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Knowledge Work
Agora Learning Laboratory
Researcher Pasi Hakkarainen
Agora Center, University of Jyvskyl
November 2003
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INDEX
1 Approaches to Knowledge...........................................................................................................3
1.1 Tacit and Explicit Knowledge (Nonaka) .............................................................................3
1.2 Six Kinds of Personal Knowledge (Bereiter).......................................................................5
1.3 Knowledge in Knowledge Work (Davies & Naumann) ......................................................7
1.4 Summary ..............................................................................................................................8
2 Knowledge Work and Knowledge Workers ................................................................................9
2.1 Knowledge Work Definitions ..............................................................................................9
2.2 Knowledge Worker Definitions .........................................................................................10
2.3 Conclusions........................................................................................................................12
3 Knowledge Work Tasks and Activities .....................................................................................13
3.1 Knowledge Work Tasks and Activities (Davies)...............................................................13
3.2 Knowledge Work Activities (Ware & Degoey).................................................................16
3.3 Summary ............................................................................................................................18
4 Knowledge Work Productivity ..................................................................................................18
4.1 Difficulties with Measuring Knowledge Work (Ware & Degoey)....................................19
4.2 Proposals for Measuring Knowledge Work Productivity (Ware & Degoey) ....................19
4.3 Productivity in Knowledge Work (Davies) .......................................................................20
4.4 Knowledge Worker Constraints in the Productive Use of Information Technology (IT)
(Drury & Farhoomand) ..................................................................................................................21
4.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................22
5 Knowledge Communication and Knowledge Management Tools ............................................23
5.1 Personal Knowledge Management (Frand & Hixon) ........................................................23
5.2 Knowledge Management Tools (Dingsyr & Ryrvik) ....................................................23
5.3 Knowledge Workers Software (Davies) ............................................................................245.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................24
6 Summary & Conclusions ...........................................................................................................24
References ..........................................................................................................................................25
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KNOWLEDGEWORK INGENERALThe purpose of this report is to provide different perspectives to knowledge work. Report provides
several definitions about: knowledge, knowledge work and knowledge worker. Also knowledge
work productivity and productivity measurement is examined. The chapter basis on the literature
study which was made in fall 2003.
1 APPROACHES TO KNOWLEDGEKnowledge can be defined in many ways. Usually knowledge is separated to subcategories in which
knowledge has specific characteristics. In this chapter three different approaches and different ways
to define knowledge are presented.
1.1TACIT AND EXPLICITKNOWLEDGE(NONAKA)Nonaka (1994) adopts a definition of knowledge as justified true belief. According to Nonaka it is
important to consider knowledge as a personal belief and emphasize the importance of the
justification of knowledge. In the theory of knowledge creationthe knowledge creation is seen as
a dynamic human process of justifying personal beliefs as part of an aspiration for the truth.
Although the terms information and knowledge are often used interchangeably, there is a clear
distinction between information and knowledge. Information is a flow of messages, while
knowledge is created and organized by the very flow of information, anchored on the commitment
and beliefs of its holder. This understanding emphasizes an essential aspect of knowledge that
relates to human action. (Nonaka, 1994. 15)
Nonaka distinguishes knowledge to tacitand explicitknowledge. Explicit knowledge refers to
knowledge that is transmittable in formal, systematic language. Tacit knowledge has a personal
quality, which makes it hard to formalize and communicate. Tacit knowledge is deeply rooted inaction, commitment, and involvement in a specific context. Tacit knowledge involves both
cognitive and technical elements. Cognitive elements, in other words, mental models include
schemata, paradigms, beliefs, and viewpoints that provide perspectives that help individuals to
perceive and define their world. Mental models help human beings to create and manipulate
analogies in their minds. By contrast, the technical element of tacit knowledge covers concrete
know-how, crafts, and skills that apply to specific context. (Nonaka, 1994. 16)
Nonaka provides definitions about knowledge and knowledge creation. He does not handle
knowledge work. Tacit knowledge can be divided to general and specific. Mental models can be
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seen as general knowledge and technical knowledge is usually specific. Nonaka concentrates more
on organization dynamics than on individual activities in knowledge creation.
Marwick (2001) follows Nonakas definitions. Explicit knowledge is represented by some artifact,
such as a document or a video, which has typically been created with the goal of communicating
with another person. Tacit knowledge is what the knower knows, which is derived from experience
and embodies beliefs and values. Tacit knowledge is actionable knowledgeand therefore the most
valuable. Furthermore, tacit knowledge is the most important basis for the generation of new
knowledge, that is, according to Nonaka: the key to knowledge creation lies in the mobilization
and conversion of tacit knowledge. Both forms of knowledge are important for organizational
effectiveness. (Marwick, 2001. 814)
Nonakas and Takeuchis model of knowledge creation recognizes two kinds of knowledge, tacit
and explicit. Although its components are not spelled out, tacit knowledge would appear to include
five of the six kinds of personal knowledge discussed latter, the exception being statable
knowledge. Explicit knowledge comprises statable knowledge and conceptual artifacts, thus, as is
characteristic of folk theory of mind, making no distinction between them. Nonaka and Takeuchi
treat knowledge in the individual mind as primary. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 6)
Bereiter criticizes Nonakas and Takeuchis model of knowledge creation. Model falls short on four
counts: 1) Creativity, 2) Understanding, 3) Knowledge work, and 4) Collaborative knowledge
building.Although model holds that new knowledge is always created in individual minds, it does
not explain how minds produce original ideas and novel solutions. Although the model deals with
ways that knowledge gets from person to person, it offers nothing about understanding and depth of
understanding. Depth of understanding is a distinguishing characteristic of expertise in knowledge-
based, and productivity creativity presupposes expertise. The knowledge creation model has little to
say about the knowledge work. Although cooperation and teamwork are praised, the idea of
cooperating in the creation of knowledge never comes to life in Nonaka and Takeuchis theorizing.
The problem in the model is not so much missing concepts as missing perspectives on those
concepts. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 6)
Nonaka and Takeuchi treat knowledge as something that can only come about within the individual
mind. This is because that is where folk theory locates knowledge. Until there is a way for your co-
workers to get inside your brain and fiddle with the synapses, there is never going to be such a thing
as the collaborative creation of knowledge, according to folk understanding. But if you can
conceive of knowledge as consisting of conceptual artefacts, then you can imagine something like a
knowledge assembly line, with theories, designs, and so on moving along it, being worked on by
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various people according to their various skills, and coming off the end as finished knowledge
products. (Bereiter, 2002.chapter 6)
1.2SIXKINDS OFPERSONAL KNOWLEDGE(BEREITER)In cognitive psychology a distinction between declarative and procedural knowledge and explicit
and implicit memory is supported with evidence. For a practical theory of mind, the issue is what
kinds of knowledge it is useful to distinguish. Practically speaking, how many kinds of knowledge
are worth distinguishing? Under the influence of cognitive science, the currently favored number is
two: knowing-that and knowing-how, better known in cognitive science circles as declarative and
procedural knowledge. In educational terms, therefore, there is a need to be able to distinguish two
kinds of knowledge at one stage of learning but also to hold as an objective that these two kinds of
knowledge will come together and form a third. The possibility of covering all knowledge by two
types does not, however, mean that we should do so. We can have as many kinds of knowledge as
we like. By an argument analogous to the one that explains why Eskimos need to distinguish many
kinds for snow, it can be maintained that educators and others who work extensively with
knowledge need to distinguish many kinds of knowledge. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
Bereiter (2002) presents six kinds of personal knowledge: 1) statable, 2), implicit understanding, 3)
episodic knowledge, 4) impressionistic knowledge, 5) skill, and 6) regulative knowledge.
Statable Knowledge
Statable knowledge is knowledge that the knower can actually put into some explicit form usually
sentences, but possibly diagrams, etc. such that it can be conveyed, argued about, compared to
alternatives, and evaluated by others. It is part of what cognitive scientists refer to as declarative
knowledge. It is the explicit part. Statable knowledge can be discussed. Statable knowledge is
personal knowledge that we can objectify and thus bring into social processes of knowledge
building. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
Implicit Understanding
Implicit understanding is knowledge gained from experience and it probably owes little or nothing
to formal education. Work on expert system, knowledge engineering, and expertise has led to a
heightened appreciation of the role for knowledge that people apparently have and use but cannot
state. Unstated, tacit, or implicit knowledge covers a very wide range, however. Implicit
understanding is not knowing thatthe world is round but seeing the world as round. Implicit
understanding is neither a skill nor knowledge you can find from books. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
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Episodic Knowledge
We cannot search our episodic knowledge systematically. Remembering one can help you recall the
other, but they are distinct. Remembered episodes can be retrieved and considered in new contexts.
I could be questioned whether memory for episodes in itself constitutes knowledge. Episodicmemory is raw material out of which knowledge may at times be constructed. One thing reminds us
of another, and most of the time the connections are superficial. Episodic knowledge would seem to
represent a great intellectual resource that is largely wasted. Episodic knowledge is not about
episodes and facts stored in the mind but about a mind with the ability to recall past experiences and
previously encountered facts, coupled with a disposition to do some spontaneously as well as under
conscious direction. What is recalled may amount to significant knowledge at some times and not at
others, but there can be little doubt that the recall of past experiences is an important part of
knowledge ability. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
Impressionistic knowledge
Impressionistic knowledge is what we are left with after we have forgotten all the explicit content of
a great literary or artistic work. Beyond statable knowledge and beyond our more confidently held
implicit understandings lies a realm of feelings and impressions that also influence our actions. All
personal knowledge has an emotional aspect. What distinguishes impressionistic knowledge is that
the feelings are the knowledge. Feelings and impressions also constitute important knowledge in
circumstances where reason and evidence offer no guidance. Impressionistic knowledge is not
measurable and almost totally ignored in education. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
Skill
Skill learning is ubiquitous. No matter what you do, if you do it repeatedly you will become more
skillful at it. Skills have both a cognitive and a subcognitive component, and it is worth
distinguishing them, even though they are closely intertwined. The cognitive part is the knowing-
how. The subcognitive part is the inevitable change in any skill that takes place with practice. The
performance becomes smoother, more automatic, and more economical of effort. The cognitive and
the subcognitive parts of skill learning can cooperate or they can get in each others way, which is
what makes skill learning an interesting challenge. Cooperation occurs when the automaticity
gained through practice frees up mental resources that enable you to think about what you are doing
while you are doing it. Skill is a form of knowledge, but that it depends on a body that also learns in
its own unknowing way. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
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Regulative Knowledge
The general idea is that in any realm of activity there is knowledge that pertains to yourself as a
factor in that activity. Regulative knowledge is knowledge of yourself, not only how you function in
the role but how to get yourself to function. It is knowledge of your own biases and shortcomingsand how to take proper account of and deal with these things. There is also regulative knowledge
that pertains to collective activity. Truth and objectivity are components of regulative knowledge.
Bereiter sees regulative knowledge as covering a very wide range, from explicit principles to
personal knowledge. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 5)
1.3KNOWLEDGE INKNOWLEDGEWORK(DAVIES&NAUMANN)
Knowledge is high-level, value-added information. Knowledge is not well defined because it is a
compound construct consisting of multiple dimensions. The Knowledge and expertise that
knowledge workers bring to activities for accomplishing a task have a significant impact on
selection and use. This knowledge consists of four types: 1) formal (declarative) knowledge, 2)
procedural knowledge, 3) meta knowledge, and 4) impressionistic knowledge. (Davies & Naumann,
1997. 14)
Formal (declarative) knowledge
Formal knowledge is general knowledge of problem solving and definitions, general principles,
concepts, and procedures related to a domain of work. It is the type of knowledge that is structured
and communicated by textbooks and courses. Formal or declarative knowledge of methods of
problem-solving is applicable to broad classes of problems. General problem-solving knowledge is
often knowledge of processes that help organize and transform data. Formal problem-solving
knowledge sometimes provides a basis for creativity because seemingly unrelated knowledge is
searched for analogies and insights. When these are found, new creative solutions may result.
(Davies & Naumann, 1997. 14-15)
Procedural knowledge
Procedural knowledge is knowledge about how to do something. It is more informal and not as
easily communicated by lecture or textbook. It is the ability to make effective and efficient use of
the most appropriate tools and techniques available. It tends to be associated with a specific domain
of work tasks or activities. Depending upon the knowledge work task, procedural knowledge may
be as simple as using a work processor or as complex as designing an integer programmingsolution. There is a connection between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. When
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declarative knowledge is used to solve a specific problem, the solution procedure becomes part of
the problem solvers procedural or informal knowledge. (Davies & Naumann, 1997. 15-16)
Meta knowledge
Meta knowledge is knowledge about knowledge. It concerns knowing how knowledge and
expertise are organized and how to locate and access the knowledge. It is knowing what you know
and dont know. Meta knowledge is developed by education, experience, and reflection.
(Davies & Naumann, 1997. 16)
Impressionistic knowledge
Although impressionistic knowledge is hidden in the sense that it is not formal and well structured,
it represents the sum total of experience. This helps a knowledge worker arrive at impressionswithout systematic consideration of formal problem solving. (Davies & Naumann, 1997. 16)
The development of expertise by knowledge workers involves solving progressively more
demanding and varied problems by applying declarative knowledge. This leads to the development
of procedural knowledge. The process is guided by the application of meta knowledge. Selection of
problems and goals is associated with impressionistic knowledge. (Davies & Naumann, 1997. 16)
1.4SUMMARYAll three approaches are overlapping and include similarities in types of knowledge. A model about
the similarities of the approaches is presented in figure 1. For example Nonakas tacit and explicit
can be placed under Bereiters six personnel knowledge. You cannot say that one is correct or not.
All three approaches are reasonable and usable in some sense. However Bereiters category is
deeper and more detailed. It provides specific perspectives to tacit knowledge and helps us to
separate different types of knowledge. Davies & Naumanns category is a certain kind of
generalization from Bereiters category.
Type of Knowledge
Nonaka Explicit Tacit
Bereiter Statable Skill Impressionistic
Knowledge
Regulative
Knowledge
Episodic
Knowledge
Implicit
Understanding
Davies
&Naumann
Declarative Procedural Impressionistic
Knowledge
Meta
Knowledge
Figure 1. A superficial model about the correspondence of different knowledge categories.
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2 KNOWLEDGE WORK AND KNOWLEDGE WORKERSKnowledge work and knowledge workers can be defined in many ways. In this chapter several
different ways to define knowledge work and workers are presented.
2.1KNOWLEDGEWORKDEFINITIONSBereiter (2002) defines knowledge work:
Knowledge work belongs to the same class as metal work, woodworking, leather work, and
personnel work expect that object worked with are abstract: they are conceptual artifacts.
(Bereiter, 2002. chapter 6)
Conceptualmay be understood to refer to discussible ideas, ranging from theories, designs, and
plans down to concepts, like unemployment and gravity. Artifactconveys that these are human
creations and that they are created to some purpose. However, being conceptual, they are not
concrete artifacts. Conceptual artifacts share many of the characteristics of material artifacts.
Consider the concept of natural selection and how it compares to a material artifact like an
automobile: They both have origins and histories. They can be described. They can be compared
with other artifacts of their type. They may be valued or judged worthless. They have varied uses.
They may be modified and improved upon. They may be subjects of discussion. New attributes,
uses, or defects may be discovered that were not foreseen when they were created. People differ in
how well they understand them and in how skilful they are in using them. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter
3)
Davies (2002) defines knowledge work that it is inherently cognitive rather than physical. Examples
of outputs from knowledge work are analyses, evaluations, instructions, programs, plans,
assurances, reasoning or arguments, decisions, and action plans. In other words, knowledge work is
human mental work performed to generate useful information and knowledge. In doing the work,
knowledge workers access data, use knowledge, employ mental models, and apply significant
concentration and attention. Davies knowledge work model is presented in figure 2. (Davies, 2002.
68)
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Figure 2. Knowledge work. (Davies & Naumann, 1997. 9 & Davies, 2002. 68)
With Bereiters knowledge work definition one problem can be raised: For example if you are
working with combustion engine to improve horse power, are you working with concrete artifact or
conceptual artifact, in other words, are you working with concrete engine or conceptual horse
power? Davies definition relies on the input, output and methods. Key factor in the definition is the
output the product of the knowledge work, which is useful information or knowledge.
2.2KNOWLEDGEWORKER DEFINITIONSWare & Degoey (1998) say that there are very little understanding how knowledge workers actually
use information technology, or how information technology impacts knowledge worker
performance and productivity. Knowledge work itself is poorly understood. There are many
different kinds of tasks that are loosely called knowledge work. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Bereiter (2002) defines knowledge worker:
Knowledge workers create, improve, find new uses for, or otherwise add value to conceptual
artifacts.
The skills and other kinds of knowledge needed in knowledge work depends a great deal on whatparticular kinds of conceptual artifacts are dealt with. (Bereiter, 2002. chapter 6)
Knowledge
Concentration
and attention
Data
Mental Models
Useful output
with information
and knowledge
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Blom (2000) provides very different and on the other hand clear criteria for knowledge worker:
Knowledge workers are those wageworkers who: 1) use information technologyin work, 2) whose
work demandsplanning or creativity, and 3) who have at least higher immediate school degree.
(Blom, 2000. 423)
Despres & Hiltrop define knowledge worker:
Knowledge workers manipulate and orchestrate symbols and concepts, identify more
strongly with their peers and professions than their organizations, have more rapid skill
obsolescence and are more critical to the long-term success of the organization. (Despres &
Hiltrop, 1995. 13)
Collins (1998) claims that:
No matter what we do we are all, in some form or other, knowledge workers. To accomplish
even the simplest of tasks requires some kind of working knowledge, acquired both formally
and informally from supervisors, friends and co-workers. (Collins, 1998)
Knowledge work typically entails the interpretation and manipulation of information, rather than
relatively routine data collection and processing. Knowledge work entails an enormously diverse set
of tasks and jobs. However, Ware & Degoey suggest two ideal type categories of knowledge
workers: Knowledge executorsand knowledge generators. This classification is illustrated in
figure 3. Knowledge executors are those workers who handle existing knowledge by manipulating
information through processes created or invented by others. Knowledge generators create new
knowledge by manipulating information in such a way as to develop new solutions to a given
problem, or to create new concepts or products. All knowledge work entails both kinds of activities.
Some jobs entail more knowledge execution than knowledge generation. Examples of workers who
predominately engage in knowledge execution activities are customer support technicians and loan
officers. Examples of workers who engage mostly in knowledge generation activities include
marketing strategists and product design engineers. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
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Figure 3. Knowledge Workers: Some Critical dimensions. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Ware & Degoey do no pay attention to the creation of tacit knowledge. Both idealistic types of
knowledge workers produce artifacts of explicit knowledge. The use of personnel and
organizational tacit knowledge is limited. Types seem to be a little too idealistic and unnatural.
The category does not do much in classifying or in description of knowledge worker.
There are also estimations about the cultural aspect in defining knowledge and knowledge work.
Yau (2003) founds out that knowledge work is not culturally defined. However she still intuitively
believes that it is.
2.3CONCLUSIONSPresented definitions provide a large range to knowledge work and knowledge worker. It is obvious
that chosen definition has a huge influence on latter research. One major question is: what is
important in the defining the knowledge worker? Are the characteristics of the input, process,
outcome or all of them that essential in the definition of the knowledge work and worker?
Knowledge ExecutorsClaims Adjusters
Customer Service Reps
Knowledge GeneratorsProduct Engineers
Strategists
transaction of information reliance on routines link explicit to explicit
knowledge
re-occuring tasks bounded complexity of tasks
transformation of information reliance on
creativity/imagination
change tacit into explicitknowledge
highly varied tasks high complexity of tasks
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3 KNOWLEDGE WORK TASKS AND ACTIVITIESThe definition of knowledge work tasks and activities depends on the definitions of knowledge and
knowledge work. There are not so many definitions about knowledge work tasks as there exist
definitions about actual knowledge work.
3.1KNOWLEDGEWORKTASKS ANDACTIVITIES(DAVIES)Davies (2002) divides knowledge work tasks under three titles: 1) job-specific, 2) knowledge-
building and maintenance, and 3) work management. (Davies, 2002. 68)
Job-specific tasks.
Every knowledge worker has job-specific tasks that produce outputs of value to the organization.
Examples are preparing a budget, analyzing results in terms of estimated and actual costs, planning
and scheduling a project, eliciting and documenting system requirements, and writing applications
software. (Davies, 2002. 68)
Knowledge-building and maintenance tasks.
Knowledge workers are valued for their knowledge and expertise, but this will decay over time.
Therefore, knowledge workers need to engage in frequent knowledge building and knowledge
maintenance. Examples of this second type of knowledge work tasks are scanning and reading
professional literature, attending professional meetings, learning new systems and technologies, and
building a network of colleagues. (Davies, 2002. 68)
Work management tasks.
When knowledge workers engage in tasks directed toward organizational objectives, they must
usually plan the set of activities required to produce the desired outcomes. Examples of work
management tasks are planning and scheduling work, allocating time and attention, and acquiring
access to resources that enable effective work. A productive work environment requires setup,
operation, maintenance, and protection of information infrastructure, files, and applications.
(Davies, 2002. 68; Davies & Naumann 1997, 76)
Davies (2002) says: A knowledge worker's dominant activities in terms of time, energy, or intensity
are knowledge work. Examples are systems analysts, programmers, accountants, managers,
analysts, and lawyers. Work may be done individually, in groups, or in teams. Knowledge workers
may engage in some clerical activitiesin performing knowledge work. Knowledge workers are
expected to possess formal knowledge consisting of general principles, concepts, and procedures
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related to classes of problems and domains of work. They also have some procedural knowledge
about typical procedures, forms, and rules governing a domain of work. (Davies, 2002. 68)
Every task requires a set of activities that must be organized and sequenced. Most tasks can be
characterized by one or a few predominant knowledge work activities. These activities apply to all
types of tasks. For the purpose of managing knowledge work, 14 knowledge work activities have
been classified into four major groups: 1) acquiring knowledge, 2) designing, 3) making decisions,
and 4) communicating. These activities may be part of an individual project or may be integrated
into collaborative work with colleagues or teams. Figure 4 illustrates knowledge workers activities.
(Davies & Naumann, 1997. 78)
Figure 4. Four types of knowledge work activities. (Davies & Naumann, 1997. 78)
Acquiring knowledge
Scanning is an awareness activity. The knowledge worker pays attention to various media and
sources to identify and obtain information for knowledge work tasks. For example, scanning may be
associated with a job-specific task or with a knowledge-building and maintenance task. Scanning
can identify new information sources. Monitoring-reviewing sources expected to contain relevant
information-tends to be a more specific activity than scanning. For example, a manager may
monitor assigned activities by reviewing regular reports, but scan other documents to increase
awareness and identify problems that might not be found in the structure report. Searching is a very
specific acquisition activity. The knowledge objective is defined and the knowledge worker must
decide where to search and how to find the appropriate information. The search activity is
Acquiring
Knowledge
Scan Monitor Search
Designing
Model Plan Organize Schedule
Author
Making
Decisions
Formulate Analyze Choose
Communicating
Present Persuade Motivate
KNOWLEDGE WORK ACTIVITIES
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characterized by known information objectives and unknown sources. (Davies & Naumann, 1997.
78-79)
Designing
A model is an abstraction of a physical object or a process. It can be visualization, a diagram or
char, or a mathematical or program representation. Many products of knowledge work require that
models be constructed either as an output or to guide the knowledge work task. At some level,
almost all design involves representation and modeling. Planning involves generating alternatives.
Selected options must be sequenced and resource implications analyzed. Planning helps knowledge
workers identify a set of tasks that must be accomplished in a particular order. Organizing involves
identifying and arranging the resources necessary to complete a plan and defining responsibilities.
Scheduling associates planned activities with available resources. The schedule specifies when each
activity is to begin and when it should be completed. It identifies the person or organization
responsible for each. Authoring is creating an output in the form of a document, presentation,
procedure, or program. Documents can be created in various formats, such as reports, analyses,
memoranda, or minutes. Almost every knowledge work output involves some authoring. The result
of authoring can include text, graphics, multimedia presentations, flowcharts, or programs. (Davies
& Naumann, 1997. 79)
Making Decisions
Formulating involves defining a problem correctly and completely. It includes recognizing
symptoms that suggest a problem and distinguishing between real and apparent problems.
Analyzing involves enumerating and evaluating alternatives. The analysis may be both quantitative
and qualitative. Choosing involves selecting from alternatives according to some criteria. There
may be a single criterion or multiple criteria. (Davies & Naumann, 1997. 80)
Communicating
Presenting involves delivering and transferring information. Delivery can take a variety of forms.
These include printed reports, electronic messages, files sent to others, multimedia computer
presentations, and oral presentations. Persuading involves chancing the beliefs of others. It may
include presenting information organized with arguments and lines of reasoning to persuade the
receiver. Motivating people means energizing other to action. Although it may include both
presenting and persuading communicating, additional elements are often included. (Davies &
Naumann, 1997. 81
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3.2KNOWLEDGEWORKACTIVITIES(WARE&DEGOEY)Based on literature, Ware & Degoey suggest that knowledge workers engage in acquisition, storage,
interpretation, and dissemination of information. Figure 5 illustrates a model of knowledge worker
activity based on these four core tasks. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Figure 5. Knowledge Work: Information Processing Tasks and Behaviors. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Information acquisition
Knowledge workers can gather information from a wide variety of sources, for instance, from
readings, interactions with customers, companys databases or the Internet. Professional workers
often maintain network connections to peers. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Information storage
This task involves storing and organizing the acquired information. Information may be stored in
written notes or documents, in electronic databases, or it may be maintained within personal
memory. By communicating acquired information to others, information can also become stored
in collective memory. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Information Interpretation
Information interpretation is the most critical step in the knowledge execution/generation process; itinvolves combining, analyzing, and synthesizing available information, often linking it to other
Information
processing
Disseminate
Acquire
Store
Interpret
search ask select read listen view
speak write draw file index memorize
speak write display send broadcast teach
analyze synthesize link/relate choose decide plan
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facts of data, as well as placing it in a larger context. Interpretation is at the heart of the knowledge
generation process. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Information Dissemination
Some knowledge workers may communicate their interpretation of a given problem or their
decisions only to a customer or supervisor, while others may be responsible for championing or
publicly defending their interpretations and views. Workers can use a wide variety of
communication modes such as email and other electronic channels, printed text and graphics, and
all forms of oral communication to disseminate information. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
The social natureof knowledge worker activity can also be examined. Some knowledge workers
engage in information processing in team contexts, while others conduct their work mostly
individually. In many cases, the same job may be carried out very differently by different
individuals or groups. Individual differences in personal style, preferences, and skills as well as
various environmental factors also affect the information processing strategies knowledge workers
use. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
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3.3SUMMARYExamined models about knowledge work tasks and activities are quite similar. Similarities between
these two knowledge work activity models are illustrated in figure 6.
Activities
Davies &
Naumann
Acquire
scan monitor search
Designing
model plan organize schedule author
Making Decisions formulate analyze choose
Communicating
present persuade motivate
Ware & DegoeyAcquire
search ask select read listen view
Store
speak write draw file index memorize
Interpret
analyze synthesize link/relate choose decide plan
Disseminate
speak write display send broadcast teach
CombinationAcquire
Scan Monitor Search Select
Store
Author Organize File
Interpret & Design
Formulate &model
Analyze Synthesize Plan Choose Schedule Decide
Communicating
Present Persuade Motivate Teach
Figure 6. Knowledge work activities.
4 KNOWLEDGE WORK PRODUCTIVITYThis chapter presents answers to the question: what is knowledge work productivity and how it can
be measured? Perspectives to knowledge work productivity and possibilities to measure the
productivity are presented.
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4.1DIFFICULTIES WITHMEASURINGKNOWLEDGEWORK(WARE&DEGOEY)
The extant literature cites several reasons for the difficulty of measuring knowledge worker
performance. First, it is often difficult to correctly quantity the outputor contributions of these typesof workers. Second, because the outcomes of projects in which knowledge workers participate often
take many months or even years to materialize, it is often virtually impossible to match inputs to
outputs within a given time-frame. Third, knowledge workers frequently have considerable
discretion over how they conduct their tasks, and there often are many different ways to be
successful or productive. Fourth, because projects in which knowledge workers engage frequently
involve a substantial number of people, it is often difficult to attribute results to the contributions
made by any one individual or even a team. Finally, a related issue is that knowledge workers tend
to dislike and resist being measured. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
4.2PROPOSALS FOR MEASURINGKNOWLEDGEWORKPRODUCTIVITY(WARE&DEGOEY)
The measuring of knowledge workshould be contextual. Factors such as organizational and
professional goals and norms must largely determine which types of measures are most important in
assessing the performance of any specific group of knowledge workers. It is also important to take
into account the career stages of knowledge workers. Skills and capabilities that an organization
values in a specific group of knowledge workers may depend very much on the broader roles that
those workers play in the overall management of the organization, not just in how they carry out
their operational knowledge work tasks. It is also important to acknowledge that almost all work
contains both quantitative and qualitative elements, and hence, that measurement should address
both of these elements. Figures 7 and 8 list some examples of quantitative and qualitative
productivity measures. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
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Figure 7. Some Quantitative Measures of Performance. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
Figure 8. Some Qualitative Measures of Performance. (Ware & Degoey, 1998)
4.3PRODUCTIVITY INKNOWLEDGEWORK(DAVIES)There are very large differences in productivity among knowledge workers. For example, using
typical measures of performance, productivity of the best performing systems analysts and
programmers can range up to three or more times that of the lowest performers (who are productive
enough to be retained in their positions). This high ratio is not usually found in production work andclerical work because the organization provides work routines that reduce wasted time and effort
Marketing Engineering Customer Service
number of proposals
preparation hours
orders received
no. of employees
revenue
advertising costs
hours of design
hours of rework
field correction costs
design team
design experience
actual hours
orders processed
total hours
phone calls
no. of days
errors
no. of days
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES
client satisfaction project success innovativeness handling of crisis
situations
job involvement/
meeting deadlines lack of surprises transferability of work collaboration with
others
adaptability to change
QUALITATIVE MEASURES
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and establish an expected pace for the work. In knowledge work, there may be some organization
standards and procedures, such as deadlines for reports, requirements for evidence of progress, and
expectations about outputs. These factors provide some incentives for work completion, but quality
of work and timely completion depend largely on self-management and self-pacing. (Davies, 2002.
68-69)
The most productive knowledge workers tend to employ the most efficient work flow and work
methods. More important, they tend to be better at managing the use of their time, attention, and
motivation.Knowledge work productivity depends on good self-management. For example, a very
productive knowledge worker will schedule for productivity (schedule important, high-productivity
work activities to occur during times of high energy and attention), schedule for motivation (create
motivation by frequent, short-term deadlines), and manage demands for attention (because aknowledge worker has limited attention resources and an oversupply of inputs to process). (Davies,
2002. 68-69)
The value of unlimited computing access may depend on the knowledge work tasks. Knowledge
workers whose tasks involve obtaining data from a variety of locations, activities, and people (such
as a scheduler of production activities) are likely to benefit from anytime/anyplace computing and
communications facilities. Less-certain benefits may be achieved if the knowledge work being
performed is dependent on concentrated effort without interruptions. (Davies, 2002. 68-69)
4.4KNOWLEDGEWORKER CONSTRAINTS IN THEPRODUCTIVEUSE OFINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGY(IT)(DRURY&FARHOOMAND)
Productivity in economic terms is the quantity of output divided by the quantity of inputs.
Effectiveness is when a goal, objective, or target is met and efficiency, the degree to which inputs
are used in relation to a given level of outputs. Effectiveness consists of doing the right things and
efficiency of doing things right. (Drury & Farhoomand, 1999. 22)
Drury & Farhoomand (1999) have made empirical research with questionnaire to find out
knowledge workers thoughts about knowledge work constraints and ideas to reduce these
constraints. They present four main constraints issues (technical issues, information issues,
infrastructure issues and task issues), which prevent knowledge worker to improve productivity
with IT. Technical issues such as speed of the hardware, frequency of down time, flexibility of
computer systems, and the cost of the hardware could discourage use of computers in improving
productivity.Information issues include: difficulty in identifying relevant sources of information,
information overload and language barriers. One area of issues arises from organization
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infrastructure. Organization can prevent successful IT implementation with a lack of top
management support and organizational resources. The nature oftaskhas been found to affect IT
utilization. The domain of knowledge workers is semi or unstructured tasks. These tasks are
undertaken at irregular intervals and tend to be creatively confronted each time they arise due to
their complexity. This makes the effective utilization of IT difficult to achieve. However, most of
the constraints to IT seem to have a psychological basis. Attitudes towards working with computers
directly affect the level of computer usage. (Drury & Farhoomand, 1999. 23-26)
In the research Drury & Farhoomand found that the primary area of constraints is infrastructure,
followed by technical issues and information issues. Task issues are relatively minor constraints.
One extra issue was identified: systems cost which is an important problem, especially in small to
medium companies. The most common constraints were: lack of training, technical infrastructure,technical support, top management support, system breakdown, speed, information format,
information accessibility, information quality and information overload. (Drury & Farhoomand,
1999. 29-30)
Knowledge worker primary solution to reduce constraints of IT infrastructure was better quality
trainingto reduce the level of user illiteracy. Other solutions for IT infrastructure were:
managements attitude, IT strategy, add IT people, outsourcing, restructure IT team, resources and
organization structure review & study, culture of change, consultancy and communication user &IT. Solutions for technical issues were: hardware upgrade, technical support, resources, backup
and system monitoring standardization and outsourcing. Solutions for information issues were:
information standardization, system administration, user involvement, networking, information
training and information management team. And solutions for task issues were: task training,
understand end users needs, users participation, select system, request analysis, upgrading and re-
engineering. (Drury & Farhoomand, 1999. 32-35)
4.5SUMMARYThere are several reasons for the difficulty o f measuring knowledge worker performance. The
measuring of knowledge work should be contextual. Organizations objectives set up rules for the
quality of the knowledge work products. Knowledge work productivity should be evaluated with
the objectives of the certain knowledge worker. General evaluation criteria are hard to establish.
Knowledge work productivity seems also to depend on good self-management.
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5 KNOWLEDGE COMMUNICATION AND KNOWLEDGEMANAGEMENT TOOLS
In this chapter some concepts related to knowledge communication and personnel knowledge
management are examined. The purpose of this chapter is not to give definitions about subjects
just to present them.
5.1PERSONAL KNOWLEDGEMANAGEMENT(FRAND &HIXON)Personal Knowledge Management (PKM) attempts to utilize the computer to help the individual
manage the information explosion in a meaningful way. Personal knowledge management is a
system designed by individuals for their own personal use. Knowledge management has been
described as a systematic attempt to create, gather, distribute, and use knowledge. PKM is a
conceptual framework to organize and integrate information that we, as individuals, feel is
important so that it becomes part for our personal knowledge base. Knowledge management is built
on information management. (Frand & Hixon, 1999)
Frand & Hixon (1999) present following knowledge management principles: 1) searching/finding,
2) categorizing/classifying, 3) naming things/making distinctions, 4) evaluating/assessing, and 5)
integrating or relating. (Frand & Hixon, 1999)
5.2KNOWLEDGEMANAGEMENTTOOLS(DINGSYR &RYRVIK)
With tools of knowledge management Dingsyr and Ryrvik mean tools that have several users,
and tools that are widely available for employees in an organization. These tools can usually be
called intranet tools that support knowledge management in at least three ways: 1) Providing
compression of time and space among the users 2) Offering the flexibility to exchange information,
and 3) Supporting information transfer and organizational networking independent of direct
contracts between the users. (Dingsyr & Ryrvik, 2003. 84)
There are many dimensions for describing knowledge management tools:
Knowledge codification tools to make knowledge available for others. Knowledge transferringtools to decrease problems with time and space. Active tools that notify users when it is likely, that users require some kind of knowledge. Passive tools require a user to actively seek knowledge without any system support. Knowledge repositories and libraries tools for handling repositories of knowledge inthe form of documents.
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Communities of knowledge workers tools to support communities of practice in work;like organizing workspaces for communities for online discussions and distributed work.
Knowledge cartography tools for mapping and categorizing knowledge, for corecompetence in a company to individual expertise; what we can refer to as
metaknowledge.
The flow of knowledge tools for supporting the interaction between tacit knowledge,explicit knowledge and metaknowledge; that is, that combines the three parts above.
(Dingsyr & Ryrvik, 2003. 84-85)
5.3KNOWLEDGEWORKERSSOFTWARE(DAVIES)To perform the activities commonly associated with knowledge work tasks, knowledge workers
should have a working knowledge of several software packages. These include a word processing
program, plus six other packages: 1) a spreadsheet processor, 2) electronic mail and Internet, 3)presentation graphics, 4) statistics, 5) a database package for structured data, and 6) a database
package for structured data, and 6) a database package for unstructured, text data. (Davies &
Naumann, 1997. 10)
5.4SUMMARYPKM and knowledge communication tools can be seen as a part of knowledge work tools. However
PKM and knowledge communication tools are not enough in categorizing knowledge work tools.
The categorization of knowledge work tools depends on the chosen knowledge work definition.
6 SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONSThe way knowledge is seen influences on knowledge work and tools definitions. The way
knowledge work is defined has a huge influence on research concerning the subject. Knowledge
and knowledge work definitions can be quite universal. Context is important in measuring
productivity of knowledge work and in choosing tools for knowledge worker.
Based on existing literature, knowledge work activities can be identified and supported with
information technology, but some part of knowledge work is hard to support with information
technology.
Davies provides a whole package about knowledge work with explicit definitions, descriptions
and guidelines.
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