MIS 539 Collaboration! Communication Processes, Goals, and Outcomes for Successful Team Activities Brian Mennecke

MIS 539

Collaboration! Communication Processes, Goals, and Outcomes for Successful Team Activities

Collaboration! Communication Processes, Goals, and Outcomes for Successful Team Activities

Brian Mennecke

CommunicationCommunication

• Social media and other collaboration tools have at their core one common feature– Communication!

• Communication is an activity that involves that act of transferring information from a sender to a receiver


• Communication is thought of as exclusively a human process, but it is a fundamental survival mechanism for most organisms– Whether we consider people or bacteria,

communication can take place via multiple pathways• Bacteria communicate via chemical signals• Birds sing• Peacocks flush their plumes• Mammals release pheromones• People shake hands


• Communication is generally considered to operate as a process that involves transferring information from a source (i.e., the transmitter) represented in a form (e.g., symbols, actions, etc.) via a channel (e.g., written, spoken, etc.) to a receiver

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes

• Numerous communication models have been used to describe the communication process– The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model

(Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– S-M-C-R (Source-Message-Channel-

Receiver) (Berlo, 1960)– Schramm’s Interactive Model (Schramm,

1954)– Non-Linear models

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• The Shannon-Weaver Mathematical

Model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– Shannon proposed a linear model of

communication that informed research and teaching on communication processes for many years thereafter

Information Source

Transmitter(Encoder)

ChannelReceiver(Decoder)

Destination

Noise Source

Message Signal Received Signal

Message


Model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– Important concepts include…

• Entropy: uncertainty in the communication system• Redundancy: how much information is not unique• Noise: how much information is unrelated to the

message• Channel Capacity: how much information can the

channel handle


Model (Shannon and Weaver, 1949)– Shannon is credited with the origination of

information theory

Information TheoryInformation Theory

• In a perfect communication system, the sender and receiver have identical knowledge of the code.

• All possible messages are known in advance.• The source makes a choice to send a message

from the set of possible messages.• The receiver needs to know what choice the

sender made.

Adapted from John A. Cagle, http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/outline.htm

Information is not contentInformation is not content

• A message has information if it reduces the uncertainty about what choice the sender made.

• If the choice is already known to the receiver, the message is redundant.

• Information is not content in information theory.


Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is that the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a total mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

Amzanig huh? Adapted from John A. Cagle, http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~johnca/spch100/outline.htm

Information is not meaningInformation is not meaning

• Information is different from the content and meaning of messages

• Information is not the interpretation of information


Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• S-M-C-R (Source-Message-Channel-

Receiver) (Berlo, 1960)

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

ATTITUDES

KNOWLEDGE

SOCIAL SYSTEMS

CULTURE

SEEING

HEARING

TOUCHING

SMELLING

TASTING

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

ATTITUDES

KNOWLEDGE

SOCIAL SYSTEMS

CULTUREMELEMENTS STRUCTURE

CONTENT

CODE

T

RE

A

T

ME

N

T

S M C R

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• S-M-C-R (Source-Message-Channel-Receiver)

(Berlo, 1960)• Berlo emphasizes dyadic communication and

stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the receiver

• Berlo emphasized five communication skills– Speaking (encoding)– Writing (encoding)– Listening (decoding)– Reading (decoding)– Thought and reasoning (both encoding and

decoding)

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes

• Schramm’s Interactive Model (Schramm, 1954)

Decoder

Encoder

Interpreter

Encoder

Decoder

Interpreter

Message

Message

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Schramm’s Interactive Model (Schramm, 1954)• The main focus is on feedback between the sender and receiver

– Receivers provide feedback about the nature of the message received and how it’s interpreted– The sender monitors his or her communication and adjusts as needed

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Each of the preceding models are considered to be linear models because of the focus on sequential actions and

reactions• Numerous Non-linear models exist

– Dance’s Helical Spiral (Dance, 1967)– Becker’s Mosaic Model (Becker, 1968)

• We construct messages which "are, in effect, overlayed to form the large and complex communication environment or 'mosaic' in which each of us exists.

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Non-linear models:

– Ruesch and Bateson (1951) Functional Model• Communication occurs at four levels

– Interpersonal process– Overlapping fields of experience– Group interactions– Cultural

• Each level of activity includes communicative functions– Evaluating– Sending– Receiving– Channeling

•

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• Non-linear models:

– Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970)• Communication is a process that is…

– continuous (communication is not a static activity)– dynamic (communication is ever changing)– circular (cyclical dialog between encoder and decoder)– unrepeatable (every communication event is unique)– irreversible (once a message is transmitted and received the message cannot be erased)– complex (communication involves language, culture, power, relationship factors etc.)

Communication ProcessesCommunication Processes• The bottom line…

– Communication is a two-way street, the transmitters and receivers are important– Communication is a process, but it is also multidimensional and needs to consider motives, personal characteristics, and context– Communication involves information transfer; when no information flows no communication has occurred (even if someone is talking – blah

blah blah)– Meaning and information are not the same thing, but both are relevant to communication success– The channel used to communicate influences what information can be conveyed and how

Channel is important!Channel is important!

• What influence does the communication medium have in how we communicate, what we communicate, and how effective our communication is?

Channel is important!Channel is important!

• Numerous theories have been proposed to examine the role of media on communication effectiveness and efficiency– Media richness theory– Social presence theory– Media synchronicity theory

Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory

• Daft and Lengel (1984) defined information richness as "the ability of information to change understanding within a time interval." – Communications media that can overcome different

frames of reference and clarify ambiguous issues to promote understanding in a timely manner are considered more rich.

– Communications media that take a longer time to convey understanding are less rich.

– The theory assumes that resolving ambiguity and reducing uncertainty are the main goals of communication


• Media Richness Theory suggests that media have differing capabilities to carry information in a given time period.


• The theory suggests that media have differing capabilities for …– Providing feedback– Supporting multiple cues– Tailoring messages– Conveying emotions


• The theory was originally proposed to explain media selection choices (i.e., which medium would a manager use to communicate)

• The theory has been expanded to address media like email, videoconferencing, and other new media

• Most studies examining the theory have produced ambiguous results

Social Presence TheorySocial Presence Theory

• Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) defined social presence as the salience of another person in a mediated environment.– Social presence connotes a communicator’s sense of

awareness of the presence of an interaction partner. – Social presence is considered to be a property of the

medium itself; i.e., the degree of acoustic, visual, and physical contact that it allows.

– Greater social presence is thought to increase the degree of social influence

– Social presence is thought to influence communicator’s perceptions, appreciation, participation, or level of satisfaction

Presence and EmbodimentPresence and Embodiment

• In virtual spaces, presence is moved to the next level. – Embodiment– Spatial relationships– Proximity – Synchronicity





Other TheoriesOther Theories

• Media Synchronicity Theory (Dennis & Valacich, 1999)– Considers the requirements of communication

as conveyance and convergence; media should be selected based on the fit with these process requirements

• The Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE) (Postmes, Spears & Lea, 1999)– Considers cognitive and strategic effects of

technology’s “deindividualizing” effects

Media Theories in SummaryMedia Theories in Summary• The message from these theories is that media

have differing affects on communication processes, choices, and outcomes– People choose media based on their assumptions about

what and how they can communicate using the media– Processes are affected by media capacity; some media

are better suited for some tasks than others. – Timing and synchronicity can be important; people make

choices about media based on assumptions related to temporal issues

– Outcomes can be affected by media capabilities; efficiency is more certain than effectiveness

– Communicator characteristics can be important in influencing effectiveness and efficiency

How do we communicate?How do we communicate?

• Modes of communication– Verbal communication– Symbolic communication– Nonverbal communication

• Spatial cues• Body language• Paralinguistics

Source: Bowditch & Buono, Organizational Behavior

What keeps us from communicating?What keeps us from communicating?

• Numerous barriers to effective communication exist– Information overload: Am I too busy?– Nature of the information : Is it dissonant?– Source of the information: Will I listen or care?– Misjudging the audience: Am I speaking over (or

under) their heads?– Venue and Distractions: When you are more distant,

you communicate less effectively– Defensiveness: Have I been offended or hurt?– Gender effects: Women are from Venus, Men from

Mars…


What channels exist for communication?

What channels exist for communication?

• Communication Networks– Formal networks

• Centralized: more effective for standardized problem solving, efficiency, and accuracy

• Decentralized: more effective for complex problems, adapting to change, and responding more effectively

– Informal networks• The grapevine• The rumor mill

– Fantasy rumors

– Bogie rumors

– Aggressive rumors


Who does the communicating?Who does the communicating?

• Communication Roles– Gatekeepers: control the flow of information– Liaisons: share information across groups – Opinion Leaders: informally influence others– Participants vs. isolates: those who are part of

the communication network versus those who are left out


Who does the communicating?Who does the communicating?

• Opinion Leaders: informally influence others– Proactive– Reactive – Pulse takers


What is communicated? Knowledge Creation and Management


• Knowledge Management: the process of identifying, creating, representing, and distributing knowledge

• Types of Knowledge– Explicit knowledge: tangible– Tacit knowledge: intangible




• A Definition of Knowledge: information combined with experience, context, interpretation, and reflection




• Where does knowledge reside? – 2 different views

• People possess knowledge• Knowledge is socially constructed and embedded

in organizational processes– Story telling– Symbolism




• If knowledge is socially constructed story telling and symbolism are important, how do we capture this embedded and complex knowledge? – Let users tell their stories– Let users express symbolic messages




• Tools to support story telling and capture embedded processes – Blogs– Social networks– Social bookmarks– Discussion forums– Wikis– Shared documents


What is collaboration anyway?What is collaboration anyway?

• Collaboration is a process whereby 2 or more individuals work to achieve a common set of goals

• Collaboration has been studied at the group and larger organizational levels

• No one theoretical model of collaboration exists– Collaboration is a nebulous term– Collaboration encompasses other domains

and disciplines

CollaborationCollaboration

• Donna Wood and Barbara Gray examined 9 research articles and found 6 distinct explanations for collaborative behavior:– Resource dependence: we need to play with

each other to get what we need– Corporate social performance/institutional

economics: we play with each other to balance our needs

– Strategic management/social ecology: we play with each other to reduce threats and capitalize on opportunities

Source: Wood, D. J., & Gray, B. (1991). Toward a comprehensive theory of collaboration. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27, 139-162. Pp. 139-149

CollaborationCollaboration

• 6 distinct explanations for collaborative behavior (cont.):– Microeconomics: We play with each other to

achieve efficient interactions with those we play with

– Institutional/negotiated order: we find ways to structure our play and play nice with each other to achieve legitimacy with others

– Political: We play with each other to accommodate the political structures existing due to the distribution of power and resources

Source: Wood, D. J., & Gray, B. (1991). Toward a comprehensive theory of collaboration. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27, 139-162. Pp. 139-149

CollaborationCollaboration• Guidelines for successful collaboration

– Develop trust and mutual respect– Stick to initially made commitments– Outline clear and attainable short and long-term

goals– Define needs/self-interest well– Give reasons behind your thinking– Combine online collaboration with face-to-face

meetings to speed up the process– Be concise, patient, and persistent– Get everybody involved in the process– Develop a clear process including self-reflexive

loopsSource: http://collaboration.wikia.com/wiki/Collaboration

CollaborationCollaboration• Guidelines for successful collaboration

– Develop good listening skills– Pay attention to scale in collaborative groups

(production groups: 4-5 participants)– Put a stop to domineering interruptions and put-

downs– Communicate frequently, clearly and openly– Acknowledge upcoming problems– Use facilitators for larger groups– Develop a long-term view– Take a dose of humility– Learn when to let go

Source: http://collaboration.wikia.com/wiki/Collaboration

CollaborationCollaboration• Collaboration is a process, usually focused

on decision making, production, or information gathering

• The decision making process usually includes specific functions and actions focused on selecting the best alternative (H. Simon)– identification and listing of all the alternatives– determination of consequences resulting from

each of the alternatives– comparison of each of these sets of

consequences

Source: http://collaboration.wikia.com/wiki/Collaboration

CollaborationCollaboration• To engage in decision making and other

collaborative efforts, collaborators need support for various activities and functions:– Information and knowledge capture and

creation– Information and knowledge management and

storage– Information and knowledge sharing and

distribution– Tools to support coordination and management

of collaborative processes and functions

CollaborationCollaboration• Support for capture and creation

– Wikis– Blogs– Search tools and bots– Data mining– Visualization– Creativity tools– Electronic document capture tools– etc.

CollaborationCollaboration• Support for management and storage

– Database management systems– Operational systems– Knowledge management tools– Document management systems– Wikis– Blogs– Social bookmarks– Content management software– etc.

CollaborationCollaboration• Support for sharing and distribution

– e-mail– IM– Groupware– voice mail– Wikis– Web publishing– Conferencing software (e.g., Webex)– Virtual environments– Shared workspaces– Web forums– Discussion boards– etc.

CollaborationCollaboration• Support for coordination and management

– Electronic calendars– Project management software– Workflow software– Intranets – Intranet and managed spaces (e.g., SharePoint)– Email– Blogs– Wikis– Shared documents– etc.

Documents

MIS 539 Collaboration! Communication Processes, Goals, and Outcomes for Successful Team Activities Brian Mennecke