhofightagainsttheonesdoingthestealingstirupfactionamongthemselves,whichhappenedatApolloniaontheBlackSea.Whenanoligarchyislike-minded,[10]itisnoteasilychangedfromwithinitself.ThegovernmentinPharsalusisasignofthis,foralthoughtheyarefew,theystayinauthorityovermanybecauseofthebeautifulwaytheytreatoneanother.Butwhentheymakeanotheroligarchywithintheoligarchy,theyareoverthrown.Thishappenswhen,despitethefactthewholeadministrationconsistsoffewpeople,notallofthosefewshareinthehighestoffices,whichhappenedatonetimeinElis;forthoughthegovernmentwasheldbyfew,veryfewofthemgottobeamongtheelders,becausetheywerepermanentlyfixedatninetymembersandthechoiceofthem,likethatoftheeldersinSparta,152favoredthepowerful.

Achangecanhappen[20]inoligarchiesbothinwarandinpeace.Inwarithappenswhentheyareforcedtousemercenariesbecauseoftheirdistrustofthepopulace,fortheonewhoisgivenchargeofthemoftenbecomesatyrant,asTimophanesdidinCorinth,andwhentherearemorethanone,theysetthemselvesupasaconfederacyofthepowerful.Sometimes,outoffearofthesethings,theygivethemultitudeashareinthegovernmentbecausetheyareforcedtomakeuseofthepopulace.Butinpeace,becauseoftheirdistrustofoneanother,theyturnovertheirsecuritytomercenariesandtoaneutralofficial,whosometimesgetstobeinauthorityoverbothsides;thisiswhathappenedinLarisa[30]duringtheruleoftheAleuadaewhosurroundedSimus,andinAbydosatthetimeofthepoliticalclubs,oneofwhichwasthatofIphiades.

Factionalconflictsalsoarisewhensomeintheoligarchyarepushedoutofthewaybyothersandmarginalizedthroughmarriagesorlawsuits.Fromcausesrelatedtomarriage,therewere,forexample,thecasesmentionedabove,153andalsotheoligarchyofthecavalryinEretriawhichDiagorasoverthrewwhenhewastreatedunjustlyinthematterofamarriage.Fromaverdictinalawcourt,therewasthefactionalconflictinHeracleaandtheoneinThebes;thepunishmentofthoseconvictedonchargesofadulterywascarriedoutjustlybutinapartisanspirit,againstEurytionbyjudgesinHeraclea,[1306b]andagainstArchiasbythoseinThebes(fortheirenemiescarriedtheirrivalrysofarastohavethemboundonpilloriesinthemarketplace).Andmanyoligarchieshavebeenoverthrownbycertaindiscontentedmembersofthegovernmentbecausetheyweretoomuchlikeruleofamasteroverslaves,aswiththeoligarchyinCnidusandthatinChios.

Changesofthegovernmentscalledconstitutionalruleandofoligarchiesalsohappenbyaccident,intheonesinwhichthosewhodeliberate,judge,andholdtheotherrulingofficesaredrawnfromapropertyqualification.Foroftenwhenthequalificationissetatfirstin[10]duerelationtopresentconditionssothatfewwilltakepartintheoligarchy,orthemiddlegroupinconstitutionalrule,andprosperitycomesalongduetopeaceortosomeothergoodfortune,itturnsoutthatthesamepropertiescometobeworthmanytimesthepropertyqualification,sothateveryonetakespartinalltheoffices;sometimesthechangehappensinincrements,littlebylittleandunnoticed,butsometimesithappensquickly.

Sobysuchcausesoligarchieschangeandbecomesplitbyfaction.Butingeneralbothdemocraciesandoligarchiessometimesalternotintooppositeformsofgovernmentbutintovarietieswithinthesamekind,forinstance[20]fromdemocraciesandoligarchiesunderlawintoarbitrary154forms,orfromthelattertotheformer.

Chapter7Inaristocracies,factionsariseinsomecasesbecausefewhaveasharein

thehonors,whichwasalsosaidtocausecommotioninoligarchies,sincearistocracyisinacertainwayoligarchy(forinboththerulersarefew,thoughtheyarenotfewforthesamereason).Indeed,forthesereasons,aristocracyiseventhoughttobeoligarchy.Andfactionalconflictnecessarilyhappensmostoftenwhenthereissomegroupofpeoplewiththeconceitthattheyarepeersinvirtue,suchastheso-called“sonsofthevirgins”inSparta[30](fortheyweredescendedfromthepeers).155Whentheywerecaughtplotting,theyweresentoffascoloniststoTarentum.Orithappenswhensomewhoaregreatandinferiortononeinvirtuearedishonoredbysomewhoareheldingreaterhonor,asLysanderwasbythekings,orwhensomeonewhoisofmanlycharacterhasnoshareinthehonors,suchasCinadon,whoorganizedtheattackontheSpartiatesinthetimeofAgesilaus.Italsohappenswhensomebecomeverypoorandothersbecomewelloff,whichcomesaboutmostoftenduringwars;andthishappenedinSpartaasaresultoftheMessenianwar,asisclearfromthepoemofTyrtaeus[1307a]called“LawandOrder,”forsomewhofeltthepinchfromthewarthoughttheywereentitledtohavearedistributionoftheland.Italsohappensifsomeoneisgreatandcapableofbeinggreaterstill,sothathemightrulealone,asseemstohavebeenthecaseinSpartawiththePausaniaswhowasageneralinthePersianwar,andinCarthagewithHanno.

Mostoften,constitutionalgovernmentsandaristocraciesarebroughtdownbyadeviationfromjusticeintheconstitutionitself.Forthesourceisthefactthatdemocracyandoligarchyarenotbeautifullymixedinconstitutionalrule,orthesewithvirtueinanaristocracy,[10]butespeciallythetwo—thetwoIamspeakingofbeingpopularruleandoligarchy.Foritisthesethatconstitutionalgovernments,aswellasmanyofthosecalledaristocracies,try

tomix.Foraristocraciesdifferinthisrespectfromthegovernmentsthataregiventhenameconstitutional,andforthisreasontheformerarelessstableandthelattermore.Forpeoplecallthosethatinclinemoretowardoligarchyaristocracies,andthosethatinclinemoretowardthemultitudeconstitutionalgovernments.Thisiswhythelattersortaremoresecurethantheformer,sincethegreaternumberarestronger,andtheyaremorecontentwhentheyhaveanequalshare;butthosewhoareamongthewell-off,iftheconstitutiongivesthemasuperiorposition,[20]seekoccasionstobehaveinsolentlyandtakemorethantheirshare.Ingeneral,whicheversidetheconstitutioninclinestowardisthedirectionitchangestoward,sinceeithersidewillincreaseitsownpredominance;constitutionalrule,forexample,changesintopopularrule,andaristocracyintooligarchy.Buttheyalsochangeintotheiropposites,forexamplearistocracyintopopularrule(forthepoorerpeoplepullitaroundtotheoppositedirectionwhentheythinktheyarebeingtreatedunjustly),andconstitutionalruleintooligarchy(onthegroundsthattheonlystablesortofequalityisthatinaccordwithmerit,andhavingone’sowndue).WhatwasmentionedhappenedinThurii:becausetheofficesweredrawnfromanexcessivepropertyqualification,theychangedtoasmalleroneandtomoreofficialpositions,butbecausetheprominentpeople[30]acquiredallthelandinviolationofthelaw(fortheconstitutionwastoooligarchicandconsequentlytheywereabletogettheupperhand),thepopulace,havingbeentrainedinwarfare,becamestrongerthantheguards,untilthosewhowereinpossessionoftheextralandgaveitup.Also,sinceallaristocraticgovernmentsareoligarchic,theprominentpeoplearemoreapttotakemorethantheirshare;eveninSparta,forexample,landedestatesarecomingintofewhands.Andthereistoomuchlicenseforprominentpeopletodowhatevertheywantandmakemarriageallianceswithanyonetheywant,whichisalsowhythecityoftheLocrianswasruinedasaresultofthemarriagealliancewithDionysius,whichwouldnothavehappenedinademocracyoreven[40]inanaristocracythathadbeenwellmixed.

Itisespeciallyaristocracies[1307b]thatchangeimperceptiblybybeingundonelittlebylittle,whichwassomethingmentionedinearlierremarksasapplyinguniversallytoallformsofgovernment,thatevenasmallthingcanbeacauseofchanges.Forwhenevertheygiveupanythingrelatedtotheconstitution,itiseasierafterthattochangeanotherthingtoothatisalittle

larger,untiltheychangethewholeorderofthings.AndthisalsohappenedinthegovernmentofThurii.Fortherewasalawthatonecouldserveasageneralatfiveyearintervals,butwhensomeoftheyoungermenbecameskilledatwarandwellregardedamongthemultitudeofguardtroops,theygrewcontemptuousofthoseinchargeof[10]affairsandconsiderediteasytooverrulethem,andtheytriedfirsttonullifythislawsothatthesamepeoplewouldbeallowedtoserveasgeneralscontinuously,sincetheysawthatthepopulacewouldbeeagertovoteforthem.Thoseamongtheofficialswhowereassignedtothismatter,whowerecalledcouncilors,thoughtheyweredeterminedatfirsttoopposethis,werepersuaded,ontheassumptionthatoncetheyhadchangedthislawtherestoftheconstitutionwouldbeleftalone;butlater,whentheywantedtopreventotherchanges,theycouldnolongerdoanythingmore,andthewholearrangementofthegovernmentchangedintoaconfederacyofthepowerfulpeoplewhohadundertakentorevolutionizethings.

Allformsofgovernment[20]areundonesometimesfromwithinthemselvesandsometimesfromoutside,whenthereisanoppositeformofgovernmentnearby,orfarawaybuthavingpower.ThisisexactlywhathappenedwiththeAtheniansandSpartans,fortheAtheniansoverthrewoligarchieseverywhere,andtheSpartansoverthrewpopularrule.Fromwhatsourceschangesofgovernmentandfactionalconflictscome,then,hasbeenprettywellstated.

Chapter8Thenextthingistospeakaboutthepreservationofaformofgovernment,

bothincommonandseparatelyforeachform.Andfirstofall,itisclearthatifweunderstandthethingsbywhichformsofgovernmentaredestroyed,wealsograspthethingsbywhichtheyarepreserved.Foroppositecausesproduceoppositeeffects,anddestruction[30]istheoppositeofpreservation.Inwell-blendedgovernments,then,nothingismorenecessarythantowatchoutforanydeparturefromthelaws,andtobeonguardespeciallyinsmallmatters.Forlawlessnesscreepsinunnoticed,inthesamewaythatasmallexpenditurefrequentlyrepeatedwastesawayone’sproperty.Buttheexpensegoesunnoticedbecauseitdoesnothappenalltogether,forone’sthinkingreasonsfalselyabouttheexpenditures,aswiththesophisticalargument,“if

eachissmall,thenallaretoo.”Andwhilethereisasenseinwhichthisistrue,thereisasenseinwhichitisnot,sincethewholethatistheallisnotsmall,thoughitiscomposedofsmallamounts.Sothisisonesafeguardthatneedstobetaken[40]fromthestart.Thenextisnottoputanytrustincontrivancesforthepurposeof[1308a]trickingthemultitude,sincetheyarecompletelydiscreditedbyevents.Thesortoftrickswearespeakingofthatareusedbygovernmentshavebeendescribedabove.156

Anotherthingistoobservethatnotonlysomearistocraciesbutevensomeoligarchiesendure,notbecausetheformsofgovernmentarestablebutbecausethosewhohavecomeintoofficetreatpeoplewell,theonesoutsidethegovernmentandtheonesintheadministration,bydoingnoinjusticetotheoneswhohavenoshareandbybringingthoseamongthemwithacapacityforleadershipintothegovernment,andbynotunjustlybringingtheambitiousintodishonororbeingunjusttothemasses[10]forgain;amongthemselves,thosewhoshareinthegovernmenttreatoneanotherinademocraticway.Fortheequalitythatthosewhoaredemocraticallyinclinedseekforthemultitudeisnotonlyjustbutadvantageousforthosewhoarealike.Hence,ifthereisalargenumberofpeopleinthegoverninggroup,manylegalprovisionssuitedtopopularruleareadvantageous,suchashavingofficeswithsix-monthtermssothatallthosewhoarealikecantakepart.Forthosewhoarealikearealreadyasortofpopulace,whichisalsowhydemagoguesoftenturnupamongthem,aswassaidearlier.157Withthatprovision,oligarchiesandaristocracieswillbelesslikelytocollapseintoconfederaciesofthepowerful,sinceitisnoteasy[20]forrulerstodoasmuchharminashorttimeasinalongone,seeingashowthisisthereasontyranniesariseinoligarchiesanddemocracies.Forineachofthetwoitisthosewhoaregreatestwhoattempttyranny,thedemagoguesintheoneandthepowerfulintheother,orelsethosewhoholdthegreatestoffices,whentheykeeprulingforalongtime.

Andgovernmentsarepreservednotonlybyhavingthethingsthatwoulddestroythemfaroff,butsometimesalsobyhavingthemclose.Forwhenpeopleareinfeartheyclingtothegovernmentmorefirmly.Consequently,thosewhoareconcernedforthegovernmentoughttofostersourcesoffear,sothatpeoplewillguardthegovernmentandnotoverturnit,[30]keepingwatchlikenightwatchmen,andtheyoughttomakewhatisfaroffclose.They

alsooughttotrytowatchoutforrivalriesandfactionsamongtheirprominentpeople,andusethelawstokeepwatchonthosewhoareoutsidetherivalrybeforetheytoogetinvolved,sincerecognizinganevilwhenitisfirstcomingintobeingisnotajobforanyrandompersonbutforamanwhoispoliticallyadroit.

Asforchangeinoligarchyandconstitutionalrulethatcomesfrompropertyassessments,whenthishappensbecausetheassessmentsstaythesamewhilecurrencybecomesplentiful,itisadvantageoustolookatthetotalamountofpropertyincomparisontoitspastvalue—inthose[40]citiesthatmakeanannualvaluation,atthattimeinterval,[1308b]andinlargercitieseverythirdorfifthyear.Andifthetotalismanytimesgreaterorlessthanbefore,atthetimewhenpropertyqualificationsweresetupintheconstitution,itisadvantageousfortheretobealawtotightenorloosenthequalifications—ifthetotalisinexcess,tighteningthembythesamemultiple,butifitcomesshort,looseningthemandmakingeachqualificationsmaller.Forinoligarchiesandconstitutionalgovernmentsthatdonotdothissortofthing,thelatterendupbecomingoligarchiesandtheformerconfederaciesofthepowerfulintheonecase,andintheotherdemocraciescomefromconstitutionalgovernments,andconstitutional[10]orpopularrulefromoligarchies.158

Aprovisionthatappliesincommontopopularruleandoligarchy,andtomonarchyandeveryformofgovernment,isnottoelevateanyonetoofaroutofproportion,buttotrytobestowsmallhonorsoveralongtimeratherthangreatonesinashorttime(sincepeoplegetcorrupted,andnoteverymanhasitinhimtowithstandgoodfortune),orfailingthat,iftheyhavegiventhemallatonce,theyshouldatleastsurelynottakethemawayagainallatonce,butgradually.Mostofall,theyshouldtrybymeansoflawstokeepthingsinsuchharmoniousproportionsthatnoonegetsintoapositiongreatlysuperiorinpower,infriends,orinmoney,orfailingthat,forpostings159abroadtobemadeforthem.

[20]Andsincepeoplealsoattemptrevolutionarychangesbecauseoftheirprivatelives,oneoughttoputinplaceaparticularofficethatwouldsupervisethosewholiveinamannerdetrimentaltotheirformofgovernment,todemocracyinademocracy,tooligarchyinanoligarchy,andsimilarlyineach

oftheotherforms.Andforthesamereasons,oneoughttowatchoutforanypartofthecitythatisenjoyingsuccessatthetime;andaremedyforthisisalwaystoputactionsandofficesinthehandsoftheopposingparts.Iamspeakingofdecentpeopleasbeingopposedtothemultitude,andtheneedyasbeingopposedtothewell-off.Oneoughttotryeithertomixtogetherthemultitudeoftheneedyandtheelementthatis[30]welloff,ortoincreasethemiddlegroup,sincethisbreaksupthefactionalconflictsthatresultfrominequality.

Butthegreatestconcernineveryformofgovernmentisforboththelawsandtherestofitsmanagementtobesoarrangedthattherecanbenoprofitmadefromtheoffices.Thisneedstobeguardedagainstmostofallinoligarchies.Formostpeoplearenotsoannoyedatbeingkeptfromholdingoffice(butareevendelightedforsomeoneelsetoleavethemfreetimefortheirprivateconcerns)astheyarewhentheybelievetherulersarestealingcommonfunds;thentheyhavetwogrievancestogether,atnotsharingthehonorsandnotsharingtheprofits.Infact,theonlywayitispossiblefortheretobedemocracyandaristocracyatthesametime[40]isifsomeonecouldmanagetomakethisarrangement.Forthenitwouldbepossiblefor[1309a]theprominentpeopleandthemultitudetohavewhattheywant,bothtogether.Havingitopentoeveryonetoholdofficeisdemocratic,buthavingtheprominentpeoplebeintheofficesisaristocratic,andthiswillbethecasewheneverthereisnoprofittobemadefromtheoffices.Fortheneedywillnotwanttoholdofficebecausethereisnoprofitinit,butwillprefertobeattheirprivateconcerns,whilethewell-offwillhavetheabilitytoholdofficebecausetheyneednothingadditionalfromthecommonfunds;consequently,itwillturnoutthattheneedybecomewelloffbykeepingbusyattheirwork,andtheprominentpeoplewillnotberuledbyrandompersons.[10]Sotokeepthecommonfundsfrombeingstolen,letthehandoverofmoneytakeplaceinthepresenceofallthecitizens,andletwrittenrecordsbedepositedwitheachfraternalorganization,company,andtribe.Andtokeepoffice-holdingfreeofprofit,honorsshouldbeprescribedbylawforthosewhoearngoodreputations.

Andindemocracies,thewell-offoughttobespared,notonlybynotmakingredistributionsoftheirproperty,butnotevendoingsowiththeirincomes,whichhappensunnoticedinsomegovernments;anditisbetterto

preventtherich,evenwhentheywanttodoso,fromtakingonexpensivepublicbenefactionsthatarenotuseful,suchassponsoringchoruses,runningtorchraces,andalltheotherthings[20]ofthatsort.Andinanoligarchy,greatcareoughttobetakenfortheneedy,andtheofficesfromwhichanincomecanbemadeshouldbeassignedtothem;ifanyofthewell-offisinsolenttothem,thepenaltiesshouldbegreaterthanifithappenedamonghisownkind.Inheritancesshouldalsonotgobybequestbutbykinship,andthesamepersonshouldnotgetmorethanoneinheritance.Forbythismeans,estateswouldbemoreeven,andmoreoftheneedycouldgetafootholdinaffluence.Andinbothdemocracyandoligarchy,itisadvantageoustogivethosewhohavealessersharethantheothersinthegovernment—thewell-offinpopularruleandtheneedyinoligarchy—eitherequality[30]orpriority,exceptinthoseofficesthatareinauthorityoverthegovernment;thelattershouldbeputonlyorpredominantlyinthehandsofthosefromwithinthegovernment.

Chapter9Thosewhoaregoingtoruleinauthoritativeofficesshouldhavethree

particularthings:first,aloveoftheestablishedformofgovernment;next,agreatcapacityforthekindsofworkinvolvedinruling;andthird,ineachformofgovernment,thesortofvirtueandjusticethatisrelevanttothatformofgovernment(forifwhatisjustisnotthesamethinginalltheforms,itisnecessarythatjusticetoowouldbedifferent).160Butthereisadifficulty,whenitturnsoutthatallthesethingsarenot[40]presentinthesameperson,astohowtomakethechoice.[1309b]If,forinstance,thereweresomeoneskilledasageneral,butcorruptandnofriendoftheformofgovernment,andajustpersonwhowasafriend,howshouldthechoicebemade?Anditseemsoneoughttolooktotwothings:whichattributesallpeoplesharemorewidely,andwhichoneslesswidely.Thisiswhy,intheofficeofgeneral,oneshouldlooktoexperiencemoresothanvirtue(forpeopleshareingeneralshiplessandindecencymore),butintheofficeoftrusteeortreasureritistheotherwayaround(fortheyrequiremorevirtuethantheamountmostpeoplehave,whiletheknowledgetheyinvolveiscommontoeveryone).Butsomeonemightraisethequestion,ifabilityandalovefortheformofgovernmentarepresent,[10]whatneedisthereforvirtue?Foreventhetwowillproduce

advantages.Butisitnotpossibleforthosewhohavethesetwoattributestobewithoutself-discipline?Inthatcase,justaspeopledonotservetheirowninterestseventhoughtheyknowthemandlovethemselves,nothingwouldpreventsomepeoplefrombeinginthesameconditioninrelationtothecommoninterest.Thesimplefactisthatallthosethingsinthelawsthatwespeakofasadvantageoustothegovernmentpreservethegovernment,asdoestheoft-mentionedelementarymatterofgreatestimportancetowatchoutfor:thatthegroupthatwantsthegovernmentwillcontinuetobestrongerthanthegroupthatdoesnotwantit.161

Andbesidesallthesethings,thereissomethingthatmustnotbedisregarded,whichisdisregardedatpresentinthedeviantformsofgovernment:themean.[20]Formanyofthethingsthatseeminclinedtowardpopularrulearetheundoingofdemocracies,andmanythatseemoligarchicundooligarchies.Peoplewhosupposethatoneofthesecharacteristicsistheonlyvirtuecarryittotheextreme,inignoranceofthefactthat,justasitispossibleforanosetodeviatefromthestraightnessthatismostbeautiful,towardbeinghookedorturnedup,butstillbebeautifulandbegracefultotheeye,thoughifoneweretostretchitanyfurthertotheextreme,hewouldfirstofallbethrowingoutthefittingproportionofthepart,andfinallygettothepointatwhichhewouldmakeitnotevenlooklikeanose,onaccountofitsexcessinoneoftheoppositedirectionsanddeficiencyintheother.Anditisthesamewaywith[30]theotherpartsaswell,andthishappenswithformsofgovernmenttoo.Foritispossibleforoligarchyanddemocracytobeingoodenoughshapeeventhoughtheyaredeparturesfromthebestarrangement,butifoneweretostretcheitherofthemanyfurther,hewouldfirstofallmakethegovernmentworse,andfinallymakeitnotevenagovernment.Thatiswhythisissomethingthelawgiverandstudentofpoliticsmustnotbeignorantof:whichofthethingsthatinclinetowardpopularrulepreservedemocracyandwhichonesdestroyit,andwhicholigarchicmeasurespreserveordestroyoligarchy.Forneitherofthemiscapableofexistingandenduringwithoutthewell-offandthemultitude;butwhenalevelingout[40]ofwealthoccurs,thisformofgovernmentwillnecessarilybesomethingdifferent,[1310a]sothatbydestroying[oneclassofcitizens]bylawscarriedtoanextreme,peoplewouldbedestroyingtheirformsofgovernment.162

Andpeoplemissthemarkinbothdemocraciesandoligarchies.Thedemagoguesmissitindemocraciesinwhichthemultitudeisinauthorityoverthelaws,becausetheyalwaysturnonecityintotwobydoingbattleagainstthewell-off,thoughtheyought,onthecontrary,toseemalwaystobespeakingindefenseofthewell-off.Andinoligarchies,theoligarchsoughttoseemalwaystobespeakingindefenseofthepopulace,andtheoaths-of-officetheytakeshouldbetheoppositeoftheonesoligarchsnowtake.Forinsomeoligarchiestheynowswear“IwillbecommittedtoharmthepopulaceandIwilldevise[10]whateverharmIcan,”whereastheyshouldbothadoptanddeclaretheoppositeattitude,makingtheiroathscarrythemessage:“Iwilldonoinjusticetothepopulace.”

Butofallthethingsthathavebeenmentionedformakinggovernmentsendure,themostimportantone,whicheveryonenowbelittles,isforpeopletobeeducatedwithaviewtotheirformofgovernment.Fornobenefitcancomefromthemostbeneficiallaws,evenwhentheyhavebeenapprovedunanimouslybythoseinvolvedinrunningthecity,ifpeoplearenotgoingtobehabituatedandeducatedintheformofgovernment—inapopularspiritifthelawsareofapopularsort,orinanoligarchicspiritiftheyareofanoligarchicsort.Forifalackofself-disciplineispossibleinoneperson,itispossiblealsoinacity.Andbeingeducated[20]intheformofgovernmentdoesnotmeandoingthingsthatpleasetheoligarchsorthepartisansofdemocracy,butdoingthingsthatmakeitpossibleforthosewhoruntheoligarchyorthedemocracytodoso.Butasthingsstand,thesonsoftherulersinoligarchiesliveinluxurywhilethesonsoftheneedybecometoughenedbyexerciseandwork,sothattheyarebothmoredesirousandmorecapableofrevolutionizingthings.Andinthosedemocraciesthatseemtobethemostdemocratic,peoplehavesetthingsupinoppositiontotheiradvantage,andthereasonforthisisthattheyuseabaddefinitionoffreedom.Fortherearetwothingsbywhichdemocracyseemstobedefined,byhavingthemajorityinauthority,andby[30]freedom.Foritseemsthatjusticeiswhatisequal,andwhateverseemsequaltothemajorityisauthoritative,whiledoingwhateveronewantsisfreedom.Consequently,indemocraciesofthissort,eachpersonlivesthewayhewants,and“towardwhatendhepleases,”asEuripidesputsit.163Butthisisshoddythinking.Foroneneednotthinkthatlivingwithaviewtohisformofgovernmentisslavery,butsecurity.

So,toputitsimply,thecausesfromwhichformsofgovernmentchangeandaredestroyed,andthemeansbywhichtheyarepreservedandendure,arethismany.

Chapter10Whatislefttogooverhastodowithmonarchy,thecausesfromwhich

[40]itisdestroyed,andthemeansbywhichitisnaturallypreserved.Andthethingsthathappen[1310b]inkingshipandtyrannyareprettyclosetowhathasbeendescribedintheotherformsofgovernment.Forkingshipcorrespondstoaristocracy,andtyrannyismadeupofthelaststagesofoligarchyanddemocracy.Thatiswhyitisthemostharmfultothosewhoareruled,becauseitisacombinationoftwoevils,andhasinitthedeviationsandmistakesofbothformsofgovernment.Andtheoriginofeachofthetwoformsofmonarchyisdirectlyoppositetotheother.Forkingshiparoseinsupportofdecentpeople[10]againstthepopulace,andakingisestablishedfromamongdecentpeopleonthebasisofsuperiorityinvirtueorinactionsstemmingfromvirtue,oronthebasisofasuperiorityinthisrespectofafamily,whileatyrantcomesfromthepopulaceandthemultitudeinoppositiontotheprominentpeople,topreventthepopulacefromsufferinginjusticeattheirhands.Thisisobviousfromwhathashappened.Forjustaboutthegreatestnumberoftyrantshavecome,onemaysay,fromdemagogueswhowonpeople’strustbyslanderingtheprominentpeople.Thosetyrantswhotookoverwhencitieshadalreadygrownlargedidsointhismanner,whiletheonespriortothesecamefromkingswhodeviatedfromtraditionsanddesiredaformofrule[20]moresuitedtothemasteryofslaves.Somealsocamefrompeopleelectedtosupremeoffices(forinancienttimes,populargovernmentssetuplong-termofficesofpublicserviceandpublicmissions),oroutofoligarchiesthatselectedoneparticularpersontobeinauthorityoverthehighestoffices.Allthesemeansofferedaneasyroadtosuccessifonlysomeoneweretowantit,throughthepoweralreadyavailabletosomeintheformofkinglyruleandtoothersinpositionsofhonor.Pheidon,forinstance,inArgos,andothers,setupastyrantsfromexistingkingships;Phalaris,andthoseinIonia,didsofrompositionsofhonor;PanaetiusinLeontini,CypselusinCorinth,[30]PeisistratusinAthens,DionysiusinSyracuse,andotherswentthesamewayfromtheirrolesas

demagogues.Andaswesaid,kingshipisarrangedinawaythatcorrespondsto

aristocracy,foritisbasedonmerit,intheformofpersonalvirtue,orfamilyvirtue,orhighbirth,oractsofbeneficence,orthesecombinedwithability.Forallthosewhoattainedthishonorhadbeenbenefactorsoftheircitiesornations,orhadthepowertobenefitthem—some,suchasCodros,bypreventingthemfrombeingenslavedinwar,others,suchasCyrus,bysettingthemfree,orfoundingacity,oracquiringlandthewaythekingsoftheSpartans,Macedonians,and[40]Molossiansdid.Akinghastheintentionofbeingaguardian,sothatthose[1311a]whoownpropertywillsuffernoinjusticeandthepopulacewillsuffernoinsolenttreatment,whiletyranny,ashasbeensaidrepeatedly,looksoutfornocommoninterestexceptforthesakeofitsprivatebenefit.Thetyrannicalobjectiveiswhatispleasant;thekinglyobjectiveiswhatisbeautiful.Hencetheobjectsoftyrannicalambitionarethingsofmonetaryvalue,whilethoseofthekinglysortleadtohonorinstead.Andthekinglyguardismadeupofcitizens,whilethetyrannicalguarddependsonforeigners.

Itisclearthattyrannyhasinittheevilsofbothdemocracyandoligarchy.Fromoligarchy[10]itgetsitsend,whichiswealth(fornecessarilyitisonlyinthiswaythatitcanmaintainitsguardanditsluxury),andalsoitsrefusaltotrustthemultitudeinanymatter(whichiswhytheycarryoutaconfiscationofarms,andwhymistreatingthemasses,drivingthemoutoftown,andscatteringthemisacommonfeatureofbotholigarchyandtyranny).Andfromdemocracycomesitsmakingwaronprominentpeople,itscovertandovertdestructionofthem,anditsexilingthemasopponentsofitsdesignsandobstaclestoitsrule.Foritdoesinfactturnoutthatplotsoriginatefromthesepeople,someofwhomwanttorulethemselves,whileotherswantnot[20]tobeenslaved.ThisisthereasonforPeriander’sadvicetoThrasybulusaboutcuttingofftheearsofcornthatstandout,thatthereisalwaysaneedtogetridofthosewhostandoutamongthecitizens.164

Soashasprettymuchbeensaid,oneoughttoregardthesourcesofchangesasbeingthesameinmonarchiesasintheotherformsofgovernment.Foritisduetoinjustice,fear,andcontemptthatmanyoftheirsubjectsattackmonarchies,andinthecaseofinjusticeitisespeciallyduetoinsolence,

thoughsometimesalsototheseizureofprivateproperty.Andtheendssoughtarealsothesameintyranniesandkingshipsastheyareintheothercases,[30]foragreatamountofthewealthandhonoreveryonedesiresbelongstomonarchs.Someoftheattacksthattakeplaceareonthepersonoftherulers,butothersareontheoffice.Thosethatareduetoinsolenceareontheperson.Andwhileinsolenceisofmanyforms,165eachofthemendsupbeingacauseofanger;andprettymuchthegreatestnumberofthosewhoattackoutofangerdosoforrevengeandnotforpreeminence.TheattackonthesonsofPeisistratus,forexample,wasduetotheirhumiliatingHarmodius’ssisterandinsultingHarmodius(forHarmodiusattackedthemonaccountofhissister,andAristogeitononaccountofHarmodius).166

TherewasalsoaplotagainstPeriander,[40]thetyrantinAmbracia,causedbyhisasking[1311b]hisboyfriend,whilehewasdrinkingwithhim,whetherhehadgottenhimpregnantyet.TheattackonPhillipbyPausaniaswascausedbyhislettinghimbeinsolentlytreatedbythoseinAttalus’scircle,andthatonAmyntustheSmallbyDerdasbyhispublicridiculeofhisyouthfulpassion.AndtherewasalsotheattackonEvagorasofCyprusbytheeunuch;hekilledhimbecausehewasviolatedduetothefactthatEvagoras’ssonhadtakenawayhiswife.Andmanyattackshavealsooccurredbecausecertainmonarchshavesubjectedpeopletopersonaldisgrace.AnexampleistheattackofCrataeusonArchelaus,forCrataeushadalwaysbeendisgustedovertheirintimaterelations,sothatevenalesser[10]pretextwouldhavebeensufficient—lesserthanthefactthathegavehimneitherofhisdaughters,afteragreeingto,butgavetheeldertothekingofElimeiawhenhewashardpressedbyawaragainstSirrasandArrabaeus,andtheyoungertohisownsonAmyntas,supposingthatwouldmakeitleastlikelythattherewouldbetroublebetweenAmyntasandhissonbyCleopatra—butthesourceoftheirestrangementwasthedisgusthealreadyboretowardhimovertheirsexualinvolvement.AndHellanocratestheLarisaeanalsojoinedintheattackforthesamereason,forsince,aftermakinguseofhisyouthfulpassion,hedidnotkeephispromisetorestorehimtohishome,Hellanocratesimaginedtheintercoursetheyhadwas[20]notfromanypassionatedesirebutahumiliatingactofinsolence.AndPythonandHeracleidesofAenuskilledCotystoavengetheirfather,andAdamasrevoltedfromCotysforhisviolationofhim,because,whenhewasaboy,hewascastratedbyhisorder.Andmanypeople

haveeitherkilledorattemptedtokillthosewhosharedinaking’sruleandpowerbecausetheywereangeredatbeingsubjectedtopersonalaffrontsbybeatings,takingthisasanoutrage.InMytilene,forinstance,wherethedescendentsofPenthilusweregoingaroundhittingpeoplewithclubs,Megaclesalongwithhisfriendsattackedanddestroyedthem,andlaterSmerdes,aftersufferingblowsandbeingdraggedawayfromhiswife,[30]killedanotherPenthilus.AndDecamnichusbecamealeaderoftheattackonArchelausandthefirsttoincitetheattackers,andthecauseofhisangerwasthatArchelaushadhandedhimovertothepoetEuripidesforwhipping;Euripideswasupsetatsomethinghehadsaidabouthisbadbreath.

Andmanyothershavebeendestroyedandplottedagainstforreasonsofthatsort,andsimilarlyonaccountoffear.Forjustasthiswasoneofthecausesinotherformsofgovernment,itisinmonarchiesaswell.AnexampleiswhathappenedtoXerxes,whenArtapaneswasfrightenedbytheallegationthathehadhangedDarius167withoutbeingorderedtobyXerxes,assuming[40]hewouldbepardonedbecauseXerxeswouldhavenomemoryofitduetohiswininganddining.Andotherinstanceshavebeendueto[1312a]contempt,aswhensomeonesawSardanapaluscardingwoolwiththewomen.(Ifthosewhotellthesestoriesaretellingthetruth;butifthisoneisnottrueinhiscase,itcouldstillbetrueaboutsomeoneelse.)AndDionattackedDionysiustheYoungerbecauseofhiscontemptforhim,seeingthatthecitizensfeltthesamewayandseeingDionysiushimselfalwaysdrunk.Evensomeofamonarch’sfriendsmayattackhimoutofcontempt;beingtrustedgivesthemthecontemptuousattitudethattheywillbeunobserved.Thosewhobelievetheyhavethepowertoseizetheofficealsoinacertainwaymaketheirattacksasaresultoffeelingcontempt;[10]theyarecontemptuousoftheriskbecausetheyfeelpowerful,andreadilymaketheattemptbecauseofthatpower,thewaygeneralsattacktheirmonarchs.Cyrus,forinstance,attackedAstyagesoutofcontemptforbothhiswayoflifeandhispower,becausehispowerhadwastedawaywhilehehimselflivedinluxury;andSeuthestheThracianattackedAmadocus,whosegeneralhewas.Somealsoattackoutofacombinationofthesereasons,bothoutofcontemptandforgain,forinstance,aswithMithridatesagainstAriobarzanes.Itisespeciallythosewhoaredaringbynatureandholdmilitaryhonorsfromtheirmonarchswhomakeattemptsforthisreason,forbraveryequippedwithpowermakesfordaring,

andwithboth[20]ofthesegoingforthem,theymaketheirattackswiththeattitudethattheywilleasilyprevail.

Inthosewhoattackoutofaloveofhonor,areasonofadifferentsortfromthosementioneduptonowisatwork.Somepeoplemaketheirattemptsagainsttyrantsbecausetheyseethegreatprofitstheygainandthehighpositionsofhonortheyhold,butthisisnotthespiritinwhicheveryonewhomakesanattackoutofaloveofhonorchoosestotakethatrisk.Whilethoseothersdosoforthereasonmentioned,therearethosewhomakeattemptsagainstmonarchsinthesamewaytheywouldundertakeanyotherextraordinaryactionthatpresenteditself,throughwhichtheycouldbecomefamousandnoteworthytoothers,becausetheywanttoacquirenot[30]amonarchybutglory.Thosewhoarespurredbythismotiveareadmittedlythefewestinnumber,foritisnecessarytopresupposethattheyhavenoconcernfortheirownsafetyintheeventthattheyfailtobringofftheaction.TheyhavetogointoitwithDion’sidea,168butitisnoteasyforthattobefoundinmanypeople.ForhetookthefieldagainstDionysiuswithafewmen,declaringitashisattitudethat,howeverfarhewasabletoadvancewasabigenoughpartintheactionforhimtohave,andifheendedupdyingassoonashehadgoneforwardonesmallstepofground,thatdeathwouldbeabeautifulwayforhimtogo.

Onewayinwhich[40]tyrannyisdestroyed,justasineachoftheotherformsofgovernment,[1312b]isfromoutside,ifsomeopposinggovernmentisstronger.Foritisclearlythecasethattheywillwanttodestroyitbecauseoftheoppositionoftheirpurposes,andallpeopledowhattheywanttodoiftheyhavethepower.Andtheformsofgovernmentopposedtotyrannyare,ontheonehand,popularrule,byHesiod’sprincipleof“potterversuspotter”(sincethelaststageofdemocracyistyranny),169and,ontheother,kingshipandaristocracy,becauseoftheoppositenessoftheformofgovernment(whichiswhytheSpartansoverthrewmosttyrannies,asdidtheSyracusansatthetimewhentheywerebeautifullygoverned).Butanotherwaytyrannyisdestroyedisfromwithinitself,whenthosewhohaveapartinit[10]splitintofactions,asdidGelo’scircle,andDionysius’scirclejustrecently.InthecaseofGelo,thishappenedwhenThrasybulus,thebrotherofHiero,wonoverGelo’ssonandpushedhimtowardpleasuressothathehimselfcouldrule,but

theirfamilyconspiredtokeepthetyrannyasawholefrombeingoverthrown,butonlyThrasybulus—butthosewhowereinontheconspiracywiththem,seeingtheyhadtheopportunity,threwthemallout.Dion,anin-lawofDionysiuswhohadthepopulaceonhisside,tookthefieldagainsthim,butwasdestroyedhimselfafterhethrewhimout.

Thereasonsforwhichpeoplemostoftenattacktyranniesaretwo:hatredandcontempt.Oneofthese,hatred,isalways[20]therefortyrants,andmanyhavebroughtontheirdownfallsbybeingdespised.Asignofthisisthatmostwhohaveacquiredrulingpositionshavealsomaintainedthem,whileofthosewhohaveinheritedthem,onemightsaytheyhavealllostthemimmediately.Livinglivesdevotedtoenjoyment,theybecomeeasyobjectsofcontemptandgivetheirattackersmanyopportunities.Angertoooughttobecountedasapartofhatred,forinitsownwayitbecomesacauseofthesameactions.Infact,itisoftenastrongerspurtoactionthanhatredis,becauseangrypeopleattackmoreintensely,sincepassiondoesnotinvolvereasoning.(Angerforthemostpartisaconsequence[30]ofthespiritednessarousedbyinsolence,whichwasthereasonthetyrannyofthePeisistratidfamilywasoverthrown,andmanyothersaswell.)Hatredhasmoreroominitforreasoning,forangerisfeltwithpain,sothatthinkingisnoteasy,whilehostilityisfreeofpain.170Andputtingitinsummary,thesamearrayofcauseswehavementionedfortheoverthrowofunmixedandultimateoligarchyandofextremedemocracyneedtobeappliedtotyrannyaswell,sincetheseformsofgovernmenthappentobetyranniesdividedup.

Kingshipisleastlikelytobedestroyedbythingsfromoutside,whichiswhyitisalsooflongduration;inmostcasesitsdestructionendsupbeingfrom[40]withinitself.Anditisdestroyedintwoways,one[1313a]whenthosewhohaveapartinthekingshipformfactions,andtheotherwaywhenkingstrytorunthingsinamoretyrannicalmanner,whenevertheyclaimauthorityovermorethingsandcontrarytolaw.Kingshipsnolongerarisenowadays,andifmonarchiesdoarise,theyaretyranniesinstead.Thisisbecausekingshipisruleoverwillingsubjects,withauthorityoverweightiermatters,whiletherearenowmanypeoplewhoarealike,withnoonedistinguishedenoughtomeasureuptothegravityandworthoftheoffice.Soforthisreasonpeopledonotwillinglyputupwithit,andifsomeoneweretotakeofficebydeceptionorforce,[10]thatwouldalreadybeconsidereda

tyranny.Inkingshipsbasedonfamily,oneoughttosetdownasacauseoftheirdestruction,overandabovetheonesthathavebeenmentioned,thefactthatmanywhoinheritthepositionbecomeeasyobjectsofcontemptandyetbehaveinsolently,eventhoughtheydonothavetyrannicalpowerbutonlykinglyhonor;theiroverthrowhascomeeasily.Forassoonasthepeoplebecomeunwilling,hewillceasetobeaking,andbeatyrantoverunwillingsubjects.Monarchies,then,aredestroyedforthesereasonsandothersofthesamesort.

Chapter11Anditisclearthat,toputitsimply,theyarepreservedbyoppositecauses,

andthatwithkingshipsinparticular,thisisdonebybringingthem[20]toastateofgreatermoderation.Fornecessarily,thefewerthingstheyhaveauthorityover,thelongertimetheirruleasawholeremainsinplace.Fortheybecomelesslikeslavemastersandmoreequitableintheircharacters,andarelessenviedbythosetheyrule.ThisisthereasonthekingshiphaslastedalongtimeamongtheMolossians,andalsothatoftheSpartans,bothbecausetheofficewasdividedintotwopartsfromthebeginning,andbecauseTheopompusmoderateditagain,amongotherthingsbysettinguptheofficeoftheephors.Forbymakingasubtractionfromitspowerheaddedtimetothekingship,sothatinacertainwayhemadeitnotlesser[30]butgreater.Andthisisexactlythereplypeoplesayhemadetohiswife,whensheaskedifhewasnotashamedtobepassingontohissonsalesserkingshipthanheinheritedfromhisfather.“Noindeed,”hesaid,“forIampassingononethatwilllastalongertime.”

Tyranniesarepreservedintwowaysthatarecompleteopposites.Oneoftheseisthetraditionalmethodbywhichmosttyrantsmaintaincontroloftheirrule.PeoplesaythatPerianderofCorinthestablishedmanyofthese,butitisalsopossiblethatmanythingsofthesortaretakenoverfromthePersianempire.Theyarethethingsthatwerementionedsometimeagoastendingtowardpreservationoftyranny[40]asmuchaspossible,bycuttingdownthosewhostandoutandgettingridofthosewithproudthoughts,andnotallowingcommonmeals,clubs,[1313b]education,oranythingelseofthatsort,butguardingagainsteverythingfromwhichtwothingscustomarilycome—prideandtrust—andnotlettingtherebeanyschoolsorothercollegial

gatheringsforleisuredpursuits,anddoingeverythingthatwillkeepallthepeopleasunknowntooneanotheraspossible(sincefamiliaritybreedsagreaterdegreeofmutualtrust).Anothermeasureistorequirethetownspeopletobealwaysoutintheopenandspendtheirtimenearthepalacegates(sinceinthatwaywhattheyaredoingwouldbeleastlikelytogounnoticed,andtheywouldgetinthehabitofthinkingsmallasaresultofalwayslivinglikeslaves).AndasmanyotherPersianandbarbarian[10]practicesofthatsortastheremaybearetyrannicalincharacter(sincetheyallhavethesamepower).Anotherisfortheretobespies,totrytokeepwhateveranyofhissubjectshappenstosayordofromgoingunnoticed,suchastheso-calledtalebearersinSyracuse,andthoseHierousedtosendouttolisteninwhereveranymeetingorgatheringwouldbetakingplace(forpeoplespeaklessfranklywhentheyfearcreaturesofthatsort,andiftheydospeakfranklytheyarelesslikelytogounnoticed).Anothermeasureistostirupmutualslanderandclashesoffriendsagainstfriends,thepopulaceagainsttheprominentpeople,andtherichamongthemselves.

Itisalsocharacteristicoftyrantstomaketheirsubjectspoor,bothsothat[20]theycannotmaintainamilitia,andsothattheyaretoobusylookingafterdailyneedstohavefreetimetogetintoconspiracies.ExamplesofthismaybefoundinthepyramidsofEgypt,themonumentalofferingsoftheCypselids,theconstructiondedicatedtoOlympianZeusbythePeisistratids,andPolycrates’worksamongthoseatSamos(fortheseallproducethesameeffect:povertyandalackofleisureamongthosewhoareruled).Anothertyrannicalmeasureistheimpositionofpropertytaxes,asinSyracuse(forinfiveyearsinthetimeofDionysiuspeopleendeduppayingintheirentireproperty).Atyrantisalsoawarmonger,sothatpeoplewillbewithoutleisureandbeconstantlyinneedofaleader.And[30]whereaskingshipispreservedbyitsfriends,itischaracteristicofatyranttodistrusthisfriendsmostofall,becausewhateveryonewants,theyhavethemostpowertocarryout.

Andallthethingsthathappeninthelaststageofdemocracyapplytotyrannyaswell:femalecontroloverhouseholds,togetthemtodenouncetheirhusbands,andpermissivenesstowardslavesforthesamepurpose.Forslavesandwomendonotgetintoplotsagainsttyrants,andwhenthingsgowellforthemtheyarenecessarilyfavorablydisposedtowardtyrannies,anddemocraciesaswell,sincethepopulacealsotendstowardbeingamonarch.

Thisisalsowhyavaluedpersoninbothistheflatterer:in[40]populargovernmentsthisisthedemagogue,sinceademagogueisaflattererofthepopulace,andwithtyrantsitisthosewhohangaroundtheminaself-abasingmanner,[1314a]whichishowflatteryworks.Anditisforthisreasonthattyrannyisfriendlytocorruptpeople,sincetyrantsenjoybeingflattered,andthisissomethingnoonewhothinkslikeafreepersonwoulddo.Decentpeoplearefriends;inotherwords,theydonotflatter.Andcorruptpeopleareusefulforcorruptemployments—anailhammeredatanail,astheproverbhasit.Anditischaracteristicofatyranttotakenopleasureinanyonedignifiedorfree.Forthetyrantconsidershimselftobetheonlypersonofthatsort,andanyonewhomatcheshimindignityandcarrieshimselflikeafreepersonrobstyrannyofwhatisexceptionalandmasterfulaboutit.Sotyrantshatethemasiftheywereoverturningtheir[10]rule.Anditisalsocharacteristicofatyranttouseforeignersinsteadofcitizensascompanionsattheirmealsandpastimes,ontheassumptionthatthelatteraretheirenemieswhiletheformerwillnotopposethem.

Thesethingsandtheirlikearecharacteristicoftyrannyandaresafeguardsofitsrule,andthereisnosortofvilenesstheyleaveout.Onemaysaythattheyareallencompassedwithinthreeforms,fortyrannyaimsatthreethings.Oneisforitssubjectstothinksmall,sinceasmall-souledpersonwouldnotplotagainstanyone.Asecondisforthemtodistrustoneanothercompletely,sinceatyrannycannotbeoverthrownuntilsomepeoplehavetrustamongthemselves.Andthisisthereasontyrantsmakewarondecentpeopleasdetrimental[20]totheirrule—notjustbecausesuchpeopledonotthinktheydeservetoberuledlikeslavesbyamaster,butalsobecausetheyaretrusted,amongthemselvesandbyothers,anddonotinformontheirownkindoranyoneelse.Andthethirdaimisalackofpowerforaction,sincenooneattemptsimpossiblethings,andhencenooneoverthrowsatyrannyifthepowertodosoisnotthere.Sotheultimatetermsintowhichtheintentionsoftyrantsarereduciblearejustthesethree,sinceonemaytraceeverytyrannicalmeasurebacktotheseunderlyingpurposes:makingthepeoplenottrustoneanother,makingthemhavenopower,andmakingthemthinksmall.

One[30]meansbywhichthepreservationoftyranniesiscarriedout,then,isoftheforegoingsort.Butthereisanotherwayoftakingcareofitthatispracticallytheoppositeofthethingsthathavebeendescribed.Anditis

possibletogatheritfromthewaykingshipsaredestroyed.Forjustasonemeansofdestructionofkingshipistomakeitsrulemoretyrannical,bythesametoken,onemeansofpreservationoftyrannyistomakeitmorekingly,ifthetyrantwatchesoutforonethingonly—hispower—sothathecanrulenotonlywillingbutalsounwillingsubjects,forifheletsgoofthathealsoletsgoofbeingatyrant.Butwhilethishastoremainpresentasanunderlyingpurpose,heshoulddosomeotherthings,andseemtodoothers,[40]toplayakinglyroleinbeautifulstyle.Firstofall,heshould[1314b]seemtobeconcernedaboutpublicfunds,andnotspendthemonthesortofgiveawaysthatmostpeopleareinfuriatedbywhentyrantswithstickyfingerstakemoneyfromthem,whodotheworkandbeartheburdens,andgiveitlavishlytomistressesandforeignersandco-conspirators;heshouldrenderanaccountofwhathetakesandspends,whichsometyrantshaveinfactdonebeforenow.Forbyadministeringthingsinthisway,onemightseemtobeahouseholdmanagerandnotatyrant.Heneednotbeafraidofeverrunningoutofmoney,sincehehasauthorityoverthecity.Andthispracticeisalsomoreadvantageoustotyrants[10]whentheyareawayfromhomethantoleavebehindwhattheyhavegatheredup,sincethepeoplestandingguardwouldbelesslikelytoseizepower;whentyrantsareoutofthecity,thoseonguardaremoretobefearedbythemthanthecitizens,sincethelatterareoutofthecitywiththem,whiletheformerremainbehind.Andnext,heshouldmakeadisplayofcollectingtaxesandpublicservicecontributionsforthesakeofmanagingaffairsandtouse,iftheneedshouldeverarise,intimesofwar,andinallrespectsappeartobeequippinghimselfasaguardianandtreasurerofpublicandnotofprivatefunds.

Andatyrantshouldnotappearharsh,butdignified,butstillthesortofpersonwho,whilenotfearedbythoseencounterhim,[20]wouldberespectedinstead.This,however,isnoeasythingtoachieveifheiseasilydespised,whichiswhy,evenifhemakesnoeffortinthedirectionoftheothervirtues,heoughttocultivatethemilitaryvariety,andmakeareputationofthatsortforhimself.Andnotonlyshouldhenotbeseentreatinganyofhissubjectsinsolently,notevenayoungboyorgirl,butneithershouldanyothermemberofhiscircle.Andthewomenofhishouseholdoughttobehavethesamewaytowardotherwomen,sincemanytyrannieshavealsobeendestroyedbyactsofinsolenceamongwomen.Andasfarastheenjoymentofbodilypleasuresis

concerned,heoughttodotheoppositeofwhatsometyrantsdonow.Fornotonlydothey[30]indulgeinthisrightfrommorningonandnonstopfordaysonend,buttheyevenwanttobeseenbyotherswhileactingthiswaysothatpeoplewilladmirethemashappyandblessed.Itwouldbebestforhimtobemoderateinsuchmatters,butfailingthat,heshouldatleastavoidbeingseenbyothers.Foritisnotthesoberandwakefulpersonwhoiseasytoattackoreasytodespise,buttheonewhoisdrunkanddrowsy.Whatneedstobedoneistheoppositeofpracticallyeverythingthatwassaidabove.Forheoughttoequipandorderhiscityasthoughhewereatrusteeandnotatyrant.Inaddition,hemustalwaysmakeadisplayoftakingmattersrelatedtothegodsexceptionallyseriously.Forpeopleareless[40]afraidofsufferinganylawlesstreatmentatthehandsofsuchrulers[1315a]iftheyconsiderthemtobegod-fearingandmindfulofthedivinepowers,andtheyarelesslikelytoplotagainstthosetheythinkhaveeventhegodsasallies.Butheoughttoappearthatwaywithoutbeingsillyaboutit.171

Also,heoughttohonorthosewhobecomegoodinanyrespectinsuchawaythattheywouldnotbelievetheycouldeverbemorehonoredbycitizenslivingfreelyunderlaws,andheshouldhandoutsuchhonorshimself,buthavepunishmentsmetedoutbyotherofficialsandjudges.Butacommonsafeguardforeverymonarchyisnottomakeanyonepersongreat,orifany,thenmorethanone,sincetheywillkeepaneyeononeanother.[10]Ifhemustafterallmakesomeonegreat,itshouldatleastnotbesomeoneofboldcharacter,foracharacterofthissortisliabletotakeanyactionasanopportunityforattack.Andifitseemsgoodtodismissanyonefromapositionofpower,heshoulddothisbystagesandnottakeawayallhisauthorityatonce.Furthermore,heshouldputacurbonhimselfagainsteverysortofinsolentact,andagainsttwokindsaboveall,corporalpunishmentandmolestationoftheyoung.Thisisaprecautionthatneedstobetakenespeciallytowardthosewhoarepassionateabouttheirhonor.Forwhilemoney-loverstakeithardwhenthereisaslighttotheirpossessions,honor-loversanddecenthumanbeingsfeelthatwayabout[20]dishonor.Henceheeitheroughtnottoengageinsuchacts,orhemustmakeadisplayofinflictingpunishmentsinapaternalmannerandnotinordertodemean,andofhavingintimaterelationswiththeyoungfromeroticmotivesandnotlicentiously.Ingeneral,heshouldbuyoffanyappearancesofdishonorwithgreaterhonors.Ofthepeoplewho

makeattemptsatdestructionuponthepersonofthetyrant,thosewhoaremosttobefearedandneedthemostwatchingaretheoneswhohavenointentionofpreservingtheirownliveswhentheydestroyhis.Thisiswhyheneedstobeespeciallycautiousaboutpeoplewhoconsidereitherthemselvesorthosetheyhappentocareabouttohavebeentreatedwithhumiliatinginsolence,forthosewhoattackoutofspiritedangerareofnomindtobesparingofthemselves.[30]ItisjustasHeracleitussays,whenhedeclaresitishardtofightagainstspiritedness,forthepriceitpaysislife.

Andsincecitiesareorganizedoutoftwoparts,needyhumanbeingsandthosewhoarewelloff,inthebestcasebothoughttoassumetheyarebeingkeptsafebythetyrant’sruleandonegroupissufferingnoinjusticefromtheother;butwhicheverofthetwoisstronger,privatepersonsofthatclassshouldespeciallybemadepartofhisrule,since,ifthisgroupisonthesideofhisinterests,therewillbenonecessityforthetyranttoresorttoafreeingofslavesoraconfiscationofarms.Foroneofthetwopartswillbeenough,whenaddedtohispower,tomakeitstronger[40]thanthosewhomightattackit.Tospeakofsuchthingsforeachcasewouldbetoofussy.Fortheaimisobvious,thatheoughtnottoappear[1315b]tohissubjectstobetyrannical,butmanagerialandkingly,notsomeonewholooksoutfornumberonebutatrustee,andappeartopursuethemoderatethingsinliferatherthantheextremes,andalsoappeartobefavoringtheprominentpeoplewithhiscompanywhilecourtingpopularitywiththemasses.Thenecessaryresultofthesemeasuresisthatnotonlywillhisrulebemorebeautifulandenviable,byvirtueofrulingoverpeoplewhoarebetterandnotdebasedandaccomplishingthiswithoutbeinghatedandfeared,butalsohisrulewillbelonger-lasting;furthermore,hehimselfwilleitherhavehischaracterinbeautifulshapeasfarasvirtueisconcerned,orbehalfwaydecent,[10]andnotviciousbuthalf-vicious.172

Chapter12Andyetofallformsofgovernmentoligarchyandtyrannyaretheonesthat

lasttheshortesttime.ThetyrannyofOrthagoras’descendantsandOrthagorashimselfinSicyonwentthelongesttime;itenduredforahundredyears.Thereasonforthisisthattheytreatedtheirsubjectsmoderately,andinmanymatterstheyslavishlyobservedthelaws;becausehebecameskilledatwar,

Cleistheneswasnoteasytodespise,andinmostrespectstheytookpainstobehavelikedemagogues.Itissaid,atanyrate,thatCleisthenesawardedacrowntosomeonewhosejudgmentdeniedhimavictory,andsomepeopleclaimthestatue[20]ofaseatedmaninthemarketplaceisaportraitoftheonewhogavethatjudgment.PeoplealsoclaimthatPeisistratusoncesubmittedwhensummonedtotheAreopagustoansweracharge.Thesecondlongest-lastingtyrannywasthatoftheCypselidfamilyinCorinth,foritwentonforseventy-threeyearsandsixmonths.Cypselusheldthetyrannyforthirtyyears,Perianderforfortyandahalf,andPsammitichus,thesonofGorgus,forthreeyears.Andthereasonsforthisarethesame;Cypseluswasademagogueandwentthroughouthisreignwithoutabodyguard,andwhilePerianderwastyrannicalhewasskilledatwar.Thirdlongestwas[30]thetyrannyofthePeisistratidfamilyinAthens,thoughitwasnotcontinuous.Peisistratuswasbanishedfromhistyranniestwice,sothatoutofthirty-threeyearshereignedastyrantforseventeenofthem,andhissonsforeighteenmore,sothatitcametothirty-fiveyearsinall.Oftherest,thelongestwasthatofHieroandGeloinSyracuse,anditdidnotlastmanyyears;itstotalwastwoyearsshortoftwenty.Gelowastyrantforsevenyearsandhislifewasendedintheeighth,Hieroforten,andThrasybuluswasthrownoutinhiseleventhmonth.Thebulkoftyrannieshaveallbeenofexceedinglyshortduration.

[40]Whatconcernsmonarchiesandotherformsofgovernment,then,inconnectionwiththereasonstheyaredestroyedorelsepreserved,hasprettywell[1316a]beencoveredforthemall.TheirtransformationsarediscussedbySocratesintheRepublic,thoughnotinbeautifulfashion.173Withtheformofgovernmentthatisbestandfirst,hedoesnotdiscussachangeforitinparticular.Heclaimsthecauseisthatnothinglastsbuteverythinggoesthroughacycleofchanges,andthestartoftheseis“thepointatwhicharootratiooffourtothree,matedwithamultitudeoffive,producestwoharmonies,”andspeaksofatimewhenthisnumberbecomesthatofasolidfigure,hismeaningbeingthatnatureatthattimegeneratespeoplewhoaresubstandardandimpervioustoeducation.Asfarasthispointitselfisconcerned,[10]whathesaysisprobablynotbad,sinceitispossiblefortheretobesomepeoplewhoareincapableofbeingeducatedorbecomingexcellentmen,butwhyshouldthischangebepeculiartotheformofgovernmentcalled

bestbyhimanymorethanalltherestandeverythingthatcomesintobeing?Andwhywoulditbearesultoftime,whichiswhathesayschangeseverything,andyetthingsthatdidnotbegincomingintobeingatthesametimewouldchangeatthesametime?If,say,somethingcameintobeingthedaybeforetheturnaround,woulditchangeatthatsametimeanyway?Andinaddition,whatisthereasonitchangesfromthatformofgovernmenttooneoftheSpartankind?Foritismorecommonforalltheformstochangeintotheiroppositesthanintoone[20]closelyrelated.Andthesameargumentappliestotheotherchanges.ForhesaysitchangesfromtheSpartanformintoanoligarchy,fromthatintoademocracy,andfromdemocracyintoatyranny.Andyettheyalsochangetheoppositeway,frompopularruleintooligarchyforinstance,andmoreoftenthanintomonarchy.

Also,hedoesnotsaywhethertherewillbeachangefromtyranny,orifso,forwhatreasonandintowhatform,andthereasonisthattherewasnoeasywayhecouldhavesaidthis.Itisindeterminate,sinceaccordingtohimitwouldhavetochangeintothefirstandbestform;inthatwayitwouldgooncontinuouslyinacircle.Butatyrannyalso[30]changesintoatyranny,thewaytheoneinSicyonwentfromthatofMyrontothatofCleisthenes,orintoanoligarchy,thewaythatofAntileondidinChalcis,orintoademocracy,thewaythatofGelo’sfamilydidinSyracuse,orintoanaristocracy,thewaythatofCharilausdidinSparta,aswellasoneinCarthage.174Andtherearealsochangesintotyrannyfromoligarchy,aswithjustaboutthegreatestnumberoftheancientonesinSicily,intothetyrannyofPanaetiusinLeontini,intothatofCleanderatGela,intothatofAnaxilausinRhegium,andsimilarlyinmanyothercities.

Anditisabsurdtosupposethatthereason[40]agovernmentchangesintoanoligarchyisthatthoseinitsofficeschangeintomoney-lovers[1316b]andmoney-makers,andnotthatthosewhohaveagreatsuperiorityinwealthbelieveitisunjustforpeoplewithnopropertytohaveanequalshareinthecitywiththepropertyowners.Inmanyoligarchies,thoseinofficearenotpermittedtomakeanymoneyandtherearelawstopreventit,whereasindemocraticallyrunCarthagetheyaremoney-makersandhavenotyetchangedtheformofgovernment.Anditisalsoabsurdtoclaimanoligarchyistwocities,oftherichandthepoor.ForwhywoulditbesubjecttothisanymorethantheSpartanformofgovernment,oranyotherwhatsoeverinwhich

peopledonotallhaveequalpropertyandarenotall[10]similarlygoodmen?Evenwhennoonegetsanypoorerthanbefore,governmentschangenonethelessfromoligarchytopopularruleifthenumberofneedypeoplegetslarger,andfrompopularruletooligarchyifthewell-offportionisstrongerthanthemajority,andthelatterareapatheticwhiletheformerarepayingattention.Andwhiletherearemanyreasonsforwhichthechangeshappen,hedoesnotspeakofanybutone,thatpeoplebecomepoorfromwastefullivingandbuildingupdebtathighinterest,asifallormostofthemwererichfromthebeginning.Butthisisfalse;instead,someoftheleadingpeopledostartrevolutionswhentheylosetheirproperty,butwhenothersdo,nothingdrastic[20]happens,andevenifitdoes,itisnomorelikelythatthechangewillbetopopularrulethantoanyotherformofgovernment.Whatismore,iftheleadingpeopledonotsharethehonors,oriftheyaretreatedunjustlyorinsolently,theystartfactionsandchangetheirformsofgovernmentevenwhentheyhavenotsquanderedalltheirwealth,onaccountofthelicensetheyhavetodowhatevertheywant,whichhesaysiscausedbytoomuchfreedom.Anddespitethefactthatthereismorethanonekindofoligarchyandofdemocracy,Socratesdiscussestheirchangesasthougheachwereonesinglething.

_______________________________________136BookIII,Chaps.9and12.137Thiswasanadministrativepositionwithoutanyofthepowersofamonarch,accordingtoAristotleat1287a3-7above.Thepointoftheparenthesisisthattheintroductionofthecouncilamountedonlytoaslightlooseningoftheoligarchyinthedirectionofdemocracy.138Theprecedingsevencausesaremotivesthatinducethoseoutofpowertoseekchange;thefollowingfourarecontributingcausesnotalwaysrecognizedassuchbythoseinpower.Thenextchapterdescribestheminmoredetail.139ThiswasagreatmassacrewhichArgosbarelysurvived;thenumberisthoughttorefertothedayofthemonthithappenedon.140TheupperclassesinSolon’sconstitution(seefootnoteto1274a22above)filledtheinfantryandcavalryranks,sincetheyprovidedtheirownheavyarmorandhorses;thelowerclasseswerepaidtoserveasrowersonbattleships(triremes,poweredbygreatnumbersofoars).SotheAtheniansuccessesatseainthePeloponnesianWar,andtheirinferioritytotheSpartansonland,changedtheproportionsofthepopulation.141Theword(eritheia)ismadefromtheworderithos,whichmeantday-laborer;sothepracticeappearstohaveinvolvedhiringpeopletogetoutthevoteforwhoeverpaidthem.142Aproverbialexpressionaboutyokedhorses,usedinthissameconnectioninPlato’sLaws,708D.143Sybariswasdestroyedbyaneighboringcity,re-foundednearbybythesurvivors,anddestroyedagain.WiththehelpoftheAthenians,theSybaritesorganizedthenewcityofThurii(plannedbyHippodamusandgivenitslawsbyProtagoras)inthesameregionwithanew,multiracialgroupofjointcolonists.“Sybaritic”becameabywordforluxuryandlaziness.144Orevenmorethanhalf,asAristotlesaysintheNicomacheanEthics(1098b7),inspeakingoftheimportanceofgettinganinquirystartedontherighttrack.Herethebeginning(archê)hasthedoublemeaningofthefirststepinaseriesofeventsandtherulingportionofacity.145Aristotleapparentlymadeupthewordsunapolaueinfromapolauein

(deriveenjoyment),whichhadanestablishedironicusage.146AnoligarchicgroupthattookpowerbrieflyinAthenslateinthePeloponnesianWar.147Theworddêmagôgosoriginallyappliedtoanyleaderofthepopulace,eventoastatesmanlikePericleswhocouldrebuketheAtheniansandneverhadtoflatterthem(seeThucydides,PeloponnesianWar,Bk.II,Chap.65).Thetwoclausesofthefollowingsentenceillustratethetypicalbehaviorthatcametocharacterizethebreed,inabuseofthelegalprocessandrabble-rousingrhetoric.148Thedemagoguesmaintainedtheirpowerbyprovidingmoneyforpeopletoserveintheassembly,andpaidforitbyrenegingonthemoneyowedtothosewhohadsuppliedthecitywithbattleships,whointurnweresuedbytheshipbuilders.149Therichlandownerslivedintheplain,anddominatedthepoorwholivedonthecoast;Peisistratusformedathirdpartyofthepoorestofthepoorinthehillsashisbaseofpower.150AparticularlybrutaloligarchythatheldpowerinAthensforlessthanayearfollowingtheendofthePeloponnesianWar,andcametobeknownastheThirtyTyrants.151ChareswasanAtheniangeneralknowntoemploymercenaries,andAeginaisanislandverynearAthens.152Seethefootnoteto1266a1.1531304a1-17.154Aristotle’swordissimplytheadjectivemadefrom“authority”(kurios);hehasdescribedthesegovernmentsinBookIVasdemocraciesinwhichdecreesareauthoritative(1292a6-7)andoligarchiesinwhichtherulersare(1292b6-7).155IntheearlyaristocraticgovernmentofSparta,membersoftherulingSpartiateclasswerecalled“peers”(homoioi);duringalongwarwithMessenia,manyhalf-Spartiatesonswereborntowomenwhowerenotlegitimatelytheirmothers.156SeethefirstparagraphofBk.IV,Chap.13.

157See1305b23-27above.158Inthecaseofasubstantialreductionofthemoneysupply,thereisadefactotighteningofthequalificationsforoffice,thatrequiresacompensatingloosening;intheothercase,inflationmakesthosequalificationslooserthanoriginallyintended,andrequiresatightening.159Thisword(parastasis)couldmeanbanishment,butisnotoneofthewordsAristotleordinarilyusesforthat.Heseemsheretoberecommendingapolicyonestepshortoftheostracismheconsidersanundesirablelastresort(1302b18-21).160InBk.III,Chap.9,Aristotlediscussedthewayinwhicholigarchyanddemocracyarefoundedontruebutincompleteconceptionsofwhatisjust.Ifjusticeasastateofcharacterisadispositiontochoosewhatisfairtoeveryone,andthebasisofthatfairnessdependsonwhatconstitutesequalityorinequalityinthethingspeopledeserve,anattachmenttotheestablishedformofgovernmentwillcolorthewaysomeonerecognizeswhatoughttobedone.Itshouldberemembered,asAristotleremindsusshortlybelow,thatheconsidersoligarchyanddemocracydeviantformsofgovernment,incapableofservingthecommoninterestofallcitizens.161Aristotlehasmentionedthistwiceaboveinslightlydifferentforms,at1296b14-16and1297b4-6,andwillrepeatitoncemoreat1320b25-28below.Thepointofthesentencehereseemstobethatdefectsinthehumanbeingschosentoholdofficecanonlybeguardedagainst,inthefinalanalysis,bythepresenceofgoodlawsandastrongconsensusinsupportofthegovernmentamongthecitizens.162Theanalogytothepainterorsculptorwhoshapesanosemeansthattwokindsofextremesarebeingenvisioned,ademocracythatuseslawstomakeeveryonepoorandanoligarchythatusesthemtomakeeveryonerich.EitherversionwouldbeautopianvisionlikethatofPhaleas(Bk.II,Chap.7,above),ratherthanapracticalarrangementlikeconstitutionalrule,whichseekstocombinethecontributionsdifferingkindsofpeoplecanmaketocommonpoliticallife.163Thesourceofthequotationislost.CommentatorsspeculateaboutwhatAristotlewouldconsideragooddefinitionoffreedom.Inthecontextofthischapter,histworeferencestothelackofself-discipline(akrasia)suggestthat

hemightsaythatfreedomisordependsuponself-discipline(en-krateia).(ComparePlato’sMeno,86D,andGorgias,491D-494A.)Thatwouldmeanthatfreedomischaracterizedmorebythepowertoachieveanendthanbyalackoflimitationinchoosingone.AndbyinferencefromthediscussionofnaturalslaveryinBk.I,onemayaddthatfreedomdependsonthecapacitytodeliberate(1260a12)andtoforeseebythinking(1252a32).AristotleprovidesanimageoffreedomandslaveryinahouseholdintheMetaphysics(1075a19-22):thosewhoaremostfreehavethemostresponsibility,whiletheslavesforthemostpartactatrandom.164Thestoryisrecountedmorefullyat1284a26-33above.165Thewordtranslated“insolence”ishubris.InBk.IIitwastranslated“outrage”(see1267b39andnote)whenusedasacategoryofcrime.Itneverreferstoamereswelledheadortooverreachingone’scapacities.Whetheritisusedforanattitudeorforviolentcrime,italwayssignifiessomethinggratuitouslycrueldirectedagainstanotherperson.166HarmodiusandAristogeitonwerecelebratedasliberatorsofAthensfromthetyrannybegunbyPeisistratus.ThestoryoftheirprivatemotivesistoldbyThucydides(PeloponnesianWar,VI,54-59).Onetranslatorremovesmostofthefollowingmaterialupto1311b34toasmall-printappendix,consideringitsalaciousgossipofnopoliticalimportance,butitisthenatureoftyrannytoblurthelinebetweenprivateandpublicactsbysubordinatingallcommonintereststotheimpulsesandwhimsoftheruler,andofmonarchytobeginaslidetowardtyrannybycrossingthatline.Aristotle’sparentheticalremarkat1312a2-4indicateshisopinionthatsuchstoriesmayillustrategeneraltruthsevenwhentheyarenotfactuallyaccurate.167Xerxes’eldestsonandintendedsuccessor;ArtapaneswascaptainofXerxes’bodyguard.168Aristotle’sintendedexampleseemstobethenotionDionarticulatesanddeclares,ratherthanhisactualmotive,sincehehasjustsaidthatDionysiuswasanobjectofcontempt,andhewillshortlymentionthatDionhimselfcametoasimilaringloriousend.169AristotlecharacterizesextremedemocracyintwowaysinBk.IV.Whendemocracyisnotboundbylawsitisanalogoustotyranny,withthemajoritybecomingasinglecollectivemonarchthattreatseveryoneelselikeslaves

(1292a6-18);andevenunderlaw,ademocracythatdoesnotprotecttheinterestsofpropertyownersisatthelaststagebeforebeingtakenoverbyatyrant(1296a1-4).ThereferencetoHesiodhastodowiththenaturalrivalryamongthoseinthesamebusiness(WorksandDays25-26).170Thiscomparisonmayseembackwardtousifwethinkofhatredassimplythemostintensenegativefeeling,butAristotledescribesitinBk.II,Chap.4,oftheRhetoricastheoppositeoflove(philia),understoodasthedesireforanotherperson’sgoodforthatperson’sownsake.InII,2oftheRhetoric,hedescribesanger(orgê)indetailastheresponseofspiritedness(thumos)toinsolence(hubris);whenweourselvesorthoseclosetousarebelittledorcruellytreatedbyanotherperson,wefeelpainandadesireforrevenge.Aristotle’slastwordthereonthetwofeelings(1382a13-15)isthat,whilehatredmakesuswantsomeonenottoexist,angermakesuswanthimtosuffer.171AnexamplethatAristotlemayhaveinmindisastuntdescribedbyHerodotus(History,I,60)asthe“silliestthingbyfar”hehadeverheardof.WhenPeisistratuswasrestoredtohistyrannyinAthens,atallwomaninarmorrodeintotowninachariot,withheraldsannouncingthatAthenaherselfwasbringinghimback.172ThelastwordofthechapterappearsonceintheNicomacheanEthics(1152a17),forsomeonewholacksself-restraintorself-discipline;suchapersonhasdecentintentionsbutcan’tcarrythemout.Itseemstoreferheretotheoppositecase;atyrantwhofollowsAristotle’sadvicewouldbecarryingoutabadintentioninamoderateway.CommentatorssometimesrefertothischapterasAristotle’shandbookfortyrants,andpointtoechoesofitinMachiavelli’sPrince.Whatevertherelationofthetwowritingsmaybe,Aristotleconcludesthat,ifthemaskofvirtuethatisthelikeliestroadtosuccessfultyrannydoesnotbecometheface,atleasttherolethetyranthastoplaylessensthedamagehistruecharactercouldcause.173ThisdiscussionoccupiesBk.VIIIofPlato’sRepublic.Itbeginswiththeobservationthatthebesthumancontrivanceisstillsomethingthatcomesintobeingandmusteventuallydecay,andthenproceedsbyshowingthateachsubsequentdefectiveformisatcross-purposestoitself.Socrateswarns(545D-E)thathismathematicalpreambleisnottobetakenseriouslybutisa

playfulandpretentiouscounterparttoaHomericinvocationoftheMuses.174SomescholarshaveworriedthatthelastphrasecontradictsAristotle’sclaimat1272b32-33abovethatCarthagehadnotyranny,butthecontexttheremakesitclearthathemeansitneverlapsedintotyrannyafterthearistocracywasinstituted.

BOOKVIChapter1[1316b][30]

Howmanydifferentkindsthereareofthedeliberativeandauthoritativepartofthegovernment,andofarrangementsconcerningofficesandlawcourts,andwhattheyare,andwhichonesareadaptedtowhichformofgovernment,andalsomatterspertainingtothedestructionandpreservationoftheformsofgovernment,thesourcestheyarisefromandthecausesforwhichtheyhappen,havebeenstatedabove.Andsincethereturnouttobeanumberofformsofdemocracy,andlikewiseoftheotherformsofgovernment,itwouldbenolessappropriatetoexamineanythingthatremainsinconnectionwiththem,andatthesametimegiveanaccountoftheproperandadvantageousprocedureforeachform.Andafurtherpoint[40]thatneedstobeexaminedconcernsthecombinationsofalltheprocedures[1317a]thathavebeenmentioned,forwhenthesearepaireduptheymaketheformsofgovernmentintertwine,sothatthereareoligarchicaristocraciesanddemocraticallyinclinedformsofconstitutionalrule.ThepairingsthatIamsayingneedtobeexaminedaretheonesthathavenotbeenconsidereduptonow—if,forinstance,thedeliberativepartandthepartdealingwithselectingofficialswerearrangedinawayadaptedtooligarchywhilethepartshavingtodowithlawcourtswerehandledaristocratically,orthelatterandwhathastodowiththedeliberativepartoligarchicallyandthepartdealingwiththeselectionofofficialsaristocratically,orifinanyothermannernotallthepartscombinedweretheproperones[10]fortheformofgovernment.

Whatsortofdemocracyfitswhatsortofcity,andlikewisewhichsortsofoligarchiesfitwhatsortofmultitude,andwhichoftheremainingformsofgovernmentareadvantageousforwhichpeople,havebeenstatedabove;allthesame,sinceitoughttobemadeclearnotonlywhichoftheseformsofgovernmentarebestforcitiesbutalsohowoneoughttoconstructtheseandtheothersaswell,letustakethisupbriefly.Andletusspeakaboutdemocracyfirst,forwhatconcernstheoppositeformofgovernmentwillbecomeevidentatthesametime,andthisistheonesomepeoplecalloligarchy.Andforthisinquiry,allthefeaturesofpopularrule,aswellasthosethat[20]arethoughttogoalongwithdemocracy,needtobetakenup.

Foritisfromthecombinationsofthesethattheformsofdemocracyturnouttoarise,andthefactthatthereismorethanonedifferenttypeofdemocracy.Fortherearetworeasonswhydemocraciesareofmultiplekinds.Thefirstisthatmentionedearlier,thatpopulationsaredifferent.Fortherecanbeamultitudeoffarmersorofmechanicalworkersandmeniallaborers,andwhenthefirstoftheseisputtogetherwiththesecond,andthenthethirdwiththecombinationofthetwo,notonlyisthereadifferenceinwhetherthedemocracyisbetterorworse,butitisnoteventhesametype.Andthesecondreasonistheonewearespeakingofnow.Forthethingsthat[30]goalongwithdemocraciesandarethoughttobepropertothisformofgovernmentproducedifferenttypesofdemocracieswhentheyarecombined.Fewerwillgoalongwithonetype,morewithanother,andallofthemwithyetanother.Anditisusefultorecognizeeachofthem,bothwithaviewtoconstructingwhicheverofthemonehappenstowant,andforreformingthem.Forthosewhosetupgovernmentsseektobringtogetherallthethingsthatarepropertoitsunderlyingprinciple,buttheyaremakingamistakewhentheydothis,aswassaidaboveinthediscussionsofthedestructionandpreservationofformsofgovernment.Letusnowdiscusstheirguidingbeliefs,theircharacter,andthethingstheyaimat.

Chapter2[40]Nowanunderlyingprincipleofademocraticformofgovernmentis

freedom.Forthisiswhatpeopleareinthehabitofsaying,asthoughitwereonlyinthis[1317b]formofgovernmentthattheysharedinfreedom,sincetheyclaimeverydemocracyaimsatthis.Andonesortoffreedomisbeingruledandrulingbyturns.Forthejusticecharacteristicofpopularruleistohaveequalitybasedonnumberratherthanonmerit,andwherethisiswhatisjust,themultitudenecessarilyhasauthority,andwhatevermayseemgoodtothemajority,thatisfinalandthatisjustice.Fortheyclaimeachofthecitizensoughttohaveanequalsay;consequently,indemocraciestheneedyenduphavingmoreauthoritythanthosewhoarewelloff,fortheyarethegreaternumber,andtheopinionbelongingto[10]thegreaternumberisauthoritative.This,then,isoneindicationoffreedomwhichallpartisansofpopularrulesetdownasadefiningcharacteristicoftheirformofgovernment.Anotheristolivethewayonewants.Fortheyclaimthisisthewayfreedom

works,ifwhatcharacterizessomeonewhoisenslavedistolivethewayonedoesnotwant.Sothisisaseconddefiningcharacteristicofdemocracy,andfromitcomestheprinciplethatpeoplearenottoberuled,preferablynotbyanyoneatall,butfailingthat,onlybyturns,anditcontributesinthiswaytothesortoffreedomthatisbasedonequality.

Ifthesearetheunderlyingassumptionsandthestartingpointisofthissort,thethingssuitedtopopularruleareofthefollowingkinds:choosingallofficesfromamongallpeople;havingallthepeoplerule[20]overeach,andeachbyturnsruleoverall;havingeitheralltheoffices,orthosenotrequiringexperienceorskill,chosenbylot;havingtheofficesnotbebasedonanypropertyqualification,orononeassmallaspossible;nottohavethesamepersonholdanyofficetwice,oronlyonrareoccasionsinfewofficesapartfromthosehavingtodowithwar;havingeitherallofficesorthosethatadmitofitbeofshortduration;havingeveryone,orpersonschosenfromamongthemall,dothejudgingonallormostmatters,andonthemostimportantandmostauthoritativeones,suchasreviewsofofficials,theconstitution,andprivatecontracts;havingtheassemblybeinauthorityoverallmattersorthemostimportantones,whilenooffice[30]hasauthorityoveranymatter,orasfewaspossible(andamongoffices,theonemostsuitedtopopularruleisacouncil,wherethereisnoabundanceofpaymentforeveryone,sincewherethereistheytakeawaythepowerevenofthisoffice,forapopulacethathasanabundanceofpaymentdrawsalldecisionsbacktoitself,aswassaidabove175intheinquirybeforethisone);next,toprovidepayment,atbestforallfunctions—assembly,lawcourts,andoffices—butifnot,fortheauthoritativeoffices,lawcourt,council,andassemblies,oratleastthoseofficesinwhichitisnecessarytohavecommonmealswithoneanother;further,sinceoligarchyisdelimitedbyfamily,wealth,andeducation,[40]theoppositesofthesearethoughttobesuitedtopopularrule—lackoffamilybackground,poverty,andlackofcultivation;andagaininthecaseofoffices,fornonetobeperpetual,[1318a]andifanyisleftoverfromanancientchangeofgovernment,tostripawayitspowerandchangeitfromelectedtochosenbylot.176

Sothesearethethingsthatarecommontodemocracies.Butwhatisthoughttobeademocracyandpopularruleinthehighestsenseresultsfrom

whatisagreedtobethedemocraticformofjustice—thatis,foreveryonetohaveanumericallyequalshare.Fortheequalthingisfortheneedynottoruletoanygreaterextentthandothosewhoarewelloff,andnottobethesoleauthority,butforalltoruleandhaveauthorityonanumericallyequalbasis.Forpeoplewouldregardthisasthewaythatbothequalityandfreedom[10]wouldbepresentinthegovernment.

Chapter3Thenextquestionthisraisesishowtheyaregoingtohaveequality.Should

theydivideoffthepropertyassessmentsoffivehundredpeoplefromthoseofathousandandgivethethousandequalpowerwiththefivehundred?Orshouldtheyestablishequalityonthisbasisnotinthatwaybutbymakingthatdivisionandthentakingequalnumbersofpeoplefromthefivehundredandfromthethousandandletthembeinauthorityoverelectionsandlawcourts?Isthisthemostjustformofgovernmentbythedemocraticstandardofjustice,oronebasedonthemultitudeinstead?Forthepartisansofpopularruleclaimthatwhateverseemsgoodtothegreaternumberofpeopleisjust,[20]whiletheoligarchssayitiswhateverseemsgoodtothegreateramountofwealth,sincetheyclaimthingsoughttobedecidedonthebasisoftheextentofwealth.Butbothclaimsinvolveinequalityandinjustice.Forifitiswhateverthefewdecide,therecanbetyranny,sinceifonepersonalsohasmorethantherestofthosewhoarewelloff,thenbytheoligarchicstandardofjusticeitisjustforhimtorulealone;butifitiswhateverthenumericalmajoritydecides,theywillcommitinjusticebyconfiscatingthepropertyofthewealthyminority,aswassaidabove.177

Whatsortofthingbothsideswouldagreewouldbeequalitymustbeexaminedfromthethingstheybothdefineasjust.Fortheysaythatwhateverseemsgoodtothegreaternumberofcitizensoughttobeauthoritative,[30]soletthatstand,thoughnotasthewholestory,butsincetherehappentobetwopartsofwhichthecityiscomposed,therichandthepoor,letwhateverseemsgoodtoboth,ortoamajorityofeachpart,beauthoritative.Andifoppositethingsseemgoodtothem,letitbewhateverwasdecidedbythegreaternumberandthosewhohavethegreaterpropertyassessment;forinstance,ifthereweretenoftherichandtwentyofthemoreneedysort,andthematterwasresolvedbysixoftheformerandfifteenofthelatter,fouroftherich

havebeenjoinedwiththepoorandfiveofthepoorwiththerich.Sowhicheversiderepresentsthegreaterpropertyassessmentwhenbothgroupshavebeenaddedtogetheroneachside,thatsideisauthoritative.Andiftheyfalloutequal,thisoughttoberegardedasacommondifficulty,justas[40]happensnowwhenanassemblyoralawcourtcomesupwithasplitdecision;for[1318b]itneedstobesettledbylot,orsomethingelseofthatsortneedstobedone.

Asfarasequalityandjusticeareconcerned,eventhoughitmaybedifficulttodiscoverthetruthaboutthem,itisstilleasiertogettoitthantopersuadepeopleofitwhentheyhavethepowertogetthebetterofothers.Foritisalwaystheweakerwhoseekequalityandjustice,whilethestrongerpaynoattentiontothem.

Chapter4Ofthefourtypesofdemocracythereare,thebestisthefirstoneinthe

classificationthatwasdescribedinthediscussionsprecedingthese,178andthisisalsothemostancientofthemall.ButIamspeakingofitasfirstinthewayonewoulddistinguishpopulations.Forapopulationdevotedtofarmingis[10]best,sothatitispossibletoproduceademocracyevenwherethemultitudelivesbyfarmingandherding.Forsincetheydonothavemuchwealththeyhavenosparetimeandhencecannotoftenmeetinassembly,andsincetheydo179havethenecessitiestheyoccupytheirtimewiththeirworkanddonotdesirewhatbelongstoothers;onthecontrary,workingismorepleasanttothemthanengaginginpoliticsandoffice-holding,whereverthereisnogreatprofitfromholdingoffice.Formostpeoplehaveagreaterdesireforgainthanforhonor.Anindicationofthisisthatpeopleusedtoputupwiththeancienttyranniesandstillputupwitholigarchiesifnoonepreventsthemfromworkingor[20]takesanythingfromthem,forsomeofthemgetrichquicklyandtheothersavoidbeingpoor.Andiftheyhaveanydesireforhonor,beinginauthorityoverelectingandreviewingofficialsfillstheneed;andamongsomepopulations,asinMantinea,wheretheydonoteventakepartinelectingofficials,exceptsomeofthemchoseninturnsfromthemall,buttheyareinauthorityoverdeliberating,thisissufficientforthemassofpeople.Andoneoughttoconsidereventhistobeadesignforademocracy,

sinceitwasoncethatwayinMantinea.Henceitisespeciallyadvantageoustothesortofdemocracydescribed

above,andcustomarilyafeatureofit,foreveryonetoelectandreviewofficials[30]andbejurors,butalsoforpeoplechosenfromapropertyqualificationtoholdthehighestoffices,andthehighertheofficesthehigherthequalifications,oreveniftheydonotcomefrompropertyqualifications,forthemtobecapablepersons.Thosegovernedinthiswayarenecessarilygovernedbeautifully,sincetheofficeswillalwaysbefilledbythebestpeople,withthepopulacewillingandbearingnoresentmentagainstdecentrulers,andthisarrangementisnecessarilysatisfactorytodecentandprominentpeople,sincetheywillnotberuledbythosewhoareworse.Andtheywillrulejustlyasaresultofhavingothersinauthorityoverreviewingthem.Forbeingdependentonothers,andnothavinglicensetodoanythingwhateverthatseemsgoodtothem,isadvantageous.Foralicense[40]toacthoweveronewishesleavesonenocapacitytoguardagainstthe[1319a]baserelementineveryhumanbeing.Sothenecessaryresultisexactlywhatismostbeneficialingovernments:thatdecentpeoplerulewhilebeingkeptfromgoingastray,whilethemultitudeisnotmadeanyworseoff.

Itisplainthatthisisthebestofthetypesofdemocracy,andalsoforwhatreason,namelybecausethepopulaceisofacertainsort.Andsomeofthelawslaiddownamongmanypeoplesinancienttimesareentirelyeffectiveatprovidingafarmingpopulation,eitherbynotpermittingtheowningofmorethanacertainacreageoflandatall,ornotwithinacertaindistancefromthecitycenter[10]orcitylimits.Andinancienttimesitwaslaiddownbylawinmanycitiesthatonewasnotevenpermittedtoselltheoriginallandgrants.AndthereisalsoalawwhichpeoplesaycamefromOxylusthathasaneffectofthatsort,thatonemaynotlendmoneyagainstanyportionofanyperson’slandedproperty.Butthesedays,oneneedstostraightenthingsoutbymeansofalawoftheAphytaeans,sinceitisusefulforwhatwearespeakingof.Foreventhoughtheyaremanyandhavelittleland,theystillallengageinfarming;fortheybasetheirassessmentsnotonwholepropertiesbutonpartstheydivideupsosmallthateventhepoorexceedthepropertyqualification.

Afterafarmingmultitude,[20]thebestpopulationisfoundwherepeopleareherdersandliveofflivestock.Fortheircircumstancesareinmanywaysveryclosetofarming,andinmattersparticularlyrelatedtomilitaryactions,

theyaretrainedintheirhabits,usefulintheirbodies,andcapableoflivingoutdoors.Butjustaboutalltheothersortsofmultitudes,outofwhichtherestofthetypesofdemocraciesareorganized,arefarinferiortothese.Fortheirwayoflifeisdebased,andthereisnoworkdependingonvirtuethattheyputtheirhandsto,whetherthemultitudeconsistsofmechanicalworkers,thehumanswhoinhabitthemarketplace,ormeniallaborers.Moreover,becausetheyhangaroundthemarketplaceandintown,aclassofpeopleofthissort[30]caneasilyattendtheassemblyvirtuallyenmasse,whilethoseengagedinfarming,becausetheyarescatteredaroundtheterritory,neithermeetupnorfeelanyneedforthissortofgathering.Andwheretheterritoryalsohappenstobesituatedinsuchawaythatitisfarremovedfromthecity,itiseveneasierforaserviceabledemocracyorconstitutionalgovernmenttobeproduced.Forthemultitudeisconstrainedtohaveitsdwellingsinthefields,soifthereisalsoamobthatinhabitsthemarketplace,oneoughtnottoholdassembliesinthedemocracieswithoutthemultitudefromthecountryside.

How,then,oneoughttoprovideforthebestandfirstsortofdemocracy,hasbeenstated,and[40]itisalsoclearhowtheothersshouldbehandled.Fortheyoughttodeviateinstages,[1319b]andalwaysseparateofftheworsesortofmultitude.Asforthelaststage,sinceeveryonetakespart,itisnotpossibleforeverycitytosustainandnoteasyforittoendureifitisnotwellconstitutedinitslawsandcustoms.(Whatthingsendupdestroyingthisandtheotherformsofgovernmenthavebeenprettywelldescribedearlierformostcases.)Inordertosetupthissortofdemocracyandmakethepopulacestrong,theirleaderscustomarilytakeinasmanypeopleaspossibleandmakethemcitizens,notonlythoseoflawfulbirthbutalsothosewhoareillegitimateandbornofacitizen[10]ineitherofthetwoways—Imeanfromafatherormother;anythingofthatsortismoreacceptableamongthissortofpopulace.Sothisisthewaydemagoguesareinthehabitofprovidingforit;oneought,however,totakepeopleinuptothepointatwhichthemultitudeoutnumberstheprominentpeopleandthemiddlegroupandnotgoanyfurtherbeyondthat.Forthosewhooverdoitmakethegovernmenttoodisorderlyandprovoketheprominentpeopleintobeingmoredisgruntledatthedemocracy.ThisisexactlywhatendedupbecomingresponsibleforfactionalconflictinCyrene.Forasmalldebasedgroupcanbeoverlooked,butonethatgetslargeisrightinfrontoftheeyes.

Othersuch[20]provisionsusefulforthissortofdemocracyaretheonesusedbyCleistheneswhenhewantedtoexpandthedemocracyinAthens,andbythosewhosetupthepopulargovernmentinCyrene.Moreanddifferenttribesandfraternalgroupsoughttobeformedandtheritesofprivatereligiouscultsoughttobeincorporatedintoafewpublicones,andeverythingoughttobecleverlyarrangedtogetallthepeopletointerminglewithoneanotherasmuchaspossible,whiletheirformerhabitualassociationsarebrokenup.Andallthetyrannicalprovisionsalsoseemtobesuitedtopopularrule;Imean,forinstance,lackofcontroloverslaves(andthismaybeadvantageousuptoapoint),andoverwomenand[30]children,andlookingtheotherwaywhileanyoneliveshoweverhewishes.Forsupportforthatsortofgovernmentwillbewidespread,sincemostpeoplefinditmorepleasanttoliveanundisciplinedlifethanamoderateone.180

Chapter5Butsettingupsuchagovernmentisnotthegreatestoronlyworkofthe

lawgiverandofthosewhowanttoorganizeit;seeingthatitispreservedisagreaterone.Foritisnotdifficultforthoseunderanyformofgovernmentwhatevertomakeitlastforoneortwoorthreedays.Thatiswhyoneoughttotrytodrawonthethingsthatwerestudiedabove,thevariouskindsofpreservationanddestructionthatbelongtotheformsofgovernment,toprovidestability,guardingagainstthethingsthatdestroygovernments[40]whileputtinginplacethesortoflaws,unwrittenaswellas[1320a]written,whichincludetothegreatestextentthethingsthatpreservethem.Oneoughttoregardasconducivetopopularruleortooligarchynotwhatmakesthecityberuledinthemostdemocraticoroligarchicmannerpossible,butwhatmakessuchrulelastthelongesttime.Nowadays,demagoguesconfiscatealotofpropertythroughthelawcourtstogratifythepopulace.Sothosewhocareabouttheirformofgovernmentoughttoactinoppositiontothispracticebymakingalawthatnothingtakenfromthosewhosufferadversejudgmentswillbethepeople’spropertyorgointopublicfundsbutintotemplefunds.Forthosewhocommitinjusticeswillbenolessdeterred,[10]sincetheywillbefinedjustasmuch,butthemobwillbelessapttocastnegativevotesintheirverdictswhentheyarenotgoingtogetanythingoutofthem.Also,onealwaysoughttomakepubliclawsuitstakeplaceaslittleaspossible,bydiscouraging

thosewhobringfrivolouslawsuitswithlargepenalties.Fortheyareinthehabitofbringingsuitnotagainstmembersofthepopulacebutagainstprominentpeople,butinthebestcaseallthecitizensoughttobewell-disposedtowardthegovernment,orfailingthat,atleastnotregardthoseinauthorityasenemies.

Andsincedemocraciesintheirlaststagestakeinalotofpeople,anditisdifficultforthemtoattendassemblieswithoutpay,thissituation,wheretheredonothappentoberevenues,ishostiletotheprominentpeople.[20]Forthefundsnecessarilycomefrompropertytaxes,confiscation,andcorruptlawcourts,whichhaveoverturnedmanydemocraciesbeforenow.Wheretheredonothappentoberevenues,then,oneoughttohavefewassemblies,andfewdaysonwhichcourtswithmanyjurorsmeet.Thiscarriestheadvantagethattherichwillnotbeafraidoftheexpense,ifthewell-offdonotgetajuror’sfeebuttheneedydo,anditisalsoconducivetomuchbetterjudgingoflawsuits;forthosewhoarewelloffarenotwillingtobeabsentfromtheirprivateaffairsformanydays,butarewillingforashorttime.Wheretherearerevenues,oneoughtnottodowhat[30]demagoguesdonow,whichistohandoutthesurplus;andassoonasthepeoplegetit,theyaskforthesameamountsagain,sincethissortofaidtotheneedyisaleakyjar.Onewhoistrulyanadvocateofthepeopleoughttoseetoitthatthemultitudeisnottooneedy,sincethisiswhatisresponsibleforademocracy’sbeingdepraved.Sopoliciesneedtobecontrivedinsuchawaythatprosperitybecomeslong-lasting.Andsincethisisalsoadvantageoustothosewhoarewelloff,oneshouldgiveouttotheneedysurplusesaccumulatedfromrevenuesinlumpsums,especiallyifsomeonewouldbeabletomusterenoughofasumforowningapieceofland,orfailingthat,forcapitaltoputintotradeor[1320b]farming.Andifthisisnotpossibleforeveryone,thenoneoughttodistributeitinturnstotribesortosomeotherportionofthepopulace,andwhilethisisgoingon,taxthewell-offforthepaymentfornecessarymeetingswhileexcusingthemfrompointlesspublicbenefactions.181

ItisbygoverninginthissortofwaythattheCarthaginianshavewonoverthepopulaceasafriend.Fortheyarealwayssendingoutsomemembersofthepopulacetotheoutlyingtownsandmakingthemwelloff.Anditisamarkofbeingrefinedandhavinggoodsenseinprominentpeopleforthemtodividetheneedyamongthemselvesandgivethemcapitaltoturntoproductive

uses.AnditisalsoabeautifulideatodowhattheTarantinesdo.[10]Fortheymaketheirpropertycommonforusebytheneedyandthusgainafavorableattitudeamongthemultitude.Theyalsomadealltheirofficesdouble,electedandchosenbylot,inorderthatthepopulacecouldtakepartinthoseofthemchosenbylotandsotheywouldbebettergovernedbytheonesthatwereelected.Itisalsopossibletodothisbyhavingthosechosenbylotandthosewhoareelectedtaketurns182inthesameoffice.Howoneoughttoprovidefordemocracies,then,hasbeenstated.

Chapter6Andhowoneoughttoprovideforoligarchiesisalsoprettywellevident

fromthesethings.Oneoughttoputtogethereachsortofoligarchyoutofoppositeelements[20]byinferencefromthecorrespondinglyoppositetypeofdemocracy.Inthefirstandmostwell-blendedoftheoligarchies,whichisclosetowhatiscalledconstitutionalrule,oneoughttodivideupthepropertyqualifications,makingsomelowerandothershigher—loweronesonthebasisofwhichpeoplewilltakepartinofficesdealingwithnecessitiesandhigheronesforofficesdealingwithmattersofgreaterauthority.Theyoughttopermitanyonewhoacquiresthepropertyqualificationtotakepartinthegovernment,usingthequalificationtobringinamultitudeofthepopulacelargeenoughthatwiththemtheywillbestrongerthanthosenottakingpart,andinallcasestheyoughttotakeintheparticipantsfromthebetterportionofthepopulace.Andtheyoughttoprovideforthenextsortofoligarchy[30]inasimilarway,butbytighteningthequalificationalittle.Asforthesortthatisoppositetothelaststageofdemocracy,theonethatamongoligarchiesismostlikeaconfederacyofthepowerfulandmosttyrannical,itneedsmoreprecautionstothesameextentthatitistheworstsort.Forjustasbodiesingoodshapeasfarashealthisconcernedandshipswiththeircrewsinbeautifulconditionforsailinghaveroomformoremistakeswithoutbeingdestroyedbythem,whilebodiesinasicklyconditionandricketyshipsthatarestuckwithlousycrewsarenotcapableofenduringevensmallmistakes,sotootheworstformsofgovernmentneedthemost[1321a]precautions.Sowhilealargepopulationingeneralpreservesdemocracies,sincethisistheoppositeofwhatisjustonthebasisofmerit,itisclearthatoligarchyonthecontraryneedstogainitspreservationfromgoodplanning.

Chapter7Astherearefourmainpartsofthemultitude,occupiedinfarming,

mechanicalwork,themarketplace,andmeniallabor,therearealsofourgroupsusefulinwar,acavalry,aheavy-armedforce,alight-armedforce,andanavalforce.Wherethelandhappenstobesuitedforhorses,itisnaturaltobuildupastrongoligarchy.[10]Forthesafetyoftheinhabitantsissecuredbythispower,andtherearingofhorsesdependsonpeoplewhoownlargeestates.Wherethelandissuitedforheavy-armedmaneuvers,thenextsortofoligarchyisnatural,sinceaheavy-armedforceismadeupofthewell-offratherthantheneedy.Butlight-armedandnavalpowersareentirelysuitedtopopularrule.Sothesedays,wherethissortofmultitudeislarge,whenthereisconflict,theoligarchsoftencomeoffworseinthestruggle.Butoneoughttoadoptaremedyforthisusedbygeneralswhoareskilledatwar,whopairupanappropriateforceoflight-armedsoldierswiththeirforceofcavalryandheavyarmor.Thereasonpopularpartiesprevailoverthewell-off[20]inschismsisthatitiseasyforthosewhoarelightlyarmedtochallengeaforceofcavalryandheavyarmor.Sowhilesettingupthissortofforcefromthesepeopleissettingitupagainstthemselves,thereneedstobeadivisionmadeonthebasisofagebetweenthosewhoareolderandtheyoung,andwhiletheirsonsarestillyoungtheyoughttoteachthemlight-armedandunarmedtactics,andhaveagrouppickedfromtheboystobefightersontheirownsideinactions.

Andthereoughttobeagrantingofaplaceintheadministrationtothemultitude,either,asmentionedbefore,tothosewhoacquirethepropertyqualification,orasamongtheThebans,tothosewhohavestayedoutofmechanicaloccupationsforacertainlengthoftime,orelse[30]asinMassalia,bymakingaselectionofworthycandidatesfromamongthoseintheadministrationandthoseoutsideit.Butthemostauthoritativeoffices,whichthosewithinthegovernmentoughttoholdonto,shouldhavepublicserviceobligationsattachedtothemsothatthepopulacewillbewillingnottotakepartinthem,andwillhavesympathyfortheirrulersaspeoplepayingaheavypricefortheiroffice.Anditisfittingforthoseenteringsuchofficestooffermagnificentsacrificesandbuildsomethingforpublicuse,sothatbysharinginthefeastsandseeingthecityadornedwithmonumentsandbuildings,the

populacewillbegladtoseethegovernmentstayinpower—andfortheprominentpeopletherewillincidentally[40]beamemorialoftheirexpenditure.Butthisisnotthewaythoseinvolvedinoligarchiesdothingsnow;theydotheopposite.Theylookformonetarygainsnolessthanforhonor,andforthisreasonitiswellsaidthat[1321b]theseoligarchiesaresmall-timedemocracies.

Soletthematterofhowoneshouldsetupdemocraciesandoligarchiesbedeterminedinthisway.

Chapter8Followingwhathasbeensaid,thereisthematterofdividingthethings

relatedtoofficesinabeautifulway,astotheirnumber,whattheyare,andwhattheydealwith,aswassaidearlier.183Forapartfromthenecessaryofficesitisimpossiblefortheretobeacity,andapartfromthosethatleadtogoodarrangementandorderitisimpossibleforittobebeautifullymanaged.Butitisalsonecessaryfortheretobefewerofficesinsmallcitiesandmorein[10]largeones,aswasmentionedinthatearlierpassage,sowhichofficesitisfittingtocombineandwhichonestoseparateoughtnottobeoverlooked.

Thefirstofthenecessarymattersisattentiontothemarketplace,inwhichthereneedstobeanofficeoverseeingmatterspertainingtocontractsandorderlytransactions.Forinjustaboutallcitiespeoplehavetobuysomethingsandsellothersamongthemselvesfornecessaryuse,andthisisthehandiestwaytowardself-sufficiency,whichisgenerallythoughttobethereasonpeoplejoinintoonegovernment.Anotherkindofattentionfollowingthisoneandcloselyrelatedtoithastodowithpublicandprivatepropertyintown,so[20]therecanbeorderliness,andalsosafetyandrepairswhenbuildingsandroadsarefallingapart,andsopeoplecanbefreeofdisputesoverboundaries,andtotakecareofallothermattersalongsimilarlinestothese.Mostpeoplecallthissortofofficepolicing,butithasagreaternumberofparts,andinmorepopulouscitiestheyappointdifferentpeoplefordifferentones,suchasrepairersofthecitywalls,superintendentsofthewatersupply,andharbormasters.Andthereisanotherofficethatisnecessaryandverymuchlikethatone,sinceitisconcernedwiththesamethings,butinthecountrysideandoutsidethetown;somepeoplecalltheseofficials[30]ruralconstables;others

callthemforestwardens.Sothesearethreekindsofattentiontothesenecessarymatters;andthere

isanotherofficetowhichrevenuesfromcommonsourcesarebroughtin,wheretheyarekeptsafeanddistributedtoeachadministrativedepartment.Peoplecalltheseofficialsreceiversortreasurers.Anotherofficeisthatinwhichprivatecontractsandjudgmentsofthelawcourtsarerequiredtoberegistered,andindictmentsandinitialfilingsoflawsuitsoughttocometothesesameofficials.Insomeplacestheydividethisintomorethanoneoffice,butitispossiblefor184oneofficetobeinauthorityoverallthesethings.Peoplecallthemsacredrecorders,superintendents,recorders,andothertitles[40]closetothese.

Thenextoneafterthisisjustaboutthemostnecessaryandmosttroublesomeofoffices,thatwhichdealswithpunishmentsagainstconvictsandthoseposted[1322a]ondebtorlists,andwithcustodyofpersons.Itistroublesomebecauseitincursgreathostility,sowhereitisnotpossiblegetlargegainsoutofit,peopleeitherdonotconsenttoholdthisoffice,orwhentheyconsenttheyarenotwillingtoactinaccordwiththelaws.Butitisanecessaryoffice,becausenobenefitcomesfromlawsuitsovermattersofjusticewhentheycannotattaintheirend.Soifitisimpossibleforpeopletoliveincommonwithoneanotheriflawsuitscannottakeplace,itisalsoimpossiblewherepunishmentscannotbecarriedout.Forthisreasonitisbetterthatthisnotbeasingleofficebutdifferentpeoplefromdifferentcourts,andbettertotrytodivideup[10]thepostingsonthedebtorliststhesameway,andalsofortherulingofficialstocarryoutsomeofthepunishments,andespeciallynewofficialsratherthanthosealreadythere,andamongthoseinplace,tohaveadifferentonedoingthepunishingfromtheotherswhomadetheadversejudgment,suchastownconstablesinplaceofthemarketconstables,andothersinplaceofthem.Thelesshostilitythereistothosedoingthepunishing,themorethepunishmentswillattaintheirend.Sothereisadoublehostilitywheretherearethesamepeoplemakingtheadversejudgmentsanddoingthepunishing,andwherethesamepeopledosoinallcasestheyareenemiestoeveryone.Indeedinmanyplacesthegroupthatguardsprisonersisdividedofffromthatwhich[20]inflictspunishments,aswiththeso-calledEleveninAthens.Soitisbettertoseparatethisfunctiontoo,andtolookforacleverwaytodealwithitaswell.Foritisnoless

necessarythantheonementioned,butitturnsoutthatdecentpeopleavoidthisofficeinparticular,whileitisnotsafetogiveauthoritytocorruptones.Theyneedguardingthemselvesmorethantheyarecapableofguardingothers.Sothereoughtnottobeasingleofficeassignedtothem,andthesameoneoughtnottobeinplacecontinuously,butonedrawnfromamongtheyoung,wherethereisacorpsofcadetsorreserveguards,anddifferentonesfromamongtheofficialsoughttobeputinchargeoftheminturns.

Theseoffices[30]aretobeplacedfirst,then,asbeingthemostnecessary;afterthesecomeofficesthatarenolessnecessary,andrankedhigherinstatus,sincetheyrequireagooddealofexperienceandtrust.Suchwouldbetheonesconnectedwiththedefenseofthecity,andthewholearrayoffunctionsdirectedtomilitaryuses.Inpeaceandwaralike,thereneedtobepeopleinchargeofguardinggatesandwalls,andofreviewingandmarshallingthecitizens.Theofficesforallthesefunctionsaregreaterinnumberinsomeplacesandfewerinothers;insmallcities,forexample,oneofficedealswiththemall.Peoplecallsuchofficialsgenerals[1322b]ormilitarycommanders.Andiftherearecavalrymen,light-armedtroops,archers,oranavalforce,anadditionalofficeissometimessetupforeachofthese,andpeoplecallthemadmirals,cavalrycommanders,squadronleaders,andthoseassignedtosectionsunderthemarecalledbattleshipcaptains,platoonleaders,brigadecommanders,andothersforwhateverpartsthereareofthese.Thewholeofthisattentiontomilitarymattersisoneinform.Sothisishowthingsstandwiththisoffice,butsincesome,ifnotinfactall,oftheofficeshandlelargeamountsofpublicfunds,itisnecessaryfortheretobeadifferentofficethatreceivesandauditstheiraccounts[10]whileitdoesnothandleanyothermatter.Somecalltheseofficialsauditors,othersaccountants,examiners,orfiduciaries.Besidesalltheseofficesthereisonethatisthemostauthoritativeofall.Forthesameofficeoftenguidesthingsfromstarttofinish,theonewhich,wherethepopulaceisinauthority,presidesoverthemultitude,sincetherehastobesomethingthatconvenestheauthoritativepartofthegovernment.Insomeplacestheseofficialsarecalledpre-councilorsbecausetheydothepreliminarydeliberating,butwherethemultitudeistheauthoritativeelement,theofficeiscalledacouncilinstead.

Sothoseofficesdealingwithpoliticalaffairsarejustaboutthismany,butanotherformofattentionisthatpaidtothegods.Therearepriests,for

instance,andpeopleinchargeofmatters[20]relatedtotemples,includingpreservingexistingbuildingsandrepairingthosethatarefallingapart,aswellasalltheotherthingsdedicatedtothegods.Insomeplaces,insmallcitiesforinstance,thisendsupbeingasingleconcern,butinsomeplacestherearemanyofficesseparatefromthepriesthood,suchasmanagersofsacrifices,guardiansoftemples,andkeepersofsacredfunds.Closelyconnectedwiththisisanaofficereservedforallthepublicsacrificesthatthelawdoesnotassigntothepriests,buttothosewhohavethehonorofprovidingthemfromthecivichearth.Somepeoplecallthemarchons,otherskings,andstillotherspresidents.

Sothe[30]necessarykindsofattention,putinsummaryform,dealwiththefollowingthings:mattersofdivinityandwar,revenuesandexpenditures,themarketplace,thetown,coasts,andcountryside,andinconnectionwiththelawcourts,therecordingofcontracts,carryingoutofpunishments,custodyofprisoners,keepingofaccountsandinspectionandreviewofofficials,andlastarethosethatdealwiththebodythatdeliberatesaboutcommonconcerns.Thekindspeculiartocitieswithmoreleisureandgreaterprosperityandwhicharealsomindfulofgoodorder,areoverseersofwomen,guardiansofthelaw,overseersofchildren,[1323a]athleticdirectors,andinadditiontothese,supervisionofcompetitionsinathleticsandofdramaticcontestsdedicatedtoDionysus,aswellasanyothersuchspectatoreventstheremayhappentobe.Someoftheseofficesareobviouslynotsuitedtopopulargovernments,suchasoverseersofwomenandchildren,sincethepoor,beingwithoutslaves,needtousebothwomenandchildrenasattendants.

Andofthethreekindsofofficebywhichparticulargovernmentschoosetheirauthoritativeofficials—guardiansofthelaw,pre-councils,andcouncils—guardiansofthelawaresuitedtoaristocracy,pre-councilstooligarchy,andcouncilstopopularrule.Onthesubjectofoffices,[10]then,justaboutallofthemhavebeenspokenofinoutline.

_______________________________________175See1299b30-1300a4.176AnexampleistheAthenian“kingarchon,”whoretainedoutofthepowersoftheoriginalkings,onlythoseofpresidingovercertainreligiousceremoniesandhearingindictmentsincasesofimpietyandmurder.177AtthebeginningofBk.III,Chap.10,wherethesamepairofargumentsismademorefully.178See1292b22-1293a10.179Themanuscriptshavetheword“not”butRossfollowsanearliereditorinomittingit.180AristotlearguesintheNicomacheanEthics(seeespeciallyBk.VII,Chap.13)thatpleasureisanindispensableingredientofasatisfyinglife,butthatmostpeopleneverdevelopfarenoughtodiscoverthetrulysatisfyingpleasures.Disciplineimposedinchildhoodbyparentsorlawswouldbeanecessarysteptowarddevelopingthecapacityformoderationandformaturepleasures.Themisunderstandingofpleasureishenceattherootofthe“baddefinitionoffreedom”Aristotlementionsaboveat1310a25-36.181See1309a14-20above.182Theverbmerizeinwouldordinarilymean“divide”or“partition,”butiftheTarantinemethodwastohavetwopeopledividethefunctionsofeachoffice,thealternativeseemstobearotationinthemannerofchoosingasingleofficeholder,andkatamerosmeans“byturns.”TaraswasacolonyofSparta;onthecommonuseofprivateproperty,see1263a21-40above.183ThischapterpicksupthediscussioninBk.IV,Chap.15.184Rossfollowsearliereditorswhomakethisread“thereareplaceswhere,”butthemanuscripttext,followedhere,seemstobeaninstanceof“officesitisfittingtocombine.”

BOOKVIIChapter1[1323a]

Onthesubjectofthebestformofgovernment,itisnecessaryforanyonewhoisgoingtomakeanappropriateinquirytodeterminefirstwhatwayoflifeismostworthyofchoice.Forifthisisunclear,itisnecessarilyalsounclearwhatformofgovernmentisbest.Foritmakessensethatthosewhodobestinlifewouldbethosewhoaregovernedthebestwaytheircircumstancesadmit,providednothingunforeseeablehappens.Thisiswhyonemustfirst[20]haveagreementaboutwhichwayoflifeismostworthyofchoiceforpracticallyeveryone,andafterthat,whetherthisisthesameordifferentforalifelivedincommonorseparately.Soifonebelievesthateventhethingssaidaboutthebestlifeinourpopularwritings185arestatedsufficiently,itisappropriateforthemtobeusednowaswell.Andinregardtoonedistinctionatleast,itiscertainlytruethatnoonewoulddisputethat,ofthethreeclassesofgoods—externalones,thoseofthebody,andthoseofthesoul—allofthemmustbelongtothosewhoareblessedlyhappy.Fornoonewouldclaimsomeonewasblessedwhodidnothaveabitofcourageormoderationorjusticeorgoodjudgment,butwasafraidofthefliesflutteringaround[30]him,didnotholdhimselfbackfromanyextremeswhenhefeltadesiretoeatordrink,ruinedhisdearestfriendsforaquarter,andlikewisewasassenselessanddeludedinhisthinkingasanychildorinsaneperson.Butasmuchaseveryonewouldgoalongwiththesestatements,theywouldalsodifferonthematterofamountandontheirrankingsofpriority.Forpeopleregarditassufficienttohaveanytraceatallofvirtue,butwithwealthandpossessionsandpowerandprestigeandeverythingofthatsort,theyseekasuperabundancebeyondanylimits.

Butwewillpointouttothemthatitiseasytogetholdofpersuasiveevidenceabout[40]thesemattersrightfromthefacts,byseeingthatpeopledonotacquireandsafeguardthevirtuesbymeansofexternalthings,butthelatterbymeansoftheformer,[1323b]andthatlivinghappily,whetherthisisfoundbyhumanbeingsinenjoymentorinvirtueorboth,belongstoagreaterextenttothosewhohavesetinordertheircharacterandthinkingtotheutmostandaremoderateabouttheacquisitionofexternalgoods,thantothose

whohaveacquiredmoreofthelatterthantheyhaveanyuseforbutcomeupshortwiththeformer.186Butthesameconclusioniseasilytakeninviewbythosewhoexamineitthroughargument.Forexternalthingshavealimit,asanyinstrumentalthingdoes,andeveryusefulthingisdirectedtowardsomething;anexcessofsuchthingsisnecessarilyeitherharmfulorofnobenefittothose[10]whohaveit.Buteachofthegoodspertainingtothesoulismoreusefultoexactlythesameextentthatitgoesonincreasing,ifindeedoneoughttospeakofthesethingstoonotonlyasbeautifulbutalsoasuseful.Andingeneralitisclearthatwewillmaintainthatthebestconditionsofavarietyofthingsinrelationtooneanotherfollowtherankingofprioritywhichisallottedtothosethingsofwhichwesaytheyaretheconditions.Soifthesoulisamorevaluablething,bothsimplyandforus,thanbothpossessionsandthebody,thenitisnecessarythatthebestconditionsofeachhavearelationcorrespondingtothesethings.Furthermore,itisthesoulforthesakeofwhichthesethingsarenaturallyworthyofchoice,andforthesakeofwhichallthose[20]whothinksoundlyoughttochoosethem,andnotthesoulfortheirsake.

Letitbeagreedbyus,then,thatjustasmuchhappinessfallstothelotofeachpersonashehasofvirtueandgoodjudgment,andofactioninaccordwiththese,callinguponthegodasourwitness,whoishappyandblessedthroughnoneoftheexternalgoodsbutthroughhimselfaloneandbybeingofacertainsortinhisnature.Anditisforthisreasonthatgoodluckisnecessarilydifferentfromhappiness,sincechanceandluckareresponsibleforthegoodsexternaltothesoul,whilenooneisjustormoderatebyluckorthroughrelianceonluck.Andacorollary[30]entailedbythesameargumentsisthatthebestcityisonethatishappyandgetsalongbeautifully.Butitisimpossibleforthosewhodonotperformbeautifulactionstogetalongbeautifully,andthereisnobeautifuldeed,whetherofamanorofacity,apartfromvirtueandgoodjudgment.Andcourage,justice,goodjudgment,andmoderationinacityhavethesamepowerandformthateveryhumanbeingwhoiscalledcourageous,just,sensible,andmoderateparticipatesin.Soletthesethings,tothisextent,beprefacedtoourdiscussion.Foritisnotpossibletoforegotouchingonthem,buttogothroughallthepertinentargumentsindetailisnotanoption—thatisataskrequiringadifferent[40]sortofstudy.187Fornow,letthismuchbeassumed:thatthebestwayoflife,both

separatelyforeachpersonandincommonforcities,isoneequippedwithvirtue[1324a]tosuchanextentthatonecantakepartintheactionsthatproceedfromvirtue.Asforthosewhodisputethis,sinceweareleavingthemasideinourpresentinquiry,acarefulexaminationwouldneedtobemadelaterifanyoneturnsoutnottobepersuadedbywhatissaid.

Chapter2Somethingthatremainstobesaidiswhetheroneshouldclaimthat

happinessisthesameornotthesameineachonehumanbeingandinacity,butthisisinfactobvious,sinceeveryonewouldagreethattheyarethesame.Forthosewhoregardlivingwellasconsistinginwealthinthecaseofonepersonalsocountawholecityasblessedlyhappyifitis[10]wealthy;thosewhoholdatyrannicalwayoflifeinthehighesthonorwouldalsoclaimthatacitythatrulesthegreatestnumberofothercitiesisthehappiest;andifoneacceptsthatasinglepersonishappybymeansofvirtue,hewillalsoclaimthatacitymoreexcellentinvirtueishappier.Butthentherearethefollowingtwoquestionsthatneedexamination.Oneiswhetherthelifemoreworthyofchoiceisthatlivedbybeinggovernedincommonandsharinginacity,orratherthatofanoutsiderfreeofthebondsofpoliticalassociation.Andtheother,regardlessofwhethersharinginacityisworthyofchoiceforeveryoneorformostthoughnotforsomepeople,iswhichformofgovernmentandwhichwayofarrangingacityoneoughttorankasbest.Butsincethe[20]latterquestion,andnottheoneaboutwhatisworthyofchoiceforeachperson,isataskthatbelongstopoliticalthoughtandstudy,andthisistheinquirywehavenowundertaken,theotherquestionwouldbeoffthesubjectwhilethistaskisonthetrackwearepursuing.

Nowitisobviousthatthebestformofgovernmentwouldnecessarilybethatorderingbywhichanyonewhatsoevercouldactthebestandliveblessedly.Butamongtheverypeoplewhoagreethatthelifeinvolvingvirtueismostworthyofchoice,thereisdisagreementaboutwhetherapoliticalandactivelifeispreferable,orratheronewhichisfreeofdependenceonallexternalthings,suchassomesortofcontemplativelife,whichsomeclaimistheonlysortforaphilosopher.Foramongthosehumanbeingswhohavebeen[30]themostpassionatetoachievedistinction,intimespastandinourowntimes,itisalmostexclusivelythesetwolivesthattheyhavemanifestlychosen

—thetwoImeanbeingthepoliticalandthephilosophic.Andwhichwaythetruthstandsmakesnosmalldifference,forthepersonwhojudgeswellmustorganizethingstowardthebettergoal,foreachhumanbeingaswellasforthepoliticalassociationincommon.Somepeoplebelievethatrulingneighboringcitiesthewayamasterrulesslavescarrieswithitaninjusticeofthemostextremekind,andthat,whilerulingthempoliticallyinvolvesnoinjustice,itdoesconstituteahindrancetoone’sownwell-being.Butothersarriveatanopinionwhichispracticallytheoppositeofthethese—thattheonly[40]lifefitforamanistheactiveandpoliticalone,sinceactionsstemmingfromeveryvirtuearenotfoundinprivatepersonstoagreaterextent[1324b]thaninthosewhoactandaregovernedincommon.Sothisisthewaysomepeopletakeuptheidea,butothersclaimthattheonlyhappycourseforagovernmenttotakeisthatofmasteryandtyranny.Andamongsomepeoplesthisisthemeasureofthelawsandconstitution:thattheyexercisemasteryovertheirneighbors.

Sowhileonemightcallmostofthelegalordinanceslaiddownbymostpeoplesahodgepodge,stillifthelawsanywheredolooktowardsomeonething,theyallaimatbeingdominant,inthewaythateducationandthebulkofthelawsinSpartaandCreteareprettymuchdesignedforwars.Moreover,in[10]allnationsthathavethecapacitytogettheupperhand,thissortofpowerisheldinhonor,asamongtheScythians,Persians,Thracians,andCelts.Amongsomeofthem,certainlawsareevenintendedasincitementstothissortofvirtue.Alongtheselines,peoplesaythatinCarthage,amangetsanarrayofbraceletsequaltothenumberofmilitarycampaignshehasfought.AndtherewasoncealawinMacedoniathatamanwhohadnotkilledanyoneinwarhadtowearahorse’shalterasabelt.AmongtheScythians,onewhohasnotkilledanyoneinwarisnotallowedtodrinkfromacuppassedaroundatacertainbanquet.AmongtheIberians,awarlikenation,theyplacearingofspikesintheground[20]aroundaman’stombequalinnumbertotheenemieshehasdestroyed.Andtherearemanyothersuchpracticesamongotherpeoples,someimposedbylaws,othersbycustoms.

Andyet,tothosewillingtoexaminethematter,itwouldperhapsseemtoostrangeifthiswereataskforastudentofthepoliticalart,tobeabletoseehowtoruleandmasterone’sneighborswhethertheyarewillingorunwilling.Howcouldthis,whichisnotevenlawful,berelevanttothepoliticalartorthat

ofalawgiver?Butrulingofasortwhichisdoneunjustlyaswellasjustlyisnotlawful,anddominatingcanbedoneunjustly.Wecertainlydonotseethisintheotherkindsofknowledge;for[30]itisnotthejobofadoctororahelmsmantouseforceaswellaspersuasiononhispatientsorcrewmen.Butmostpeopleseemtothinktheartofmasteringslavesisthepoliticalart,andtheverythingeachgroupclaimsisnotjustoradvantageouswhenappliedtothemselves,theyarenotashamedofpracticingtowardothers.Fortheyseekajustsortofruleamongthemselvesbuthavenoconcernaboutthingsthatarejustforothers.Butitwouldbestrangeiftherewerenotanaturaldistinctionbetweenwhatismeanttobemasteredandwhatisnotmeanttobemastered;soifthisisthewaythingsare,oneoughtnottotrytomastereveryone,butonlythosemeanttobemastered,justasoneoughtnottohunthumanbeingsfor[40]abanquetorsacrifice,butsomethingmeanttobehuntedforthispurpose,andanywildanimalthatisfittoeatismeanttobehunted.Anditwouldsurelybepossiblefor[1325a]onecitytobehappyonitsown,onethatisbeautifullygovernedofcourse,ifitispossibleforacitymakinguseofexcellentlawstobesettledsomewhereonitsown,andtheorganizationofitsgovernmentwouldnotbedirectedtowardwarortowarddominatingenemies,forletitbeassumedthatnothingofthatsortisthere.

Thereforeitisclearthat,whileallconcernsdirectedtowardwararetobeconsideredbeautifulthings,theyarenottoberegardedasanendorasthehighestofallthings;theyareforthesakeofthat.Thejobofanexcellentlawgiveristostudy,foracity,araceofhumanbeings,oranyotherassociationofpeople,howtheycanparticipate[10]inagoodlifeandinthehappinessthatispossibleforthem.Therewill,however,bedifferencesamongsomeoftheordinancesprescribed,andonematterforthelawgiver’sarttodiscern,ifthereareanyneighborspresent,iswhatsortoftrainingneedstobeundertakeninrelationwhichgroupsofthem,andhowtomakeuseofappropriatemeasurestowardeach.Butthismatterofwhatendthebestformofgovernmentwouldbedirectedtowardwillgettoitsappropriateinvestigationlater.188

Chapter3Asforthosewhoagreethatthelifemostworthyofchoiceisoneinvolving

virtue,butdifferaboutthepursuitofit,areplyneedstobemadebyusto

boththesegroups.Fortheonegroupdismissestheworthinessofpoliticaloffices,inthebeliefthatthelife[20]ofafreepersonisthemostchoiceworthyofall,andisdifferentfromthatofsomeoneengagedinpoliticallife;theotherbelievesthatthelatterisbest,sinceitisimpossibleforsomeonewhoengagesinnoactiontogetalongwell,andthatwell-beingandhappinessarethesamething.189Bothgroupsarerightinsomeofthethingstheysayandnotrightaboutothers.Onegroupsaysthatthelifeofafreepersonisbetterthanonedevotedtomastery,andthisistrue,sincethereisnothinggrandaboutusingaslaveasaslave;givingordersaboutnecessitiesplaysnopartinbeautifuldeeds.Toregardeverysortofruleasbeingmastery,however,isnotright,fortheseparationbetweenruleoverfreepeopleandruleoverslavesisnolessthanthatbetweenwhatisitselffreebynatureandwhatis[30]naturallyaslave.Butdistinctionsaboutthesethingsweremadesufficientlyinourfirstchapters.190Anditisnottruetopraiseinactionoveraction,forhappinessisaction,andtheactionsofjustandmoderatepeoplealsocontainthefulfillmentofmanybeautifulthings.

Andyet,whenthesethingsaredistinguishedinthisway,onemightassumethatitisbesttobeinauthorityovereveryone,sinceinthatwayonewouldbeinchargeofthegreatestnumberofthemostbeautifulactions.Soanyonewiththepowertoruleoughtnottogiveituptohisneighborbuttakeitawayfromhiminstead;andafatheroughttofeelnoresponsibilityforhischildren,norchildrenfortheirfather,noranyoneatalltoanyonedeartohim,norshouldthey[40]payanyattentioninthatdirection.Thebestthingisthemostworthyofchoice,andactingwellisbest.Andperhapsthereistruthintheirsayingthis,if[1325b]themostchoiceworthythingstherearewouldbelongtopeoplewhoresorttorobberyandviolence.Butperhapsitisnotpossibleforthemtobelongtosuchpeople,andthisisafalseassumptiontheyaremaking.Forthereisnopossibilityforactionstobebeautifulwhentheyarethoseofsomeonewhodoesnotsurpassotherstothesameextentthatamansurpassesawoman,afatherhischildren,oramasterhisslaves.Sosomeonewhocommitsoffensescouldnotinanywayputthingsrightafterwardtothesamedegreehehasalreadydeviatedfromvirtue.Foramongpeoplewhoarealike,whatisbeautifulandjustconsistsintakingturns,sincethisisequalandalike.Inequalityforequalsandunlikenessforthosewhoarealikeiscontrarytonature,andnothing[10]contrarytonatureisbeautiful.

Henceifsomeoneelseisstrongerinvirtueandinthepowertoputthebestthingsintoaction,thebeautifulthingistofollowthatpersonandthejustthingistoobeyhim.Butheneedstohavenotonlyvirtuebutalsothepowerthatwillmakehimcapableofaction.

Thenifthesethingsarebeautifullyarguedandhappinessneedstobesetdownaswell-beinginaction,theactivelifewouldbethebestone,bothforawholecityincommonandforeachperson.Butitisnotnecessaryforwhatisactivetobedirectedtowardothers,assomeimagine,norisitnecessarythattheonlyactivethoughtsarethosethatareforthesakeoftheconsequencesthatcomefromacting;rather,thoseacts[20]ofcontemplationandthinkingthatareendsinthemselvesandfortheirownsakearemuchmoreactive.Fortheirendiswell-being,sothatittooisanaction.191Andeveninthecaseofexternalactions,wespeakofthosewhoaremaster-plannersofthoseactionsbymeansoftheirthinkingasactinginthemostauthoritativeway.Andcertainlycitiessituatedoffbythemselvesthatchoosetolivethatwayarenotnecessarilyinactive,sinceitisalsopossibleforactiontotakeplaceamongitsparts,becausethepartsofacityhavemanykindsofinteractionwithoneanother.Andthisissimilarlythecasewithhumanbeings,foranyoneofthematall.Forotherwisethegodandthewholecosmos,whichhavenoexternalactionsoverandabovetheirownwithinthemselves,[30]couldhardlybeinagoodcondition.Soitisobviousthatthesamewayoflifeisnecessarilybestforeachhumanbeingandforcitiesandhumanbeingsincommon.

Chapter4Seeingashowthethingsjustsaidaboutthesemattershaveservedasa

preface,andwhatconcernstheotherformsofgovernmenthasbeenstudiedbyusearlier,thebeginningofwhatremainsistospeakfirstaboutwhatsortsofunderlyingconditionsneedtobepresentforthecitythatistobeorganizedthewayonewouldwish.Foritisnotpossibleforthebestformofgovernmenttocomeintobeingwithoutthecommensurateequipment.Henceitisnecessarytotakeforgrantedinadvancemanythingsasbeingthewaytheyarewishedfor,solongasnoneoftheseareimpossible.Iamspeaking,[40]forinstance,ofwhathastodowiththemultitudeofcitizensandwiththeland.Forinthesamewaythatothercraftsmen,suchasaweaverandashipbuilder,need[1326a]tohavematerialavailablethatissuitedtothework

theydo(fortheproductthatcomesfromtheirartmustnecessarilybeamorebeautifulonetothesamedegreethatthismaterialisbetterprepared),sotoodothepoliticalcraftsmanandthelawgiverneedtohaveappropriatematerialavailableinasuitablecondition.

Andthefirstpieceofpoliticalequipmentisthemultitudeofhumanbeings,bothhowmanythereneedtobeandwhatsortsbynature.Anditisthesamewiththeland,bothhowmuchofitandwhatsortthereneedstobe.Andmostpeopleassumethatthefittingthingisthatahappycitywouldbeagreatone;butifthis[10]istrue,theyaremistakenaboutwhatsortofcityisgreatandwhatsortsmall.Theyjudgeagreatonenumericallybythemultitudeofinhabitants,buttheyneedtolooknottotheirmultitudebutrathertotheircapacity.Forthereisalsoacertainworkthatbelongstoacity,sothatcityoughttobethoughtofasgreatestwhichismostcapableofaccomplishingthiswork.ItisjustasifoneweretosayHippocrateswasgreater,notasahumanbeingbutasadoctor,thansomeonewhosurpassedhiminthesizeofhisbody.Evenifonehadtojudgebylookingtonumericalmultitude,however,thisoughtnottobedoneinreferencetoanyrandommultitude(foritisperhapsnecessaryforcitiestohavepresentinthemalargenumberofslaves[20]andresidentaliensandforeigners),buttothosewhoarepartofthecityandbelongamongtheproperpartsoutofwhichacityisorganized.Foritisthesuperiorityinmultitudeoftheseinhabitantsthatisasignofagreatcity;itisimpossibleforacitytobegreatfromwhichalargenumberofmechanicalworkers,butfewheavy-armedtroops,comesmarchingout.Foragreatcityisnotthesamethingaspopulousone.

Butthistooiscertainlyobviousfromthefacts,thatitisdifficultandperhapsimpossibleforacitythatistoopopuloustohavegoodlaws.Amongthecitiesthatseemtobebeautifullygoverned,atanyrate,weseenotevenonethatfailstocontrolthenumberofpeople.Andthisisclearfromtheevidenceofargumentsaswell.For[30]lawisacertainkindofordering,andbeingundergoodlawisnecessarilyawell-orderedcondition,butanumberthatistooexcessiveisincapableofformingpartofanorder.Thatwouldsurelybeataskforadivinepower,theonethatholdstogetherthetotalityofthings,sincebeautyisordinarilyamatterofnumberandsize.Henceacitytoowouldnecessarilybemostbeautifulinsofarasthelimitingfactormentionedispresentalongwithsize.Butthereisalsoacertainstandardfor

thesizeforacity,justasthereisforeverythingelse—animals,plants,instruments.Foreachofthesethingswillhavethecapacitythatbelongstoitwhenitisneithertoosmallnorexcessiveinsize;otherwise,itwillinsomecasesbewhollydeprivedofitsnature,andinothers[40]beinpoorcondition.Ashipasbigasahand,forinstance,willnotbeashipatall,andneitherwilloneaquarter-milelong,andwhenitgetstoacertainsize[1326b]itwilldoapoorjobofsailing,onaccountofeithersmallnessorexcessiveness.Likewise,withacity,anaggregateoftoofewpeopleisnotself-sufficient(butacityisself-sufficient),whileonethatconsistsoftoomanyisself-sufficientinnecessitiesthewayanationis,butisnotacity,foritisnoteasyfortheretobeagovernmentinit.Whoisgoingtobegeneralofamultitudethatistooexcessive,andwhowithoutavoicelikeStentor’s192isgoingtobeitsherald?Hencethefirstcityisnecessarilytheonewithanumberlargeenoughtobethefirstmultitudethatisself-sufficientforlivingwellinapoliticalassociation.Anditispossible[10]foronethatexceedsthisoneinmultitudetobeagreatercity,butthisisnotpossiblewithoutlimit,aswesaid.

Anditiseasytoseefromthefactswhatthelimitoftheexcessis.Fortheactionsofthecityarethoseofeithertherulersortheruled,andthejobofaruleriscommandanddecision.Formakingdecisionsaboutmattersofjustice,andfordistributingofficesaswell,itisnecessaryforthecitizenstoknowoneanotherandknowwhatsortofpeopletheyare,sincewhereverthisturnsoutnottobethecase,mattersinvolvingofficesanddecisionsnecessarilycomeoutbadly.Forinbothcasesnojusticeistobehadfromdoingthingsoffthetopofone’shead,whichisobviously[20]exactlywhatonefindsinplacesthataretoopopulous.Whatismore,itiseasyforforeignersandresidentalienstotakepartinthegovernment,sinceitisnotdifficultforthemtogounnoticedintheexcessofthemultitude.Accordingly,itisclearthatthebestlimitforacityisthis:thegreatestexcessofmultitudeoverself-sufficiencyoflifethatiseasilytakeninatoneview.Soletwhathastodowiththesizeofacitybedeterminedinthisway.

Chapter5Mattersthatconcernthelandareverysimilar.Asforwhatsortitshould

be,itisclearthateveryonewouldrecommendthekindthatismostself-sufficient.Andthiswouldnecessarilybeonethatgrowsallsortsofthings,

sincethatwhichhaseverythingavailableandlacksnothingis[30]self-sufficient.Inquantityandsize,itshouldbebigenoughthattheinhabitantscanliveatleisureinamannerthatcombinesfreedomandmoderation.Whetherwearestatingthislimitbeautifullyornotissomethingthatneedstobeexaminedwithmoreprecisionlater,whenitcomestimetomakementionofpropertyingeneralandabundanceofwealth,andofhowandinwhatmannerthisisrelatedtotheuseofit.193Fortherearemanydisputesinvolvedinthisinvestigationonaccountofpeoplewhowouldpullitinthedirectionofoneortheotherextremewayoflife,sometowardfrugalityandotherstowardluxury.

Buttheconformationofthelandisnotdifficulttospeakof(thoughonsomeparticularsoneought[40]topayadditionalheedtothosewhoareexperiencedatgeneralship);itshouldbehardforenemiestopenetratebuteasyforthepeoplethemselvestoexit.[1327a]Also,justasweclaimedthatthemultitudeofhumanbeingsoughttobeeasytotakeinatoneview,sotooshouldtheland,sincealandthatiseasilytakeninatoneviewisonethatiseasytodefend.Andifoneshouldmaketheplacementofthecityasonewouldwish,itisappropriateforittobebeautifullysituatedinrelationtoboththeseaandtheland.Onelimitingfactoriswhatwasmentioned,thatthereoughttobepassagewaytoallregionsfordefensivetroops;theremainingoneisthatthereoughttobeeasytransportationforconveyancescarryingcropsthataregrown,andalsobuildingmaterialmadeofwoodandanyothersuchproducttheland[10]happenstohave.

Chapter6Asfarasaccesstotheseaisconcerned,peoplehappentohavemany

disputesaboutwhetherthisisbeneficialorharmfultocitieswithgoodlaws.Fortheyclaimthatbeingopentoavarietyforeignersraisedunderotherlawsisdetrimentaltogoodorder,asisoverpopulation.Fortheysaytheuseofthesearesultsinamultitudeoftraderswhoexportandimportgoods,andanoverpopulationthatisadversetobeingbeautifullygoverned.Nowifthesethingsdonotresult,thereisnodoubtthatitisbetter,bothforsafetyandforeasyavailability[20]ofnecessities,foracityanditsterritorytohaveashareofseacoast.Forinordertoendurewarsmoreeasily,thosewhoaregoingtosurviveneedtobewelldefendedonbothfronts,bylandandbysea;andforinflictingharmontheirattackers,iftheydonothavethepowertodosoon

bothfronts,thosewhohaveashareinbothwillstillhavemoreopportunitytodosoononeofthetwo.Andtheabilitytoimportthosethingsthathappennottobepresentamongthem,andtoexportthosetheyhaveinexcess,arebothnecessities.Foracityneedstobeamarketforitself,thoughnotforothers;citiesthatholdthemselvesoutasamarketplaceforeveryonedo[30]thatforthesakeofrevenue.Butacitythatoughttokeepoutofthatsortofprofitseekingoughtnottohavethatsortofmarketeither.Andsincewenowseemanyterritoriesandcitiesthathaveportsandharborsavailablethatarewellsituatedbynatureinrelationtothecity,sothattheydonotdwellinthetownitselfbutnottoofarawayeither,butarecommandedbywallsandothersuchdefenses,itisevidentthatifanygoodresultturnsouttocomefromaccesstothem,thisgoodwillbelongtothecity,whileanyharmfulconsequencetheremaybecaneasilybeguardedagainstbylawsthatspelloutandlimitwhichpeopleoughtandoughtnottobeintermingled[40]withoneanother.

Onthesubjectofnavalpower,thereisnodoubtthatitisbestforittobepresenttoacertainextent.Forpeopleneed[1327b]tobefearedandtohavethepowertomountadefense,notonlyforthemselvesbutalsoforsomeoftheirneighbors,ontheseajustasonland.Butasfortheextentandsizeofthispower,thatneedstobeconsideredinrelationtothewayoflifeofthecity.Forifitisgoingtopursuealifedevotedtoleadershipandpolitics,thenitwillbenecessaryforthispowertobepresentinamannercommensuratewithitsactions.Butitisnotnecessaryforcitiestohavetheoverpopulationthatcomesinwithamobofsailors,sincetheyoughtnottobeanypartofthecity.Forthefighting[10]forceonboardisagroupoffreemenfromtheinfantry,whichhascommandandcontroloftheship.Andifthereisamultitudeofpeopleavailablewholiveonandfarmthelandoutsidethecity,thereisnecessarilyalsoaplentifulsupplyofsailors.194Andweseethatthisisthecasenowamongsomepeople,suchasthoseinthecityofHeraclea,fortheyfillupnumerousbattleshipsdespitehavingacitymoremoderateinsizethanothers.

Soletthemattersthathavetodowithlands,harbors,cities,andthesea,aswellaswithnavalpower,bedeterminedinthisway.

Chapter7

Westatedabovewhatlimitthereshouldbeonthenumberofcitizens,butletusnowdiscuss[20]whatsortofpeopletheyoughttobebynature.AndonemaydiscernthisprettywellbylookingatthosecitiesamongtheGreeksthatarewellregardedaswellasatthewaythewholeinhabitedworldisdifferentiatedbynations.Forthenationsincoldregions,particularlythoseinEurope,arefullofspiritednessbutdeficientinthinkingandart,whichiswhytheyaremoresuccessfulatstayingfree,butarenonpoliticalandnotcapableofrulingtheirneighbors.ButthoseinAsia,thoughtheyhaveanaptitudeforthinkingandartintheirsouls,areunspirited,whichiswhytheystaysubjectandenslaved.ButjustastheraceofGreeksisinthemiddleintermsof[30]places,itlikewisehasashareinbothtemperaments,foritisbothspiritedandthoughtful;thisiswhyitbothstaysfreeandisbestgoverned,anditiscapableofrulingeveryoneifitweretouniteinasinglegovernment.AndthesamedistinctionholdsamongtheGreekpeoplesinrelationtooneanother,sincesomehaveaone-sidednaturewhileothersarewellblendedofboththesecapacities.

Itisclear,then,thatpeoplewhoaregoingtobeeasilyledtowardvirtuebyalawgiverneedtobeboththoughtfulandspirited.Forwiththeverythingthatsomepeopleclaimneedstobepresentinguardians,195thattheybe[40]friendlytothosetheyknowandfiercetowardthosetheydonotknow,itisspiritednessthatproducesthefriendliness,sincethisisthecapacityinthe[1328a]soulbywhichwefeelfriendship.Asignofthisisthatspiritednessisarousedmoreagainstone’sintimatesandfriendsthanagainststrangerswhenonefeelsslighted.AndthisiswhyArchilochus,whencomplainingabouthisfriends,appropriatelyaddressesthisremarktohisspirit:“itisatthehandsofyourfriendsthatyouarechokedwithrage.”Bothrulingandfreedomhavetheirsourceinthiscapacityforallpeople,forspiritednessisaspurtowardrulingandrefusestobebeaten.Butitisnotbeautifullysaidthatsuchpeopleareharshtowardstrangers,fortheyshouldnotbethatwaytowardanyone,andgreat-souledpeople[10]arenotfiercebynaturebutonlyinresponsetothosewhoareunjust.Buttheyfeelthiswayevenmorestronglytowardtheirintimatefriends,aswassaidabove,whentheybelievetheyhavebeentreatedunjustlybythem.Andthishappensreasonably,forwithpeoplewhomtheyassumeowethemagoodturn,theybelievethatontopoftheharm,theyhavebeenrobbedofthiskindness.Thisiswhyitissaidthat“harsharethebattles

ofbrothers,”and“thosewhohavelovedextravagantlyhateextravagantly.”Whatpertainstothosewhotakepartinthegovernment,then,howmany

shouldbepresentandofwhatsorttheyshouldbebynature,andalsowhatpertainstohowmuchandwhatsortoflandthereshouldbe,havebeendeterminedinaroughsortofway.(Foroneoughtnot[20]tolookforthesameprecisionthereisinargumentsinthingsthatcomebywayofperception.)196

Chapter8Since,justaswithotherthingsorganizedbynature,thosethingswithout

whichthewholecouldnotexistarenotpartsoftheorganizedwhole,itisclearthatnotallthethingsthatneedtobeavailabletocitiesoughttobecountedaspartsofacity,norofanyotherassociationofwhichanythingoneinkindisorganized.Forthosewhoarepartoftheassociationhavetohavesomethingincommonthatisoneandthesame,whethertheyparticipateinitequallyorunequally;thisiseitherfood,forinstance,oranamountofland,orelseitissomeothersuchthing.Butwheneveronethingisforthesakeofthis,andanotheristhatforthesakeofwhichitis,thesethingshavenothingincommon[30]otherthanthefactthatoneproduceswhattheothertakesup.Imean,forexample,commontoeveryinstrumentandcraftsmanincomparisontotheproductthatcomesintobeing,forthereisnocommonthingthatcomesintobeinginahouseascomparedtoahousebuilder,buttheartpossessedbyhousebuildersisforthesakeofthehouse.Hence,whilecitiesneedproperty,thepropertyisnopartofthecity,whilemanypartsofitspropertyareensouled.197Butacityisanassociationofpeoplewhoarealike,forthesakeofthebestlifetheyarecapableof.Andsincethebestthingishappiness,andthisisthebeing-at-workofvirtueandsomecompletewayofputtingitintopractice,anditsohappensthatsomepeoplearecapableofsharinginitwhileothershavelittleor[40]nocapacity,itisclearthatthisisthereasonwhymorethanoneformofcityandvarietyofgovernmentarises.Forsinceeachgrouphuntsforthis[1328b]inadifferentwayandbydifferentmeans,thisproducesdifferentwaysoflifeandformsofgovernment.

Howmanyofthesepartstherearewithoutwhichacitycouldnotexistneedstobeexamined,sincethethingswesayarepartsofthecitywould

necessarilyalsobepresentamongthem.Sothenumberoffunctionsithasneedstobegrasped,sincethiswillbeclearfromthese.Inthefirstplaceitneedstohavefood;thenarts,sincelivingrequiresmanyinstruments;thirdlyarms,sinceitisnecessaryforthoseintheassociationtobeararmsamongthemselvesforrulingonaccountofthosewhoaredisobedient,aswellasagainstthosefromoutsidewhotry[10]todotheminjustice;also,aconvenientsourceofmoneythattheycanhaveavailablebothforusesamongthemselvesandformilitaryexpenses;fifthbutalsofirst,theattentiontothedivinethatpeoplecallthepriestlyfunction;andsixthinnumberandmostnecessaryofall,judgmentaboutwhatisadvantageousandjustintheirdealingswithoneanother.These,then,arethefunctionsthatonemightsayeverycityrequires.Foracityisnotarandommultitudebutis,asweclaim,self-sufficientforlife,andifanyofthesethingshappenstobelacking,itisimpossibleforthatassociationtobesimplyself-sufficient.Accordingly,itisnecessaryforacitytobeorganized[20]fortheexerciseofthesefunctions.Thereforethereneedtobeamultitudeoffarmerswhowillprovidethefood,artisans,afightingforce,awell-offelement,priests,anddecidersofwhatisnecessaryandadvantageous.198

Chapter9Nowthatthesedistinctionshavebeenmade,whatremainstobe

considerediswhetherallthesefunctionsoughttobesharedbyeveryone(sinceitispossibleforallthesamepeopletobefarmersandartisanswhoalsodeliberateandjudge),ordifferentpeopleoughttobeassumedforeachofthefunctionsmentioned,orwhetherbynecessitysomeoftheseareparticularwhileothersarecommon.Andthisisnotthesameineveryformofgovernment.Foraswehavesaid,[30]itispossibleforeveryonetoshareinallofthem,andalsofornoteveryonetoshareinthemallbutonlycertainpeopleincertainones.Forthisisinfactwhatmakestheformsofgovernmentdifferent,sinceindemocracieseveryonehasashareineverything,whileinoligarchiestheoppositeisthecase.Butsincewehappentobeexaminingthebestformofgovernment,andthisistheonethatwouldletthecitybethemosthappy,anditwassaidabovethatitisimpossibleforhappinesstobepresentapartfromvirtue,itisobviousfromthesethingsthatinthecitythatismostbeautifullygoverned,andthatpossessesjustmeninanunqualifiedsense

andnotundersomesupposition,thecitizensneedtolivealifethatis[40]devotedneithertothemechanicaltradesnortothetradeofthemarketplace.Foralifeofthatsortisill-bredandnotconducivetovirtue.Indeed,thosewhoaregoingtobecitizens[1329a]oughtnottobefarmerseither,sincetheyneedleisurebothfortheformationofvirtueandforpoliticalactivities.

Butsincethemilitaryforceandthegroupthatdeliberatesquestionsofadvantageanddecidesquestionsofjusticeareincludedinthecityandareobviouslypartsofitinthehighestdegree,shouldthesebesetdownasdifferentorshouldbothfunctionsbeassignedtothesamepeople?Butthisisobvioustoo,thatinacertainsensetheyshouldgotothesamepeopleandinacertainsensetodifferentones.Forinsofaraseachofthesefunctionshasadifferentpeaktimeoflife,andonerequiresjudgmentwhiletheotherrequirespower,theyshouldgotodifferentpeople,butinsofarasitis[10]animpossibilitythatthosewiththepowertouseforceandresistitwillputupwithbeingruledallthetime,forthisreasontheyshouldgotothesameones.Forthosewhohavecontrolofthearmsarealsoincontrolofwhetherthegovernmentenduresornot.Whatremains,then,isforthegovernmenttoassignboththesefunctionstothesamepeoplebutnotatthesametime.Justaspowerisnaturallypresentinyoungerpeopleandjudgmentinolderones,itisadvantageousandalsojustforthesefunctionstobedistributedonthesamebasistothemboth,forthisdivisioniswhatisinaccordancewithmerit.Butthereneedstobeownershipofpropertyamongthemtoo,sinceitisnecessaryforcitizenstohaveanamplesupply,andthesepeoplearecitizens.Forthe[20]groupofmechanicalcraftsmendoesnottakepartinthecity,nordoesanyotherclasswhosecraftsmanshipisnotdirectedatproducingvirtue.Thisisevidentfromtheassumptionthathappinessisnecessarilypresentalongsidevirtue,andacityneedstobecalledhappynotbypeoplewholookatsomepartofit,butbythosewholookatallthecitizens.Anditisobviousthatthesepeopleneedtohaveownershipofproperty,ifitisnecessaryforthefarmerstobeslavesorbarbarianslivinginthesurroundingarea.

Oftheenumeratedfunctions,theremainingoneistheclassofpriests,andthearrangementsuitableforthemisalsoobvious.Nofarmerormechanicalworkeroughttobeordainedasapriest,sinceitisfittingforthegodstobehonored[30]bycitizens.Andsincethecitizengrouphasbeendividedintotwoparts,onebearingarmsandtheotherdeliberating,anditisfittingfor

thosewhoarewearyafterthepassageoftimetobeassignedtheserviceofthegodsandtohavearest,itistothemthatthepriesthoodsshouldbeassigned.

Sothosewithoutwhomacitycannotbeorganized,andhowmanyofthemarepartsofthecity,havebeendescribed.Forfarmersandartisansandthewholeclassofmenialworkersarenecessarilypresentincities,butitisthearms-bearinganddeliberatinggroupsthatarepartsofthecity.Eachoftheseisseparate,somepermanentlyandothersbyturns.

Chapter10[40]Itseemstobewell-known,notjusttopresent-dayandrecentpolitical

philosophers,thatthecityoughttobedividedinto[1329b]separateclassesandthatthefightingandfarminggroupsoughttobedistinct.ForthiswayofdoingthingsisstillinplaceevennowinEgypt,andthingsarethiswayinCrete;SesostrislaiddownthelawsthiswayinEgypt,soitisclaimed,andMinosinCrete.Andthearrangementforcommonmealsseemstobeancientaswell,thoseinCretehavingcomealonginthekingshipofMinos,whiletheonesinItalyseemtobemuchmoreancientthanthese.ForthosewhopreservethestoriesofthatregionclaimthatacertainItalussettledthereandbecamekingofOenotria,andonaccountofhimtheychanged[10]thenametheywerecalledtoItaliansinsteadofOenotrians,andasmuchofthatpeninsulaofEuropeasisboundedbythegulfsofScylletiumandLametus,199whichareahalf-day’sjourneyapartfromeachother,gotthenameItaly.AndtheysaythisItalusmadetheOenotriansfarmers,whentheyhadbeennomads,farmers,gavethemotherlaws,andwasthefirsttoinstitutecommonmeals.Henceeventodaysomeofthosedescendedfromhimobservethecommonmealsandsomeofhislaws.TheOpicans,whowereformerlyandstillarecalledbythenameAusonians,livedonthe[20]Tyrrhenianside,whiletheChonianslivedontheIapygianandIonianside,whichiscalledSiritis,andtheChonianswereoftheOenotrianrace.Sothearrangementforcommonmealsstartedtherefirst,whiletheseparationintoclassesofthecitizenpopulationcamefromEgypt,forthekingshipofSesostrisstretchesmuchfurtherbackintimethanthatofMinos.

Indeed,oneoughttoregardjustabouteverythingelsetooashavingbeen

discoveredrepeatedlyoverlongstretchesoftime,orratherinfinitelymanytimes.200Foritislikelythatneeditselfteachesthenecessities,anditisreasonablethatoncethesearepresentthethingsthattendtowardrefinementandaffluencegetanincrease.[30]Soonemustsupposeitisthesamewaywiththingspertainingtoformsofgovernmentaswell.ThefactsaboutEgyptareanindicationthattheseareallancient,fortheyarethoughttobethemostancientpeople,andtheyhavealwayshadlawsandapoliticalarrangement.Forthisreasononeoughttoadoptthethingsthathavebeendiscoveredsatisfactorily,andtrytofindtheonesthathavebeenleftout.

Nowitwassaidearlierthatthelandoughttobelongtothosewhobeararmsandtakepartinthegovernment,andwhythefarmersoughttobedistinctfromthem,andalsohowmuchandwhatsortoflandthereoughttobe.Sowhatneedstostated[40]firsthastodowithitsdistributionandwiththefarmers,whoandwhatsortofpeopletheyshouldbe,sinceweclaimpropertyoughtnottobe[1330a]heldincommonthewaysomehavesaid,butoughttobecomecommoninuseasamongfriends,andnoneofthecitizensoughttobeinneedoffood.Asforcommonmeals,everyoneagreesitisusefultohavethemincitiesthataresetupwell;weshallsaylaterwhyweagreewiththistoo.201Andallthecitizensoughttotakepartinthem,butitisnoteasyfortheneedytocontributeaprescribedportionfromtheirownresourcesandstillprovidefortherestoftheirhouseholds.Andexpensesthathavetodowiththegodsarealsoacommonresponsibilityofthewholecity.Itisnecessary,then,todividetheland[10]intotwoparts,andforonetobecommonwhiletheotherismadeupofprivateestates,andtodivideeachoftheseintwoagain;ofthecommonland,onepartoughttobedevotedtopublicservicesconnectedwiththegodsandtheothertotheexpenseofthecommonmeals,andofthelandmadeupofprivateestates,onepartoughttobeneartheoutlyingareaandtheothernearthetown,sothateveryonewillhaveastakeinbothplaceswithtwoallotmentsapportionedtoeach.Doingthingsthiswayhasfeaturesofequalityandjustice,andismoreconducivetolike-mindednessaboutborderwars.Forwherethisprovisionisnotinplace,somethinkthathostilityalongthebordersisamatterof[20]littleimportancewhileothersconcentrateonittoomuchandmakeitanuglysituation.Forthisreasonthereisalawamongsomepeoplesthatthoseneighboringonbordercitiescannotparticipateindeliberationaboutwarsagainstthem,onthe

groundsthattheirprivateinterestmakesthemincapableofdoingabeautifuljobofdeliberating.

Fortheforegoingreasons,then,itisnecessarytodividethelandinthisway.Butthosewhoaregoingtodothefarmingoughtinthebestcase,ifthingsaretobeasonewishes,tobeslaves,andneitherallofthesameracenorhigh-spirited,sincethatwaytheywouldbeusefulattheirworkandalsosafefromrevolting.Secondbestwouldbeforthemtobebarbariansfromsurroundingpopulationswhoarecloseinnaturetotheattributes[30]mentioned.Thoseamongthemonprivatelandsoughttobetheprivatepropertyoftheownersoftheestates,whilethoseoncommonlandoughttobecommonproperty.Laterwewilldiscussthewayoneoughttotreatslaves,andwhyitisbettertoofferfreedomasarewardtoallslaves.202

Chapter11Itwassaidabovethatthecityoughttohavecommonaccessbyallpossible

meanstothemainland,thesea,andthewholeterritoryalike.Ifitslayoutinreferencetoitselfistobeasonewouldwish,oneoughttobelookingatfourthingsinmakingthewish.Firstathealth,sincethisisanecessity.Forcitiesthathaveanexposuretotheeastandtothewinds[40]thatblowfromthedirectionoftherisingsunarehealthier.Secondbestisanexposureprotectedfromthenorthwind,sincethesecitieshaveeasierwinters.Fortherest,[1330b]itshouldbebeautifullysituatedforpoliticalandmilitaryactions.Formilitaryones,itshouldbeeasyfortheinhabitantsthemselvestoexitbuthardforopponentstoapproachandsurround.Itshouldhaveplentyofitsownwater-sourcesavailableandespeciallysprings,butifitdoesnot,thiscanbeprocuredbytheconstructionofreservoirsforrainwatersolargeandcapaciousthattheyneverrunoutwhenthepeoplearecutofffromtheirlandbywar.Andseeingashowthoughtneedstobetakenforthehealthoftheinhabitants,whichisinvolvedinhavingtheplacelieonacertainsortofgroundandfacing[10]beautifullyinacertaindirection,andasecondconsiderationistousehealthykindsofwater,tohaveconcernforthisaswellisnotbesidethepoint.Forthosethingsthatweareexposedtomostandmostoftenwiththebodycontributemosttoourstateofhealth,andtheeffectofthewindandwatersisofsuchanature.Forjustthisreason,incitiesthatusegoodjudgment,adistinctionneedstobemade,ifallthespringsarenotalikeandthoseofa

healthysortarenotcopious,andwatersfordrinkingandthoseforotheruseneedtobekeptseparate.

Asforfortifiedpositions,whatisadvantageousisnotthesameinallformsofgovernment.Ahighcitadel,forinstance,issuitedtoanoligarchyormonarchy,[20]butafortificationonlevelgroundtoademocracy,andneitheronetoanaristocracybutanumberofstrongpositionsinstead.Andtheplacementofprivatedwellingsisconsideredmorepleasingandmoreusefulforotheractivitieswhenitisclean-cutinthemodernstyleofHippodamus,203buttheopposite,thewaythingsusedtobeinancienttimes,ismoreusefulforwartimesecurity.Forthatstylemakesithardforforeignerstofindawayinortodoreconnaissancewhentheyareattacking.Hencetheplacementoughttohaveashareofboththesestyles,forthisispossibleifonebuilds,thewayfarmersdowithvines,whatsomecallclusters,inordertomake[30]thecityclean-cutnotasawholebutinpartandinplaces.Forthiswillputitinbeautifulshapeforbothsecurityandorderlyappearance.

Asfaraswallsareconcerned,thosewhoclaimthatcitieswithanypretensiontovirtueoughtnottohavethemaremakingassumptionsthataretooold-fashioned,especiallywhentheyseethisrefutedbyfactinthecaseofthosewhopridedthemselvesonthat.204Itisnotabeautifulthing,againstthosewhoaresimilarinkindandnotmuchdifferentinnumber,totrytobekeptsafebyafortificationofwalls,butsinceitcanalsoturnoutthatthesuperiorityoftheattackersisgreaterthanthevirtuethatisonlyhumanandpresentonlyinafew,ifthecityoughttobekeptsafe[40]andnotsufferinjuryorbeinsulted,thesafestfortificationbywallsoughttobeconsideredtheutmostinwarcraft,[1331a]andespeciallysonowadayswhendiscoveriesaboutmissilesandenginesforsiegeshavebeenbroughttoastateofprecision.Toregarditasunworthyforcitiestoputwallsaroundthemselvesislikeseekingoutaterritoryeasytopenetrateandstrippingitofmountainousregions,andalsolikenotputtingwallsaroundprivatehousesonthegroundsthatitwouldbeanunmanlythingfortheinhabitantstodo.Butoneshouldbynomeansoverlookthefactthatthosewithwallssurroundingtheircityhavetheoptiontotreattheircitiesbothways,eitherashavingwallsorasnot[10]havingthem,whilethosewhodonotpossessthemdonothavethatoption.Soifthisisthewayitis,notonlyshouldwallsbebuiltaroundthecity,they

shouldalsobecarefullymaintainedsothattheywillbeinasuitableconditionforthecitywithaviewtobothanorderlyappearanceandtheirmilitaryuses,andespeciallythosethathaverecentlybeendiscovered.Forjustastheconcernoftheattackersisthemeansbywhichtheywillgettheupperhand,thedefenderstoo,thoughtheyhavemadesomediscoveries,needtogoonlookingforothersandinvestigatingthesubjectphilosophically.205Forpeoplewillnoteventrytoattackinthefirstplaceagainstthosewhoarewellprepared.

Chapter12Sincethemultitudeofcitizensneedstobedividedup[20]forthe

commonmeals,andsincethewallsneedtobeinterspersedwithguardhousesandtowersatconvenientintervals,itisclearthatthesefactscallforprovidingsomeofthecommonmealsintheseguardhouses.Soonemightorganizethesemealsthisway,butitisfittingtohavethecommonmealsforthehighest-rankingofficialgroupsinthesameplacesthatserveasdwellingsdedicatedtothegods—thosethatthelaw,orelsesomeprophesyoftheDelphicoracle,doesnotrestricttoseparateuseasholyplaces.Suchaplacecouldbeanythatissufficientlyconspicuousfortheexcellenceofitslocationandbetterfortified[30]incomparisonwiththeneighboringpartsofthecity.Andbelowthisplaceitisfittingfortheretobeanassemblyground206setasideofthesorttheycustomarilyhaveinThessaly,whichtheycall“free,”thatis,onethathastobekeptclearofallcommercialwares,andwhichnomechanicaltradesmanorfarmeroranyothersuchpersonmayapproachunlesssummonedbytherulers.Theplacewouldbepopulariftherewerealsoanarrangementthereforrecreationareasforolderpeople,foritfitsthedecencyofthissortofactivityforittobedividedaccordingtoage,andforsomeoftherulerstospendtimeamongtheyoungerpeople,whiletheolderonestospendtimeamong[40]therulers.Forbeingpresentundertheeyesoftherulersmostofallengenderstruerespectandthesortoffear[1331b]thatbefitsfreepeople.Themarketforcommercialwaresoughttobedifferentfromthisassemblygroundandinaseparateplace,havingalocationwhereitiseasytobringtogethereverythingsentinbyseaandland.

Andsincetheforemostgroupinthecityisdividedintopriestsandrulers,

itisappropriatetohaveanarrangementforcommonmealsfortheprieststoointhesacredbuildings.Thoseofficialgroupsthatgivetheirattentiontocontracts,legalindictments,summonsesandotheradministrationofthatsort,andalsothoseinvolvedintheruralconstabularyaswellasinwhatiscalled[10]municipalpolicing,oughttobesetupnearanassemblygroundandinsomecommonmeetingarea,andthemarketplacefornecessitiesisaplaceofthatsort.Forwearereservingtheupperassemblygroundforusingleisure,andthatonefornecessaryactivities.Thearrangementthathasbeendescribedshouldalsobeassignedforthethingsinthecountryside,fortheretooitisnecessarytohaveguardhousesforsecurityandcommonmealsfortheofficialswhomsomecallforestwardensandotherscallruralconstables,andalsoshrinesneedtobedistributedthroughthecountryside,someforgodsandothersforheroes.Butitisidletogoonatlengthnowspeakingaboutsuchthingsandgivingprecisedetails.For[20]thedifficultthinginsuchmattersisnotthinkingupbutcarryingout,sincetalkistheworkofourwisheswhileresultsaretheworkofchance.207Soletanythingmoreaboutsuchmattersbedismissedfornow.

Chapter13Asfortheformofgovernmentitself,whatandwhatsortsofthingsought

togointotheorganizationofacitythatisgoingtobeblessedlyhappyandbeautifullygovernedneedtobestated.Andseeingashowwell-beinginallmattersconsistsintwothings,oneofwhichisforthetargetandendoftheactionstoberightlysetoutwhiletheotheristodiscovertheactionsthatareconducivetotheend,itispossiblefor[30]thesetobeeitheroutofharmonywitheachotherorinharmony.Forsometimesthetargetisbeautifullysetupbutpeoplegoastrayinthewaytheyactinordertohitit,atothertimestheyaccomplisheverythingthatleadstotheendbuttheendtheyproposedwasabadone,andatstillothertimestheygowronginboth.Withdoctoring,forinstance,sometimestheyfailtodoabeautifuljobofjudgingwhatsortofconditionthehealthybodyoughttobeinandalsofailtoaccomplishthethingsthatwouldproducethestandardtheythemselveslaiddown.Butbothofthesehavetobemasteredintheartsandformsofknowledge,theendandtheactionsleadingtotheend.Nowthefactthateveryoneaimsatlivingwelland[40]beinghappyisobvious,butsomehavetheopportunitytoachievethese

whileothersdonot,duetosomechanceortonature.Forlivingbeautifullyalso[1332a]requirescertainequipment,butlessofthisforpeoplewhoseinherentconditionisbetterandmoreforthoseinwhomitisworse.Butothersfromtheoutsetdonotseekhappinessintherightway,eventhoughtheopportunityforitbelongstothem.

Andsinceourproposedtaskistogetalookatthebestformofgovernment,andthisistheonebywhichacitywouldbebestgoverned,andtheonegovernedbestisthatinwhichthereisthegreatestpossibilityforthecitytobehappy,itisclearthatthequestionofwhathappinessismustnotbepassedover.Andweclaim,andhavesodeterminedintheEthics,ifanyoftheargumentsthereishelpful,thatitisthebeing-at-workandputtingtouseofcompletevirtue,andthis[10]notinanyconditionalsensebutunconditionally.ByconditionallyImeanwhatisnecessary;byunconditionallyImeanwhatisbeautiful.208Anexamplemaybeseeninwhatpertainstojustactions,forjustactsofretributionandpunishmentdostemfromvirtuebutaremattersofnecessity,andtheyhavebeautyonconditionofnecessity.Foritwouldbemoreworthyofchoiceforamanoracitytohavenoneedofanysuchacts.Butactionstobestowhonorsorabundanceareofthehighestbeautyunconditionally.Fortheothersortistheremovalofsomethingbad,butactionsofthissortarejusttheopposite,sincetheyareactsthatprepareforandgiverisetogoodthings.Amanofseriousmoralstaturewouldcopewithpovertyanddiseaseand[20]otherstrokesofbadluckinabeautifulway,butthestateofbeingblessedlyhappyconsistsintheoppositesofthesethings.Forthistoowasdeterminedinthewritingsonethics,thatsomeoneofseriousmoralstatureisthesortofpersonwho,becauseofvirtue,findsthingsgoodthatareunconditionallygood.Butitisclearthattheusestowhichsuchapersonputsthesegoodthingswillnecessarilybeunconditionallyseriousandbeautifulaswell;thisiswhyhumanbeingsconsiderexternalgoodstobethecausesofhappiness,asiftheyweretogivethecreditforashiningexampleofbeautifulharp-playingtotheharpratherthantotheartistryoftheoneplayingit.

Accordingly,itisaconsequenceofwhathasbeensaidthatitisnecessaryforsomethingstobepresentalreadyandforotherstobeprovidedbythelawgiver.Hence,fortheorganizationofthecity[30]tobeaswewishinmattersofwhichluckisincontrolismerelyamatterofwishing,forweassign

thecontrolofwhatisalreadypresenttoluck.Butforthecitytobeofexcellentstatureisnolongeraproductofluckbutofknowledgeandchoice.Andcertainlyacityisexcellentbyhavingthecitizenswhotakepartinthegovernmentbeexcellent,andforus,allthecitizenstakepartinthegovernment.Therefore,thisiswhatneedstobeinvestigated:howamanbecomesexcellent.Forevenifallofthemarecapableofbeingexcellentwithouteachofthecitizensbeingso,thelatterismoreworthyofchoice;forbyhavingeachbeexcellent,itfollowsthatallare.

Nowcertainlypeoplebecomegoodandexcellentbymeansofthreethings,andthese[40]threearenature,habit,andreason.Foritisnecessarytohaveanatureinthefirstplace,asahumanbeingandnotanyoftheotheranimals,andthushaveabodyandsoulofacertainsort.Butinsomecaseshavingthenatureisofno[1332b]benefit,sincehabitsmakeitchange.Fortherearesomethingsthatdevelopintwodirectionsbynature,forworseorforbetterasaresultofhabits.Nowwhiletheotheranimalslivebynaturemostofall,andinsomesmallrespectsalsobyhabits,ahumanbeingalsolivesbyreason,forhealonehasreason.Sothesethingsneedtobeinharmony.Forpeopledomanythingscontrarytotheirhabitsandtheirnatureonaccountofreason,iftheyarepersuadedthatitisbetterforthemtobeotherwise.Thesortofnaturepeopleoughttohaveiftheyaregoingtobeeasilymoldedbythelawgiver,wehavedeterminedearlier.209Thejobthatremainsfromthatpointisoneofeducation.Forpeoplelearnsomethingsbybeinghabituated[10]andotherthingsbylistening.210

Chapter14Butsinceeverypoliticalassociationisorganizedoutofrulersandruled,

thisneedstobeconsidered:whethertherulersandruledoughttobedistinctthroughoutlife,orthesamegroupofpeople.Foritisclearthattheireducationwillalsohavetogoalongwiththisdivision.Nowiftheonesortdifferedfromtherestasmuchaswebelievegodsandheroesdifferfromhumanbeings,havingsuchagreatsuperiorityrightfromthestartinbody,andthusalsoin[20]soul,thatthesuperiorityoftherulerswasbeyonddisputeandobvioustothosewhoareruled,itisclearthatitwouldbebetterforthesamepeopletoruleallthetimeandfortheotherstoberuledonceandforall.But

sinceitisnoteasytoacceptthispremise,andtherearenokingswithasbigadifferencefromtheirsubjectsasSkylaxclaimsisthecaseinIndia,211itisobviousthatformanyreasonsitisnecessaryforeveryonetosharealikeinrulingandbeingruledbyturns.Fortheequitablethinginthecaseofpeoplewhoarealikeisforthesamethingtoapplytothem,anditisdifficultforaformofgovernmenttoendureifitisorganizedcontrarytowhatisjust.Forallthoseinthecountrysidewhowanttostartarevolution[30]willbeonthesideofthesubjectpopulation,andtheideathatthepeopleinthegoverninggroupcouldbesomanyinnumberthattheywouldbestrongerthanallofthoseisoneofthethingsintheclassofimpossibilities.Itis,however,certainlybeyonddisputethattherulersoughttobesuperiortothosewhoareruled.Sohowthisisgoingtobeachieved,andhowtheywillsharethings,needstobeconsideredbythelawgiver.Andthiswasdealtwithabove,fornaturehasprovidedthedistinctionbymakingayoungerandolderpartinsomethingthatisitselfthesameinkind,andbetweenthemitisfittingforoneparttoberuledandfortheothertorule.Andnooneresentsbeingruledonaccountofhisageorconsidershimselfaboveit,especiallywhen[40]thatfavorisgoingtobereturnedwhenhereachestheappropriateage.

Thereforeitmustbesaidthatthereisasenseinwhichthosewhoruleandthosewhoareruledarethesamepeople,andasenseinwhichtheyaredifferent.Soitisalso[1333a]necessaryfortheretobeasenseinwhichtheireducationisthesameandasenseinwhichitisdifferent.Forpeoplesaythatanyonewhoisgoingtodoabeautifuljobofrulingneedstoberuledfirst.And,aswassaidinourfirstdiscussions,212ruleiseitherforthesakeoftheonerulingorforthesakeoftheoneruled.Weclaimthatoneoftheseformsismasteryofslaveswhiletheotherisappropriatetopeoplewhoarefree.Butthereisadifferenceinsomecasesbetweenthingsthatarecommandedbasednotonthedeedsbutontheirend.Forthisreason,itisabeautifulthingforfreeyoungpersonstoperformmanyoftheservicesthatareheldtobeserviletasks.Forasfaraswhatisbeautifulornotbeautifulisconcerned,actionsdiffer[10]notsomuchinthemselvesasintheendforthesakeofwhichtheyareperformed.Andsinceweclaimthatthesamevirtuebelongstoacitizenandtoarulerastothebestman,andthatthesamepersonoughttoberuledfirstandrulelater,thebusinessofthelawgiveroughttobethis:howandthroughwhatpursuitsmencanbecomegood,andwhattheendisatwhichthe

bestlifeaims.Nowthereisadistinctionbetweentwopartsofthesoul,oneofwhichhas

reasoninitsownright,whiletheother,whichdoesnothaveitinitsownright,iscapableoflisteningtoreason.Thevirtuesforwhichamanissaidtobegoodinanywaybelong,weclaim,totheseparts.Tothosewhomakethedistinction[20]thewayweassertit,thereisnounclarityabouthowoneshouldstatewheretheendismoreappropriatelytobefound.Fortheworseisalwaysforthesakeofthebetter—thisisobviousinthingsthatcomefromartandfromnaturealike—andthebetterpartistheonethathasreason.Andthisisalsodividedintwo,inthewaywehabituallymakethedistinction,forthereispracticalreasonontheonehand,contemplativereasonontheother,soitisplainlynecessarythatthispartofthesoulbedividedinthesameway.Andweshallspeakoftheiractivitiesasbeinginproportiontothem,andsaythatactivitiesofapartthatisbetterbynaturemustbemoreworthyofchoiceforpeoplewhoarecapableofattainingallofthemortwoofthem.Forthemostchoiceworthythingforeachperson[30]isalwaysthatwhichisthehighesthecanattain.Andalloflifeisdividedaswell,intobusinessandleisure,andintowarandpeace,andamongactions,somearenecessaryandusefulwhileothersarebeautiful.Amongthese,thechoicemustbethesameaswiththepartsofthesoulandtheactivitiesofthem:warmustbeforthesakeofpeace,businessforthesakeofleisure,andnecessaryandusefulactionsforthesakeofbeautifulones.Lawsmadebyapoliticalrulershouldbemade,then,byonewhotakesallthesethingsinview,inaccordancewiththepartsofthesoulandtheiractivities,andgivingprioritytowhatisbetterandtoends.And[40]thesamethingappliestowaysoflifeandtochoicesamongobjectsofconcern,foroneoughttobecapableofconductingbusinessandwar,[1333b]butevenmoresooflivinginpeaceandoccupyingone’sleisure,andoneoughttoperformnecessaryandusefulactions,butevenmoresobeautifulones.Soitiswiththeseaimsthatpeopleoughttobeeducated,bothwhiletheyarestillchildrenandthroughalltheotherstagesoflifeinwhichtheyhaveneedofeducation.

ButthosewhoarenowthoughttobebestgovernedamongtheGreeks,andthoselawgiverswhosetuptheseformsofgovernment,obviouslydidnotorganizethethingsinvolvedintheirgovernmentswithaviewtothebestend,ordesigntheirlawsandeducationwithaviewtoallthevirtues;theyhave

insteadmadethemsinktothelevelof[10]thevirtuesvulgarlythoughttobeusefulandmoreconducivetogainingtheupperhand.Andinaspiritmuchliketheirs,somelaterwritershavedeclaredthesameopinion.FortheypraisetheSpartangovernmentandadmiretheaimofthelawgiverformakingallthelawswithaviewtodominanceandwar.Whattheysayiseasilyrefutablebyargumentandhasnowbeenrefutedbythefactsaswell.Forinthesamewaythatmosthumanbeingsthinkmasteryovermanypeopleishappinessbecausealargesupplyofthegoodsoffortunecomeswithit,ThibronandeachoftheotherswhowriteaboutthegovernmentoftheSpartans[20]displayadmirationfortheirlawgiverbecausebeingtrainedfordangersledthemtorulemanypeople.Andyetnowatanyrate,sincerulingisnolongerpossiblefortheSpartans,itisclearthattheyarenothappyandtheirlawgiverwasnotagoodone.

Butthisisabsurd,if,despitethefactthattheyabidedbyhislawsandtherewasnoimpedimenttocarryingoutthoselaws,theyhaveabandonedabeautifulwayofliving.Butthesewritersarenotrightintheirassumptionaboutthekindofrulewhichthelawgiveroughttoholdinpublicesteem.Forruleoverfreepeopleisamorebeautifulthingthanrulinginthemannerofamasterofslaves,andinvolvesgreatervirtue.Andfurther,thisisnotthereasononeoughttoregardacityashappy[30]andpraiseitslawgiver,thathetrainedthemtobedominantinordertoruletheirneighbors;thesethingsinfacthavethepotentialforgreatharm.Foritisclearthatthisissomethinganyofthecitizenscapableofitwillhavetotrytopursueaswell,tohavethepowertorulehisowncity.ThisistheverythingtheSpartansaccuseKingPausanias213ofdoing,evenwhenheheldsohighapositionofhonor.Nothinginargumentstothateffectisappropriatetopoliticallifeorbeneficialortrue.Thesamethingsarebestbothprivatelyandincommon,anditisthesethatthelawgiveroughttoinstillinthesoulsofhumanbeings.Thisisnotthepurposeforwhichheoughttopayattentiontoatrainingformilitaryskills,that[40]hispeopleshouldimposeslaveryonthosewhodonotdeserveit,butprimarilysothattheythemselveswillnotbeenslavedbyothers,secondlyinorderthattheymayseekapositionofleadership[1334a]forthebenefitofthosewhoareruled,andthirdlytogainmasteryoverthosewhodeservetobeslaves.Eventsbearwitnesstotheargumentsthatalawgiveroughttobemorediligentaboutdesigningmatterspertainingtomilitaryskills,andalltherestof

hislawmaking,forthesakeoflivinginleisureandforpeacetime.Formostcitiesofthiskindstaysafewhiletheyareatwarbutonceimperialrulehasbeenacquiredtheycometoruin.Whentheykeepthepeace,theylosetheirhardedge,likeiron,andtheoneresponsibleforthisisthelawgiverwhohasnoteducatedthemtohavewhatittakestoliveat[10]leisure.

Chapter15Butsincetheendforhumanbeingsappearstobethesameincommon

andinprivate,anditisnecessarythatthesamestandardapplytothebestmanandthebestformofgovernment,itisobviousthatthevirtuesthatareforleisureneedtobepresent.For,ashasbeensaidoften,peaceistheendatwhichwaraims,andleisureisthatofbusiness.Andamongthevirtuesthatareforleisureandpassingone’stime,therearesomewhoseworkisdoneatleisureandsomethroughbeingbusy.Formanynecessitieshavetobepresentinorderforonetohavetheopportunitytobeatleisure;thisiswhyitisappropriateforacitytobemoderate,[20]courageous,andcapableofendurance.Forastheproverbgoes,thereisnoleisureforslaves,andthosewhodonothavethecapacitytofacedangerscourageouslyaretheslavesofthosewhoattackthem.Sothereisneedforcourageandendurancewhenoneisbusy,andforphilosophywhenoneisatleisure,whilemoderationandjusticeareneededatbothtimes,andevenmoreinthosewhoarelivingatpeaceandatleisure.Forwarforcespeopletobejustandmoderate,whiletheenjoymentofgoodfortuneandtheleisurethataccompaniespeacetendinsteadtomaketheminsolent.Soagooddealofjusticeandmoderationisneededbythosewhoseemtobethebestoff[30]andtobeenjoyingalltheblessingsofthose,ifthereareany,whodwell,asthepoetssay,intheislesoftheblessed.Itistheymostofallwhowillneedphilosophyandmoderationandjustice,totheextentthattheyhavemoreleisureamonganunstintingsupplyofsuchgoodthings.

Soitisobviouswhyacitythatisgoingtobehappyandbeofexcellentstatureneedstopartakeofthesevirtues.Foritisshamefulforpeopletobeincapableofmakinguseofgoodthings,andevenmoresotobeincapableofmakinguseofthemwhenatleisure,andtodisplaythemselvesasgoodwhenbusyandatwarbutslavishwhenatpeaceandatleisure.[40]ThatiswhyoneoughtnottotrainforvirtuethewaytheSpartans’citydoes.Forthereason

theysurpassothersisnot[1334b]thattheydonotconsiderthesamethingseveryoneelsedoestobethegreatestofgoods,butthattheybelievethesegoodsaremoreeffectivelygainedbymeansofoneparticularvirtue.Butsince[theyconsider]thesegoodsandtheenjoymentofthemtobegreaterthanthatwhichcomesfromthevirtues,[theytrainonlyforthevirtuethatseemstobeusefulforthem.Thatthereoughttobetrainingforvirtueasawhole,]andforitsownsake,isobviousfromtheforegoingdiscussion.214Sothethingsthatneedtobelookedintoarethemannerandmeansbywhichthiswillbeaccomplished.

Wearrivedatadistinctionabove,thatthereisneedfornature,habit,andreason.215Andamongthese,itwasdeterminedearlierwhatsortofnaturepeopleoughttohave,butitremainstolookintowhethertheyoughttobeeducatedfirstbyreason,orfirstbyhabits.Forthesethingsought[10]tobeharmoniouswitheachotherinanoptimalharmony.Foritispossibletohavemistakenthebesthypothesisbyone’sreason,andtobeledastrayinthesamedirectionbyone’shabits.Andthisatleastisclearfirstofall,that,asinothercases,ourbirthisfromastartingpoint,andtheendthatcomesfromastartingpointisthestartingpointforanotherend;butinus,reasonandintellectarenature’send,sothatitisforthemthatbirthandtheconcernwithhabitsoughttobeapreparation.Next,justassoulandbodyaretwo,sotoodoweobservetwopartsofthesoul,oneirrationalandtheotherhavingreason,andtheactiveconditionsofthesepartsaretwoinnumber;[20]oneofthemisdesireandtheothertheactivityofintellect.Andjustasthebodyispriortothesoulincomingintobeing,sotooistheirrationalpartpriortothathavingreason.Thisisobvious,sincespiritednessandwillfulness,anddesireaswell,arepresentinchildrenrightwhentheyareborn,whilereasoningandintellectcomeinnaturallyastheygoon.Henceattentiontothebodynecessarilycomesfirst,beforeattentiontothesoul,andattentiontodesirecomesnext,thoughtheattentiontodesireisforthesakeofintellect,andattentiontothebodyforthesakeofthesoul.

Chapter16Soifthelawgiverneedstoseetoitfromthestartthat[30]thebodiesof

thosewhoarebroughtupturnoutbest,thefirstthingattentionneedstobe

paidtoismating,andwhatsortsofpeopleshouldenterintomaritalrelationswitheachotherandwhen.Andheoughttomakelawsaboutthiskindofassociationwithaneyetothepeoplethemselvesandalsototheirtimeoflife,sothattheymaydeclineinagetogetheratthesamestagesandtheircapacitieswillnotbeoutofharmony,withthemanstillcapableofgeneratingandthewomanincapable,orthewomancapableandthemannot.Forthesethingsmakefordivisionsanddisagreementsbetweenthem.Next,thereshouldbelawsaboutthesuccessionoftheirchildren,forthechildrenoughtnottobelefttoo[40]farbehindtheirfathersinage(foractsofgratitudefromthechildren,orofassistancefromthefathers,[1335a]areofnobenefitwhenthelatteraretooold),norbetoocloseinage.Thatinvolvesalotofirritation,sincesuchchildrenhavelessofafeelingofrespect,astheywouldforthoseinthesamestageoflife,andtheirclosenessinagebreedscomplaintsabouttherunningofthehousehold.Afurtherpoint,whichbringsusbacktowherewestarted,isthatthereshouldbelawstoprovidethatthebodiesoftheoffspringbesuitedtothewishesofthelawgiver.

Justaboutallthesethingsresultfrompayingattentiontoonematter.Forsince,speakingforthemostpart,thenumberofseventyyearsatmostmarkstheendofgenerationinmen,andfifty[10]inwomen,thebeginningofmatingoughttobeatanagethatendsupatthesetimes.Andcouplingbytheyoungisabadthingforproducingchildren.Forinallanimals,theoffspringoftheyoungareimperfectandtheyaremorelikelytobearfemalesandoffspringsmallinform,sothissamethingnecessarilyhappensamonghumanbeingstoo.Andthereisevidenceofthis,forinthosecitiesinwhichitisthelocalcustomforayoungmanandyoungwomantomate,people’sbodiesareimperfectandsmall.Also,youngwomenhaveharderlaborinchildbirth,andmoreofthemdie.Andsomesaythissortofthingisthereasonwhytheoraclecame[20]totheTroezenians,thatmanyweredyingbecausewomenwhoweretooyoungweregettingmarried,anditwasnotrelatedtothecultivationofcrops.216Also,itcontributestomoderationformarriagestobemadewhenthewomenareolder,fortheyseemtobemorepromiscuouswhentheyhavegottenusedtointercoursewhileyoung.Andthebodiesofmalesseemtobestuntedingrowthiftheyhaveintercoursewhiletheseedisstillgrowing,forthereisadefinitetimeforthistoo,beyondwhichitnolongerremainsabundant.Henceitisfittingforwomentomatearoundtheageofeighteen,

andmenatthirty-sevenoralittlebefore.217[30]Foratsuchagesmatingwilltakeplaceinthosewhosebodiesareattheirpeak,andtheywilldeclinetogethertotheendofchildbearingatwell-coordinatedtimes.Also,ifbirthtakesplacerightaway,asisreasonabletoexpect,thesuccessionofchildrenwilloccurwhentheyareatthebeginningoftheirprimeandtheirfathers’ageshavealreadyusedupaboutthenumberofseventyyears.

Whenmatingoughttotakeplace,then,hasbeenstated;asfortheseason,thetimespeopleoughttousearetheonesmostpeopledousenow,andbeautifullyso,markingoutwinterasthetimeforthisconjugaluniontotakeplace.Andfromthatpointtheyoughttolookatwhatissaidaboutchildbearing[40]bydoctorsandnaturalists;thedoctorssayenoughabouttherightoccasionsfortheirbodies,[1335b]andthenaturalistsaboutwinds,approvingofnorthernratherthansouthernones.Whatsortsofbodiesitwouldbemostbeneficialforthemtohaveforthesakeoftheiroffspringisatopicmoreappropriatetothosewhopausetopayattentiontomattersofchildrearing;tospeakofitnoweveninoutlineissufficient.Fortheconditioningofathletesisnotusefulforthefitnessappropriatetoacitizenforthesakeofhealthorchildbearing,andneitherisaregimenthatisoverlyfastidiousandunsuitedtohardwork;whatisusefulisthemeanbetweenthem.Oneoughttohaveaconditionformedbyhardworkbutnotbyviolentexertions,orexertionsinonly[10]onedirectionlikethoseinvolvedintheconditioningofathletes,butdirectedtowardtheactivitiesoffreepeople.Andtheseexertionsoughttobeundertakenbymenandwomenalike.Pregnantwomentooshouldtakecareoftheirbodiesandnotbeidleoradoptameagerdiet.Andthisiseasyforthelawgivertobringaboutbyrequiringthemtotakesomesortofwalkeverydayforworshippingthedeitiestowhomthehonorsrelatedtobirthareassigned.Asfarastheirthinkinggoes,however,asopposedtotheirbodies,itisfittingforthemtoremainidle,sincedevelopingembryosobviouslydrawbenefitfromtheonecarryingthemthewayplantsdofromtheearth.Onthematterofdisposingofor[20]rearingtheonesthatareborn,lettherebealawthatnodefectiveinfantshouldberaised,whileanarrangementbasedoncustomsforbidsdisposingofanyofthosebornmerelybecauseofthenumberofchildren.Thenumberofchildrenproducedoughttobelimited,butifconceptiontakesplaceforanyofthosewhocontinuehavingintercoursebeyondthatnumber,anabortionoughttobeinducedbeforethe

powerofperceptionarisesinadditiontolife.Forwhatisorisnotsanctionedbydivinelawwillbedeterminedonthebasisofperceptionaswellaslife.

Andsincethebeginningoftheagewhentheyshouldstartmatinghasbeendeterminedforamanandforawoman,letthelengthoftimealsobemarkedoutthatisfittingforthemtoservethepublicinterestinthematterofchildbearing.Fortheoffspringof[30]thosewhoareolder,liketheoffspringofthosewhoareyounger,andbornimperfectinboththeirbodiesandtheirthinkingcapacities,andtheoffspringofpeopleinoldagearefeeble;hence,letthetimebelimitedtocorrespondwiththepeakofthethinkingcapacity.Andinmostmenthisisaroundthetimeoffiftyyears,ascertainpoetswhomeasureageinseven-yearintervalshavesaid.Sowhentheygetfourorfiveyearsbeyondthisagetheyoughttobereleasedfrombringingchildrenintotheworld;obviously,forthetimethatremains,theyoughttobeengaginginintercourseforthesakeofhealthorforsomeothersuchreason.Asforintercoursewithanotherwoman,oranotherman,letitsimplybeaviolationofwhatisbeautiful[40]ifoneopenlytakespartinitinanywaywithanyonewhenoneisahusbandandbearsthatname.Andifoneopenlydoesanysuchthing[1336a]duringthetimeofchildrearing,lethimbepunishedwithalossofhonorappropriatetohisoffense.

Chapter17Whateversortoffooditmaybethatisfedtochildrenoncetheyareborn

oughttoberegardedasmakingagreatdifferencetothecapacityoftheirbodies.Tothosewhoexaminethematter,bothinotheranimalsandinthenationsinwhichthereisaconcerntoproduceamilitarykindofconditioning,itisapparentthatadietrichinmilkisbestsuitedtotheirbodies,andonewithlesswinebecauseofdiseases.Also,itbenefitsthemtoengageinalltheexercisepossibleinthoseofsuchanage.[10]Butsothattheirlimbswillnotbedeformedonaccountoftheirsoftness,somenationsevennowusecertainmechanicalimplementsonsuchpeoplewhichmakethebodystraight.Anditalsobenefitstheirsoulstobegininstillinghabitsrightfromwhentheyaresmallchildren,sincethisisoftheutmostusefulnessbothforhealthandformilitaryactivities.Thisiswhythereisacustomamongmanyofthebarbariansforsomeofthemtoimmersenewbornsinacoldriver,andforothers,liketheCelts,todresstheminlightclothing.Forinallmattersin

whichitispossibletoinstillhabitsitisbettertoinstillthemrightwhenchildrenarestartingout,andformhabitsbyagradualapproach.[20]Andtheconditionofchildrenisnaturallywellsuitedbecauseofitswarmthtoatrainingforthecold.

Sointhefirststage,itisbeneficialforattentiontobegiventothissortofthing,andtomatterscloselyrelatedtothis.Andattheagenextafterthisone,uptofiveyears,duringwhichitisnotabeautifulideaevertodrawthemtowardanysortoflearningortowardnecessarywork,soasnottoimpedetheirgrowth,theyoughttogetenoughexercisetokeeptheirbodiesfrombeingidle,whichoneshouldprovideforthembymeansofplayaswellasotheractivities.Andtheirformsofplayoughtnottobeunsuitedtofreepeopleandneitherburdensomenorlax.[30]Asforthesortsofstoriesandtaleschildrenofthisageoughttohear,letthatbeaconcernforthoseofficialspeoplecalloverseersofchildren.Forallsuchthingsoughttopreparethewayfortheirlaterpursuits,whichiswhymanyformsofplayoughttobeimitationsofthingsthatwillbeseriousconcernslateron.ButthoseintheLawswhopreventchildrenfromstrainingandbawlingarenotrighttoforbidthesethings,becausetheyarebeneficialtotheirgrowth.Fortheyturnoutinacertainwaytobeexercisefortheirbodies.Forholdingone’sbreathproducesstrengthforpeoplewhodowork,whichresultsalsoforchildrenwhostraintheirlungs.

Andthewaytheyspendtheirtime[40]needstobelookedintobytheoverseersofchildren,especiallytoseethattheywillbeamongslavesaslittleaspossible.Foratthisage,[1336b]anduptosevenyears,itisanecessityforthemtohavetheirrearingathome.Soitisreasonabletoexpectthatevenatsuchanagetheywillbegettingtheinfluenceofaslavishattitudefromthethingstheyhearandsee.Sothelawgiverneedstobanishfilthylanguagefromthecityentirely,ashewouldanythingelse,forfromeasilyspeakingofanyshamefulthingonecomestodosomethinglikeit.Itought,then,tobebanishedespeciallyfromamongtheyoung,sotheywillnotsayorhearanysuchthing.Andifanyoneopenlysaysordoesanythingthatisforbidden,afreepersonwhoisnotyetconsideredworthy[10]ofrecliningatthecommonmealsshouldbepunishedwithadeprivationofhonorsandwithbeatings,andoneolderthanthatage,forhisslavishbehavior,withalossofthehonorsdueafreeperson.Andsincewearebanishingspeakingaboutanysuchthing,itis

obviousthatthisshouldalsoapplytolookingatunseemlypicturesandplays.Soletitbeaconcernoftheofficialsthatthereisnostatueorpaintingatallthatrepresentssuchanact,exceptinplacesdevotedtocertaingodsofthesortwhomcustompermitsevenscandalousmockery.Inadditiontothesethings,customallowspeopleofanappropriateagetodohonortothegodsonbehalfoftheirchildrenandwivesaswellasontheirownbehalf.[20]Butitneedstobesetdowninlawthatyoungermencannotbespectatorsatlampoonsorcomediesuntiltheyreachtheageatwhichtheybeginrecliningatmealsandpartakingofstrongdrink;educationwillmakethemimpervioustoallmannerofharmthatcomesfromsuchthings.

Sofornowwehavemadethisdiscussionincursoryfashion;lateroneoughttopausetomakefurtherdistinctions,firstconsideringdifficultiesaboutwhetheritoughtoroughtnottobedoneandinwhatmanner.Wehavementionedasmuchasnecessaryforthepresentoccasion.ForperhapsthesortofthingTheodorus,theactorwhoappearedintragedies,usedtosaywasnotabadpoint,thatheneverallowedanyonetocomeonstagebeforehim,noteven[30]anyoftheworthlessactors,becausethespectatorsgetcomfortablewithwhattheyhearfirst.Andthissamethinghappensinourdealingswithhumanbeingsandwiththings,forwealwayslikethefirstonesbetter.Thisiswhyoneoughttomakeallthingsthatarebaseforeigntotheyoung,andespeciallyanyofthemthatinvolveeitherviceormalice.Butwhentheyhavepassedthroughfiveyears,forthetwoyearsuptoseven,theyoughttobecomespectatorsatthelessonstheythemselveswillneedtolearn.Andthentherearetwoagesforwhichitisnecessarytodivideuptheireducation:thatfromsevenyearsuptoadolescence,andthatfrom[40]adolescenceuptotwenty-oneyears.Forthosewhodivideuptheagesinseven-yearintervalsareforthemostpartnotgettingit[1337a]wrong,butoneoughttofollownature’sdividingpoint;foreverysortofartandeducationismeanttofillinwhatnatureleavesout.Sothefirstthingtobeexaminediswhetheranyarrangementneedstobemadeaboutthechildren,thenextiswhetheritisbeneficialtomaketheircareapublicconcernorsomethingundertakeninaprivatemanner(whichiswhathappensevennowinmostcities),andthethirdiswhatsortofcarethisoughttobe.

_______________________________________185ThesearewritingsaddressedtoanaudienceoutsidetheschoolinwhichAristotletaught.Oneexample,containingsomeofthematerialhemakesuseofhere,istheProtrepticus,anexhortationtophilosophyofwhichextensivefragmentshavesurvived.186ThetranslationdoesnotcapturethefactthattwiceinthissentenceAristotlereversestheusualwordsforlatterandformer(theseandthose)toconveythesensethatgoodsofthesoularetheonesnearertousandexternalgoodsfartheraway.187Or“adifferentkindofleisure.”TheNicomacheanEthicsasawholeisdevotedtothequestionofhowoneoughttolive,andtreatsitcomprehensively.188ThiswillbegininChap.13ofthisbook.189“Gettingalongwell”(euprattein)and“well-being”(eupragia)arebothbasedontheverbmeaningtoact.190BookI,Chaps.4-7.191TheargumenthereisstillofthepopularsortreferredtoatthebeginningofBk.VII,andpartsofitarestatedinasketchyway,buttheconclusionseemstobethatthewell-beingofahumanbeingcomestofulfillmentonlyintheactiveexerciseofallourpowers.Onemightarguetoothatthegreatestfreedomdependsupontheliberationofthosepowers,whichputtoworkthegreatestfullnessoflife.ComparethistoMetaphysics1072b26-27:“thebeing-at-workofintellectislife.”192Stentor’svoice,accordingtoIliadV,786,wasasloudasthatoffiftyothermen.193Thispromise,likeseveralmorethatfollowinBks.VIIandVIII,isnotfulfilledinanylaterpassage.Inthepresentinstance,Bk.I,Chaps.8-11,onprovisioningseemclosesttowhatisdescribed.194Aristotle’spointisthatthelargenumberofmanuallaborersneededtorowtriremes,thefastshipswiththreebanksofoarsthathaddominatednavalwarfaresincethePersianWar,didnotrequiretheexpansioninthenumberoffullcitizensthattookplaceinAthens.

195ThereferenceistoPlato’sRepublic,wherespiritedness(thumos)isidentifiedasthequalitythatallowsahumansoultobeunified,andbyanalogyasthedispositionthatcanbeharnessedtoholdacitytogether.196Chapters1-3ofBk.VIIconsistedofgeneralassumptionsdrawnfrompopularwritings,andChaps.4-7arebasedonbroadobservationoffacts.Theargumentstowhichheisreferringherewouldpresumablystartfrompurelylogicalandtheoreticalpremises,asdothoseofsuchpeopleasPhaleas,Hippodamas,andtheAthenianStrangerinPlato’sLaws(alldiscussedinBk.II)whoclaimedtohavedeterminedthebestarrangementsforacitywithmathematicalprecision.Aristotle’sownargumentsforthebestgeneraldesignofacityoccupytheremainderofBk.VII,withtheexclusionofthefirsthalfofChap.10.197Thesemanypartswouldincludelivestock,butalso,ofmorerelevancetothisargument,slaves.SeeBk.I,Chap.4above.Aristotleconsiderstheslavepartofthemasterbutnotofthecity.198InBk.IV,Chap.4,Aristotlemadeasimilarlistasabasisfordiscussingthevarietiesofdemocraticgovernment.Theprimarydifferencebetweenthetwolistsistheomissionhereofthepeoplewhoengageintradeinthemarketplaceandthemenialandmanuallaborerswhohavenoskills.Whathesaysaboutsea-tradersandoarsmeninChap.6ofthisbook,thattheyarenotandshouldnotbefullcitizensofawell-governedcity,wouldapplyingeneraltotheseclasses.199Thatis,thetoeofthebootthatprojectssouthfromthepresent-dayIsthmusofCalabria.200Itiswell-knownthatAristotledeniedthepossibilitythatanythingcouldbeactuallyinfinite,butthereisonesortofcasethatmayappeartobeanexception.HedemonstratesinBk.VIII,Chap.1ofthePhysicsthattherecouldnoteverhavebeenafirstmotion,sothatthenumberofcyclesofbodiesintheheavenspriortoanygiventimeisalwaysliterallyinfinite.Inanumberofplaces(e.g.OnTheHeavens270b19-20),heextendsthesameconclusiontocyclesofhumandiscoveries,repeatedlylostthroughnaturalcatastrophesandregainedthroughthere-emergenceofthefulldevelopmentofhumannature.ThesecasesarenotexceptionstoAristotle’sunderstandingofpotentialinfinity,though;thetotalityofpriorrevolutionsofthemoon,forinstance,is

notpresentallatonceinfactorinthoughtanymorethanthetotalityofitsfuturerevolutions,orthetotalityofpointsonalinesegment.Itisonlyifwethinkalineismadeoutofpoints,orthatpasttimeexistsassomesortofcontainer,thatwearetemptedtoconsidersuchcollectionsactuallyinfinite.SeeAristotle’sfinalrefutationofZeno’sparadoxesinPhysicsVIII,8.201ThisisgenerallyconsideredoneofthoseunfulfilledpromisesthatbeganearlyinChap.5ofthisbook,butonemightinferfrom1331a40-b1thatAristotlehasinmindthebeneficialeffectonthemannersofyoungerpeopleofbeingpresentwiththeireldersandrulersatmeals.202Thereisnosuchlaterdiscussion.ThediscussionofthetreatmentofslavesinBk.I,Chap.13appliesdirectlytonaturalslaves,wholackthementalcapacitytodirecttheirownlives,butmayhavesomeapplicationtothosewhoareslavesonlybecausetheyortheirancestorswereconqueredinwar.HesaysinBk.I,Chap.6thatenslavementofthelatterisnotonlyunjustbutdisadvantageoustoallconcerned.Hisrecommendationaboutofferingfreedomtoslavesmaybeawayofredressingthissituation,ratherthanamerelypracticalpolicytoencourageharderworkandassistanceintimeofwar.Aristotle’swillispreservedinDiogenesLaertius’sLivesoftheEminentPhilosophers(Bk.V,Chap.1);itprovidesforfreeingallhisslaves,certainonesimmediatelyandalltherestwhentheyreachanappropriateage,iftheymeritfreedom.203ThisinnovationofHippodamusisthefirstthingAristotlementionsabouthiminBk.II,Chap.8above.Theverbusedthere(katatemnein)impliesthatthelandiscarvedupbystraightlinesintoaclean-cut(eutomos)grid.WemightcallthestyleCartesian.204Sparta,whichhadnowallsbecauseithadconfidenceinitsmen,washumiliatedinbattlebytheThebanswhenAristotlewasayoungman.205Infact,Archimedes,wholivedaboutacenturyafterAristotle’stime,devotedhimselftocontemplativemathematicalinvestigationswhichyieldednumerousdiscoveriesofdefensiveweaponsagainstsieges.Amongthesewerecatapultswithadjustabletrajectories,machinesforfiringmissilesinbunchesthroughholesincitywalls,andcranesthatcouldbeusedfromwithinthewallstodestroyshipsatadistanceoutsidethem.206Thewordisagora,whichcametomeanamarketplacebutoriginally

meantagatheringwherepublicspeechesweremade.Onetranslatorrendersithereas“publicsquare.”Aristotleisrecommendingthatpoliticalandleisureactivitiesbecombinedinoneplacewhilebusinessisconductedelsewhere.207IthasbeenobservedthatAristotleusesrhymes(noêsai/poiêsaiandeuchês/tuchês)inthetwoantitheseshere.Whensuchantithesesaremetricallybalanced,astheyfrequentlyareinthespeechesofIsocrates,andinthoseofGorgiasbeforehim,Aristotleconsidersthemtheheightofrhetoricalelegance.SeehisRhetoric,Bk.III,thesecondhalfofChap.9.ItmaybeunnecessarytopointoutthateleganceofstyleisnotaqualityAristotlestrivesforinthePolitics.208See1278b15-30above,andthefootnotethere.ThedefinitionofhappinessisarrivedatinBk.I,Chap.7oftheNicomacheanEthics.209Asacombinationofthoughtfulnessandspiritedness,inChap.7ofthisbook.210Thewordtranslated“reason”inthispassageislogos.Thereferencestopersuasionandtolearningbylisteningpointtoitsfundamentalmeaningofthecapacityforintelligiblespeech.Thesamewordisusedaboveat12537-18,whereourpoliticalnatureistracedtothepossibilitiesopenedupbyspeech.211SkylaxwassentbyDarius,kingofPersia,toexploreIndia;hebroughtbackreportsofonetribewithearssolongtheycouldwrapupinthemlikeblankets,anotherthatabsorbednutrientsbysmellingbecausetheyhadnomouths,andothersuchbelieve-it-or-nottales.212InBk.III,Chap.4.213ThisisnotthePausaniaswhodistinguishedhimselfasacommanderduringthePersianWaranddisgracedhimselfasatraitorafterward,butthelaterSpartanwhomAristotlementionsat1301b20-21forattemptingtoabolishtheofficeoftheephors,andwhomAristotledistinguishesbythetitleofking.214Thereisagapinthemanuscripts.ThebracketedpartsofthetranslationfollowareconstructionbythecommentatorNewman,whichisgiveninthecriticalapparatusofRoss’sedition.215TheargumentnowpicksupfromtheendofChap.13ofthisbook.

216“Donotplowtheyoungfurrow”wasfirstinterpretedtomeantheywerenotleavingunplantedfieldsfallowlongenough.217Thetranslationfollowsaneditorwhoadds“before”totheendofthissentence,ratherthantheonepreferredbyRosswhoshifts“orlittle”totheendoftheprevioussentence.

BOOKVIIIChapter1[1337a]

Nowthefactthatalawgiverneedstomaketheeducationoftheyoungamatterofconcern,noonewoulddispute.Forinthecitieswherethisdoesnothappen,theirformsofgovernmentsufferforit,sincepeopleneedtobeeducatedwithaviewtoeachform.Forthetypeofcharacterthatisathomeineachformofgovernmentisthehabitualsafeguardoftheconstitutionandsetsitupinthefirstplace—ademocraticcharacterademocraticconstitution,anoligarchiccharacteranoligarchicone.Andabettercharacterisalwaysresponsibleforabettergovernment.Andforallcapacitiesandartstherearethingsrelatedtotheirwork[20]thatneedtobetaughtbeforehandandmadeintohabitsbeforehand,andsoitisclearthatthisalsoappliestotheactionsbelongingtovirtue.Andsincethereisoneendatwhichthecityasawholeaims,itisobviousthattheremustnecessarilyalsobeoneandthesameeducationforallthepeople,andthattheconcernforthismustbepublicandnotprivate,thewayeachpersonnowtakescareofhisownchildren,andteachesthemwhateverprivatelessonsseemlikeagoodidea.Buttrainingforcommonconcernsneedstobemadecommonaswell.Atthesametime,oneshouldnotevenregardanyofthecitizensasbelongingtohimself,butallofthemasbelongingtothecity,sinceeachisapartofthecity.218Andtheconcern[30]foreachpartnaturallylookstotheconcernforthewhole.AndonemightpraisetheSpartansinthisregard,sincetheytaketheirchildrenthemostseriously,andmakethatamatterofcommonconcern.

Chapter2Soitisobviousthatlawsneedtobemadeabouteducationandthatthis

needstobemadeacommonconcern.Butwhattheeducationisgoingtobeandhowpeopleshouldbeeducatedoughtnottobeoverlooked.Foratpresenttherearedisputesaboutitsfunctions.Forallpeopledonotassumethattheyoungoughttolearnthesamethingsinconnectionwitheithervirtueorthebestlife,anditisnotobviousevenwhetheritismoreappropriateforittobedirectedtowardthinkingortowardthecharacterofthesoul.Asurvey[40]oftheeducationonestumblesacrossyieldsadisorderlyarray,anditisnotatall

clearwhetheroneoughttotrainpeopleinmattersusefulforlife,thingsconducivetovirtue,orexceptionalstudies,sinceallthesehavefound[1337b]somewhojudgeintheirfavor.Aboutmattersrelatedtovirtuethereisnoagreementatall.Rightoff,thevirtuethatpeoplehonorisnotthesameforthemall,soitisonlytobeexpectedthattheywilldifferoverthetrainingforitaswell.Itisnotunclearthatpeopleoughttobetaughtsomeusefulthingsthatarenecessary,butnotallofthem,sincetasksbelongingtofreepeopleandtothosewhoarenotfreeareobviouslydistinct;itisclearthattheyoughttotakepartinthoseusefultasksthatwillnotmakesomeonetakingpartinthemdebased.Andoneoughttoregardasdebasingthattask,thatart,orthatstudythatcausesthebody[10]orthethinkingoffreepeopletoendupuselessforthepurposesandactionsthatbelongtovirtue.Hencewerefertoasdebasingthoseartsofasortthatputthebodyintoaworsecondition,andalsoallformsoflaborforwages,sincetheycauseone’sthinkingtobeunleisuredanddemeaned.219Andwhileitisnotunsuitedtoafreepersontohaveashare,uptoacertainpoint,insomeofthekindsofknowledgeamongtheliberalarts,stickingwiththemtoofarinpursuitofperfectmasteryisalsoliabletobringthekindsofharmmentioned.Butthatforthesakeofwhichonedoesorlearnssomethingmakesagreatdifferenceaswell;whatisdoneforone’sownsakeorthatoffriends,oronaccountofvirtue,isnot[20]unsuitedtoafreeperson,butsomeonewhodoesthatsamethingonaccountofothers220mightoftenseemtobeactinginamenialorslavishmanner.

Chapter3Theordinarykindsofstudiesthesedaystendindifferentdirections,as

wassaidabove,butthereareprettymuchfourthingsinwhichpeoplearecustomarilyeducated:letters,gymnastics,music,andfourth,forsomepeople,drawing—skillatlettersanddrawingonthegroundsthattheyareusefulforlifewithnumerousapplications,andgymnastictrainingonthegroundsthatitpreparesthewayforcourage.Butonemightalreadyraisequestionsaboutskillatmusic.Formostpeoplethesedaystakepartinitforthesakeofpleasure,butthosewhooriginallyassignedittoeducation[30]didsobecause,ashasbeensaidmorethanonce,natureitselfstrivesnotonlytobebusyintherightwaybutalsotobecapableofbeingatleisureinabeautifulway.Forthisoneprinciplegovernseverything,soletusspeakaboutitagain.Ifonehas

needofboth,butbeingatleisureismoreworthyofchoiceandmoreanendthanbeingbusy,whatneedstobesoughtoutiswhatoneoughttospendone’sleisuredoing.Surelynotplaying,forthenplaywouldnecessarilybetheendatwhichourlifeaims.Butifthatisimpossible,221andplayfulamusementsoughttobemadeuseofinthecourseofoccupationwithbusinessinstead(forsomeonewhoisworkingneedsrelaxation,andplayisforthesakeofrelaxation,andbeingbusyisaccompanied[40]byworkandstress),oneoughtforthatreasontowatchfortherighttimesfortheuseofplayfulamusementtobebroughtin,asifonewereapplyingitmedicinally.Forthissortofmotionofthesoulisarelief,[1338a]andthepleasureofitbringsrelaxation.Beingatleisure,ontheotherhand,isthoughttohaveinitselfpleasure,happiness,andablessedwayofliving.Andthisisnotpresentinpeopleoccupiedinbusinessbutinthosewhoareatleisure.Forapersonwhoisbusyisbusiedforthesakeofsomeendheassumesisnotpresent,whilehappinessisanendwhicheveryoneconceivesofasaccompaniednotbypainbutbypleasure.Theydonot,however,allgoontoplacethispleasureinthesamecategory,buteachinaccordwiththeirseveralkindsandwiththeactivedispositionthatbelongstothem;andthebestpersonsetsitdownasthebestpleasureandtheonederivedfromthemostbeautifulthings.

Andsoitisobviousthat[10]oneoughttolearncertainthingsandbeeducatedfortheleisureinthecourseofone’slife,andthattheseteachingsandstudiesarefortheirownsake,whilethoseforoccupationwithbusinessareassumedtobenecessitiesandforthesakeofotherthings.Andthisiswhythosewhocamebeforeusassignedmusicaplaceineducationnotasnecessary(sincethereisnothingofthesortaboutit)norevenasuseful(inthewaylettersareforprovisioningandhouseholdmanagementaswellasforlearningandalsoformanypoliticalactivities,anddrawingtooisthoughttobeusefulfordiscriminatingmorebeautifullyamongtheworksofartisans),norinturnasgymnastictrainingisconduciveto[20]healthandstrength(forwedonotseeeitherofthesecomingfromskillatmusic).Whatremains,then,isthatitisforthepartoflifeonespendsinleisure,whichisobviouslywhatpeopleintroduceitfor.Fortheyassignthisasitsplace,whichtheyconceiveofasbeingthewayoflifesuitedtofreepeople.ThisisexactlywhatHomerwaswritingaboutinthesewords:“theonewhomtheycalltothebountifulbanquet”—goingontospeakofotherpeople“whocallforasingerwhogives

delighttoeveryone.”222AndinotherlinesOdysseussaysthisisthebestwayofspendingtime,whenhumanbeingsareglad-heartedand“banqueterssittinginrowsinahall[30]arelisteningtoasinger.”

Itisobvious,then,thatthereissomeeducationwhichpeopleneedtogivetheirsonsnotbecauseitusefulornecessary,butbecauseitissuitedtofreedomandisbeautiful.Whetherthereisonesucheducationoragreaternumber,whatthesemaybe,andhowtheyaretobetaughtarethingsthatmustbespokenoflater.Atthemomentwehavecomefarenoughdowntheroadthatwehavesomeadditionalevidencefromtheordinarytopicsofeducationamongtheancients;formusicmakesthisclear.Anditisalsoobviousthatchildrenoughttobetaughtsomeoftheusefulthings,suchasthestudyofletters,notjustbecauseoftheirusefulness,butalsoonaccountofthe[40]manyotherstudiesthatbecomepossiblebymeansofthem.Similarly,theyshouldalsobetaughtdrawingnotsotheywillavoidmistakesintheirprivatepurchasesandnotbecheatedinbuyingandselling[1338b]furniture,butratherbecauseitmakesthemabletoseethebeautyofbodies.Tobelookingforutilityeverywhereistheleastfittingthingforpeoplewhoaregreat-souled223andfree.Andsinceitisobviouseducationmustmakeuseofhabitsandapplytothebodybeforeitusesreasonandappliestoone’sthinking,itisclearfromthesethingsthatchildrenshouldbeturnedovertotheartsofgymnasticandathletictraining,sincetheformermakestheconditioningofthebodybeacertainwayandthelatterprovidesitwithactivity.

Chapter4Nowofthosecitiesthatarethoughttoshowthemost[10]concernfor

theirchildrennowadays,someinstillinthematypeofconditioningsuitedtocompetitiveathletics,anddoseriousdamagetotheformandgrowthoftheirbodies;theSpartanshavenotmadethismistake,buttheirexercisesturnoutpeopleofabrutalkind,ontheassumptionthatthisisthemostadvantageouswaytoproducecourage.Andyet,ashasbeensaidrepeatedly,careshouldnotbetakenwithone’seyeonasinglevirtueandespeciallynotonthatone.Andeveniftheydohavetheireyeonthatvirtue,theydonotfindit.Forintheotheranimalsandforeignnationsweseethatcouragedoesnotgoalongwith

thosewhoaremostsavage,butwiththoseofamorerestrainedtemperamentlikethatoflions.Thereare[20]manynationsthatarerecklessaboutkillingandaboutcannibalism,suchastheAchaeansaroundtheBlackSea,andtheHeniochi,andthereareothermainlandnationsthatareeithersimilartotheseormoreextreme;theyaregoodatplundering,buthavenotabitofcourage.Also,withtheSpartansthemselves,weknowthattheyheldsuperiorityovereveryoneelseaslongastheykeptuptheirpassionforexercise,butthesedaystheycomeupshortofothers,whethertheyarecompetingingymnasticsorinwarfare.Fortheystoodoutnotbecausetheyweregivingtheiryouththistypeofgymnasticexercise,butbecausetheyaloneweredoingtrainingwhilefacingotherswhoweredoingnone.Soonemustgivetheleadingroletowhatisbeautifuland[30]nottowhatisbrutal.Fornowolforanyotherwildanimalwouldstrugglewithanybeautifuldanger;itisratheragoodmanwhowould.224Butthosewhoabandontheirchildrentogotoofarinthesedirections,whileleavingthemwithnoguidanceinnecessarythings,areturningouttrulydebasedpeopleandmakingthemusefulforonlyonepoliticaltask,andworsethanothersforthatone,astheargumentmakesclear.Foritisnecessarytojudgethemnotbytheirearlierdeedsbutbythoseofthepresentday,fornowtheyhaverivalsineducationwherebeforetheyhadnone.

Itisagreed,then,thatgymnastictrainingoughttobeused,andhowitoughttobeused.[40]Foruptoadolescence,alighterregimenoughttobeemployed,avoidingarestricteddietandcompulsoryworkoutssothattherewillbenohindrancetogrowth.Nosmall[1339a]indicationthattheycanleadtothisresultisthefactthat,intheOlympiccompetitions,onemightfindsometwoorthreeinstancesinwhichthesamepeoplewonvictoriesasbothmenandboysbecausetrainingyouthssapstheirstrengthbycompulsoryexercises.Butoncetheyhavegoneontootherstudiesforthreeyearsafteradolescence,atthattimeitisfittingtoimposeworkoutsandcompulsorydietingduringtheirnextstageoflife.Foroneoughtnottobedoinghardworkwithone’sthinkingandwiththebodyatthesametime,sinceeachofthetwokindsofexertionhasanoppositeeffectbyitsnature;exertionofthe[10]bodyisanimpedimenttothinking,andexertionofthinkingtothebody.

Chapter5Onthetopicofmusic,whilewedealtwithsomedifficultiesinthe

discussionabove,itisbeautifullyappropriatetomoveforwardbytakingthemupagainnow,sothattheymightbeasortoflead-intotheargumentsonemightmakeinelucidationofit.Foritisnoteasytodetermineaboutit,eitherwhatpowerithasorforwhatpurposeoneoughttotakepartinit—whetherforplayandrelaxation,likesleepandstrongdrink(forintheirownright,thesearenotthingsofseriousworth,buttheyarepleasant,andatthesametimearespitefromcare,asEuripidessays,225whichiswhypeopleputitintheirranksand[20]treatthemallalike,sleep,strongdrink,andmusic,andalsoplacedancingamongthem);orwhetheritoughtinsteadtobeassumedthatmusicisconduciveinsomewaytovirtue,onthegroundsthatitisapotentthing,andjustasgymnastictrainingbringsthebodyintoacertaincondition,musicmakesone’scharacterbeinacertainconditionbyhabituatingpeopletoacapacitytoenjoythingsrightly226;orwhetheritmakessomecontributiontoawayoflifeandawisejudgment,sincethisalsoneedstobesetdownasthirdamongthethingsthataresaid.

Nowitisnotunclearthatoneoughtnottobeeducatingtheyoungforthesakeofplay;theyarenotplayingwhentheyarelearning,sincelearningcomeswithpain.Andsurelyitisnotfittingtoattributeawayoflife[30]tochildrenatagessuchastheirs,sinceastateofcompletionisnotpresentinanythingthatisincomplete.Butperhapsitmightbethoughtthattheseriousoccupationsofchildrenareforthesakeofplayfulnesswhentheyhavebecomemenandattainedtheircompletion.Butifthatisthesortofthingitisfor,whywouldtheyneedtolearnmusic,ratherthanparticipateinitvicariously,likethekingsofthePersiansandMedes,throughthepleasureandlearningofotherpeoplewhoperformit?Foritisanecessitythatthosewhomakethisverythingtheirworkandartwillcarryitoutbetterthanpeoplewhogiveittheirattentiononlylongenoughtolearnit.Iftheyhadtodotheworkofsuchthingsthemselves,theywouldalsohaveto[40]preparethemselvesforthebusinessinvolvedincookingtastyfood,whichisabsurd.Andthesamedifficultyholdsevenifitiscapableofmakingtheircharactersbetter.Whywouldtheyhavetolearnthesethingsthemselves,instead[1339b]ofenjoyingthemrightlyandbeingcapableofjudgingthembylisteningtoothers,thewaytheSpartansdo?Forthey,withoutlearningmusic,arestillcapable,sotheyclaim,ofjudgingbetweensongsthatarewholesomeandunwholesome.Andthesameargumentappliesifmusicistobeusedto

enhancethejoyoflivingandawayoflifesuitedtofreedom.Whydotheyneedtolearnitthemselvesandnotenjoyitwhileotherspracticeit?Wehaveonlytoconsidertheconceptionwehaveofthegods.Zeushimselfdoesnotsingorplaythelyretoaccompanypoets;weevencallthesortofpeoplewhodothatmechanicalartisansandtheaction[10]unmanly,unlesssomeoneisdrunkorplayingaround.

Butperhapsthesethingsneedtobeexaminedlater.Whatneedstobeinquiredaboutfirstiswhethermusicshouldbeputintoaneducationornot,andwhatpowerithasoutofthethreekindsweraisedquestionsabout:education,play,orawayoflife.227Itmakesgoodsensetoassignittothemall,anditdoesappeartoplayapartineach.Forplayisforthesakeofrelaxation,andrelaxationisnecessarilypleasant,sinceitisasortofremedyforthepainthatresultsfromexertions;andbygeneralagreement,awayoflifeoughttobenotonlybeautifulbutpleasantaswell,sincebeinghappyderivesfrombothofthese.[20]Andweallclaimthatmusicisoneofthemostpleasantthings,whetheritisinstrumentalorwithavocalpart.(Musaeus,atanyrate,claims“singingisthemostpleasantthingformortals,”whichiswhyitmakesgoodsenseforpeopletoincludeitintheirpartiesandgatheringsassomethingwiththepowertogladdentheirhearts.)Soonthisbasistoo,onemighttakeitthattheyoungergenerationoughttobeeducatedinit.Forthosepleasuresthatareharmlessarefittingmeansnotonlytotheendbutalsotorelaxation.Andsinceitturnsoutthathumanbeingsareattheirendonfewoccasions,butrelaxandindulgeinplayfulactivitiesonmany,notsomuchforanythingmore,butjust[30]onaccountoftheirpleasure,itwouldbeusefultogivethemalittlerestinthepleasuresthatcomefrommusic.

Itturnsout,though,thathumanbeingsmaketheplayfulactivitiesanend.Fortheendtoo,perhaps,involvesacertainpleasure,butnotjustanyrandompleasure,andwhileseekingtheformerpeopletakethelatterasifitweretheformer,becauseithasacertainsimilaritytotheendatwhichactionsaim.Fortheendisnotchosenforthesakeofanythinginthefuture,andthesesortsofpleasuresarenotforthesakeofanythinginthefutureeither,butbecauseofthingsthathavealreadyhappened,suchasexertionsandpain.Onemight,then,plausiblyassumethatitisforthisreasonthatpeoplelookforhappinesstocomefrom[40]thesepleasures,butasfortakingpartinmusic,itseems

likelythatitisnotforthisreasonalonebutalsobecauseofitsusefulnessforrelaxation.Thequestionmustbeasked,however,whether[1340a]thismaybemerelyincidental,whilethenatureofmusicismorehonorablethancanbeattributedtotheusementioned,andoneoughttopartakeofitnotjustforthepleasurethatcomesfromit,whichitshareswithotherthingsandofwhicheveryonehasasense(formusicdoeshaveacertainnaturalpleasure,whichiswhytheuseofitisbelovedtoallagesandalltypesofcharacter),buttoseewhetheritalsocontributesinanywaytoone’scharacterandtothesoul.Andthiswouldclearlybesoif,bymeansofit,webecomepeopleofcertainkindsinrespecttoourcharacters.

Butthefactthatwedobecomepeopleofcertainkindsissurelyobviousbymanymeans,andnotleastthroughthemelodies[10]composedbyOlympus;forbygeneralagreement,thesecausethesoultobedivinelyinspired,anddivineinspirationisanattributeofthecharacterinone’ssoul.Moreover,allthosewholistentoimitativeperformancesareaffectedsympathetically,evenapartfromtheirrhythmsandmelodies.228Andsincemusicisincidentallyoneofthepleasantthings,andvirtuehastodowithenjoying,loving,andhatingintherightway,oneplainlyoughttolearnandbehabituatedtonothingsomuchastomakingrightjudgmentsaboutandtakingdelightindecentkindsofcharacterandbeautifulactions.Andthereare,inrhythmsandmelodiesmostofall,likenessesofthetruenaturesofanger[20]andgentleness,andalsoofcourageandmoderationandalltheoppositesoftheseandtheotherstatesofcharacter.Andthisisclearfromthefacts,forweexperienceachangeinthesoulwhenwelistentosuchthings.Butthehabituationtofeelpainandtakedelightintheirlikenessescomesclosetobeinginthesamerelationtotheoriginalthings.If,forinstance,someonedelightsincontemplatingtheimageofsomethingfornootherreasonthanjustforitsform,itnecessarilyfollowsfromthisthatthecontemplationofthethingitself,whoseimageheiscontemplating,willbepleasing.Butnolikenesstostatesofcharacterhappenstobepresentinotherkindsofsenseperceptionsuchasobjects[30]oftouchandtaste,anditispresentonlyslightlyinobjectsofsight.Fortherearefiguresthathavethissortofquality,thoughtoasmallextent,andeveryonesharesthissortofperception,229yetthesearenotlikenessesofstatesofcharacter;instead,thegesturesandcolorsthatcomewiththemareindicationsofstatesofcharacter,andtheyare

distinctivemarksinthosewhoexperiencethem.Nevertheless,totheextentthatthereisadifferenceinthecontemplationofthesethingsaswell,theyoungoughtnottolookattheworksofPausonbutatthoseofPolygnotus230andanyotherpaintersandsculptorstheremaybewhoaregoodatdepictingcharacter.

Butinmelodiesthemselves,thereareimagesofstatesofcharacter.Andthisisobvious,[40]forthenatureoftheirmodesisdivergentimmediatelyinsuchawaythatlistenersareputintoadifferentstateanddonothavethesameexperiencewitheachofthem;inresponsetosome,peopleareinamore[1340b]mournfulandgravemood,aswiththeso-calledMixolydian,butinresponsetoothers,suchastherelaxedmodes,231theyareinasofterframeofmind,andinresponsetooneofthemtheyareintheespeciallymoderateandsettledconditionthattheDorianisuniqueamongthemodesinproducing,232whilethePhrygianmakestheminspired.Thesethingsarebeautifullysaidbythosewhohavereflectedphilosophicallyonthissortofeducation,fortheydrawtheevidencefortheirstatementsfromthefactsthemselves.Andthesamethingholdsinthecaseofrhythms,forsomehaveasteadiercharacterwhileothersarelively,andamongthelattersome[10]involvecrudermotionswhileothersaremoresuitedtofreepeople.Soitisobviousfromthesethingsthatmusichasthepowertomakethecharacterofthesoulbeofacertainsort,andifithasthepowertodothat,itisclearthatitneedstobechanneledandtheyoungshouldbeeducatedinit.Andtheteachingofmusiciswellfittedtotheirnatureatsuchanage,forattheirage,theyoungdonotwillingsubmittoanythingunsweetened,andmusicisanaturalsweetener.Andtherealsoseemstobeacertainkinshipinustoharmoniesandrhythms,whichiswhymanyofthewiseclaimthatthesouleitherisaharmonyorcontainsharmony.

Chapter6[20]Butthequestionweraisedabove,whetherornottheyoughttolearnitby

singingandhands-onpractice,mustnowbediscussed.Anditisnotunclearthatwhethertheythemselvestakepartintheactivitiesmakesagreatdifferencetowhatsortsofpeopletheybecome.Foroneofthethingsthatisdifficultifnotimpossibleisforpeoplewhohavenottakenpartinactivitiesto

becomeseriousjudgesofthem.Inaddition,childrenneedtohavesomethingtokeepthemoccupied,andtherattleArchytascameupwith,whichpeoplegivetochildrensothatwhiletheyareusingittheywillnotbebreakingthingsaroundthehouse,oughttobeconsideredabeautifulidea,sinceayoungpersonisnotcapableofbeingcalm.Sowhilethisis[30]fittingforchildrenintheirinfancy,educationisarattleforyoungpeoplewhentheyareolder.233Soitisobviousfromsuchconsiderationsthattheyoughttobeeducatedinmusicinsuchawaythattheytakepartintheactivities.Anditisnotdifficulttodistinguishwhatisorisnotappropriateatdifferentages,ortorefutethosewhoclaimthisconcernisformechanicalartisans.Firstofall,sincepeopleneedtotakepartintheactivitiesforthesakeofjudgingthem,theyshouldengageinthoseactivitieswhiletheyareyoung;thenwhentheygetolder,theycangiveuptheactivitiesandbecompetenttojudgewhatisbeautifulandenjoyitrightlyonaccountofthelearningtheydidintheiryouth.[40]Asforthecomplaintsomepeoplemakethatmusicmakespeoplemechanicalartisans,thisisnotdifficulttorefutebyconsideringtheextenttowhichthosewhoarebeingeducatedforpoliticalvirtue[1341a]oughttotakepartintheactivities,andthesortsofmelodiesandrhythmstheyoughttotakepartin,andalsotheinstrumentstheirlessonsoughttobemadeon,foreventhisislikelytomakeadifference.Fortherefutationofthecomplaintiscontainedinthesedetails.Fornothingpreventscertainkindsofmusicfromhavingtheallegedeffect.Obviously,then,thewayitislearnedoughtnottobeanimpedimenttoactionslaterinlife,andoughtnottomakethebodymechanicalanduselessformilitaryandpoliticaltraining,butoughttobedesignedforlearningbeforehandanduseslater.Andthiscouldhappen[10]inthelearningofmusiciftheydidnotputtheireffortintothingsmeantforprofessionalcompetitions,thosewonderfulandextraordinaryworksthathavenowbeentakenupinthecompetitionsandadoptedfromthemintoeducation,butworkedonthingsnotofthatsort,andjustuptothepointatwhichtheybecomecapableofenjoyingbeautifulmelodiesandrhythmsandnotmerelythecommonsortofmusicthatisenjoyedevenbysomeoftheotheranimals,andalsobythemultitudeofslavesandchildren.

Anditisalsoclearfromthesethingswhatsortsofinstrumentsshouldbeused.Flutesshouldnotbebroughtintotheireducation,andneithershouldanyotherprofessionalinstrumentsuchasaharporanythingelseofthatsortthere

maybe,but[20]whicheveronesofthemwillmakepeoplegoodlisteners,eitherintheirmusicaleducationorinanyotherkind.Itisalsothecasethatthefluteisnotadaptedtoimitatingcharacterbutmoretoarousingintensefeeling;consequently,itshouldbeusedonthesortsofoccasionsonwhichcontemplatingaspectaclehasapowerthatiscathartic234ratherthanforlearning.Andletusaddanotherpointthatisincidentallyopposedtotheuseofflute-playingforeducation,thefactthatitpreventsspeaking.Thisiswhyitwasabeautifulideaforthoseofearliertimestorejecttheuseofitasunsuitablefortheyoungorforfreepeople,eventhoughtheyhaduseditatfirst.Forwhentheycametohavemoreleisurebecauseoftheirprosperityandpridedthemselvesmoreonvirtue,andalsogotloftynotions[30]asaresultoftheirdeedsbothbeforeandafterthePersianWars,theybegantodabbleineverykindoflearning,makingnodistinctionsbutseekingthemall.Itwasforthisreasonthattheybroughtflute-playingintotheirlessons.ForeveninSpartaacertainchoralleaderusedtoplaythefluteforthechorushimself,andinAthensflute-playingusedtobealltherage,somuchsothatmostofthefreecitizens,justabout,tookpartinit.ThisisevidentfromtheplaqueThrasippussetupwhenhewaschoralleaderforEcphantides.235Itsrejectionasunsuitablecamelaterasaresultoftheirexperiencewithit,whentheywerebetterabletojudgewhatwasandwasnotconducivetovirtue,aswiththerejectiononsimilargroundsofmanyold-styledinstruments,[40]suchasLydianandpear-shapedharpsandothersdesignedfortheiruserstointensifypleasureintheirlisteners,andseven-corneredandthree-corneredand[1341b]angledharps236andallthoserequiringcunningofhand.Andthelegendtoldbytheancientsaboutfluteshasgoodsenseinit,fortheyclaimAthenainventedflutesbutthrewthemaway.Andwhileitisnotbadtogoontosaythatthegoddessdidthisoutofdisgustatthescrunchingupofherface,themorelikelyreasonis,however,thateducationinflute-playingoffersnothingofvalueforone’sthinking,andwegivethecreditforknowledgeandarttoAthena.

Sowerejectasunsuitableaprofessionaleducationinperformanceontheinstruments.[10]Andweapplytheword“professional”towhatismeantforcompetitions,becausesomeonewhopursueseducationinthatspiritisnotundertakingitforthesakeofhisownvirtuebutforthepleasureofhis

listeners,andpleasureofadebasedsortatthat,whichisthereasonwejudgeitnottobeanactivitysuitedtofreepeoplebutonethatistoomenial.Andtheperformerstooendupbecomingdebased,becausethegoalwhichtheymaketheirendisaworthlessone.Forthespectator,whoisunrefined,ordinarilyproducesachangeinthemusic,andmakestheprofessionalperformersthemselves,whoareattentivetohim,beofacertainsort,even,onaccountoftheirmovements,intheirbodies.

Chapter7Furtherconsiderationneedstobegiventothemodesandrhythms,[20]

andalsoinrelationtoeducation,astowhetherallmodesandallrhythmsshouldbeusedordistinctionsneedtobemade,andthenwhetherwearegoingtoimposethatsamedividinglineonthepeopleworkingatthemforaneducation,orneedsomeotherone.Nowsinceweseethatmusicconsistsofmelodiccompositionandrhythm,onemustnotfailtoconsiderwhatpowereachofthesehasinrelationtoeducation,andwhethermusicwithagoodmelodyorwithgoodrhythmismoretobepreferred.Andsinceweregardmanythingsonthesetopicsashavingbeenbeautifullysaidbysomeofthepresent-dayexpertsonmusic,andalsobythosewho,comingtoitfromphilosophy,happenedtobeexperiencedwithmusicaleducation,weshall[30]leavethosewhowantapreciseaccountofparticularmatterstoseekitfromthem;fornow,letusmakedistinctionsthewaylawsdo,237speakingofthemonlyinoutlines.

Nowweacceptthedividingofmelodiesinthewaysomeofthoseengagedinphilosophydistinguishthem,holdingthemtobeadaptedtocharacter,action,orinspiration,whiletheyholdthenatureofthemodestobeakintoeachofthesekinds,adifferentmodeforadifferenttypeofmelody,andweclaimthatoneoughttomakeuseofmusicnotforonesortofbenefitalonebutformorethanone,sinceitisforthesakeofeducationandalsoforthesakeofcatharsis(andwhatwearenowsimplycallingcatharsis,wewillspeakofagain[40]withmoreclarityinthePoetics),238andthirdlyforapastime,arelief,andarelaxationoftension.[1342a]Inlightofthesethings,itisobviousthatallthemodesoughttobeused,thoughtheyoughtnotalltobeusedinthesameway,butthosebestadaptedtostatesofcharacterfor

education,andthoseadaptedtoactionandinspirationforlisteningwhileothersperformthem.Foranypassion,suchaspityorfear,thatcomesstronglyuponsomepeopleisalsopresentindifferentwaysineveryonetoalesserorgreaterdegree,andthisisalsothecasewithinspiration.Forwithsomepeople,whoaresusceptibletobeingovercomebythatsortofmotionthatistransmittedbythesacredmelodies,weseethatwhentheyexperiencemelodiesthatdrive[10]thesoulintoanecstaticfrenzytheysettledownasthoughtheyhadbeengivenahealingandcatharticcleansing.Sopeoplesusceptibletopityandtofear,andthosesusceptibletofeelingsingeneral,necessarilyhavethissameexperience,andsodoeseveryoneelse,totheextentthateachhassuchsusceptibilities,andthuseveryonecomestohavesomesortofcatharticcleansingandtohaveapleasantsensethatburdenshavebeenlifted.Andmelodiesadaptedtoaction239bringasimilarharmlessthrilltohumanbeings.Accordingly,thosewhoperformmusicforthetheaterincompetitionsshouldbepermittedtousemodesandmelodiesofthesekinds.Butsincetherearetwokindsofspectators,onekindfreeandeducatedwhiletheother[20]isanunsophisticatedcollectionofmechanicalandmeniallaborersandothersofthatsort,competitionsandspectaclesshouldbeputonforsuchpeopletooforrelaxation.Andjustastheirsoulsareturnedawayfromtheirnaturalcondition,sotooamongmodesandmelodiestherearedeviantformswithstrainedintervalsandchromatictones;andwhatisakininitsnaturegivespleasuretoeachsortofperson.Forthisreason,licenseshouldbeallowedtothosewhocompeteinfrontofthissortofspectatortouseanysuchkindofmusic.

Foreducation,though,ashasbeensaid,melodiesthatdepictcharacterandmodesofthatkindshouldbeused.As[30]wesaidabove,theDorianmodeisofthiskind,butanyothermodeoughttobeacceptabletousifthosewhotakepartinphilosophyasawayoflifeandalsoineducationinmusicapproveofit.ButitisnotabeautifulideaforSocratesintheRepublictoleaveonlythePhrygianmodewiththeDorian,especiallysinceherejects[1342b]theflutefromamongtheinstruments.ForthePhrygianhasthesamepoweramongthemodesthattheflutehasamonginstruments,sincebotharousefrenzyandpassion.ForallBacchanalianrevelryandallmovementofthatkindisaccompaniedbyflutesthemostofanyinstruments,whileamongthemodesitfindswhatisappropriatetothatinPhrygianmelodies.Poetrymakesthisclear

inthecaseofthedithyramb,240forinstance,whichisbygeneralagreementheldtobeaPhrygianform.Thosewhospecializeinthissortofknowledgecitemanyexamplesofthis,andespeciallythefactthatPhiloxenustried[10]tocomposehisMysiansasadithyrambintheDorianmodeandwasunabletodoso,butbytheverynatureofthethingfellbackintoPhrygianastheappropriatemode.AsfortheDorian,everyoneagreesthatitisthemoststatelyandthatitmostofallhasinitthecharacterofcourage.Moreover,sincewepraisethemeanbetweenextremesandclaimthatoneshouldpursueit,andtheDorianhasthisnatureinrelationtotheothermodes,itisobviousthatDorianmelodiesaremoresuitablefortheyoungergenerationtobeeducatedin.

Andtherearetwogoals,thepossibleandthesuitable,sincepeopleofeachsortoughttotakeupthingsthataremorepossibleandsuitableforthem.[20]Butthesearealsolimitedbytheirages;forinstance,itisnoteasyforthosewhoareworndownbytimetosinginthestrainedmodes,butnaturepromptsustowardtherelaxedonesforthoseofsuchanage.AndsomewhospecializeinmusicmakeabeautifullyaptcriticismofSocratesonthispointaswell,becausehewouldrejecttherelaxedmodesasunsuitableforeducation,takingthemtobeintoxicatingwithoutthepowerofstrongdrink,whichisratherastimulanttoBacchanalianrevelry,butasconveyingaworn-downfeeling.Sooneoughttotakeupmodesandmelodiesofthesesortstoowithaviewtotheagethatliesahead,thatoftheelderly,andalso,[30]ifthereisanyofthemodesthatsuitstheageofchildrenbecauseofanabilitytoholdtogetherorderlinessandeducation,asappearstobeanattributeoftheLydianmodemostofall,totakeitupaswell.Soitisclearthatthethreethingsthatshouldbemadethestandardsforeducationarethese:themean,thepossible,andthesuitable.241

_______________________________________218Thisclaimisexplainedanddefendedat1252b27-1253a29above.219Thewordtranslatedhereas“debased”or“debasing”(banausos)isthesamewordusedthroughouttheearlierbooksofthePoliticsformechanicalactivitiesortrades.TheconnectionbetweenthetwomeaningsiselaboratedinthispassagefromAdamSmith’sWealthofNations(Bk.V,Chap.1,PartIII,Art.2,pages734-735ofthe1965ModernLibraryedition):“Themanwhoselifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations,ofwhichtheeffectstooare,perhaps,alwaysthesame,hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstanding…Henaturallyloses,therefore,thehabitofsuchexertion,andgenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome.Thetorporofhismindrendershim,notonlyincapableofrelishingorbearingapartinanyrationalconversation,butofconceivinganygenerous,noble,ortendersentiment,andconsequentlyofforminganyjustjudgmentconcerningmanyevenoftheordinarydutiesofprivatelife.Ofthegreatandextensiveinterestsofhiscountryheisaltogetherincapableofjudging;andunlessveryparticularpainshavebeentakentorenderhimotherwise,heisequallyincapableofdefendinghiscountryinwar.”Smitharguesthattherightsortofeducationcanamelioratethestultifyingeffectsoflivesspentinsuchoccupations.220Topursuestudiesinordertogainmoneyfromothersbyprofessionalteaching,orinacompetitivespiritthatseekstheirhonor,wouldbeatleastunleisuredandnarrowing,andinanycasenotwhatacityisseekingtoinstillinallitscitizens.221SeethediscussionofthisinNicomacheanEthics,Bk.X,Chap.6.222OdysseyXVII,385;Aristotleslightlyalterstheline,andtheprecedinglinehequotesisnotinourtexts.ThefollowingwordsofOdysseusarefromIX,7-8.223GreatnessofsoulisdiscussedatlengthinBk.IV,Chap.3oftheNicomacheanEthics,whereAristotlebeginswithitscommonusetodescribeproud,honor-lovingpeople,buttransformsitsmeaningdialectically.InthePosteriorAnalytics,97b14-26,hesaysthewordmegalopsuchosmayapplynotonlytotheproudbutalsotopeoplelikeSocrateswhoareabovecaringaboutthethingsthatdependongoodandbadfortune.

224InBk.III,Chaps.6-7oftheNicomacheanEthics,Aristotledefinescourageasasettleddispositiontochoosetofacedangerwhenthatisabeautifulthingtodo.InChap.8hegoesontodistinguishcouragefromanumberofthingsthatresembleitandarefrequentlymistakenforit,oneofwhichisthespiritednessthatisfoundalsoinwildanimals;courageoushumanbeingsarespirited,butnotallspiritedhumanbeingsarecourageous.225Bacchae,line381226ThisalternativeisarguedvividlybySocratesinPlato’sRepublic,401Dandfollowing.227Thethreelabelsareshorthandremindersoftheroleofmusicincharacterdevelopment,asasourceofdiversion,andaspartofthecentralactivityinwhichlifefindsitscompletion.228InChap.1ofthePoetics,Aristotleassociatesepicanddramaticpoetrywithfluteandharpmusicasartsthatimitatecharacterandactionbymeansofrhythm,speech,andharmony.ThemelodiestraditionallyattributedtoOlympuswerefortheflute.Theword“imitation”(mimêsis)hasnoimplicationofdeficiency,andinallthesearts,whatisimitatedisinvisible.Themotionsofasoulandthechoicesthatgiveshapetoactioncanbediscussedandunderstood,buttheycanbecontemplateddirectandwholeonlythroughtheimagination,whichisthemediuminwhichtheseimitativeartspresentanddisclosethehumanimage.229Rossfollowsanearlieremendationbyinsertingtheword“not”before“everyone,”butthemanuscriptreadingseemstomakebettersense,aslongasonetakesthefollowingetitomean“yet”ratherthan“furthermore.”230InChap.2ofthePoetics,AristotlesaysthatPausonpaintedpeoplewhoareworsethanmostofus,andPolygnotuspeoplewhoarebetter.231ParticulartuningsoftheIonianandLydianmodesusedatdrinkingparties,accordingtoGlauconinPlato’sRepublic(398E).232ThiswasthemodeofSparta’smartialmusic.PlutarchwritesinhislifeofLycurgus(Chap.22,Sec.3):“Itwasatonceamagnificentandterriblesighttoseethemmarchontothetuneoftheirflutes,withoutanydisorderintheirranks,anydiscomposureintheirminds,orchangeintheircountenances,calmlyandcheerfullymovingwiththemusictothedeadlyfight.Men,inthis

temper,werenotlikelytobepossessedwithfearoranytransportoffury,butwiththedeliberatevalorofhopeandassurance.”(Drydentranslation)233Archytas’srattleisthoughttohavebeensomethinglikeacastanetmountedonastick,withpiecesthatclappedtogetherwhenitwasshaken.Thiswayofholdinganinfant’sattentionwouldsuggestafirstandcrudestsemblanceofamusicalinstrument.InBk.VIIofthePhysics(247b17-248a9),Aristotledescribesthemostimportantkindoflearningasaprocessofcalmingdownoutofournativestateofdisorder,sothatourinnatepowersofunderstandingandknowingcanbeengagedbytheworldanddotheirwork.Whilethisisareplacementofonenaturalconditionbyanother,itmayrequirehelpfromotherpeople.Thissuggeststhattheroleofamusicaleducationinformingcharacterhastheadditionaleffectofallowingtheintellecttoemerge.234ThisisthekindofpowerAristotleattributestotragedyinChap.6ofthePoetics;inChap.4ofthatworkhesuggeststhatthedefiningmarkofcomedyistorevealsomethingridiculousinhumanbeings,orhumantypes,ingeneral,andthusitspowerisforlearning.Onthemeaningofkatharsis,seethenoteto1341b40below.235EcphantideswasanAtheniancomicpoetwholivedaboutacenturybeforeAristotle’stime.236Pear-shapedandangledharpsareconjecturesthathavebeenmadeinoneplaceoranother,notnecessarilyonreliableevidence,forthemeaningsofbarbitoiandsambukai,respectively.237“Lawsspeakonlyofwhatisuniversal”(1286a10-11above).238ThekatharsisoffearandpitywhichAristotlenamesinthePoeticsasthegoaloftragedyisneverexplicitlyclarifiedinthatworkeither.Theprimarymeaningofthewordis“cleansing.”Centuriesofinterpretationhavetakenittomeanapurgingoftoxicfeelings,arefiningofcrudefeelings,aritualpurificationofguiltinthetragichero,anintellectualclarification,oraclearingupofmoralconfusion.Thepresenttranslatorfindsdeficienciesinalltheseinterpretations,forreasonsgivenintheintroductiontohistranslationofthePoetics(FocusPhilosophicalLibrary,FocusPublishing/R.PullinsCompany,2006).ThewayinwhichAristotledoesaddclaritytothenotionofcatharsisinthePoeticsisbyreplacingitlaterintheworkwithvariouswordsforanddescriptionsofastateofwonder.Theworkoftragedy,accordingto

Aristotle,istoarousefearandpityinordereithertocleansethespectatorofthosefeelings,leavingintheirplaceastateofwonder,ortocleansefearandpitythemselvesofthoseelementsthatstandinthewayofastateofwonder.Hisunderstandingofwonderisitselfinneedofinterpretation,butwhatisrelevanthereisthatitisadispositionintowhichtheworkofartmovesus.Musicthateducatesdoessobyimitatingandthusrevealingdispositionsofthesoul;musicthatiscatharticarousesfeelingsinthelistenerwhichleaveanewdispositionintheirwake.239Rossadoptsthisemendationofthemanuscripts,whichread“adaptedtoinspiration.”InBk.XIX,Chap.48oftheProblems,aworkattributedtoAristotleortohisschool,theHypophrygianandHypodorianmodesarementionedasappropriateaccompanimentsfordramaticscenes,includingthosedepictingmilitaryactions,andnotforchoralspeeches.Thefundamentaltoneofeachisanintervalofafourthbelowthatofthemodewiththerelatedname.Onemightimaginemusicthatisstirring,butwhichcontributesnothingtolearningortoanycatharticeffect.240AtypeofhymntoDionysus(Bacchus),chantedanddancedinafrenziedstylebyalargechorus.241Somescholarshavearguedthatthislastparagraphshouldnotberegardedasauthentic,butassomethingtackedonbyhandsotherthanAristotle’s.Itis,however,strikinglyappropriatethatAristotleshouldendthePoliticswithareminderthatSocratesintheRepublicpaintedapictureofacitythatwouldsinginunison,whilethetruetaskofpoliticsistobringharmonyoutofacity’sdisparatemembersbymeansofeducation.(See1263b29-37above.)

GLOSSARYThewordattheheartofthePoliticsiscity(polis).Itrefersnottoaplace

buttoagroupofpeoplegatheredtogether,notforpracticalpurposesalonebutasparticipantsinanassociation(koinônia)inwhichthenatureofeachcancometocompletion.Naturedeterminestheappropriatesizeofthepoliticalassociationinarangelargeenoughtobeself-sufficientbutsmallenoughforitsmemberstoknoweachotherandworktogether.Theoldtranslation“city-state”suggestedthatthepoliswasaparticularvarietywithinthegeneralclasscomprisingallaggregatesofrulingandruledhumanbeings,orevenaprimitivestageintheevolutionofthemodernnationstate.Aristotleconsidersthecitytobeofasizeandcapacitythatallowsthefulldevelopmentofhumannature.

Derivativesofthewordpolisfillthework,andoneofthemprovidesitstraditionaltitle,tapolitika,thingsthatpertaintothelifeofacity.ThePoliticsincludesadialecticalstudyofthingsthatarelearnableandknowableaboutpolitics(hêpolitikê),asopposedtothosemattersaboutwhichthebestthatcanbediscoveredarethepersuasiveargumentsheexploresintheRhetoric.Mostofwhatisknowableaboutcitieshastodowiththeirformsofgovernment(politeiai);apoliteia,sometimestranslatedhereasconstitutionorsimplygovernment,iswhatgivesthecityitsidentity.Theformofgovernmentdetermineswhoisacitizen(politês),andadistributionofgreaterorlesserauthorityoverthedecisionsofthecityamongallitscitizenscharacterizespoliticalrule(hêpolitikêarchê).Mostexistinggovernmentsdeviateinwholeorpartfrompoliticalruleandfromanyothersafeguardofthecommongood;theprimarydeviantforms(parekbaseis)aretyranny(turannis),oligarchy(oligarchia),anddemocracy(demokratia),eachofwhich,initsextremeform,rulesarbitrarilyandremainsineffectbyforce.Theformsfromwhichtheydeviateare,respectively,kingship(basileia),apaternalratherthanpoliticalformofrule,aristocracy(aristokratia),andconstitutionalrule(politeia),allofwhichgovernbylawsandremainineffectbyconsent.Thelastnamedform,usuallytranslatedelsewhereas“polity,”appliesthegeneralnameforaformofgovernmenttotheparticularcaseofagovernmentthatconstitutionallydividesspecificgoverningfunctionsamongclassesofcitizens.

aristocracy(aristokratia)Rulebypersonselectedonthebasisofmerit(1293b10-12),orany

governmentinwhichapubliceducationisestablishedwithaviewtothevirtueofahumanbeingassuch(1293b1-7),ratherthantothosevirtuesthatmakecitizensusefulinwarandconquest(1333b5-1334a10).

art(technê)Skilledknow-howinanypracticalendeavor,groundedinsometheoretical

knowledgeandallowingapersonwithexperienceandaptitudetoachieveareliableresult.Itistechnê,andnotepistemê(demonstrableknowledgefromfirstprinciples,sometimestranslated“science”),thatisthelikelyimplicitsubstantiveinthephrasehêpolitikêthatAristotleusesforthestudyandpracticeofpolitics(1252a7-23).Onitsotherside,artisdistinguishedfrombanausia,therepetitivepracticeofamerelymechanicalcraft.

citizen(politês)Anyoneentitledtoparticipatetoanyextentinthejudging,ruling,and

deliberativeactivitiesofacity(1275a22-23,b17-20).Citizenshiprequiresawillingnessandcapacitytoruleandberuledatthesametime(1277a26-27,b16-17).

constitutionalrule(politeia)Thegeneralwordforaformofgovernment,whenappliedtoamixtureof

democracyandoligarchy,andespeciallytooneinwhichdemocraticelementspredominate(1293b33-36).Aristotleconsidersthemoredemocraticallyinclinedmixturesmorestableandsecure(1307a10-20),andsince,inacitythathasgrownlarge,democracyistheonlyviableformofgovernment(1286b20-22),thebestattainablegovernmentatsuchatimewouldbeademocracywhichreservessomeroleingovernmenttothosewithpropertyofatleastacertainvalue.Suchgovernments,however,heconsiderstohavebeenofrareoccurrence(1293a39-41),partlybecausepowerfuldemocraticandoligarchiccitiestendtosupportsympatheticfactionselsewhere(1296a36-38).

democracy(demokratia)

Rulebythepoor(1279b40-1280a4),whoareincidentallyvirtuallyalwaysthemajority(1290a30-b20).Democracyisadeviantformofgovernment(1279b4-6)becauseitcontainsnoprotectionfortherichagainstinjusticebythepoor(1281a14-24);wheresuchprotectionisestablishedinlaw,thereisconstitutionalratherthandemocraticrule(1279a37-39).Aristotleregardsitascharacteristicofademocracytochooserulingofficialsbylot(1317b17-21)ratherthanbyelection.

education(paideia)Thewholeendeavortodevelopthehumanpotential,ratherthanto

transmitspecializedskills.Thecommoneducationthatshouldbetheconcernofacityincludesgymnastictraining,instructioninreadingandwriting,andastudyandpracticeofmusic(Bk.VIII).Musichasthemostimportantroleineducation,whichistheformationofacapacitytomakerightjudgmentsaboutcharacterandaction(1340a14-28).ThisconcernwithcharacteristheeducationthatAristotlesayscanmakeacityoneoutofmany(1263b36-37),andistheonlywaytohelppeopleattaintheself-disciplinethatallowsoligarchiesanddemocracies,ormixturesofthem,toberuledatall(1310a12-36).

formofgovernment(politeia)Anarrangementoftherulingofficesinacity(1278b8-10)andhenceits

constitution,writtenorunwritten.Thewordoccasionallyreferstothethingsoconstituted,whereitistranslatedsimplyas“government,”andsometimesappliestotheparticularformofgovernmentwhichexplicitlydividesrulingfunctionsamongdifferentclassesofcitizens,inwhichcasesitistranslatedasconstitutionalrule.

justice(todikaion)Thepoliticalgood(1282b16-17).Ofthevarioussensesofthisnotion

distinguishedinBk.VoftheNicomacheanEthics,theonemeanthereiswhatisgenerallycalleddistributive(endianomê)justice,thoughnoformofthatmodifierisusedanywhereinthePolitics.Here,Aristotledefinesitasdividing(diairein)thingsequallyamongequalsandunequallyamongunequals(1280a11-13),andappliesitprimarilytotheconstitutionaldivisionofdecision-

makingauthorityamongdifferentclassesofcitizens.ThisformofjusticeisalsowhatAristotlereferstoasthereciprocalequality(1261a22-32)thatholdstogetherthepoliticalassociation,andmakesitdifferentfromthehomogeneousaggregateofanallianceoranation.

kingship(basilea)Rulebyoneperson(monarchia)whenitisbyconsentandboundbylaws.

AristotleregardsitasanarchaicformofgovernmentinGreece,onethatprevailedatthetimewhenvillagesfirstcombinedintocities,undertheprotectionofonepaternalleaderandbenefactor(1252b19-20,1285b3-19),atypeofrulethatceasedtobeacceptedwhencitiesgrewinsizeandrivalriesforleadershipbecamecommon(1286b8-13).

middlerangeormiddlegroup(meson)Citizenswhoareneitherrichnorpoor(1295b39-1296a5).Ourphrase

“middleclass”isnotinaccurate,butithasthewrongconnotationsifweunderstandittorefertothosewhomakealivingbytradingingoodsorservices.Aristotlehasinmindprimarilypeoplewhoownsmallpiecesofland.Heconsidersmechanicalandcommercialtradetobeinconsistentwiththeproperpracticeofcitizenship,whichrequiressomeleisure(1328b33-1329a2).

oligarchy(oligarchia)Rulebytherich(1279b40-1280a4),whoareincidentallyvirtuallyalways

theminority(1290a30-b20).Oligarchyisadeviantformofgovernment(1279b4-6)becauseitcontainsnoprotectionforthepooragainstinjusticebytherich(1281a24-28),restrictingallrulingfunctionstothosewhomeetapropertyqualification.Thenumberofthosewhorulemayvarywithtighterorlooserqualifications,andtheremaybeanydegreeofrelianceonlaw,fromnoneatallinaconfederacyofthepowerfultoacompleteruleoflaw(1292a39-b10),butoligarchiesinpracticealwaysseektomaketherichgetricher;hencetheyaremirrorimagesofdemocraciesinwhichthosewhorulealsoconfiscatethepropertyofthosetheyrule(1321a40-b1).

provisioning(chrêmatistikê)

Initsmostpropersense,skillatusinglandedpropertytosupplytheneedsofthemembersofahousehold(1258b12-20),butwiththedevelopmentofacurrencyandtheexpansionoftrade,asecondkindofprovisioningarose,asaskillatmakingandincreasingwealthwithoutlimit.Thecommontranslationsofchrêmatistikêas“moneymaking”or“skillatbusiness”letaderivativemeaningcrowdouttheprimaryone.Therootwordchrêmasimilarlybeganbymeaninganyusefulorconsumablething,butcametorefer,intheplural,simplytomoney.

slave(doulos)Ahumanbeingwhoisthepropertyofanotherhumanbeing(1254a12-

17).Bynature,ahumanbeingcanbeaslaveonlyifhecannotforeseehisownactionsbythinking,butonlybyimagination(1252a32),lacksanycapacityforreasonbeyondgraspingwhatissaidtohim(1254b22-23),andisthereforewhollyincapableofdeliberation(1260a12).Mostslavery,imposedonpeoplecapturedinwar,Aristotleconsidersunjustanddisadvantageoustoallconcerned(Bk.I,Chap.6).Hementions,butdoesnotelaborateon,hisownrecommendationthatallslavesshouldbeofferedthechancetoearnfreedom(1330a32-33).

tyranny(turannis)Monarchyinwhichsubjectsarerulednotascitizensorevenchildren

wouldbebutasthoughtheywereslavesofamaster(despotês).Aristotlementionsmixedformsofkingshipandtyranny,butregardsthewordasdefinedprimarilybyitsmostextrememanifestations(Bk.IV,Chap.10),inwhichtheruler’saimistomakehissubjectsthinksmall,distrustoneanother,andhavenopowertoact(1314a26-29).Whentyrannicalruleissharedamongasmallgroupofpeople,hecallsitaconfederacyofthepowerful(dunasteia),whichisnotcapturedbyourword“dynasty”butiscloserinmeaningtowhatwewouldcalla“junta.”Tyrannicalrule,whetherexercisedbyoneperson,asmallgroup,orevenademocraticmajoritycontemptuousoflaw,istheannihilationofacity,sinceitabolishespoliticallife(1272b13-15,1292a15-21,1293b27-29).

usualpath,usualcourse(hêhuphêgêmenêmethodos,

hohuphêgêmenostropos)Thebeatenpathofpopularorreceivedopinion,thestartingpointAristotle

invokesinBk.I,Chap.1,forthewholestudyofpolitics,andagaininBk.I,Chap.8,forthestudyofproperty.Thenear-universaltranslationofthesephrasesas“ourusualprocedure,”orwordstothateffect,getstheirmeaningexactlywrong.TheyindicatedeparturesfromAristotle’sownconclusionsintheoreticalworkssuchasthePhysicsandMetaphysics.Similarly,atthebeginningofBk.VII,Chap.1,Aristotleannouncesthatanargumentbasedonhispopularwritings(exôterikoilogoi),ratherthanonhisNicomacheanEthics,willbesufficientforthepurposesofpoliticalinquiry.NeartheendoftheNicomacheanEthics,whereAristotleintroducesatransitiontotheinquiryinthePolitics,hesaysthatsuchastudymustrecognizeandincludetheunwrittenlaws,nationalcharacter,andinheritedopinionsandhabitsalreadypresentinpeopleasitfindsthem(1180a34-b7).

virtue(aretê)Originallyageneraltermfortheexcellenceofanythingasafitting

exampleofitskind,aretêusedwithoutqualificationreferstohumanexcellence,displayedprimarilyinacharacterthatactswithcourage,moderation,andjustice,withinalifeguidedbypracticaljudgment.Aristotleregardsvirtueasthenecessaryandsufficientconditionofhappiness(1323b21-23),andasthegoalofallpoliticalassociation(1328a35-41).Theachievementofthisgoalismeasurednotbyconquestandwealthbutbytheextenttowhichallcitizenscanlivefulfillinglivesinpeaceandleisure(1333b5-1334a10).

SUMMARYOFCONTENTSBookIThenaturalbasisofthecityChapter1Acitydiffersinkindfromotherassociationsofrulersandruled.Chapter2Ahumanbeingisapoliticalanimal,andcanliveafullydevelopedlifeonlyinacity.Chapter3Acityisorganizedoutofhouseholds.Chapter4Aslaveisahumanbeingwhoselifeisnothisown,andispartofthepropertyofahousehold.Chapter5Slaveryisnatural,advantageous,andjustonlyiftheslaveisdefectiveinrationalcapacity.Chapter6Slaveryimposedbyforceonconqueredpeopleiscontrarytonature,disadvantageoustobothmasterandslave,andbreedshatred.Chapter7Skillatmasteryofslavesoratmanagingahouseholddiffersinkindfrompoliticalrule.Chapter8Skillatprovisioningahouseholdsuppliesthenecessaryresourcesforacity.Chapters9-11Skillatcommercialexchangeandmoney-makinghasnoinherentlimit,andaimsatextravaganceratherthanatwell-being;whileitisnotthemostprimaryandproperpartofhouseholdmanagement,thosewhomanagehouseholdsorserveasadministratorsofcitiesneedtobeawareofpracticesthatmayaffecttheavailabilityofnecessities.Chapter12Authorityinahouseholdisofthreedistinctkinds:masteryoverslaves,kinglyruleoverchildren,andpoliticalrule,asamongfreeandequalfellowcitizens,ofahusbandoverawife.Chapter13Managementofahouseholdhasitsbasisindifferencesinthecapacityforrationaldeliberation,whichiswhollylackinginnaturalslaves,undevelopedinchildren,andwithoutauthorityinwomen.Noneofthemshouldberuledsimplybycommands;allhavevirtuesthatneedtobefosteredforthesakeofthewell-beingofthecity.

BookIIPreviousopinionsaboutthebestcityChapters1-5ThehypothesisSocratesadoptsintheRepublic,thatthebestcityistheonewiththegreatestdegreeofunity,ismistaken.Toomuchunitydestroysthepoliticalassociationjustasmuchasdoestoolittle.Citizenshaveprivateintereststhatawell-governedcitycanharmonizebymeansofeducation.Chapter6Plato’sLawselaboratesaformofgovernmentconstitutionallymixedoutofelementsofoligarchyanddemocracy,buttooneartooligarchy.Chapter7Phaleasadvocatedanequaldistributionoflandedpropertytoallcitizensasacureforinjustice,buthedidnotunderstandthenatureofthedisease.Chapter8Hippodamusproposedatheoreticalarrangementforacityandencouragedaperpetualamendmentandimprovementoflawsonthemodelofprogressinthearts,notunderstandingthatanychangeforthebetterinpoliticallifebringswithitaweakeningofthehabitofobediencetolawitself.Chapter9TheSpartangovernmentfoundastabledivisionofresponsibilitiesamongkings,elders,andagoverningboardchosenfromthecommonpeople,butdidnotconstituteanyofthosepartswell.Ithasproducedcitizenswiththevirtuesneededtowageandwinwars,butnotgoodatgoverningintimesofpeace.Itspracticesinregardtoslaves,women,andinheritancesareallunwise.Chapter10TheCretanformofgovernmentisamoreancientversionofthatadoptedbySparta.ThecommonmealsareprovidedonamorecommunalbasisinCrete,butthegoverningboardofcommoncitizensisevenlesswelldesignedthanSparta’s,andisperiodicallysuspendedandreplacedbyarbitraryrulebyafewpowerfulpeople.ThelongsurvivalofCrete’sgovernmentisexplainedmorebyitsremotelocationthanbyitspolicies.Chapter11TheCarthaginiangovernmentisbetterdesignedthantheprecedingtwo,byincorporatingmorearistocraticelementsandassigningofficesonthebasisofmerit.Itsweaknessescomefromitsoligarchicelements.Ithasmaintainedanorderlyandcontentedbodyofcitizensbyprovidingopportunitiesincoloniesforthosewhowanttogetrich,ratherthanbyeducation.Despitetheirflaws,thethreedistinctivecitiesdiscussedareall

justlyadmired.Chapter12Solontemperedatoo-oligarchicAtheniangovernmentwithabalanceofdemocraticelements,butthepopulacegraduallyincreasedinpoweruntilitbecamevirtuallyatyrant,panderedtobydemagogues.ParticularmeasuresintroducedbySolon,andbyahandfuloflawgiversinothercities,maybeworthyofimitation.

BookIIICitizenshipandpoliticalruleChapter1Acitizenisnotjustanyonesubjecttoandprotectedbyacity’slawsbutonlysomeonewhoparticipatesinsomewayinmakingandapplyingthoselaws.Chapter2Havingcitizensasparentsmaybetheusualpracticalcriterionforconferringcitizenship,butitdoesnotdefinewhatisconferred.Chapter3Acityisacompositethingdeterminednotbyitslocation,itswalls,orevenitsconstituentsbutbyitsform.Thefactthatacityisademocracy,anoligarchy,orofsomeotherformdeterminestheactivitiesandrolesofitscitizensandmakestheassociationofthembewhatitis.Chapter4Citizenscontributeindifferentwaystothewell-beingoftheircities,whichinturnhavedifferentformsofgovernment,sothevirtueofacitizenisnotnecessarilythecompletevirtueofahumanbeing.Aruleralwaysneedstheintellectualvirtueofgoodpracticaljudgment,whilethelivesofthosewhoareruledcanbeguidedbyothers.Butpoliticalruleoverfreeandequalfellowcitizensislearnedonlybybeingruled,andispotentiallysharedamongthemall.Chapter5Notallthosewhomakeupthepopulationofacityandmakenecessarycontributionstoitarecitizens,andevenwheretheyare,notallcanhavelivesthatpermitcultivationofthevirtuesofcitizens.Chapter6Citiesexistbecausehumanbeingsarepoliticalanimalswhoseeknotmerelytolivebuttolivebeautifully.Governmentsdifferinformbythewayoffices,andparticularlytheofficesofhighestauthority,arearranged.Sincethepoliticalassociationisbyitsnatureasharingofrulingandbeingruledamongfreeandequalpeople,thoseformsofgovernmentarejustandrightlydirectedtotheirendsinwhichrulingauthorityisexercisedforthe

commonadvantage.Chapter7Rightlyconstitutedformsofgovernmentarekingship,aristocracy,andconstitutionalrule,accordingasthehighestauthorityisheldbyoneperson,byfew,orbythemajority,buttheirrightnessdependsuponthevirtueoftherulers,atleastuponmilitaryvirtueinthelast-namedform.Whenrulerslackvirtueandseektheirownadvantageattheexpenseofthatofothers,theseformsdeviateintotyranny,oligarchy,ordemocracy.Chapter8Butinthedeviantforms,itisincidentalthattherulersarefewormany.Thetruedistinctionbetweenoligarchyanddemocracyisbasedonwhethertherulingpowerisheldbytherichorthepoor.Chapter9Oligarchsarguethatthosewhohavemorewealthdeservemorehonorandauthority,whiledemocratsarguethatthosethingsshouldbesharedequallyamongallcitizens,sincetheyareallequalinfreedom.Eachsideisrightinassumingthatjusticerequiresanequitabledistributionofthosethingsthecityhasthepowertogive,buteachiswrongaboutwhateachcitizencontributestothegoodofthewhole.Apoliticalassociationisnotmerelyanallianceforthesakeofmutualexchange,punishmentofcrime,andmilitarydefense,butacommonchoicetoliveasharedlife.Whiletherichmaycontributemoreofitsmaterialresourcesandthepoormoreofitsnecessaryservices,thepossibilityofhappinessamongitscitizensdependsontheusetheymakeofwhateverprosperityandfreedomtheyachieve.Thehappinessofacityislivedoutinactions,andthequalityofthoseactionsisaresultofthevirtuesofallthosewhoparticipateinthem.Chapter10Butanyassignmentofthehighestrulingauthorityispotentiallyunjust.Amajoritymayoppressaminorityanddestroythecityjustasmuchasthereverse;restrictingauthoritytothosechosenforsuperiorcharacterdeprivestherestoffullcitizenship;anditisnosolutiontosaythelawsshouldbetheauthority,sincelawsthemselvesmaybeoligarchicordemocraticinkind.Chapter11Itmaybearguedthatthegeneralpopulace,ifitisnotutterlycorrupt,combinesthevirtuesinitsmembersinawaythatovercomestheirvices.Inanycaseitisnotsafeforanycitytodeprivethelargestpartofitspopulationofaroleingoverning.Executiveandadministrativeauthorityneednotbeinthehandsofthecommonpeople,buttheymaybeassignedthe

powertoselectthosewhoholditandtoreviewtheiractions.Ordinarypeoplemaynotunderstandeverythingthatgoesintothedecisionsmadebyofficeholders,buttheyarecapableofjudgingtheeffectsofthem.Andtheofficeholderswillnotbeabovethelaw,butwillbecapableofapplyingittothoseparticularswhichcannotcomeunderthenoticeofgenerallaws.Thelawswillreflecttheformofgovernment,andcanthereforeavoidinjusticesofanoligarchicordemocratickindonlyiftheconstitutionaldivisionofauthorityhereproposedpreventstheenactmentoflawsthatdeviatefromthecommoninterestineitherofthosedirections.Chapter12Theunequalrestrictionofthehighestofficestocertaincitizenswouldbeunjustifitwerebasedonaninequalityinappearanceorheightoranyotherattributeirrelevanttotheperformanceofthejobs.Ifofficeholdersarechosenonthebasisofabilityfortheirworkandjusticeintheircharacters,thecitywillbepracticingthedistributivejusticethatmatcheshonorsandauthoritywithfitnessandmerit.Chapter13Ifonepersonisclearlysuperiortotherestinabilityandvirtue,hemusteitherbeexcludedfromthecityoracceptedaskingforlife.Chapter14Inpractice,incertaincities,inbarbariannations,andinancienttimes,kingshiphasusuallybeenlimitedbylaw,andhasbeenoffourkinds:apermanentgeneralship,atraditionalandhereditarytyranny,anelectivetyranny,orhereditarykinglyrulewithultimatepowersovermilitary,judicial,andreligiousmatters.Full-scalekingshipwouldbeafifthkindChapter15Butitmaynotbegoodforanyonepersontohavefull-scaleauthority,sincehumanbeings,unlikelaws,aresubjecttobeingswayedbypassions.Andgrantedthatlawsmustbeappliedbyhumanbeings,agroupofdecentpeoplewouldalwaysbelessliabletocorruptionthaneventhebestsoleruler.Thissuggeststhat,whereveranumberofpeopleofexceptionalvirtuecanbefound,aristocracyisabetterformofgovernmentthankingship.Butovertime,aristocracieshavetendedtodegenerateintooligarchies,andthenintotyrannies,makingthepopulacestrongerinrelationtothedecreasingnumberofrulersuntildemocraciesfinallyprevailed.Kingshipisalsoinevitablyflawedbytheexpectationthatitwillbecomehereditary,andbythenecessityforabodyofarmedmentoenforceitslaws.Chapter16Theruleoflawsubstitutesanorderlyarrangementforan

unpredictablehumanwill,dispassionateintellectforcorruptiblejudgment,andthemeanforpartiality.Lawscaneducatethosewhoapplythemaboutthosematterslawscannotdetermine,andcustomalwaysgivesthemgreaterauthoritythanthehumanbeingswhoapplythem.Andsinceakingmustalwaysappointotherstobeanextensionofhiseyes,ears,andhands,itismoresuitedtothenatureofapoliticalassociationforalltherulingfunctionstobesharedandlimitedinthefirstplace.Chapter17Kingshipisappropriateandadvantageousonlyinapopulationinwhichonefamilyispreeminentabovealltherestinvirtueandability.Wheresuchcapacitiesarepresentinmorethanonefamilybutlackinginalltherest,anaristocracywouldbemorenatural,butanycitythatcansustainaneffectivearmyhasthewidespreadcapacityforsharinginrulingandbeingruledthatconstitutespoliticalruleamongequals,nomatterwhatdifferencesofabilitymaybepresentamongthem.Chapter18Inallthreerightlyconstitutedformsofgovernment,thevirtueofacitizenisthesameasthatofahumanbeingassuch,andthebestcitycanbeanyoneamongthemwhichdoesthebestjobofeducatingitscitizensandgivingthemscopeforthefullestdevelopmentoftheirlives.

BookIVThespectrumofdemocraticandoligarchicformsofgovernmentChapter1Sincekingshipandaristocracyarenotordinarilyattainable,thestudyofpoliticsoughttolookatotherformsofgovernmentsuitedtovariouskindsofpeople,theformseasiesttoattaininvariouscircumstances,theoneformbestsuitedtoallcities,andthemeansbywhichexistingformsmightbeimprovedandpreserved.Chapter2Theworstformofgovernment,theonethatcanleastbesaidtobeaformofgovernmentatall,istyranny,theoppositeofthebestform.Secondworstisoligarchy,whichdeviatesfromaristocracybylookingtowealthratherthantovirtue.Chapter3Everycityhasdifferingpartsofitspopulation,andformsofgovernmentdifferindistributingtherulingpoweramongtheseparts.Popularopinionranksaristocracyandconstitutionalrulerespectivelyastypesofoligarchyanddemocracy.Infacttheformertwoarewellorganized,whilethe

latterpairformaspectrumrunningfromthemosttightlyruledoligarchiesthroughthemostslacklyruleddemocracies.Chapter4Thepartsnecessarilypresentineverycityincludefarmers,mechanicalworkers,markettraders,meniallaborers,militarydefenders,wealthyphilanthropists,andofficeholders.Thesegroupsmayoverlapinmanyways,butitisimpossibleforthesamecitizenstoberichandpoor.Thisiswhypopularopinionrecognizesoligarchyanddemocracyasthetwoformsofgovernment,basedonanascendancyofoneortheothergroup.Butdemocraciesthemselvesdifferaccordingasthepopulationitselfpredominantlypursuesvariouswaysoflife,accordingasrulingofficesareequallyopentoallorbasedonalowpropertyqualification,andaccordingastheprimaryauthorityrestsonlawsorondecrees.Thelastcaseallowsdemagoguestorisetopower.Chapter5Oligarchiesdifferaccordingasofficesarebasedsimplyonahighpropertyqualification,orareinpartchosenbyelectionorinheritedbythesonsofthosewhoholdthem.Inoligarchiestoo,asindemocracies,thelawsmayormaynotbethehighestauthority.Arbitraryrulebyaconfederacyofpowerfulpeopleistheoligarchiccounterparttotyrannyandtodemocraciesthatrulebydecree.Andcitieswitholigarchiclawsmayhavedemocraticcustomsortheotherwayaround,especiallyiftheformofgovernmenthaschanged.Chapter6Democraciestendtoplaceauthorityinthelawswhenmostcitizenscannotaffordtotaketimeoffforfrequentassemblies.Indemocraciesthatgrowlargeandprosperousandpayfeesforjurydutyandassemblyservice,thepoorenduphavingmoreleisurethantherich,andauthorityshiftsawayfromthelawstothemultitudeitself.Inoligarchies,thelawstendtohavemoreauthoritywhenpropertyqualificationsforofficearerelativelylowandthenumbersofpeopletakingpartinadministrationcorrespondinglylarge.Asthequalificationsgetlargerandthenumberssmaller,theybeginpassingtherulingofficesontotheirsons,andeventuallydisregardtheruleoflawaltogether.Chapters7-8Wherethechoiceofrulingofficesisbasedtoanydegreeonvirtue,alongwithanyotherrestrictionstotherichorextensionstomembersofthegeneralpopulace,itisappropriatetoconsiderthegovernmentaformof

aristocracy.Butpopularopinionmisappliesthenameofaristocracytomixturesofoligarchyanddemocracythatinclinemoretowardoligarchy,sinceeducationisusuallytheprivilegeoftherich,andpeopleimaginethattherichhavenoreasontobeunjust.Hencethenameofconstitutionalrule,thoughitmighthavebeenappliedtoanymixtureofoligarchicanddemocraticprovisions,isreservedforthosemixedgovernmentsinwhichdemocraticprovisionspredominate.Chapter9Democracyandoligarchycanbemixedbytakingelementsfromboth,suchaspayingthepoorforservingonjuriesandfiningtherichforfailingtoserve;orbysplittingthedifference,suchashavingamoderatepropertyqualificationforserviceintheassembly,ratherthannoneatalloralargeone;orbyinterminglingpartsfromeach,suchashavingofficeholderschosenbyelectionratherthanbylot,butwithnopropertyqualification.Awell-blendedconstitutionalgovernmentwillseemtobebothademocracyandanoligarchy,andneither.InSparta,forinstance,eventhepoorareeducated,andeventherichuseordinaryfoodandclothes.Suchagovernmentwillbepreservedifnopartofthepopulationwantsadifferentformofgovernment.Chapter10Someformsofmonarchy,whichcomeintobeinginaccordwithlawandbyconsent,butallowthemonarchtorulewithoutfurtherrecoursetolaw,aremixturesofkingshipandtyranny.Full-scaletyrannytreatsallsubjectsasslavesandlooksonlytothetyrant’sownadvantage.Chapter11Thebestformofgovernmentformostcitiesandmosthumanbeingswillbeonethathasalargenumberofcitizenswhoareneitherrichnorpoor.Extremesofwealthandpoverty,amongotherbadconsequences,produceanunwillingnesstobothruleandberuled.Alargemiddlegroupgivesstabilitytoacityandreducesthelikelihoodoffactionalconflict.Wherethemiddlegroupissmall,acityismorelikelytoturnintoanextremeformofoligarchyordemocracy,eachofwhichisashortstepawayfrombecomingatyranny.Theforeignpolicyofcitiesattheheadofalliancesaddstothepressurethatforcesothercitiesawayfromthemiddlerangemostadvantageoustoalltheircitizens.Chapter12Thestabilityofagovernmentdependsonacombinationofthequalityoflifeavailabletocitizenswhoarebetteroffandtheproportionofthepopulationtowhomsuchalifeisaccessible.Lawgiversforbotholigarchies

anddemocraciesoughtalwaystoincludethemiddlegroupofcitizensinpositionsofauthority.Nopoliciescansucceedinthelongruninholdingtogetherabadlymixedgovernment.Chapter13Trickerydesignedtomakeconstitutionalrulemoreoligarchicinpracticeimposesfinesontherichwhentheyavoidgovernmentormilitaryservice,butnopenaltiesonthepoor.Trickerytomakeitmoredemocraticinpracticeprovidesthepoorwithfeesforjuryandassemblyserviceandfoodformilitaryservice,butnoincentivestotherich.Awellmixedgovernmentusespoliciesofbothkindstoencourageallcitizenstodotheirpart.Itisespeciallyimportanttoacity’sstabilityforasmanycitizensaspossibletoserveunderarms.Overthecourseoftime,authorityincitieshasgraduallyexpandedfromthosewealthyenoughforcavalryservice,tothosewhocouldprovideandfightinheavyarmor,tothegrowingnumbersofpeopleinthemiddlerange.Chapter14Inanextremedemocracy,thedeliberativefunctionbelongstoallcitizensonallmatters,whileofficialsdoonlypreparatoryworkfortheirassemblies,butdemocraciesmayalsodelegatedeliberationoversomematterstoofficialsandserveinassembliesbyturns.Inanextremeoligarchy,thedeliberativefunctionisrestrictedtoafewself-chosenpeoplewhoarenotboundbylaws;moreinclusiveparticipation,elections,andthedividingupofthedeliberativeauthorityamongdifferentgroupsinclineanoligarchyinthedirectionofeitheraristocracyorconstitutionalrule.Feesandfinesoughttobeusedtoensuretheparticipationofboththepoorandtherichinassemblies,andadjustednottotheirrelativenumbersinthepopulationbuttobalancetheirpower.Itisbest,butoppositetocurrentpractice,forthegeneralpopulacetohaveavetopoweroverproposalsoriginatinginabodyofeminentcitizens.Chapter15Manypeoplearechosentoperformadministrative,religious,orotherpublicfunctionsonbehalfofacity,buttherulingofficesthatinvolvedecisionmakingandthegivingofordersneedthemostattentionfromthepoliticalart.Inalargecity,onepersonmaybeassignedasinglejobforalimitedperiod;inasmallcityjobsmayneedtobecombinedandmadepermanent.Andsomefunctionsarespecifictocertainformsofgovernment,aspre-councilsaretooligarchiesandoverseersofwomenandchildrentoaristocracies.Itischaracteristicallydemocraticforofficeholderstobechosen

bylotfromamongallcitizens,oligarchicforthemtobechosenfromamongthosemeetingapropertyqualification,andaristocraticforthemtobeelectedonthebasisofmerit;mixturesoftheseproceduresmaybemoresuitedtoconstitutionalrule.Chapter16Acitymayhavemanydifferentlawcourtstodecidecasesofvariouskinds,butthoseneedingthemostattentionaretheonesinvolvingpoliticalmatters,wheredecisionsmayleadtofactionaldivisionsandevenchangesofgovernment.Theseincludecasesagainstpublicofficialsandonmattersbearingontheconstitution.Aswithofficeholders,judgesmaybeelectedorchosenbylot,fromamongallcitizensorsomedesignatedgroup,andmixedproceduresarepossible.

BookVFactionsandchangesofgovernmentChapter1Factionsseekingtochangeagovernmentinwholeorpart,ortakecontrolwithinone,formwhenanumberofpeoplebelievetheydonothavearoleinrulinginproportiontowhattheydeserve.Hencepurelydemocraticoroligarchicgovernmentsarealwaysshort-lived,thoughdemocraciesarerelativelymorestable,sincetheydonotexperiencetheinternalrivalriescommonwithinoligarchicgroups.Democracieswithalargepopulationinthemiddlerangearethemoststableofthesesortsofgovernments,buttheonlyeffectivemeanstopreservethemistohaveamixtureofstrictequalityinsomemattersandproportionalequalityinothers.Chapters2-3Manyexamplesshowthevarietyofconditions,attitudes,andeventsthatleadtofactionsandprecipitatechangesofgovernment.Changingconditionscansometimesaltergovernmentswithoutfactionalconflict,aswhenpopulationsgrowdisproportionallyorwhenvotescometobeboughtandsold.Andfactionscanformonthebasisofdistinctionsotherthanthatbetweentherichandthepoor,sincevirtuallyanydifferencecanbecomeadivision.Chapter4Smallmatterscangrowintolargedivisions,asshownbymanyconflictsthathavearisenoutofprivatedisputesbetweenpowerfulpeople.Andpartsofapopulationcanearngoodreputationsthatleadtotheirhavinggreaterpowerinacity,ortoenvyamongtheiropponents,ortotheirownarrogance;thesecausescanhavemajoreffects,particularlywherethereisnot

alargeenoughmiddlegrouptokeepthingsinbalance.Andgovernmentscanbechangedbydeceitaswellasbyforce.Chapter5Democracieshavemostoftenbeendestroyedbytherecklessbehaviorofdemagogues.Inthepast,whendemagoguesusuallyhadexperienceasgenerals,theythemselvesoftenbecametyrants.Inlatertimes,whendemagogueshavebeenmorelikelytobepersuasivespeakerswhopandertothecrowd,theyhavetendedtocauseoligarchicbacklashes.Chapter6Whenoligarchiestreatthecommonpeopleunjustly,theycancausedemocraticbacklashesorgiverisetodemagogueswhobecometyrants.Oroligarchiescansplitintorivalfactions,particularlywhensomeoftheoligarchswastetheirownfortunesthroughdissipation.Oligarchscanalsounderminetheirowngovernmentsbyrelyingonmercenarysoldiers,outoffearofthepopulaceorevenoutoffearofoneanother.Andsometimeschangehappensunnoticedinoligarchiesifoverthecourseoftimeagreaterpartofthepopulationattainsthepropertyqualificationoriginallysetforparticipationingovernment.Chapter7Aristocraciesaredestroyedwhenpeoplearewronglyhonored,orbelievethemselveswronglydishonored.Constitutionalrulecannotbelastingifthemixtureofprovisionsinitsconstitutionfailstoachieveanappropriatebalance.Aristocraciesareparticularlyliabletocrumbleimperceptiblyaftersmallchanges,sincetheydependmostonstabletraditions.Andallformsofgovernmentcanbechangedbyoutsideinterference.Chapter8Allgovernmentsarepreservedbybeingonguardagainstsmalldeparturesfromthelaws,whichcanbreedahabitoflawlessness,bytreatingpeoplewellandnotrelyingontrickerytomakeitappearso,bylimitingtermsofoffice,byreactingtoexternalthreatsandinternaldivisionswhentheyareintheirearlystages,bymakingperiodicadjustmentsinpropertyqualifications,byavoidinganylargesuddenelevationordiminutionofthepowerofanycitizen,andbykeepingpowerbalancedinthehandsofopposinggroups.Mostofall,thelawsshouldaimatkeepingoffice-holdingfrombeingprofitable,sothatpeoplewillbeattractedtoofficesforthesakeofhonorandtoavoidbeingruledbyworsepeople.Democraciesoughttoavoidanypoliciesthatimpoverishtherich,andoligarchiesoughttoseekwaystoenrichtheneedy.

Chapter9Thosewhoholdrulingofficesshouldhaveanattachmenttotheirownformofgovernmentandshareitsprejudicesaboutwhatisequitable,aswellashavinggreatabilityfortheirwork.Inpositionsofmilitaryauthority,abilityisthemoreimportantqualification;inthosewithauthorityovermoney,qualitiesofcharacteraremoreimportant.Theonlysafeguardagainstalackofvirtueintheofficialsisforthoseattachedtothepresentgovernmenttobestrongerthanthosewhowantittochange.Butdemocraciesandoligarchiescanalsobedestroyedbythosewhoaretoostronglyattachedtotheirprejudices;theyaredeviantformsofgovernment,whichcandeviateonlymoderatelyfromthemeanbeforetheirpoliciesbecomeself-destructive.Thereisnosubstituteforeducation:thechildrenofoligarchsneedtolearnthatrulingisnotalicenseforluxury,andthoseofdemocratsneedtolearnthatfreedomisnotalicensetodowhateveronepleases.Chapter10Kingshavegenerallyarisenfromamongprominentpeople,havesoughthonor,andhavebeenguardiansofboththelandownersandthecommonpeople.Tyrantshavegenerallystartedoutasdemagogues,havesoughtmoney,andhavemistreatedboththerichandthepoor.Hencekingshipshavebeendestroyedforthesamereasonsasaristocracies,andtyranniesforthesamereasonsasoligarchiesanddemocracies.Manyexamplesshowthatmonarchsofbothkindshaveincurredhatredorcontemptbecauseoftheirprivatelives,thateventuallyledtotheirdownfall.Thesefeelingsareevenmorelikelytobearousedagainsthereditarymonarchs.Kingshipsweremoreenduringthantyrannies,buttheynolongercomeintobeing.Chapter11Thelongest-lastingkingshipshavebeenthosethatwillinglysurrenderedpartsoftheirauthority.Tyrannieshaveextendedtheirdurationbymeasuresdesignedtomaketheirsubjectsthinksmall,distrustoneanother,andhavenopowerofaction.Butjustaskingshavebeenoverthrownwhentheybecametyrannical,sometyrantshavepreservedtheirpowerbybecomingkinglyandseekingtoberespectedratherthanfeared.Thisapproachnotonlymakesthetyrant’srulelastlonger,itmakesitmoreworthhavingforhimandmoreadvantageoustoallconcerned.Chapter12Themostmoderatetyrannieshavebeenthelongest-lasting,buttyranniesarestilltheshortest-livedofallgovernments.ThepatternoftransformationsdescribedbySocratesintheRepublic,dead-endingintyranny,

doesnotreflectexperience,sincenoformofgovernmentisofasinglevarietyorsubjectonlytoasingleformofdestruction.Tyranniescanturnintogovernmentsofanyotherform,andalsointotyranniesinotherhands.

BookVIHowdemocraciesandoligarchiescanbemademoreeffectiveandenduringChapter1Differingwaysofsettingupthepartsofeachformofgovernmentcanbeadaptedtoaparticularcity’scircumstances,andcanbecombinedwithmeasuresofanoppositetendencytoavoidtheexcessesthatcausefactionalbacklashes.Chapter2Theassumptionunderlyingdemocracyisthateachpersonshouldhaveanequalsayinruling,andallshouldbefreeofrestraint.Democraciesseekequalitybymakingallofficesopentoallforshorttermsfilledbylot,andbypayingfeesforholdingofficeandforparticipationinjuriesandassemblies.Theyseekfreedombyreservingall,orthemostimportant,decisionmakingtotheassemblyofallcitizens.Anyhereditarypositionsofhonorsurvivingfromancientformsofgovernmentarestrippedoftheirpowers.Chapter3Butwhilethepoorbelievetheauthoritativeopinionisthatofanumericalmajority,therichbelieveitistheopinionthatrepresentsthemajorpartofthewealthofthecity.Atruerequalitythaneithersortalonewouldbeachievedbyaconstitutionalprocedureforcountingboththenumberofcitizensoneachsideofavoteandtheproportionofthecity’sassessedpropertytheyrepresent.Aprocedureforresolvingsplitdecisions,perhapsbylot,wouldneedtobeincluded.Anyconstitutionalmeansofcombiningbothkindsofmajorityintoasingleresultissuperiortoexpectingeithersortalonenottoproduceatyrannyofonegroupovertheother.Chapter4Themostsuccessfuldemocracieshavebeenthoseinwhichthegreatestpartofthepopulaceisengagedinfarming.Ifnoprofitistomadefromoffice-holding,peopleprefertosticktotheirownwork.Andifofficesareelectedonthebasisofapropertyqualificationormerit,butaresubjecttoreviewbythepeopleasawhole,thegovernmentwillgenerallybewelladministered.Peopleengagedinfarmingorherdingleaddisciplinedandhealthylives,andarecapableofservingeffectivelyintimesofwar.A

predominantlytown-basedpopulationlacksthosevirtues,morereadilytakespartinassemblies,andcanquicklybecomeamob.Demagoguesseektorelaxlawsaboutcitizenshiptoincreasethispopulation;thecommonpeopleshouldoutnumbertherichandthemiddlegrouptogether,butwhentheirnumberbecomestoolargethecitybecomesunrulyandthedemocracylosesthesupportofitsprominentcitizens.Chapter5Democracieshavebeenbroughtdownbypoliciesoftaxationandconfiscation,bylawcourtsbiasedagainsttherich,byfrequentassemblieswithfeesforattendance,andbyhandingoutpublicfundstotheneedy.Theyarestrengthenedbypublicaidandincentivesthatpermittheneedytobuylandorsetuptrades.Wealthycitizenswithgoodsensewillalwaysbewillingtoassistthepoorwithcapitalthatliftsthemoutofpovertyandintoproductivework.Chapter6Themostsuccessfuloligarchiesarethosewhichusehigherandlowerpropertyqualificationsforofficesofhigherandlowerauthority.Themorepeopletheybringintothegovernmentfromthemiddleandlowergroupsinthepopulation,thestrongertheythemselveswillbeinrelationtothosetheyrule.Thetighterthepropertyqualificationsbecome,themoreunstablethegovernmentitselfbecomes.Chapter7Terrainthatcanbedefendedbycavalryandheavy-armedinfantryaloneismostfavorabletooligarchy,sincetheseforcesconsistonlyofthosewhocanaffordtheequipment.Wherelight-armedtroopsmaybeneeded,theoligarchsshouldtraintheirsonstotakepartinthiskindoffightingwhileyoung,toavoidarmingandtrainingaforceexclusivelydrawnfromthepopulace,whichcouldturnagainstitsrulers.Anoligarchythatwantstobelastingneedstoseekwaystobringcompetentpeoplefromamongthepopulaceintothegovernment.Thehighestoffices,reservedforthosewiththemostproperty,shouldcustomarilyinvolveexpendituresonthepublicbehalfoutoftheprivatewealthofthosewhoholdthem.Oligarchsinpracticeseektomakethemselvesstillricher,buttheirrulewouldbemoresecureiftheywerecontentwithpowerandhonor.Chapter8Allcitiesrequireofficialsforpolicingthemarketplace,thetown,andthecountrysideinvariousways,forholdinganddistributingrevenues,andformaintaininglegalrecords.Thefunctionsofcarryingoutpunishmentsandguardingprisonersincurhostility,andshouldbedividedamongmanypeople

forshortterms;youngcitizenscanberotatedthroughtheseduties,withvariousofficialsinchargeofthembyturns.Commandofthemilitaryrequirespersonsofexperienceandtrust,asdooversightofthetreasuryandcallingandpresidingoverassemblies.Otherofficialsareneededtooverseereligiousobservances,andprosperouscitieswheremanypeoplehaveleisuremayalsohaveoverseersofvariouskindsofpublicrecreationandprivatebehavior.

BookVIICharacteristicsofthebestcityChapter1Allwouldagreethatthebestlifemustincludeexternalgoods,butisnotpossibleinthecompleteabsenceofthevirtuesofcharacterandintellect.Thedisagreementisovertheirrelativecontributionstohappiness,withmostpeoplebelievingthatanytraceofvirtueissufficient,whileexternalgoodsoughttobesoughtwithoutlimit.Alittlereflectiononendsandmeanswillshowthatevenforthesakeofalifeofenjoyment,anorderlycharacterandmoderatepossessionsarebest,andthesesameconditionsarethebasisforlivingalifeofactionandforbeingpartofacommunityinwhichpeopledowellandgetalongwell.Chapter2Opinionsabouttheendssoughtbythebestcityvaryinthesamewayasopinionsaboutwhatmakesonehumanbeinghappy.Itshouldbeobviousthataformofgovernmentthatpermittedeachpersontoachievethegreatesthappinessofwhichhewascapablewouldbethebest.Butthosecitieswhoselawshavehadaguidingpurposehaveaimedatconquestandmasteryofothercities,andthissacrificesoneunderstandingofthehighestvirtuestomakepossibleanother.Ifwarandconquestarenotendsinthemselvesbutareforthesakeofsomethingelse,alawgivermustthinkabouthowtofosterthemeanswithoutunderminingtheend.Chapter3Thosewhobelievethatthebestlifeisfreeofallinvolvementinpoliticsaremistaken.Happinessiswell-beinginactioninallaspectsoflife.Butnoworthwhileendcanbeattainedbyunjustmeans,andacityneednotdominateitsneighborstobeactive.Foracityandahumanbeing,thebestlifeinvolvesinternalaswellasexternalactivity.Chapter4Everycityneedstohaveappropriatematerialtoworkwith,especiallyinitssupplyofhumaninhabitants.Butthegreatestcityisnotthelargest,buttheonewhosepeoplearebestcapableofcontributingtoitswork,

andinfactallcitieswithgoodlawshavecontrolledthesizeoftheirpopulations.Thebestsizeforacityisonethatpermitsittobeself-sufficient,butalsopermitsallthecitizenstoknowenoughaboutoneanotherthatdecisionscanmadeintelligentlyandnothaphazardly.Chapter5Thebestsizeforacity’sterritoryisonethatproducesenoughresourcestosupportalifethatisneitherfrugalnorluxurious,butgivesthecitizenssufficientleisuretoliveinfreedomandmoderation.Theterrainshouldbeeasytodefendbuthardtoinvade,andallowforeaseofmovementinternally.Chapter6Acityoughttohavesufficientaccesstotheseatobeamarketforitselfbutnotforothers.Aportatashortdistancefromthetownisbest,sothatthecitycanbettercontrolitspopulation.Anavalforceisnecessarytoprovideflexibilityindefendingthecityandtodiscouragepotentialattackers,butthelargenumberofrowersthisrequiresshouldbesuppliednotbyanincreaseinthenumberofcitizensbutfromthosewholiveandworkonthelandoutsidethecity;thefightingforceonseaaswellaslandshouldbemadeupoffullcitizens.Chapter7Apopulationneedstobespiritedenoughtoresistforeigndominationandtofeelanattachmenttooneanother,butalsothoughtfulenoughtobecapableofrulingandbeingruled.Thebestcityneedsnotonlytherightsizeofpopulation,buttherightblendofqualitiesinitstemperament.Chapter8Citizenshipshouldextendtoeveryonewhoispartofthecommonlifeofthecity,butnottoeveryonewhoproducesnecessitiesusedbythecity.Everycityrequiresthingsprovidedbyfarmers,artisans,soldiers,landowners,priests,andthosewhomakedecisionsontheitsbehalf.Chapter9Inthebestcity,allcitizensmusthavesufficientleisurefortheformationofvirtueandforparticipationinpoliticalactivity;theworkoffarmersandskilledartisansisnotcompatiblewiththisrequirement.Thefourremainingindispensableactivitieslistedinthelastchaptershouldbesharedamongallfullcitizens,inthesensethateachshouldownsomeproperty,andshouldserveinthemilitarywhenyoung,holdofficesrequiringjudgmentinthemiddleyearsoflife,andtakeonpriestlyfunctionsinoldage.Chapter10Hencethebestcitywouldconsistoftwodistinctclassesofpeople,anarrangementthatwascommonamongprominentancientcitiesand

hasnotbeenimproveduponbyanyotherarrangementsubsequentlytried.Inadditiontotheprivatepropertyownedbythecitizens,somelandshouldbeheldincommonbythecity,buttheproduceofallthelandshouldbesharedamongbothclassesatcommonmeals.Eachprivateestateoughttobedivided,withonepartnearthecenterandtheotherinanoutlyingarea,soeverycitizenwillhaveastakeindefendingboththetownandtheborders.Itisbestforallthefarmingtobedonebyslaves,butforallslavestobeofferedawaytoearnfreedom.Chapter11Forhealth,acityshouldbeshelteredfromnorthwindsbutopentotheeast;alackoffresh-watersourcescanbemadeupforbytheconstructionofreservoirs.Dwellingsshouldbelaidoutinclusters,tocombineeaseofaccesswithinandsecurityfromwithout.Theplacementoffortificationsshouldvarywiththeformofgovernment,butnocitycanaffordtodowithoutwell-maintainedwalls.Chapter12Guardhousesatthewallsareconvenientplacesforcommonmeals,asaretempleswithinthecity.Twodistinctopenareasoughttobeprovided,onereservedasaplaceofassemblyandrecreationinthecentralareaonhighground,theothernearertheportforamarketplaceandforthedailybusinessofgovernment.Bothatmealsandinrecreationalactivities,therulingofficialsshouldminglewitholdercitizenstobenefitfromtheirexperience,andwithyoungercitizenstohaveabeneficialeffectontheircharacters.Chapter13Muchoftheequipmentnecessaryforthebestcitydependsonluckandchance,buttheneedfortheseexternalthingsisminimized,andthehappinesstobegainedbytheuseofthemismaximized,incitizenswhohaveattainedvirtue.Andwhilethecapacityforvirtueisbuiltonnature,itishabitandreasonthatdeterminewhetheritwillbeattained.Hencethejobofacitythataimsatprovidingitscitizenswiththegreatestopportunityforhappinessmustincludeeducation.Chapter14Sinceallcitizenswillneedtoberuledwhenyoung,andbecapableofrulingwhenolder,asinglekindofeducationwillbeappropriateforthemall.Suchaneducationshouldmakethemfittedforleisureaswellasbusiness,peaceaswellaswar,andforactivitythatisanendinitselfaswellasforactionsthatarenecessaryanduseful.Butintherarepastcasesinwhicha

publiceducationhasbeenprovidedatall,thishasbeenaimedonlyatmakingcitizensusefulforwarandconquest,andeventshaveprovedthatsuchcitiescometoruinwhentheyarenotatwar.Chapter15Thewholeeducationofthewholehumanbeingforpeaceandwar,fornecessaryworkandleisureactivity,mustinstillalltheprincipalvirtuesofcharacterandintellect.Inthenaturaldevelopmenttomaturityofahumanbeing,therationalcapacityisthelasttobecomefullyatwork,butthefirststagesoftheformationofcharacterbyhabituationshouldbeginearlyinchildhood,andexercisetofosterhealthandfitnessofthebodycanbeginearlierstill.Chapter16Infact,ifthelawsaretoencouragethebestbodilyconditionofthecitizens,concernforthisneedstobeginbeforebirth.Marriagesshouldtakeplacewhenwomenareabouteighteenandmenareaboutthirty-seven,andpregnantwomenshouldtakedailywalksandeatahealthydiet.Theagesprescribedformarriagewouldalsopromotelifelongharmonybetweenthespousesandbetweengenerations.Defectiveinfantsshouldnotberaised,andconceptionthattakesplaceafteracertainnumberofbirthsoughttobeendedbyabortionearlyinpregnancy,beforetheembryodevelopsthepowerofperception.Adulteryshouldbediscouraged,andifitoccursduringoptimalchild-rearingyearsitshouldbeabartoholdingoffice.Chapter17Infantsshouldhaveadietrichinmilk,withlittleornoadditionofwine;itisgoodtofollowthecustomofmanybarbariannationsthatstartatrainingtoendurecoldweatherrightininfancy.Uptotheageoffive,childrenshouldgetlotsofexercisethroughplay,anduptotheageofseven,careshouldbetakenthattheynothearorseeanythingindecent.Religiousobservancesthatinvolvesuchthingsshouldbeopenonlytothosewhohavereachedanagenearadulthoodwhentheireducationshouldhavemadethemlessimpressionable.Childrengetcomfortablewiththesortsofthingsandpeopletheyarefirstexposedto,andtheseshouldneverincludeviceormalice.Attheageoffive,theyshouldbegintobespectatorsatthelessonsofolderchildren,andstartsuchlessonsthemselvesatseven.Themanneroftheireducationshouldchangeatadolescence,andcontinuetotheageoftwenty-one.

BookVIIIEducationofcitizens

Chapters1-2Thebestsafeguardforanyformofgovernmentliesinthecharacterofitspeople,andthisneedstobemadeacommonconcernintheearlylifeofitschildren.Thereisnoagreementinpracticeaboutwhethereducationoftheyoungshouldincludeanytraininginusefulactivitiesoranyinstructioninexceptionalkindsofknowledge;botharesuitableaslongastheyarenotpursuedwiththeaimofmasteringspecializedknowledgeorskills.Aciviceducationshouldalwayslooktothewholedevelopmentofafreehumanbeing.Chapter3Thethingsmostoftentaughttheyoungarereadingandwriting,gymnasticactivities,andmusic.Readingandwritingarerightlyincludedfortheirusefulnessinallaspectsoflife,andgymnastictrainingtodevelopstrengthandhealthandtopreparethewayforthedevelopmentofcourage.Musiciscommonlytaughtforthesakeofpleasure,butthismaybemisunderstood.Lifeinvolvesnecessarywork,andneedspleasantamusementsasarelaxationofstress,butpleasuresofthatsortareinstrumentaltothekindofworkthatisitselfinstrumentaltonecessities.Thereisadeeperandmoreenduringpleasureinherentinthesatisfyinguseofleisure,foritsownsake,byafreehumanbeing,andtheteachingofmusicshouldaimatdevelopingthecapacityforactivityofthatkind.Thedrawinglessonsthataresometimesgiventotheyoungarealsovaluabletohelpgivethemaneyeforbeauty.Chapter4Gymnastictrainingoughtnottobeaimedatcompetitiveathleticsoratfiercenessinwar.Norigorousworkoutsshouldbeimposeduntilafewyearsbeyondadolescence.Alighterregimeninearlylifeishealthier,andprovidesatruerpreparationforcourage.Chapter5Andmusictooisapreparationfortheformationofvirtue,andnotjustasourceofpleasure.Whilethevisualartscanindicatefeelingsandstatesofcharacter,rhythmsandmelodiesdirectlyembodystatesofthesoulinawaythatwetakeonaswelisten.Musicinthevariousmodescanmakeusfeelmournfulandgrave,softerandsympathetic,moderateandsettled,orecstaticallyinspired.Intheyoung,ahabituationtoappropriatefeelingsinvarioussituationscanleadtothedevelopmentofcharacter,andtheuseofmusicsweetensdisciplinewithpleasure.Chapter6Forthesakeofbecomingbetterlisteners,theyoungoughttolearntomakemusicthemselves,butnotwiththeaimofprofessionalskill.Playinga

fluteoraharpismorecomplicatedandspecializedthannecessaryfortheeducationofallcitizens,buteveryonecanlearntosing.Chapter7ContrarytotheopinionofSocratesintheRepublic,acityoughttowelcometheuseofallmusicalmodes,sinceevenfrenziedandpassionatemusichasacatharticandcalmingeffect.Andeverycityoughttoprovidethekindsofmusicthateveryone,includingtheuneducatedandtheelderly,canenjoy.AndwhilethestatelyandmoderateDorianmodeoughttoplaytheprimaryroleinearlyeducation,childrenshouldbeexposedtoanykindofmusicthatisfoundsuitablefordepictinghumancharacter.

INDEXabortion1335badministrativeoffices1299a-1300b,1321b-1323aadultery1335b-1336aaidtotheneedy1320a-bAmasis(andthefootpan)1259banimalmeantforacity1253a,1278bAntisthenes1284aArchilochus1328aaristocracy1279a,1286b,1293b,1294a,1295a,1306b-1307bassociation1252a,1260b,1276bAthens1268a,1275b,1284a,1291b,1300b,1302b,1303b,1304a,1305a,1307bBabylon1265a,1276a,1284bbarbarians1252b,1255a,1257a,1285a,1327b,1336abeautiful,the1278b,1281a,1281b,1291a,1311a,1323b,1325a-b,1326a,1331b-1332a,1337b-1338b,1339b-1340a,1340bbodyguards1285a,1286b,1311abribery1270b,1271aCarthage1272b-1273b,1293b,1316a,1320bcavalry1270a,1289b,1297b,1306a,1321acitizenship1274b-1278b,1283b-1284a,1292b-1293a,1319b,1332b-1333a,1337acommerce1258b,1327acommonmeals1263b-1264a,1265b,1271a,1272a,1294b,1329b-1330a,1331aconfederacyofthepowerful1272b,1292b,1293a,1302b,1306a,1307b,

1308a,1311bconquestanddefense1265a,1267a,1291a,1322a-b,1324b-1325a,1329a,1330b-1331a,1333b-1334aconstitutionalrule1265b,1279a-b,1289a-b,1293a-b,1294a-b,1296b-1298b,1300a,1301a,1306b-1307b,1320bcontemplation1324a-1325b,1333a,1340a,1341aCrete1263b,1264a,1269a-b,1271a,1271b-1272b,1274a,1329bcurrency1257a-b,1258bcustoms1263a,1263b,1267b,1287b,1292b,1303a,1319b,1335b,1336a,1336bcuttingthetallcorn(PerianderandThrasybulus)1284a,1311adeliberativeassemblies1281b,1286a,1293a,1298a-1299a,1317b,1329adeliberativecapacity1260aDelphicknife1252bdemagogues1292a,1304b-1305b,1308a,1310a-b,1313b,1315b,1319b-1320ademocracy1279b-1280a,1281a-1282a,1286b,1289b,1290a-b,1291b-1292a,1292b-1293a,1296a,1297a,1301a-1302a,1305a,1309a,1310a,1317a-1318a,1318b-1320b,1321adeviantformsofgovernment1275b,1279a-b,1287b,1289a-b,1290a,1309bDion1312a-bDraco1274beducation1260b,1263b,1266b,1277a,1283a,1310a,1313b,1316a,1332b,1333b,1334b,1336a-1342bEgypt1286a,1313b,1329belectionandchoicebylot1270b-1271a,1273a-1274a,1281b,1294b,1298a,1300a-1301a,1303a,1317b-1318b,1320bequality1259b,1261a,1266b-1267b,1269b,1279a,1280a,1282b-1283b,

1290a,1291b,1294a,1296b,1301a-1302a,1307a,1308a,1317b-1318b,1325b,1330afactions1272b,1296a,1301a-1308bfarming1256a-b,1258b,1292b,1318b-1319a,1330afreedom1280a-b,1291b,1294a,1296b,1310a,1316b,1317a-1318a,1326b,1328a,1338a,1339bfriendship1263a,1280b,1295b,1314a,1327b-1328a,1330a,1337bglory1312aGreeks1252b,1255a,1285a,1327bgymnastictraining1288b,1338b-1339aHarmodiusandAristogeiton1311aharmony1263b,1290a,1308b,1331b,1332b,1334b,1340bhatred,relationtoanger1312bhealthydiet1281b,1335b,1336aHeracles1284aheavy-armedtroops1270a,1291a,1297b,1321a,1326aHippodamus1267b-1269a,1330bhonor1267a,1278a,1282b,1302b,1308b,1315a,1318bhouseholdmanagement1253b,1255b-1256b,1257b-1258a,1264b,1277bhumandiscoveries,repeatedlymade1329binfinityofdesire1258a,1267binjustice,causeof1267a,1271ainsolence,outrage1267b,1295b,1302b,1311a-b,1312b,1314b,1315ajudgingmusicandpoetry1281bjustice1253a,1255a,1277b,1280a,1281a,1282b,1283a,1301a,1309a,1317b,1318a-b,1324a-1325a,1332bkingship1271a,1273a,1279a,1284a-1285b,1286b-1288a,1289a-b,1295a,1297b,1301b,1310b-1311a,1312b-1313a,1332b

lawcourts1268a-b,1273b-1274a,1282a,1297a,1298b,1300b-1301a,1305b,1317b-1318a,1320aLaws(Plato)1264b-1266a,1271b,1336aleisure1271b,1273a,1333a-1334a,1337b-1338blight-armedtroops1321aLycurgus1270a,1271b,1273b,1296amaleandfemale1252a,1254b,1259b,1260a,1334b-1336amarketplace1291a,1319a,1321b,1331bmean,the1266b,1287b,1294a-b,1295a-b,1309b,1335b,1342bmiddlerangeofcitizens1295b-1297a,1302a,1304b,1306b,1308b,1319bMinos1271b,1329bmixedformsofgovernment1265b-1266a,1273a-b,1293b-1294b,1307amonopolies1259amusic1276b,1281b,1337b-1338a,1339a-1342bnations1252b,1257a,1261a,1263a,1276a,1324b,1326bnoses,rangeofvariation1309bobscenity1336boligarchy1273a,1279b,1286b,1290a,1292a-b,1296b,1298a-b,1301a,1302a,1305a-1306b,1308a-b,1311a,1315b,1316b,1320b-1321bostracism1284a-b,1288a,1302bPeisistratus1305a,1310b,1315bPericles1274aPhaleas1266a-1267b,1274bphilosophy1259a,1267a,1279b,1324a,1329a,1331a,1334aPittacus1274b,1285a-bPlato1266b,1271b,1274b,1293bpoliticalrule1255b,1259a-b,1261a-b,1277b,1279a,1332b

priestlyfunctions1285a,1299a,1314b-1315a,1322b,1328b,1329aprivateproperty1263a,1264a,1265a,1311a,1320b,1330apropersizeforacity1326a-bprovisioning1253b,1256a-1259apublicservice1272a,1279a,1286b,1291a,1304b,1310b,1314b,1321a,1330apunishment1306a-b,1315a,1321b-1322a,1332a,1336a,1336bqualificationsforoffice1273a-b,1291b,1292a-b,1293a,1294b,1297b,1298a,1306b,1308a-b,1309a-b,1320bRepublic(Plato)1261a-1264b,1291a,1316a,1342a-b;impliedreferencesat1327b,1339areviewofpublicofficials1271a,1272a,1274a,1281b-1282a,1295a,1298a-b,1300b,1317b,1318bruleoflaw1282b,1286a,1287a-b,1292aself-discipline,lackof1309b,1310a,1319bslavery1252a-b,1253b-1255b,1260a-b,1267b,1278a,1310a,1313b,1330a,1336a-bSocratesdiscourses,1265a;assumptionsaboutthecity,1261a-1264b,1291a,1316a-b,1342a-bSolon1256b,1266b,1273b-1274a,1281b,1296aSparta1263a,1265b,1269a-1271b,1273b,1285a,1293b,1294b,1306b,1307b,1312b,1324b,1333b-1334a,1334a-b,1337a,1338bspies1313bspiritedness1287a,1327b-1328aStatesman(Plato,impliedreferences)1252a,1289btaxes1270b,1283a,1313b,1314b,1320a-bThales1259atrickery1297a,1307b-1308atyranny1279b,1285a,1292a,1295a,1296a,1305a,1310b-1316a

usualpath,usualcourse1252a,1256ausury1258bvirtue1255a,1259b-1260a,1276b-1277b,1280b,1281a,1288a-b,1293b,1295a,1309a-b,1323a,1324a-1325b,1332a-b,1333a,1340awar1253a,1255a,1256b,1271b,1313b,1333a-1334awell-being,livingwell1252b,1278b,1280a-1281a,1323a-1324a,1325a-b,1331b-1332awholeandpart1252a,1253a,1255b,1260b,1264b,1274b,1281b,1283b,1284b,1288a,1328a,1337a

TableofContentsTitlePageCopyrightContentsTranslator'sPrefaceIntroductionBookIThenaturalbasisofthecityBookIIPreviousopinionsaboutthebestcityBookIIICitizenshipandpoliticalruleBook IV The spectrum of democratic and oligarchicformsofgovernment

BookVFactionsandchangesofgovernmentBookVIHowdemocraciesandoligarchiescanbemademoreeffectiveandenduring

BookVIICharacteristicsofthebestcityBookVIIIEducationofcitizensGlossarySummaryofContentsIndex