Chapter 11

The Era of the French Revolution:Affirmation of Liberty and Equality

Text Book Readings:Page 292. Primary Source. Maximilien Robespierre, Republic

of Virtue.Pages 279 (The Jacobins) – 283.Pages 289 (The Meaning of the French Revolution) – 291.

The French Revolution (1789)The French Revolution hoped to achieve the ideals of

the Enlightenment1. Emancipation from superstition of Catholic religion2. To get rid of tyranny and achieve liberty for all3. Reason and justice in public institutions leading to

equality

TO END OF CENTURIES OF OPPRESSION AND MISERY

The Old RegimeThree Orders were legally defined as, 1. First Estate: Clergy (Church)2. Second Estate: Nobility (The King and those he

appointed to be Nobles)3. Third Estate: Everyone elseThe clergy and nobility = 500,000 (150,000 Clergy + 350,000 Nobles)

Everyone else = 25,500,000 (25 ½ million)

This equates to a ratio of 51:151 people worked and paid taxes for every 1 person in the

clergy and nobility that enjoyed the privilege and benefits of their labours. Equate that to the members of the classroom.

25,500,000 worked to serve 150,000 Clergy and 350,000 Nobles

1 = Church 2 = Nobles 3 = Everyone Else

1 2 3

51 people worked and lived in poverty for every1 person that got an easy life!

Was that fair?

Privileges that were funded by taxation Pension (income - annuity) from the King

Profitable positions (jobs) were given by the King

The unfairness of the Kings arbitrary decisions produced tension among the Third Estate that led to the revolution

The First Estate – The Catholic ChurchSo much wealth and power that it was considered a

State, within the French Empire With huge amounts of property, the revenue (profits)

were great The church did not pay taxes, but was permitted to

choose the amount that they would contribute to the state, which was considered a gift.

Question. If the church did not have to pay taxes, and their contribution to the state was considered a gift, does that put them above the law?

What is the risk to the people if the Church is above the law?

The upper clergy benefited from the riches controlled by the church The Parish Priests came from the common people and

resented the benefits and privileges of the upper clergy The upper clergy were appointed from the nobility

Birth determined whether your life would be easy or faced with challenges

Question. Is this still true today, even though we have free market economies?

The Second EstateThe Nobility

Were appointed to the highest positions in the church Did not have to pay most taxes and used their influence to

not pay other taxes Owned approximately 30% of the land in the country Collected Manorial Dues (very high rents) from the peasants

Manorialism was “a right” granted by the King, to a Nobleman, to manage and profit from land.

The Lord of the Manor selected the peasants to work his land. In return, they were required to pay him by giving labour to his other businesses or industries In kind (a share of the product that was grown) Or, on rare occasions, coin (money).

Nobles were beginning to engage in non-aristocratic enterprises such as banking and finance This distinguished those who were ‘able’ from those who were simply

living off the taxes paid by the peasants Most Nobles did not trust the Philosophes who were introducing

new ideas about equality and public offices

Montesquieu was a Noble (summarized)Separation of powers: 1. Legislative – law makers2. Executive – civil servants3. Judiciary – judgesPolitical and social behaviour must be studied in relation to

geographic, economic, and historic conditions.Each society requires constitutional forms and laws that pay heed

to the character of its people.

Montesquieu (continued)

Considered despotism corrupt because it was unchecked by law. The despot can do what ever he wants, without regard for the suffering of the people, but thinking only of his own passions at the expense of all others.

In despotic society, economic activity slows to a halt, because entrepreneurs (those who start new businesses) fear the loss of their efforts.

Question. How do we explain the contradiction between the noble privilege of men like Montisquieu and the ideas they spread?

Variations of Nobility350,000 Nobles Nobles of the Sword traced their status back several

hundred years. The most influential had positions in Versailles and Paris

but were few in number Most Nobles were not extremely wealthy and lived on

their land and were no more well off than the new bourgeoisie (business class)

Nobles of the Robe were newly appointed from among the bourgeoisie that had the ability to pay the King for Judicial Offices in the Law Courts

Some Nobles were influenced by Liberal ideas of the philosophes while others opposed new ideas which would put an end to their privileges

The Third Estate (bourgeoisie and peasants)

The revolution relied on leadership from the bourgeoisie and the mass of peasants

Bourgeoisie = business class Bourgeoisie were the merchant manufacturers,

wholesale merchants, bankers, craftsmen, doctors, lawyers, intellectuals and middle management government officials

Bourgeoisie wanted more respect. Some bought positions within the nobility, clergy or military

By 1789 the bourgeoisie owned 20% of the land in France

Bourgeoisie GrievancesThe Bourgeoisie wanted: Positions in the church, army and state to be open

to men of talent regardless of birth A Parliament that made laws for the ‘people’ A Constitution that

limited the King’s power Guaranteed freedom of thought, fair trials, religious

toleration Administrative reforms that eliminated waste,

inefficiency, and interference with business

The power of a good Political CartoonTitle :“Let’s Hope That The Game Finishes Well”

This political cartoon shows a labouring class woman carrying smug representatives of the privileged orders on her back.

Question. Do you think the privileged were thoughtful enough about equality to understand the injustice?

The Peasants Most French peasants lived in poverty 1715 – 1789 the population is thought to have

increased from 18 million to 26 million people The distribution of wealth thinned out Less land for each person to feed themselves

King Louis XIV continued to live in the highest of style while The peasants were heavily taxed to support his wars and

his lifestyle The peasants continued to live in hunger

Peasants continued to pay Lords “in kind” for the following services Grind their grain in the lord’s mill Bake their bread in his ovens Press their grapes in his winepress Between 1785 – 1789 cost of living increased by 62% while wages increased by

only 22%.

Question. How do you think the people reacted? Lords maintained exclusive hunting rights and damaged crops grown by the

peasants while recreational hunting (for sport) Most held on to these rights not just for the income, but as a symbol of authority

and social esteem. POWER.

Question. What does this expression mean to you? “desperate times result in desperate measures”

Question. How would you feel about an authority figure that did everything to ‘keep you down’, ‘oppress you’, ‘limit your future opportunity’?

Example. Nurture vs. Disciplinarian. To help or hinder. Would you prefer a teacher that accepts late submissions and gives rewrites or a teacher that gives 0 if your work is late or you miss a test?

-$ France’s Shortage of Money -$ To raise money, the King sold government positions

to the highest bidders. Positions were owned, rather than awarded on ability

The government (the King) could not pay it’s obligations but continued to accumulate debt owed to an inefficient bureaucracy and Court Lifestyle.

The tax system continued to be unjust, heavily taxing peasants, not taxing the Church and lightly taxing Nobles

France was on the brink of bankruptcy

On the brink of Bankruptcy Start The King’s ministers proposed that the church and

nobility give up some of their tax exemptionsQuestion. If you were a church leader or noble,

would you give up some of your privilege to get the country back in a healthy financial position?

Let’s have a vote of all students in this class. Raise your hand if you would give up some privilege. Count.

Raise your hand if you would not. Count.

What happened?The privileged orders said NO!Question. Why do you think the church officials said no,

and why do you think the nobles said no? Church officials said no because they did not want to

give up their free lifestyle, they believed they were closer to God and deserved to live off the labour of the third estate.

Nobles. Many nobles believed the same as the church officials.

The Liberal Nobles saw an opportunity to force reforms, so they used a strategy of agreement hoping for reforms. STRATEGIC VOTING – explain strategic voting.

The Role of the Enlightenment American Influence on the French Revolution

The American Declaration of Independence ( 1776) proclaimed that the NATURAL RIGHTS of MAN and sanctioned resistance against a governments that deprived men of these rights.

The United States showed that a nation could be established on the principle that sovereign power derived from the people.

Liberal French aristocrats observed what happened in the United States and were optimistic about the possibilities of reforming French society.

Natural Rights (reviewed)

The power to govern derives from the consent of the governed and the state’s authority is limited by agreement…Rulers hold their authority under the law and when they act outside the law, they forfeit their right to govern

State interference with personal property leads to the destruction of liberty

Government derives it authority from the people being governed Human beings are born with natural rights and the government has a responsibility

to protect them Citizens have the right to resist a government that deprives them of these rights

The state,1. Is required to protect individual rights2. Must reject monarchy and hereditary aristocracy3. Derives power from the people4. Must separate powers and include checks and balances to

safeguard against abuse of power

Talks broke down – The King proposed a solution With disagreement by all sides on how to solve the

economic problems, the King believed he had a solution. He ordered a meeting of the Estates General on May 5th, 1789.

Estates General = members of all 3 Estates: 1st, 2nd and 3rd The king and church and some nobles believed that the

voting would proceed in the traditional way. Each estate would vote separately, resulting in 3 votes. They

believed that the Church and Nobles would result in two votes against reforms and defeat the 1 vote of the Third Estate.

The Third Estate disagreed with the unfairness of this process, given that they constituted 25 ½ million people and the First and Second Estates less than ½ million

Question. Where did they get this idea of fairness from?

If you were a member of the third estate, would you agree to accept one vote?

1 = Church (1st Estate)2 = Nobles (2nd Estate)

3 = Everyone Else (3rd Estate)1 2 3

The French National Assembly On June 17th, 1789 the Third Estate (bourgeoisie

and peasants) declared themselves the National Assembly, refusing to participate, as a protest against the unfairness of the process

On June 27th the King ordered the Clergy and Nobles to join the Third Estate in the National Assembly. Many clergy and nobles who supported the enlightened

reforms, had already gone to the National Assembly

Question. Why would the King do this?

Political RisksThe king had not resolved to allow a majority

bourgeois dominated assembly and was prepared to use military force but decided against it after reports of uprisings by common people in Paris and the countryside led him to evaluate the risks.

This uprising, in line with the ideals of John Locke, saved the National Assembly.

Question: Do similar ideals exist in China today?

Tension remained highThree reasons for high tension.1. Calling of the Estates General had aroused hope

for reform, but fear that the process would be sabotaged.

2. In July 1789 the price of bread cost 50% of a families’ monthly salary and by August it reached 80%.

3. Fear of an aristocratic plot to crush the National Assembly.

Fearful of losing potential gains, common people of Paris searched for weapons.

Storming of the BastilleJuly 14, 1789, approximately 900 commoners stormed

(attacked) the Bastille. The Bastille was a fortress used as a prison by the

king, in the centre of the city where commoners lived. It was a symbol of royal despotism.

The commoners had two objectives.1. Get gunpowder for their defense.2. Remove the cannon that could be used to fire

upon their homes.

Storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789 A partisan crowd stormed the dreaded fortress of Bastille, long identified with the abuses of the Old Regime.Question. What might have happened if the common people did not storm and take control of the Bastille?

Women’s march to Versailles A bread shortage and high prices sparked the protest march of thousands of women to

Versailles in October 1789. The king was compelled to return to Paris, a sign of his diminishing power. Many aristocrats that were opposed to the Revolution and the loss of their privilege, fled the country.

Question. Why was the price of bread so high if it was the people who farmed the grain?

Revolution in the countrysideQuestion. Why did the commoners (third estate)

become violent and how did they express their anger?

1. Economic misery and years of accumulated debt led the commoners (peasants) to burn manor houses and destroy the financial records of monies owed to the aristocrats.

2. The Great Fear of aristocratic attacks upon commoners led commoners to further attacks against aristocratic property.

The destruction of feudal remnantsOn August 4th, 1789 the Aristocrats, realizing that

things must change quickly or the violence would reach more of them, acted to restore calm in the countryside. They surrendered the following special privileges.

1. Exclusive hunting rights2. Tax exemptions3. Monopoly of highest offices4. Manorial courts5. Right to demand labour services from peasants

The King delayed approvalof the reduction of privileges

On October 5th, 1789, men and women from Paris marched to Versailles to the National Assembly to protest that lack of bread. They were joined by 20,000 sympathetic members of a citizen militia.

The king realized he had no control and approved the decrees of August 4th.

Many nobles who had wanted the king to use the military against the National Assembly, decided to flee from France to other countries.

National Assembly Reforms (summarized)

1. The end of special privileges enjoyed by the nobility and clergy, led to greater equality.

2. The Statement of Human Rights declared the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (as per the philosophes).

Affirmed the dignity (respect) of the individual Asserted that government belonged to the people and not to

any ruler and that its goal is the preservation of natural rights of the individual. This became known as the death warrant of the Old Regime.

In 1791 civil rights were granted to Jews and they were permitted to leave the Ghetto in which they had been jailed for hundreds of years, keeping them separated from Christians. Note: This did not last long. Jews were again persecuted and locked up in several years.

3. Subordination of Church to State (November 1789). Ended the practice of tithes (Church deciding how tax

to pay). Sold some church lands to pay for infrastructure to

improve the quality of life of the poor. Implemented the Civil Constitution. Reduced the

number church dioceses, reducing the number of bishops and priests and transformed them into government officials elected by the people and paid their salaries by the state (the people). Anger by devout Catholics would lead to a counter-revolution.

4. A Constitution in 1791 included the following Limited the power of the king Guaranteed equal treatment under the law In order to vote, a person had to pay a specified

minimum of tax. Only men were permitted to vote, but 30% did not pay enough tax, so did not vote.

They still did not trust illiterate or propertyless men to participate in making of the laws

This constitution was more generous than that in England

5. Administrative and Judicial Reforms The sale of judicial offices was ended The criminal code put and end to torture and barbarous

punishments

6. Aid for Business. The National Assembly Ended tolls and duties on goods being transported

within the country Established a uniform system of weights and measure Ended guilds (that blocked business expansion) Outlawed unions and the right to strike

A quick evaluation of the constitution The bourgeoisie gained control of the government

by, Ending absolutism and the power of the aristocracy Preventing the mass of people from participating in the

decisions of government The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the

Citizen was provided for the benefit of all. It proclaimed liberty and equality as the right of all and

called on citizens to treat one another with respect

The counter revolution The reforms had taken place without a widespread

violence and the bourgeoisie leadership was happy to live with the new constitution and freedoms

THE PROBLEM A counter revolution was started by, Nobles that were very unhappy with the loss of their

power and privilege Clergy who also lost privilege and became public officials

receiving a pay cheque and no longer able to control wealth from the church lands

A majority of Catholic peasants who followed blindly and faithfully the directions of the angry clergy

Sans-Culottes became radicals Sans-Culottes (small shopkeepers, artisans, and

wage earners) were angry that they gained very little benefit from the revolution.

They observed that a privilege of wealth (bourgeoisie) was taking the place of a privilege of birth (nobility).

The Sans-Culottes were still very poor and living in poverty. They demanded the “Right of Existence”, which was philosophically opposite to the economic individualism of the bourgeoisie.

San-Culottes Demanded That the government increase wages Set price controls on food supplies End food shortages Pass laws to reduce the gap between rich and poor Higher taxes on the wealthy Redistribution of land A voice for the common man (a vote) not limited to

those with enough money to pay tax and land

Between 1789 and 1792By 1792 the Sans Culottes had similar demands of the

Bourgeoisie to what the Bourgeoisie had of the Nobility.

If there was further democratization, the bourgeoisie would lose much of their gains.

The Radical Stage – Significant Events June 1791 King Louis XVI and his family fled Paris to

northeastern France to join nobles who were organizing a counter-revolutionary army and making allies with Austria and Prussia in order to attack France and restore the former Orders and Estate structure

The King was discovered. Captured. Returned to Paris

The people turned against the King The French government declared a war of self

defense on Austria

April 20th, 1792 Austrians and Prussians crossed into France and issued a declaration that if the King or his family was injured, that they would kill the citizens of Paris.

August 10th, 1792 the citizens of Paris, angry with the involvement of the Austrians.

With militia from other French cities, the French attacked the King’s palace, killing several hundred guards.

In September, as foreign troops advanced into France, rumors spread that jailed priests and aristocrats were planning to escape and join the counter revolutionaries

Citizens of Paris were fearful and panicked.

They broke into the jail and killed 1,200 prisoners, including 200 priests

On September 21st and 22nd 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and established a republic

In December, the King was placed on trial for conspiring against the liberty of the French people.

In January 1793 the King was executed

The Radical Stage Summarized

1) The August Uprising against the King’s palace guards

2) The September Massacres in the jail

3) Creation of a republic4) Execution of King Louis XVI

Austrians and Foreigners RetreatThe retreat was due to,

A shortage of supplies Bad weather Not enough soldiers

The French were successful against the Austrians and their allies in several battles in 1792 and 1793 and pushed into them back to Belgium

The French, through the National Convention and their new republic, declared to the rest of Europe that they were waging a popular crusade against privilege and tyranny, against aristocrats and princes

The republic lost control Urged on by the British, European nations formed an

alliance against France, which they saw as a threat to the balance of power

In western France, protests against taxation and conscription (forced military service) by those loyal to the Catholic church, continued to attack the Republic. They fought a “guerilla war” for the return of their religion, royalism and their old way of life

In other areas of the country, citizens were protesting against the power of the new central government

The republic had lost control and was unable to lead the country

END of Part 1

The Jacobins to the fall of NapoleonReview

The country was under attack / being attacked by foreigners

Internal conflict was great, coming from the poor in the city and rural areas in the countryside

An economic crisis kept inflation and the price of food very high

Revolutionaries were growing more radical Commoners spoke of becoming violent with the

aristocrats who were accused of planning with foreign states to stop the revolution

Jacobins replace the Girondins 1793. The Jacobins replace the Girondins as the majority group in

the National Convention. Both came from the BourgeoisieIMPORTANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO PARTIES The Girondins had preferred a decentralized government with

control and decision making within the department that was responsible for the work being done

The Jacobins wanted a strong central government with Paris as the capital

Questions. Which of the two governments (centralized or decentralized) do

China and the USA have?Why would each of these three countries choose the model that

they did?

Girondins opposed government interference in business

Jacobins supported temporary government controls to deal the needs of war and economic crisis. This won them the support of the sans-culottes.

Control was gained by using force on June 2, 1793 when 80,000 armed san-culottes surrounded the National Convention and demanded the arrest of Girondin delegates.

Immediate Problems Civil War (see first slide)

urban and rural issues Class issues Religious issues Foreign invasion Blockaded ports (less trade = less profit = more

poverty)

Democratic AspirationsPreoccupation with crisis resulted in the new

constitution not being implemented It would have given all adult males the right to vote

However, the following did happen (owed to the philosophes)

Slavery in the colonies and imprisonment for debt were both abolished

Plans for free education had begun The Law of the Maximum put a fixed price on the

price of bread and other essential goods Wages were raised (the beginning of minimum wage)

WAR (External)To defend against the foreign invaders, the Jacobins Conscripted (conscription) unmarried men between

the ages of 18-25 Mobilized all resources of the country

Examples: food, horses, natural resources (metals, wood, tools, industry manufacturing, clothing, etc.)

Public education that instilled a love of the nation (Love of Nation was a pre-cursor to Nationalism)

Equipped 800,000 men to fight a modern warfare battle

Officers were selected based on demonstrated ability, rather than social class

The enemy was still selecting officers based on social class June 1794 the French pushed the enemy back, out

of France and by July, France had pushed the enemy through Belgium

Question. What were the primary differences between the French army and their enemies?

They fought for the nation. This was the beginning of Nationalism and in the

interests of The People of the country rather than ONLY the Nobility and Church.

Internal ConflictsThe Reign of Terror

The second battle front was internal, against those who were allied with the external enemy and would return the country to rule by Monarchy (King and Nobility) and Catholic Church.

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) was committed to the republican democracy, some would argue, as a radical extremist.

RobespierreAs a Jacobin, he

attacked slavery, capital punishment and censorship. Supported civil right for Jews and release from the

Ghettos. Supported the vote for all men regardless of whether

they owned property. Radically opposed a return to rule by king, nobles and

church. Strove for a society where men are equal, free, educated

and superstition is ridiculed. He pursued harsh treatment of enemies.

He executed (put to death)those that the Jacobins considered

enemies of The RepublicGirondins that challenged Jacobin

authorityFederalists who opposed strong central

government in ParisCounterrevolutionary priests, nobles

and their peasant supporters

Executions (continued), Profiteers who hoarded food San-culotte who were not in full agreement. He dissolved their

societies that undermined Jacobin authority

Consider this. 1. He may have been paranoid, seeing more enemies of the

Republic, than really existed.2. Maybe he could have achieved his goals without the use of

extreme violence.Jacobins opposed San-culotte desire to,

Set limits on income Limit the size of farms and businesses

Jacobins considered these views as extremeA common expression which compares the actions of one group to

the actions of another group, when both are similar in degree.“Isn’t that like the pot calling the kettle black?”

Jacobin atrocities include, Execution by firing squad without trial Most of the executions took place after the frontiers had

been secured against foreign invasion and the civil war had been crushed

5,000 people were loaded on barges and sunk in the middle of the Loire River

16,000 were sentenced to death by guillotine 20,000 died in prison before being tried 40,000 executed by firing squad, guillotine, and mass

drowning which were ordered by military courts authorized by the convention / National Assembly.

200,000 died fighting in the civil war in the provinces 500,000 people were jailed

1. The Fall of Robespierre2. The next stage of the Revolution3. The Rise of Napoleon

Robespierre and some of his supporters were arrested by their opponents on July 28, 1794 and guillotined.

Comment / Question. If you lived in that time, given the extreme violence, would you actively participate in politics or would you avoid political involvement? WHY?

Jacobin leadership and practices were ended.Leadership passed to the property –owning bourgeois who had

supported the moderate stage of the revolution. The new leadership was called the Thermidoreans and believed that Jacobin ideals threatened their way of life because it would have, Allowed common people a voice in government. Introduced state regulation of the economy / social supports with the

goal of helping the poor.

The Thermidorean bourgeois did the following,

Purged (fired) the army of officers that supported the Jacobins

Abolished the Law of the Maximum (price controls) Declared the constitution of 1793 to be void The new constitution reestablished property

requirements for voting (reduced the number of eligible voters)

Royalists (supporters of the old regime of nobles and king) and Catholics began to massacre Jacobins in the rural areas (the provinces)

Summary of the next important events1. Economic desperation returns (widespread hunger)

2. Royalists continue their effort to restore power to themselves and the Catholic Church

3. Power began to pass to the generals as more military control was required to manage the violence throughout the city and countryside

General Napoleon Bonaparte seized control in 1799 and took the revolution to another stage.

Read the following 2 passages in your textbook.Page 282. 1st full paragraph (column 1). 1st paragraph top of 2nd column.“Robespierre and his fellow Jacobins did not make

terror a deliberate government policy because they were bloodthirsty or power mad. Instead, they sought to establish a temporary dictatorship in a desperate attempt to save the republic and the Revolution.” (p.282.)

“Without the discipline, order, and unity imposed on France by the Jacobins, it is likely that the republic would have collapsed under the twin blows of the foreign invasion and domestic anarchy” (p. 282.)

Choose ONE of the following 6 questions and answer it in you note book. Be prepared to discuss your answer with the class.1. To what extent was the Terror a reversal of the ideals of the

Revolution as formulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man?

2. To what extent did the feverish passions and lust for violence demonstrated in the mass executions in the provinces and in the public spectacles in Paris – vast crowds watching and applauding the beheadings – indicate a darker side of human nature, beyond the control of reason?

3. Did Robespierre’s ‘religion of humanity’ revive the fanaticism and cruelty of the wars of religion, which had so disgusted the philosophes?

4. Did the Robespierrists, who considered themselves the staunchest defenders of the Revolution’s ideals, soil and subvert these ideals by their zeal?

5. Were the Jacobins unwittingly unleashing new forces – ‘total commitment to a political ideology’ that promised to regenerate the nation and mass executions carried out in good conscience – that would be harnessed by totalitarian ideologies that were consciously resolved to stamp out the liberal heritage of the Revolution?

6. Did 1793 mark a change in the direction of Western civilization: a movement away from the ideals of the philosophes and the opening of an age of political coercion and ideological fanaticism that would culminate in the cataclysms (terrible wars) of the 20th century?

Napoleon(General, Consul, Emperor)

Born 1769 on the island of Corsica Son of a minor noble Attended military school in France and became an artillery officer Earned experience and career advancement in several French wars 1796 given command of French army in Italy and against the

Austrians in Italy, demonstrated ability in planning and leadership 1799 returned from Egypt to France to participate in overthrow of

the Directory in which he was 1 of 3 leaders (consuls). 1802 he was made 1st consul for life with the right to name his

successor. 1804 he crowned himself Emperor of the French.

Napoleon was not philosophically enlightened but rather, motivated by enlightened despotism.

He believed the following, Disliked feudalism, religious persecution and civil

inequality Favoured government regulation of trade and

industry Promotion should be based on ability Secular education (non religious) Reducing the power of the clergy He should have the authority to suppress political

liberty Question. How many of the above do you believe in?

Strong central government was established throughout the entire country, urban and rural.

Taxation funded military battles (wars), police state instruments such as secret agents, arbitrary arrest, summary trials and executions.

Freedom of the press was ended and newspapers became tools of the government.

To pacify landowners and the mass of Catholics, he negotiated an agreement with the pope in 1801. Catholicism was recognized as the religion of the great

majority of the French (the pope wanted it to be the state religion)

Peasants and bourgeois that had purchased confiscated church lands were reassured that they would be able to keep their land under the original terms of sale.

Napoleon’s Legal, Educational and Financial Policies

Until the point in time, France had many law codes that conflicted with each other, reflecting local interests and feudal traditions, which obstructed national unity and administrative efficiency.

Napoleon pressed for the following Liberal changes. Equality before the law The right to choose your own profession Religious freedom Protection of property rights Abolition of serfdom Secular state (non-religious)

Less Liberal Elements included Denied equal treatment to

workers in their dealings with employers Women in their relations with their husbands (property,

adultery and divorce) Children in their relations with their fathers

The last two, women and children, were both Napoleon’s personal point of view but commonly accepted at that time in history.

Slavery was again legal in the colonies

Public education had very little church involvement.Benefits of public education included,

More capable graduates, to become officials and administer the laws

Trained officers to lead his armies Provide the young with an opportunity to learn

obedience, discipline and loyalty The University of France was established

Set and controlled curriculum and standards centrally (through to today)

Note: This is similar to Canada but very different than the USA where education is decentralized, managed and funded locally. Discussion.

Economic policy strengthened the economy Tariffs (tax on foreign goods) Loans to businesses The Bank of France was established to guard against

inflation (controlled by top financiers) good or bad?

Built and repaired roads which helped Industry move goods for sale Military troops could move throughout the country faster

and more efficiently Food was sold at low prices to avoid riots Employment creation to keep the poor working Did not restore feudal privilege and allowed the poor

to keep the land they acquired during the revolution

Conqueror of EuropeBetween 1805 and 1807 he defeated Austria, Prussia and Russia and by

1810 dominated Europe. He extended the following reforms to conquered lands. Effective civil services Opened careers to those with talent Equalized the tax burden Abolished serfdom, manorial payments and courts of the nobility Promoted freedom of religion Permitted civil marriage Pressed for civil rights for Jews Fought clerical interference with secular authority Abolished medieval guilds Introduced a uniform system of weights and measures Eliminated internal tolls Built roads and bridges and canals Promoted secular education Improved public health

The meaning of Napoleon’s continental reforms This social revolution was in essence an attack on

the privileges of the aristocracy and clergy.

The reforms weakened the Old Regimes irreparably in most of Europe and contributed to the modernization of nineteenth-century Europe.

Although the bourgeoisie welcomed Napoleon as a liberator, much of Europe was aware that their resources were being exploited for the benefit of France. Most Europeans outside of France hated him.

The Spanish UlcerSpain was an ally since 1796 but, Did not prevent Portugal from trading with Britain Did not contribute much to the war effortsNapoleon dethroned the Spanish King and installed his

own brother Joseph (was this promotion based on demonstrated competence?)

, believing that his reforms would be welcomed and so would he. Spaniard nobles and clergy feared French Liberalism The peasants were illiterate and fanatically religious

Catholics, easily manipulated by the clergy into believing the Napoleon was the Agent of the Devil.

They fought a “War to the Knife” against the French

Napoleon’s Defeats Spain – Britain – Russia - Germany

The Spanish were supported by British troops. Napoleon’s treasury was drained Hundreds of thousands of French troops were tied to the

Spanish war Britain gained a stronghold in mainland Europe from

which to invade southern France, from Spain Other nations were inspired by the British/Spanish

defeat of Napoleon Others began to resist

Napoleon was angry with Russia for trading with Britain.Russia was angry with Napoleon for creating the Grand

Duchy of Warsaw (reviving Polish power), on the Russian border and historically a place of conflict, which now included French influence.

In June 1812, 614,000 French troops crossed into Russia and headed to Moscow (lured to Moscow by Russian troops fighting as rear guards).

In September 1812, the French reached Moscow but was much reduced in men, ravaged by disease, hunger, exhaustion, desertion and battle deaths.

The Russians had set fire to Moscow, ensuring that the French would have no place to take shelter, as winter set in.

The French retreated (in September), Without supply lines, they knew that they would not be

successful if they pursued the Russian’s further By December (snow and frost covering the ground), they

crossed back into France with 95,000 troops and stolen loot (property) from Moscow

The French army was 1/6th the size it was when it left for battle.

Just Imagine!!!If Napoleon had not pitted the Polish against the Russians, and had

not engaged in a war with Russia, his military would have remained very powerful. Instead, his military was decimated.

At the time he fought Russia, the WAR of 1812 was raging in North America (British vs. Americans).

Had Napoleon chosen to put his military strength to work against the British, in support of the Americans, on the Land that is now known as Canada, France may have been the new power in North America, rather than the British and Americans.

Just imagine how the world would have been different today had Napoleon adopted a different strategy.

GermanyGermans hated the French invaders and the

domination the French held over them. Before their defeat at Jena in 1806, the Germans thought only to follow their own state and prince.

Inspired by others who stood against Napoleon, the Germans did the following, Aroused their citizens with feelings of Nationalism that

inspired citizens to become more competent soldiers. (better than mercenaries and oppressed serfs)

To promote based on ability, rather than birthright

Prussian – German Reforms (1807 – 1813) Abolition of serfdom Granting towns more power for self-administration Awarding army commissions on the basis of merit Ending cruel punishment in the ranks of the military National military conscriptionIn 1813 the German Reform Party and their King

declared war on France and did successfully drive the French out of Germany.

Final DefeatAfter the huge defeat to Russia and then Germany,

the French army was small, without enough equipment, cavalry horses and experienced soldiers

Most of Europe rallied together to destroy Napoleon October 1813 allied forces from Austria, Prussia

(Germany), Russia, Sweden defeated Napoleon at Leipzig.

Spring 1814, Paris was captured and Napoleon was sent to Elba Island, off the coast of Italy.

The Bourbon Dynasty was restored to power in France

The “Hundred Days” (March to June)March 1815 Napoleon returned to Paris with 1,000

soldiers, to a hero’s welcome.He raised a new army and in June 1815 attacked the

allied forces in Belgium and was defeated at Waterloo.

The allies sent him to the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, 1,000 miles off the coast of Southern Africa where he died six years later.

The meaning of the French Revolution Philosophes ideas were implemented Destroyed the hierarchical society of the nobility and

Catholic church Nobles became ordinary citizens Privileges were eliminated

Promoted interests of the bourgeoisie Quickened the growth of the ‘modern state’Questions. Who are the Chinese bourgeoisie of the 21st century?Do you think that you are going to be hired and

promoted based on ability?

Gone Absolutism and the belief that the state a territory and

private possession of a king who claimed to be God’s lieutenant on earth

Manorial obligations which slowed agricultural and economic growth were replaced by fairer methods of taxation

New National, liberal secularism The Declaration of the Rights of Man stated, among other

things that “the source of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation” and that power is derived from the people

Equality before the law, protection of human rights, trial by jury, civil rights for Protestants and Jews

Freedom of speech and the press

BEWARE of the FutureThe French Revolution inspired generations of

revolutionaries to remodel society in a way that led to, 1. Total War2. Nationalism3. Fanatic Utopian MentalityExamples include, extremism that justified mass murder in

the name of a higher good. Robespierre and the Jacobins started it, followed by the Nazis in Germany, radical socialists in Russia, China and Cambodia, saw themselves as idealists striving for a social regeneration of humanity, led them to terrorize and mass murder with dedication and a clear conscience.

Revolutionary extremism continues today in parts of Africa.

In the 20th century, the dangerous forces of total war, nationalism and fanatic utopian mentality almost succeeded in crushing the liberty and quality so valued by the French reformers.

We are fortunate to be living in a place and time where we are not victims of such violence.

We don’t have to look far beyond our own borders to see those who are modern day victims.

They deserve the same freedom we enjoy. Examples from the last year include Tunisia, Egypt,

Libya, Syria and several African states.

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