Formation of Oil

What is crude oil? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYMWUz7TC3A•Crude oil is a fossil fuel (non renewable)

Something that takes along time to make and is used up faster than it is made.

•All the readily extractable resources will be used up in the future

•Need to find replacements

•Conflict between making petrochemicals and fuels

Fractional distillation

LPG

Petrol

Naphtha

Paraffin

Diesel

Lubricating oils

Fuel Oil

Bitumen600˚C

20˚C

Crude oil can be separated into it’s useful fractions as they have different boiling points

The longer chain hydrocarbon has the higher boiling point because the intermolecular forces are stronger between long chain hydrocarbons compared to short chain hydrocarbons.

Problems – Exploitation of oil• Environmental –

transportation

1. Damage to bird’s feathers causing death

2. Use of detergents to clean up oil slicks and consequent damage to wildlife

• Political

1. UK dependent on oil and gas from politically unstable countries

2. Future supply issues

Supply must meet demandCracking

Picking the right fuel

TEA CUPS

oxicitynergy valuevailabilityost

sabilityollution

torage

Why is the amount of fossil fuels being burnt increasing?

• Increasing world population• Growth of use in developing

countries

Complete combustion

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Incomplete combustion (some oxygen)

CH4 + 1½O2 CO + 2H2O

Incomplete combustion (little oxygen)

CH4 + O2 C + 2H2O

Gas %

Nitrogen 78

Oxygen 21

Carbon Dioxide 0.035

Other <1

Composition of CLEAN AIR

CO2 produced by = taken in by Photosynthesis Respiration

PROBLEM – Burning Fossil Fuels Deforestation

Degassing of Early volcanoes = atmosphere of H2O and CO2

Forming the atmosphere 2.11

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Db2WAG-VVs

Earth cools and water condenses forming oceans

Development of photosynthetic organisms

Increase in O2 levels due to photosynthesis

Increase in N2 due to lack of reactivity

CO2 dissolves in oceans

Incomplete combustion of petrol and dieselin cars, lorries and buses

Sulphur in fossil fuels – coal and oilOxides of nitrogen – from petrol engines

Oxides of nitrogen – from petrol enginesPhotochemical

smog

Carbon monoxide

Acid Rain

PollutionPollution

In car engine: OIn car engine: O22+N+N2 2 2NO2NO

Catalytic converters

2CO + 2NO N2 + 2CO2

REMOVE CO

HYDROCARBONSAlkanes : CnH2n+2 SATURATED-only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. Each carbon has 4 bonds - - - Each hydrogen one bond

Methane

Ethane

Butane

Propane

Pentane

Hexane

CH4

C2H6

C3H8

C4H10

C5H12

C6H14

Alkenes:CnH2n UNSATURATED-at least one double bond between carbon atoms.

Ethene C2H4

Butene C3H6

Propene C4H8

Pentene C5H10

Hexene C6H12

Test for UNSATURATION – Add Bromine Water : Orange Colourless

PolymerisationMonomer PolymerADDITION POLYMERISATION

High TemperatureCatalyst

poly(propene)

THERMOPLASTICWeak INTERMOECULAR FORCESLow melting ptEasily Stretched

THERMOSETTINGStrong (covalent or cross links) FORCESHigh Melting ptRigid

Gore-tex – nylon laminated with PTFE/polyurethane

membrane

Rain water;Won’t fit through the holes.Gore-tex;

Has millions of tiny holes in it.

Sweat;Will fit through the holes.

SKIN

Membrane too fragile without Nylon

CookingProtein (egg)Denatured – permanently changes shape

PotatoesEasier to digest -

1. cell walls rupture resulting in loss of rigid structure and a softer texture

2. starch grains swell up and spread out.

ADDITIVESAntioxidantsFood ColourFlavour enhancerEmulsifier

Hydrophobic

Water hating attaches to oil

HydrophilicWater loving attaches to water molecules

MIXTURE = EMULSION

Baking Powder

sodiumhydrogencarbonate

Sodium +carbonate

Carbon +dioxide

water

2NaHCO3Na2CO3 CO2 H2O+ +

Making esters catalyst

alcohol + organic acid    →    ester + water sulfuric acid

methanol + butanoic    →    methyl + water acid butanoate

Volatile liquids evaporateevaporate easily.Weak attractive forces between particles – easy to overcome attractionWhy does water NOT remove nail varnish?•water-water attraction stronger than water-nail varnish attraction•Nail varnish attraction stronger than water-nail varnish attraction

Paint is a colloid http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BLVuoUmr94 muteSolid particles are mixed and dispersed with particles of a liquid but are not dissolved.

Solvent – liquid that suspends the other ingredients so it can be applied to a surface. It evaporates quickly so that the paint dries.

Binding medium-Sticks pigment to the surface

Pigment – colour suspended in the solvent.

Paints to dry the solvent must evaporate.

Oil PaintOil is oxidised by Oxygen

Emulsions paint- the solvent is water.

Thermochromic - Paints which change colour with a change in temperatureAcrylic paints can be added to give more of a range of colour changes

Phosphorescent - absorb and store energy and release it as light over a period of time. (safer)

The Structure of the Earth•Lithosphere – relatively cold and rigid outer part of the Earth (crust and upper part of the mantle)•Tectonic plates less dense than the mantle•Mantle = cold and rigid just below the crust, hot and non-rigid at greater depths (able to move)

THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS•Energy transfer involving convection currents in the semi-rigid mantle cause the plates to move slowly.•Oceanic crust is more dense than continental crust•Collision – leads to subduction and partial melting•Plates cooler at ocean margins so sink and pull plates down

Development of Theory of plate tectonics Wegener’s continental drift theory (1914) was not accepted by scientists at the time. New evidence in 1960s – show ocean floor spreading. The theory was slowly accepted as subsequent research supported the theory

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhxjAAnwNKM

Volcanoes•runny lava – fairly safe -produce iron-rich Basalt•thick lava – violent/explosive – produce silica-rich Rhyolite•Geologists study volcanoes - gather info. about Earth’s structure.•Live near - volcanic soil very fertile.Igneous rocksSlower molten rock cools= larger crystals

Difficult to study the structure of the Earth:•crust too thick to drill all the way through•Scientists study seismic waves made by earthquakes or man-made explosions.

Material How it is made

aluminium and iron metals obtained from ores

brick made from clay

glass made from sand

cement and concrete made using limestone

granite, limestone and marble

rocks mined or quarried from the ground

•Limestone – sedimentary•Marble – metamorphic – limestone put through high temp. and pressure•Granite - igneous

Thermal Decomposition of Limestonecalcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Limestone + Clay = CementCement + sand + water + aggregate = concrete

Reinforced concrete = composite material – concrete + steel.

Hardness Flexibility and strength

Electrolyte = Cu(II)SO4(aq)

Smart AlloysSmart alloys have unusual properties. Nitinol = nickel + titaniumshape memory alloy - bent out of shape, returns to original shape when heated or electric current passed through it

iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide

Salt Acid RainIron Vs SteelSteel = harder, stronger, less likely to rust

RecyclingEU law – 85% of car’s materials be recycled, >95% by 2015. Reduces amount of waste + natural resources used

Hydrogen + nitrogen Ammonia 3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)

•450°C•200atm•Iron catalyst

Production costs •energy•labour•raw materials•equipment •rate of reaction.

Economic considerations•optimum conditions used - give lowest cost not necessarily fastest reaction or highest percentage yield•rate of reaction and percentage yield - high enough to make enough product each day.

H+ + OH- H2O

Acid + alkali salt + water

Naming SaltsChloride - hydrochloric acid(HCl)Nitrate - nitric acid(HNO3)Sulphate - sulphuric acid(H2SO4) Phosphate - phosphoric acid

Neutralisation equationsBases:NH3, NH4OH, KOH, NaOH, CuOcarbonates: Na2CO3, CaCO3

Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

Fertilisers•Crops grow faster+bigger-crop yields increased. •Dissolve in water-absorb them through roots.•Essential elements: N P K

Making a fertiliser•measuring cylinder measure volume of alkali solution•burette to add acid a little at a time until the alkali has been neutralised•filter funnel to remove solid crystals of fertiliser after evaporating water from the neutral fertiliser solutionProblems

•too much fertiliser-pollute water supplies•Eutrophication - not enough O2 dissolved in water for aquatic organisms to survive

2Cl– – 2e– → Cl2 (oxidation)

2H+ + 2e– → H2 (reduction)

Hydrogen - manufacture ammonia and margarine (used to harden vegetable oils).

Chlorine -•kill bacteria •make solvents•make plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)•make household bleachIons not discharged make NaOH - used to make soap and household bleach.

sodium hydroxide + chlorine → sodium chloride + water + sodium chlorate2NaOH + Cl2 → NaCl + H2O + NaClO

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCVbAw6c0Rk

Rate of Reaction

Concentration – increases, particles become more crowded•increase the collision frequency = more successful collisions•Result = increased rate of reaction.

Temperature – increases, particles gain KINETIC ENERGY•move around more quickly/ more energetic•Particles collide more frequently with more energy •more collisions per second •more successful collisions

Pressure - If reactants are gases you can increase the pressure. •More particles per unit volume.•Increased collisions frequency •More successful collisions•Increased rate of reaction. Limiting Reactant -reactant that is all used up at the end of the reaction•amount of product formed directly proportional to amount of limiting reactant used.

How much product is formed in a fixed time period (g/s or cm3/s)

Rates of Reaction

Catalyst – increases rate of reaction•Small amount needed to catalyse large amounts of reactants•Unchanged at the end of the reaction

Surface Area – larger surface area (smaller particles) •More frequent collisions•More successful collisions•Increased rate of reaction

Fine Combustible powders - An explosion is a very fast reaction which releases a large volume of gaseous products. Danger of explosion in factories that handle powdered flammable substances; custard powder, flour, powdered sulfur.

Reaction finished

Faster rateSlower rate

Rate = gradient = y/x

Amount of product formed

relative atomic masses of all the elements in the compound added together.

Relative formula mass, Mr

O16

8

H2O

CO2

NH3

H2

O2

N2

SO2

Water

Carbon dioxide

Ammonia

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Nitrogen

Sulphur dioxide

Covalent formulae

Ionic formulae

NaClCaCl2MgOHClH2SO4

HNO3

NaOHCa(OH)2

CaCO3

Al2O3

Fe2O3

Sodium chlorideCalcium chlorideMagnesium oxideHydrochloric acidSulphuric acidNitric acidSodium hydroxideCalcium hydroxideCalcium carbonateAluminium oxideIron oxide

Conservation of mass in reactions

total mass of products =total mass of the reactants

CH

H

H

HO

O

OO

OH H

OH H

CO

O

Calculating the mass of a product

What mass of magnesium oxide is produced when 60g of magnesium is burned in air?1. READ the equation:

2Mg + O2 2MgO

3. LEARN and APPLY the following 3 points:1) 48g of Mg makes 80g of MgO2) 1g of Mg makes 80/48 = 1.66g of MgO3) 60g of Mg makes 1.66 x 60 = 100g of

MgO

2.WORK OUT the relative formula masses (Mr):

2 x 24 2 x (24+16)

48 80

What mass of hydrochloric acid is needed to produce 11.1g calcium chloride? Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2H2O

Percentage yield

Percentage yield= actual yield x100 Predicted

yield

Not 100% yield:•Filtering•Evaporation•Transferring liquids•Not all reactant made into product

Industrial processes want high percentage yield:•Reduce wasted reactants•Reduce cost

Atom economy• sustainable

development• fewer natural resources • less waste.• HOW do you know what

is a useful product?? READ THE QUESTION

Atom Economy= Mr of desired productx100 Mr of all products

The amount of starting materials that become useful products.

Exothermic Reactions

Heat given out, reactants lose energy.

Energy level diagram

Energ

y /

kJ)

Progress of reaction

Reactants

Products

The reactants start with more energy this is lost to the surroundings as heat during the reaction.

The products have less energy than the reactants

No bond between atomsHigh in energy.

Atoms now bonded lower in energy

Endothermic Reactions

Heat taken in, reactants gain energy.Surroundings get cooler

Energy level diagram

Energ

y /

kJ)

Progress of reaction

Reactants

Products

The reactants start with less energy, they gain energy from the surroundings.

The products have more energy than the reactants.

Atoms already bonded.

Bonds broken

E=mc∆TEnergy supplied (J)

Mass of water (g)

Specific heat capacity ofwater (J/g/oC)

Rise in temperature (oC)

Fuel Efficiency (J/g)

Energy supplied (J)

Mass of fuel burnt(g)

4.2 J/g/oCCalorimetry

Measure mass of fuel burntMeasure ∆T•Same volume of water•Same calorimeter•Same heating time

Batch process

•Make product on demand•small scale, Fixed amount•making drugs that have expire date. •Easy to change the product from one to another. •Very labour intensive- reactor needs to be filled emptied and cleaned.•high cost per tonne.•Time needed for cleaning and t change product line

Continuous process

•24/7 •shut down for maintenance •Haber process. •Automation-few staff cheaper per tonne.•less energy to maintain, as long as the process can be kept running. •High set up cost•Must be used constantly.

Which cooking fuel is best?

FuelTemp before

heatingin C

Temp after heating

in C

Temp change

in C

Rank order

methane 20 76

camping gas 21 73

cheap oil 19 64

expensive oil 19 66

Calculate the temperature change of a beaker of water for the same amount of each fuel. Then decide which fuel is best.

Fuel

Temp before

(C)

Temp before

(C)

Temp differenc

e (C)

Energy transferre

d (J)

Mass of fuel used (g)

Energy per gram

(J/g)

A 20 56 3.2

B 21 64 4.3

C 19 52 3.6

D 20 61 3.9

Running an airlineThese are the results presented to an airline after a test of

four fuels. Calculate the energy given off per gram of fuel for each. Which do you think is the ‘best’ fuel?

• Extracted from plants and other natural products 1. Crushed to disrupt and break the cell wall to release the desired product2. Boil in a suitable solvent to dissolve compound3. Chromatography to separate and identify individual compounds

New drugs

Expensiveresearch and development time and associated labour costs;time required to meet legal requirements including timescale for testing and human trials;anticipated demand for new product ;length of pay back time for initial investment.

TESTING• scientist need: labour/salaries/wages/cost of workers.

• electricity/energy/gas/power costs.

• Time taken to complete process.

• Equipment cost

• Health and safety issues with the drug

• Pollution controls.

• Rent, water rates all cost money.

• The question mentions two factors that are both expensive and TIME consuming.

• Learn all of these in case it comes up as a 6 mark question.

6 marks question on drugs

Answers:

NOTE: Scientist publish findings about new drugs to allow other scientist to test their findings and see if they get the same results. To allow doctors and pharmacists know about the drug. To show that their drug is safe. To give scientist chance to develop it further.

Different forms of the same element in the same physical state. Allotropes

Allotrope Properties Structure Use• Colourless• transparent• hard• high melting pt• Does not conduct

electricity• Lustrous

four strong covalent bonds

No free electrons

Cutting tools

Jewellery

• Black, opaque

• Soft, slippery• High melting pt• Conducts electricity

• Lustrous

layerslayers-weak forcesstrong covalentbondsdelocalised e-

Pencil lead

Lubricants

Electrodes

nanotubes •strong

• conductors of electricity

•black solid

•deep red when in petrol.

C60 semiconductors in electronic circuits reinforcing structures 

Dia

mon

dG

raph

iteBu

ckm

inst

er

Fulle

rene