MIS 539
Collaboration! Communication Processes, Goals, and Outcomes for Successful Team Activities
Collaboration! Communication Processes, Goals, and Outcomes for Successful Team Activities
Brian Mennecke
CommunicationCommunication
• Social media and other collaboration tools have at their core one common feature– Communication!
• Communication is an activity that involves that act of transferring information from a sender to a receiver
CommunicationCommunication
• Communication is thought of as exclusively a human process, but it is a fundamental survival mechanism for most organisms– Whether we consider people or bacteria,
communication can take place via multiple pathways• Bacteria communicate via chemical signals• Birds sing• Peacocks flush their plumes• Mammals release pheromones• People shake hands
CommunicationCommunication
• Communication is generally considered to operate as a process that involves transferring information from a source (i.e., the transmitter) represented in a form (e.g., symbols, actions, etc.) via a channel (e.g., written, spoken, etc.) to a receiver
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes
• Numerous communication models have been used to describe the communication process– The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model
(Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– S-M-C-R (Source-Message-Channel-
Receiver) (Berlo, 1960)– Schramm’s Interactive Model (Schramm,
1954)– Non-Linear models
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical
Model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– Shannon proposed a linear model of
communication that informed research and teaching on communication processes for many years thereafter
Information Source
Transmitter(Encoder)
ChannelReceiver(Decoder)
Destination
Noise Source
Message Signal Received Signal
Message
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical
Model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– Important concepts include…
• Entropy: uncertainty in the communication system• Redundancy: how much information is not unique• Noise: how much information is unrelated to the
message• Channel Capacity: how much information can the
channel handle
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical
Model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– Shannon is credited with the origination of
information theory
Information TheoryInformation Theory
• In a perfect communication system, the sender and receiver have identical knowledge of the code.
• All possible messages are known in advance.• The source makes a choice to send a message
from the set of possible messages.• The receiver needs to know what choice the
sender made.
Adapted from John A. Cagle, http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/outline.htm
Information is not contentInformation is not content
• A message has information if it reduces the uncertainty about what choice the sender made.
• If the choice is already known to the receiver, the message is redundant.
• Information is not content in information theory.
Adapted from John A. Cagle, http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/outline.htm
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is that the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a total mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.
Amzanig huh? Adapted from John A. Cagle, http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/outline.htm
Information is not meaningInformation is not meaning
• Information is different from the content and meaning of messages
• Information is not the interpretation of information
Adapted from John A. Cagle, http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/outline.htm
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• S-M-C-R (Source-Message-Channel-
Receiver) (Berlo, 1960)
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
ATTITUDES
KNOWLEDGE
SOCIAL SYSTEMS
CULTURE
SEEING
HEARING
TOUCHING
SMELLING
TASTING
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
ATTITUDES
KNOWLEDGE
SOCIAL SYSTEMS
CULTUREMELEMENTS STRUCTURE
CONTENT
CODE
T
RE
A
T
ME
N
T
S M C R
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• S-M-C-R (Source-Message-Channel-Receiver)
(Berlo, 1960)• Berlo emphasizes dyadic communication and
stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the receiver
• Berlo emphasized five communication skills– Speaking (encoding)– Writing (encoding)– Listening (decoding)– Reading (decoding)– Thought and reasoning (both encoding and
decoding)
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes
• Schramm’s Interactive Model (Schramm, 1954)
Decoder
Encoder
Interpreter
Encoder
Decoder
Interpreter
Message
Message
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Schramm’s Interactive Model (Schramm, 1954)• The main focus is on feedback between the sender and receiver
– Receivers provide feedback about the nature of the message received and how it’s interpreted– The sender monitors his or her communication and adjusts as needed
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Each of the preceding models are considered to be linear models because of the focus on sequential actions and
reactions• Numerous Non-linear models exist
– Dance’s Helical Spiral (Dance, 1967)– Becker’s Mosaic Model (Becker, 1968)
• We construct messages which "are, in effect, overlayed to form the large and complex communication environment or 'mosaic' in which each of us exists.
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Non-linear models:
– Ruesch and Bateson (1951) Functional Model• Communication occurs at four levels
– Interpersonal process– Overlapping fields of experience– Group interactions– Cultural
• Each level of activity includes communicative functions– Evaluating– Sending– Receiving– Channeling
•
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Non-linear models:
– Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970)• Communication is a process that is…
– continuous (communication is not a static activity)– dynamic (communication is ever changing)– circular (cyclical dialog between encoder and decoder)– unrepeatable (every communication event is unique)– irreversible (once a message is transmitted and received the message cannot be erased)– complex (communication involves language, culture, power, relationship factors etc.)
Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• The bottom line…
– Communication is a two-way street, the transmitters and receivers are important– Communication is a process, but it is also multidimensional and needs to consider motives, personal characteristics, and context– Communication involves information transfer; when no information flows no communication has occurred (even if someone is talking – blah
blah blah)– Meaning and information are not the same thing, but both are relevant to communication success– The channel used to communicate influences what information can be conveyed and how
Channel is important!Channel is important!
• What influence does the communication medium have in how we communicate, what we communicate, and how effective our communication is?
Channel is important!Channel is important!
• Numerous theories have been proposed to examine the role of media on communication effectiveness and efficiency– Media richness theory– Social presence theory– Media synchronicity theory
Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory
• Daft and Lengel (1984) defined information richness as "the ability of information to change understanding within a time interval." – Communications media that can overcome different
frames of reference and clarify ambiguous issues to promote understanding in a timely manner are considered more rich.
– Communications media that take a longer time to convey understanding are less rich.
– The theory assumes that resolving ambiguity and reducing uncertainty are the main goals of communication
Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory
• Media Richness Theory suggests that media have differing capabilities to carry information in a given time period.
Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory
• The theory suggests that media have differing capabilities for …– Providing feedback– Supporting multiple cues– Tailoring messages– Conveying emotions
Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory
• The theory was originally proposed to explain media selection choices (i.e., which medium would a manager use to communicate)
• The theory has been expanded to address media like email, videoconferencing, and other new media
• Most studies examining the theory have produced ambiguous results
Social Presence TheorySocial Presence Theory
• Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) defined social presence as the salience of another person in a mediated environment.– Social presence connotes a communicator’s sense of
awareness of the presence of an interaction partner. – Social presence is considered to be a property of the
medium itself; i.e., the degree of acoustic, visual, and physical contact that it allows.
– Greater social presence is thought to increase the degree of social influence
– Social presence is thought to influence communicator’s perceptions, appreciation, participation, or level of satisfaction
Presence and EmbodimentPresence and Embodiment
• In virtual spaces, presence is moved to the next level. – Embodiment– Spatial relationships– Proximity – Synchronicity
Presence and EmbodimentPresence and Embodiment
Presence and EmbodimentPresence and Embodiment
Presence and EmbodimentPresence and Embodiment
Presence and EmbodimentPresence and Embodiment
Other TheoriesOther Theories
• Media Synchronicity Theory (Dennis & Valacich, 1999)– Considers the requirements of communication
as conveyance and convergence; media should be selected based on the fit with these process requirements
• The Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE) (Postmes, Spears & Lea, 1999)– Considers cognitive and strategic effects of
technology’s “deindividualizing” effects
Media Theories in SummaryMedia Theories in Summary• The message from these theories is that media
have differing affects on communication processes, choices, and outcomes– People choose media based on their assumptions about
what and how they can communicate using the media– Processes are affected by media capacity; some media
are better suited for some tasks than others. – Timing and synchronicity can be important; people make
choices about media based on assumptions related to temporal issues
– Outcomes can be affected by media capabilities; efficiency is more certain than effectiveness
– Communicator characteristics can be important in influencing effectiveness and efficiency
How do we communicate?How do we communicate?
• Modes of communication– Verbal communication– Symbolic communication– Nonverbal communication
• Spatial cues• Body language• Paralinguistics
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What keeps us from communicating?What keeps us from communicating?
• Numerous barriers to effective communication exist– Information overload: Am I too busy?– Nature of the information : Is it dissonant?– Source of the information: Will I listen or care?– Misjudging the audience: Am I speaking over (or
under) their heads?– Venue and Distractions: When you are more distant,
you communicate less effectively– Defensiveness: Have I been offended or hurt?– Gender effects: Women are from Venus, Men from
Mars…
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What channels exist for communication?
What channels exist for communication?
• Communication Networks– Formal networks
• Centralized: more effective for standardized problem solving, efficiency, and accuracy
• Decentralized: more effective for complex problems, adapting to change, and responding more effectively
– Informal networks• The grapevine• The rumor mill
– Fantasy rumors
– Bogie rumors
– Aggressive rumors
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
Who does the communicating?Who does the communicating?
• Communication Roles– Gatekeepers: control the flow of information– Liaisons: share information across groups – Opinion Leaders: informally influence others– Participants vs. isolates: those who are part of
the communication network versus those who are left out
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
Who does the communicating?Who does the communicating?
• Opinion Leaders: informally influence others– Proactive– Reactive – Pulse takers
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
• Knowledge Management: the process of identifying, creating, representing, and distributing knowledge
• Types of Knowledge– Explicit knowledge: tangible– Tacit knowledge: intangible
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
• A Definition of Knowledge: information combined with experience, context, interpretation, and reflection
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
• Where does knowledge reside? – 2 different views
• People possess knowledge• Knowledge is socially constructed and embedded
in organizational processes– Story telling– Symbolism
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
• If knowledge is socially constructed story telling and symbolism are important, how do we capture this embedded and complex knowledge? – Let users tell their stories– Let users express symbolic messages
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management
• Tools to support story telling and capture embedded processes – Blogs– Social networks– Social bookmarks– Discussion forums– Wikis– Shared documents
Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior
What is collaboration anyway?What is collaboration anyway?
• Collaboration is a process whereby 2 or more individuals work to achieve a common set of goals
• Collaboration has been studied at the group and larger organizational levels
• No one theoretical model of collaboration exists– Collaboration is a nebulous term– Collaboration encompasses other domains
and disciplines
CollaborationCollaboration
• Donna Wood and Barbara Gray examined 9 research articles and found 6 distinct explanations for collaborative behavior:– Resource dependence: we need to play with
each other to get what we need– Corporate social performance/institutional
economics: we play with each other to balance our needs
– Strategic management/social ecology: we play with each other to reduce threats and capitalize on opportunities
Source: Wood, D. J., & Gray, B. (1991). Toward a comprehensive theory of collaboration. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27, 139-162. Pp. 139-149
CollaborationCollaboration
• 6 distinct explanations for collaborative behavior (cont.):– Microeconomics: We play with each other to
achieve efficient interactions with those we play with
– Institutional/negotiated order: we find ways to structure our play and play nice with each other to achieve legitimacy with others
– Political: We play with each other to accommodate the political structures existing due to the distribution of power and resources
Source: Wood, D. J., & Gray, B. (1991). Toward a comprehensive theory of collaboration. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27, 139-162. Pp. 139-149
CollaborationCollaboration• Guidelines for successful collaboration
– Develop trust and mutual respect– Stick to initially made commitments– Outline clear and attainable short and long-term
goals– Define needs/self-interest well– Give reasons behind your thinking– Combine online collaboration with face-to-face
meetings to speed up the process– Be concise, patient, and persistent– Get everybody involved in the process– Develop a clear process including self-reflexive
loopsSource: http://collaboration.wikia.com/wiki/Collaboration
CollaborationCollaboration• Guidelines for successful collaboration
– Develop good listening skills– Pay attention to scale in collaborative groups
(production groups: 4-5 participants)– Put a stop to domineering interruptions and put-
downs– Communicate frequently, clearly and openly– Acknowledge upcoming problems– Use facilitators for larger groups– Develop a long-term view– Take a dose of humility– Learn when to let go
Source: http://collaboration.wikia.com/wiki/Collaboration
CollaborationCollaboration• Collaboration is a process, usually focused
on decision making, production, or information gathering
• The decision making process usually includes specific functions and actions focused on selecting the best alternative (H. Simon)– identification and listing of all the alternatives– determination of consequences resulting from
each of the alternatives– comparison of each of these sets of
consequences
Source: http://collaboration.wikia.com/wiki/Collaboration
CollaborationCollaboration• To engage in decision making and other
collaborative efforts, collaborators need support for various activities and functions:– Information and knowledge capture and
creation– Information and knowledge management and
storage– Information and knowledge sharing and
distribution– Tools to support coordination and management
of collaborative processes and functions
CollaborationCollaboration• Support for capture and creation
– Wikis– Blogs– Search tools and bots– Data mining– Visualization– Creativity tools– Electronic document capture tools– etc.
CollaborationCollaboration• Support for management and storage
– Database management systems– Operational systems– Knowledge management tools– Document management systems– Wikis– Blogs– Social bookmarks– Content management software– etc.
CollaborationCollaboration• Support for sharing and distribution
– e-mail– IM– Groupware– voice mail– Wikis– Web publishing– Conferencing software (e.g., Webex)– Virtual environments– Shared workspaces– Web forums– Discussion boards– etc.
CollaborationCollaboration• Support for coordination and management
– Electronic calendars– Project management software– Workflow software– Intranets – Intranet and managed spaces (e.g., SharePoint)– Email– Blogs– Wikis– Shared documents– etc.