Welcome

Welcome to BIO 204 Anatomy & Physiology II

Mrs. Wendy RappazzoAssociate Professor, Biology

Textbook Features

Learning Outcomes Illustrations and

Photos Pronunciation

Guides Checkpoint

Questions The A&P Top 100 Tips & Tricks Clinical Notes Chain Link Icons

End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials

Systems Overview Section

System in Perspective Summaries

Colored Tabs End-of-Book

Reference Sections

Important features of the textbook

Learning Supplements

Supplements The InterActive Physiology® (IP) CD HCC Portal for Mastering A and P Required &

Supplemental Material (very helpful) Get Ready for A&P! (available online) Atlas of the Human Body A&P Applications Manual Study Guide (optional)

Faculty website:

Class & Lab Supplies

● 2 – 3” 3 ring binder (recommended 1 binder per unit) with extra paper

● pencils, pens, colored pencils, highlighter● index cards● lab folder with prongs or binder

Anatomy & Physiology Review

Concepts from BIO 099/119 & BIO 203

(see also BIO 099/119 review from BIO 203 website)

Chemistry Review – Chapter 2

Chemistry Review

Elements of the Human Body

Elements of the Human Body

Elements of the Human Body

Elements of the Human Body

Chemistry Review

Inorganic OrganicWater CHOElectrolytes LipidsAcids/Bases Proteins

Nucleic Acids

pH and Homeostasis

pH The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution

pH Scale: 0 - 14 A balance of H+ and OH—

Pure water = 7.0< 7 = acidic> 7 = alkaline

pH of human blood Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45

pH and Homeostasis

pH Scale Has an inverse relationship with H+

concentration More H+ ions mean lower pH, less H+ ions mean

higher pH

pH and Homeostasis

FIGURE 2–9 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration.

Carbohydrates

Important Concepts:We only burn glucose for fuel –

Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal musclesGlycogenesis: making glycogen from glucoseGlycogenolysis: breaking glycogen down into glucoseGluconeogenesis: making glucose from amino acids &

glycerol

Lipids

Important Concepts:

Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturatedUnsaturated can be omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids – important health implications

Fatty acids & Glycerol are the preferred fuel source for many tissues.

Proteins

Proteins are the most abundant and important organic molecules

Contain basic elements : C,H,O and N

Basic building blocks 20 amino acids: essential vs. nonessential

Proteins

Enzymes are catalysts Proteins that are not changed or used up in the

reaction– specific — will only work on limited types of substrates– limited — by their saturation– regulated — by other cellular chemicals

FIGURE 2–21 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are large organic molecules, found in the nucleus, which store and process information at the molecular levelDeoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Codes for every protein Double stranded ATCG

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Important for protein synthesis Single stranded AUCG

ATP Nucleotides can be used to

store energy Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

-Two phosphate groups; di- = 2

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) -Three phosphate groups; tri- = 3

ADP + P ↔ATP + E

ATPase : The enzyme that catalyzes phosphorylation (the addition of a high-energy phosphate group to a molecule)

A Review of Cells

Cell surrounded by a watery

medium known as the extracellular

fluid (interstitial fluid)

Plasma membrane separates

cytoplasm from the ECF

Cytoplasm - Cytosol = liquid

-contains organelles

BioFlix Tour of Animal Cell

Organelles and the Cytoplasm

Cytosol (fluid) Dissolved materials:

– nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products High potassium/low sodium High protein High carbohydrate/low amino acid and fat

Organelles Structures with specific functions

Organelles Review

Organelles Review

Mitochondria

Aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)Mitochondria use O2 to break down food and produce ATPG + O2 + ADP CO2 + H2O + ATP

Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvic acidnet gain 2 ATP when anaerobic= lactic acid

Transition Reaction: pyruvic acid to acetyl Co-A

Mitochondria

Aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)Mitochondria use O2 to break down food and produce ATPG + O2 + ADP CO2 + H2O + ATP

Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA or Krebs cycle):–Acetyl CoA to CO2 (in matrix) & reduced coenzymes

Electron transport chain–inner mitochondrial membraneH+ ions used to make ATP

The Nucleus

DNAInstructions for every protein in the bodyGeneDNA instructions for one proteinGenetic codeThe chemical language of DNA instructions:–sequence of bases (A, T, C, G)Triplet code:–3 bases = 1 amino acid

Cell Differentiation

All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all body functions

Cells specialize or differentiate To form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons) By turning off all genes not needed by that cell

All body cells, except sex cells, contain the same 46 chromosomes

Differentiation depends on which genes are active and which are inactive

Cell Division

Mitosis and Cancer

Mitosis and Cancer

Mitosis and Cancer

Protein Synthesis

The Role of Gene Activation in Protein

Synthesis The nucleus contains chromosomes

Chromosomes contain DNA

DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins

Proteins determine cell structure and function

Protein Synthesis

Transcription Copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)

Translation Ribosome reads code from mRNA (in cytoplasm)

Assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain

Processing By RER and Golgi apparatus produce protein

Functions of the Plasma Membrane

Physical BarrierRegulates exchange

Ions and nutrients enter Wastes eliminated and

cellular products released

Monitors the environment Extracellular fluid

composition Chemical signals

Structural support Anchors cells and tissues

Membrane Transport

The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but

Nutrients must get in

Products and wastes must get out

Permeability determines what moves in and out of a

cell, and a membrane that

Lets nothing in or out is impermeable

Lets anything pass is freely permeable

Restricts movement is selectively permeable

Membrane Transport

Plasma membrane is selectively permeable Allows some materials to move freely Restricts other materials

Selective permeability restricts materials based on Size Electrical charge Molecular shape Lipid solubility

Membrane permeability

Diffusion

Diffusion is a Function of the Concentration Gradient & Kinetic Energy

Solutes move down a concentration gradient until?

Factors Affecting Diffusion Distance the particle has to move Molecule size Temperature Gradient size Electrical forces

FiltrationMovement of molecules due to a pressure

gradient (net filtration pressure)

Osmotic Pressure: pressure which holds water (absorption): in blood mainly due to plasma proteins

Hydrostatic Pressure: pressure which pushes molecules out of blood (filtration)

Tonicity

A cell in a hypotonic solution: Gains water Ruptures (hemolysis of red

blood cells)A cell in a hypertonic

solution: Loses water Shrinks (crenation of red

blood cells)

Carriers and Vesicles

Carrier-Mediated Transport

Facilitated diffusion Specificity: Saturation limits: Regulation:

Carriers and Vesicles

Carrier-Mediated Transport Cotransport

Two substances move in the same direction at the

same time

Countertransport One substance moves in while another moves out

Carriers and Vesicles

Carrier-Mediated Transport Active transport

Active transport proteins:– move substrates against concentration gradient– require energy, such as ATP – ion pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) – exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same

time

Carriers and Vesicles

Active transportSodium-potassium exchange pump

sodium ions (Na+) out, potassium ions (K+) in

-1 ATP moves 3 Na+ and 2 K+

Carriers and Vesicles

Active transport-Secondary active transport-Na+ concentration gradient drives

glucose transport

–ATP energy pumps Na+ back out

Carriers and Vesicles

Vesicular Transport (or bulk transport) Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles

Endocytosis (endo- = inside) is active transport using ATP:– receptor mediated

– pinocytosis

– phagocytosis

Exocytosis (exo- = outside)– Granules or droplets are released from the cell

Carriers and Vesicles

Endocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules (ligands)

Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and receptors

into the cell

Carriers and Vesicles

Endocytosis

Pinocytosis Endosomes “drink” extracellular fluid

Phagocytosis Pseudopodia (psuedo- = false, pod- = foot)

Engulf large objects in phagosomes

Carriers and Vesicles

Figure 3–22 Phagocytosis.

Carriers and Vesicles

Exocytosis

Is the reverse of endocytosis

Secretion

Transmembrane Potential

Interior of plasma membrane is slightly negative,

outside is slightly positive

Unequal charge across the plasma membrane is

transmembrane potential or RMP

Resting potential ranges from –10 mV to

–100 mV, depending on cell type

Transmembrane Potential

Determined mainly by the unequal distribution of Na+ & K+

 The cell's interior has a greater concent. of K+ and the outside has a greater concent. of Na+

 At rest the plasma membrane is relatively impermeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+

 

Transmembrane Potential

The cell has 2 types of channels:

1.) Passive (leaky)

2.) Gated

RMP animation (NS I: membrane potential page 12/16)

Transmembrane Potential

More K diffuses out of the cell than Na diffuses into the cell

Results in a loss of + charges from the cell = negative RMPCell is polarized.

Transmembrane PotentialIf too much K left the cell it

would become too negative = hyperpolarize

 If Na was allowed to accumulate inside the cell it would become less negative (more positive) or depolarize.

Also entrance of Na into the cell would change the tonicity of the cell

Transmembrane Potential

The Na-K pump functions to maintain the osmotic balance & membrane voltage

 

Transmembrane Potential

When stimulus applied:Gated Na+ channels open = depolarization

Gated K+ channels open so K+ leaves = repolarization 

Transmembrane Potential

How would changing blood/plasma Na+ & K+ levels change this process?

By changing diffusion gradient 

Transmembrane Potential

K+ leaves for repolarization because?

Hypokalemia?Hyperkalemia?

Muscle Review

Muscle Review

Neuron Review

Neurons need a constant supply of? Amitotic Conduct nerve impulses – control Blood-Brain barrier important to regulate

environment of CNSbarrier of astrocytes

CNS

Functions of? Cerebrum Cerebellum Hypothalamus Pons Medulla Oblongata

CNS

Cranial Nerves:

Glossopharyngeal #?, mixed or motor?

Vagus #?, mixed or motor?

ANS

ParasympatheticReleases AcH at cholinergic receptors Nicotinic Muscarinic 75% of all parasym.

carried by?

Effects?

SympatheticReleases NE at adrenergic receptors β1, β2, β3

α1, α2, Information carried via

ganglia & adrenal medulla

Effects?

Hormones - Yikes

Pituitary Gland

Anterior PosteriorGH CHO Sparing

Anabolic HormoneADH ↓ urine output

TSH Release of T4/T3 Oxytocin Uterine contractions

ACTH Release of Aldosterone & Cortisol

Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid ParathyroidT4/T3 ● Metabolic Hormones

● Calorigenic● Stimulates adrenergic receptors

PTH ↑ plasma Ca++ levels

Calcitonin ↓ plasma Ca++ levels

Pancreas

Beta Cells Alpha CellsInsulin ↓plasma glucose levels

▪ hypoglycemic ▪ glycogenesis▪ lipogenesis▪ protein synthesis

Glucagon ↑ plasma glucose levels▪ hyperglycemic ▪ glycogenolysis▪ gluconeogenesis▪ lipolysis

Adrenal Gland

Adrenal Cortex Adrenal MedullaAldosterone ↓plasma K+, ↑ plasma

Na+ levels

▪ ↓Na+ (& H2O) loss in urine

▪ ↑BV & BP

Epi & NE ↑ plasma glucose & FA levels▪ hyperglycemic ▪ glycogenolysis▪ gluconeogenesis▪ lipolysis▪ fight or flight▪ bind to adrenergic receptors

Cortisol “stress hormone”↑ plasma glucose & FA levels▪ immune suppressant

Gonads

Ovaries TestesEstrogen ▪ secondary sex

characteristics▪ maintains bone density▪ ↑HDL cholesterol

Testosterone ▪ anabolic ▪ ↑ hematocrit▪ secondary sex characteristics

Progesterone ▪ mainly targets uterus

Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine Organs

Stomach Small IntestineGastrin ▪ enhances digestion

▪ stimulates production of gastric juice

CCK ▪ enhances digestion ▪ stimulates release of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice

Ghrelin ▪ stimulates appetite▪ lipogenesis

Secretin ▪ stimulates release of HCO3-rich pancreatic juice

Other Hormones from Non-Endocrine Organs

Heart KidneyANF (ANP) ▪ ↑ Na+ excretion at

kidneys▪ ↑ urine output▪ ↓ BV & BP

EPO ▪ stimulates production of RBCs

Calcitriol ▪ enhances absorption of Ca++

AdipocytesLeptin ↑ use of fat for fuel

suppresses appetite

Homeostasis Review

Negative Feedback Positive Feedback▪ reverses change

○ intrinsic (autoregulation)○ extrinsic – nervous/endocrine systems

▪ examples?

▪ enhances change

▪ examples?