Volume5 Issue4(4)

Volume 5, Issue 4(4), April 2016 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia

Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Sundargarh, Odisha Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir

Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science University of Pune,Pune Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of English GITAM University Hyderabad Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences University of Sapienza, Rome Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Al-Mustansiriyah University College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Librarian Kalasalingam University Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Assistant Professor Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER®

Typeset and Printed in India

www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

C O N T E N T S

Volume 5 Issue 4(4) April 2016

S. No Page

No 1. Challenges and Opportunities of Organic Food Industry

in India Ruchi Jain and Anita Rathore

1

2. Fresh Light on Neolithic Culture of Kashmir with Special Reference to Recent Surface Collections from South Kashmir

Abdul Adil Paray

25

3. Teaching English Communication to Engineering Students – Problems & Perspectives

Abhijit Gupta

38

4. Method Education of the Buddha in PᾹLI NIKᾹYA Do Dinh Tuan

46

5. The Mao Naga Tribal Religion and Its Religious Beliefs M. Daniel

62

6. Profitability Analysis: A Comparative Study of ITC and HUL

Khyser Mohammad and Arif Arfat

71

7. Right to Life and Personal Liberty – A Study from Human Rights Perspective

T. Konaiah

97

8. Judicial Activism: Directive Legislation by the Supreme Court of India

Jagtar Singh

116

9. Analytical Study on Channels of Distribution in Marketing

D. Srujan Kumar

124

10. Attitude of Teachers towards the Development of Moral Values among High School Students

A.Bharathi and C.Grace Indira

134

11. Aggrandized Aspect Based Mosaicing Technique for Scientifically Stigmatized Airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar

D.Bhavya Lakshmi and N.Sathianandam

147

12. Alcohol & Drug Demand Reduction and Preventive Policies

B.Mukunda Naidu

161

13. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 C.Ramanaja Neyulu

172

14. Evolution in HR Practices: Changing The Face of Business

Chitra

192

15. Higher Education in India-Issues & Challenges D. Eswara Rao

202

16. Fertility and Mortality Trends of Malas in the Select Mandals of Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh

Enamala Ramesh Babu

210

17. Understanding of Education with Philosophical Perspective

Ravitheja Tirumalasetty

230

18. Effective Communication Skills B.V.Srinivasa Rao

244

19. Adaptation of Outcome Based Learning for Commerce Teachers and Teacher Educators

Anshu Radha Aggarwal

259

20. The Doctrine of Kamma in Pali Buddhism Renu

276

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit)

Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :3.318(2015)

Index Copernicus Value: 5.16

Editorial……

You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.

We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.

Dr.K.Victor Babu

Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

www.ijmer.in

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 4(4), APRIL 2016

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES OF ORGANIC FOOD INDUSTRY IN INDIA

Dr. Ruchi Jain Sr. Asstt. Professor

Department of Business Studies IIS University, Jaipur

Ms. Anita Rathore Research Scholar

The IIS University Jaipur

Abstract

This paper focus on the challenges faced by the organic food industry in market and also describe about the opportunities for this industry in India. The organic food market in India is increases from 675 crore in 2010 to 7000 crore in 2015 with a CAGR of 60 percent. Rising health awareness, changing lifestyle of today’s consumers, higher disposable income and increase in number of model retails outlet across the country are the major growth drives for organic food segment. Still organic food industry is not on that level which it actually deserves. There is high increase in this industry but still it is not on that level.

People are not much aware about these products. Price and availability are the two main constrains behind organic food industry. Government is planning many programs for the growth of this industry. Parampragat Krishi Vikas Yojna is a new program started by Modi government for the growth of this industry. In this research paper there is a brief description on what are the challenges like high maintains cost, fertilizer and many more challenges facing by these industry and how these companies are dealing with this problems.

Key word: organic, economic situation, health, awareness, domestic

market, export market

1. Introduction

In India organic food market is the most rapidly increasing market. The organic food market in India is increases from 675 crore in 2010 to 7000 crore in 2015 with a CAGR of 60 percent. On 1 Jan 2016 our respected

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Prime Minister Narendra Modi said that the north east has the potential to initiate second green revolution in the country. North east and Assam have so much water, fertile land and hard working farmers. The first green revolution happened in Punjab and Haryana. Now second Green revolution can be take place in this region.

First of all the question arise that what is organic food?

Simply stated organic food products are grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizer, and sewage sludge. They are pure

natural and produced by the old methods of agriculture. Animal that products meat, poultry, eggs and dairy/milk products do not take antibiotics or grown hormones. Any type of artificial or chemical is not use in these products due to that these products are safe for health and for environment In India consumers are becoming health conscious that is the key factor for the increase for this market. Other than that higher income level, improving living standard and favorable government are the initiatives behind the growth of organic food market. Now a day’s consumers are moving to organic products than convention products for their health safety. More increase in popularity and increase in demand for these products they are available in supermarket and outlet. There arability is increase and consumer can buy them from supermarket and from there outlet before a product is labeled to be organic a government approved certifier inspects the farm

where the food will be product to see where the farmer following all the rules set by the government or not. Companies that are producing organic food must be certified from the government before they sell their products in supermarket or outlet. People around the world are becoming more aware of the environmental stresses humans are placing on the planet. Newspapers, magazines, television, and other media feature wide coverage of environmental problems, whether they are local or global. Many consumers now display concern about environmental deterioration. Increasingly often they ask how much

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impact a product will have on the environment during its lifespan or during its disposal. This is the major impetus for organic products. A closely related reason is the competitive advantage or sales potential that some corporations now see in organic products. One of the biggest problems in today’s world is pollution. The increase in population and the rapid surge in number of people is the main reason behind environmental issues. Indeed, the increase in population means the growth of solid waste, increase in wastewater and a substantial increase

in noise pollution, etc.

2. Organic food industry in India

In India organic food industry is growing at a very high speed. The organic food market is growing at 25-30 per cent and is increases from 675 crore in 2010 to 7000 crore in 2015. A released study state that’s the domestic organic food market would touch the $1.36 billion mark by 2020. In 2014 this market was highly unorganized was $0.36 billion and the fruits and food grains took the share from the market. In India the total organic production in the country was 2.85 million tons while the total area under organic farming was 0.723 million hectares under certification. 3 percent that is 70,000 tonnes of the production is exported from India that cost Rs 699 crore. 13 percent of total production that is 240,000 tonnes is for domestic sales which cost Rs 1000 crore. 84 percent that is Rs 5640 crore is sold as conventional .The untapped potential is Rs 4050 crore. US import its 2 percent of organic food from India. Organic fruit and dairy products are expected to grow

by 10 11 percent in next six years. In India at present total 12 states are practicing in organic farming out of which two states are from northeast Sikkim and Mizoram. These two states are likely to become fully organic in next few years. Government of Sikkim had adopted the idea of making it organic state in 2003. It is hard step to be taken which takes a very long period. Northeast is fully organic zone of India. Sikkim farmer’s mission 2015 is to convert 50,000 hectare of farmland

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by next years. In 2010 2011the target was 14000 and in 2012 2013 it was 14000 hectares. The decision to go organic was based on the premise that farming in Sikkim was traditionally organic and it would benefit not only the 62000 farming families of the state who own an average of 1.9 hectare of farmland. But also maintain the quality of environment of the state. The third largest organic state with over 32000 hectare under organic or under conversion, bring under the tag over 47000 farmers. Next to it Himachal Pradesh has 5800 farmers but

they have hug organic farming area at 631902 hectare. Major organic food produced in Himachal Pradesh is amaranths, basmati rice, finger millet, maize, wheat, turmeric, ginger, Soyabeans, Rajma and medicine. Different type of pulses is also produced in this area. Many more village and area are waiting for the certification by the effects of this state government

This market is growing at a very high speed still there is more potential to grow. Government is spending crore of rupees on organic farming. Government is planning many programs and subsidies programs to promote organic food production. India is capable of growing all kind of organic food products. India has fertile land, water resources and hard working farmer which can make a huge amount of production of organic food. For this farmers must be educated to boost organic production/cultivation. These organic foods not only protect land and

water resources but also improve farmers income and there living standard. In India the awareness of organic food products is very low and it is limited to metro cities only. Some of the studies suggest that the companies in collaboration with government should organize training programs and must increase the awareness level for this product. Indian consumer are becoming more and more health conscious and the by which there is high growth in organic food market. Organic food promising alternative for the population concerned about the consequences on high amount of chemical in food

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products which badly affect both the consumer and the environment. The decision of an individual towards the consumption of organic food is highly depended on their awareness level, its economic condition and on the availability of the products. If a consumer is willing to pay high price for good or organic products but the availably is not proper then how that consumer will be loyal to the brand and how he will regularly use organic food products. The organic food market is extremely nascent in India at present with very few brands and low penetration

even in urban cities consumers. People are not so aware about these products and not using them. We can say that the price factor is a very important factor due to which consumers are not moving to organic food.

Indian green leaders

Top organic states and the major crops they grow

States Total certified area in ha Main cultivated crops

Madhya Pradesh 2866571.88 Cotton, oilseeds, cereals like maize and sorghum, pulses

Himachal Pradesh 631, 901. 99 Fruit, vegetable, cereals like maize and sorghum, wheat, pulses

Rajasthan 217, 712.19 Oilseeds, cotton cereals like maize and sorghum, spices

Maharashtra 177,345.48 Cotton, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, pulses

Uttar Pradesh 111,644.83 Cereals like maize and sorghum fruit and vegetables, rice

Uttarakhand 105,465. 98 Cereals like maize and sorghum, herbs and medicine, oilseeds, rice.

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2.78

1.77 1.55

1.03

0.93

0.39 0.14

0.15

0.25 0.3

10 developing counties with most organically managed land million of hectare

Argentina

Brazil

China

India

Uruguay

Mexico

Ethiopia

Tunisla

Ukraine

Uganda

75

175

25 20

85

65 120

435

Main companies selling organic food total market size Rs 1000 crore

source : The Indian organic food market , Yes bank

Morarka

Organic india

Navdanya

Fabindia

Ecofarm

24 letter mantra

consicous food

Other

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3. Benefits of organic food

3.1 Great taste: Taste is the very important factor for consumer to

adopted organic food. The taste of organic food is far better and delicious as compare to non organic food. In many studies it is found that consumers are moving to organic food because of its taste. Fruit and vegetable are much more taster than it’s grown with chemical. Organic food is grown with those old methods of agriculture where no chemical is used due to that it tastes great and consumer like.

3.2 High quality: The quality of organic food is meet with extremely

high standards to be called as organic. Before a product is labeled to be organic a government approved certifier inspects the farm where the food will be product to see where the farmer following all the rules set by the government or not. Companies that are producing organic food must be certified from the government before they sell their products in

supermarket or outlet. When the consumer looks at the product organic and sees it is certified by the quality assurance international standards. Defiantly the consumer feels confident to buy that product.

3.3 Soil Erosion: Currently soil erosion and land pollution is huge

problem. The farmers and other people on earth have no respect for the land and their activities make the soil polluted. Organic farming/ food focus on the protection of soil because nowadays farmers understand that without soil there will be no farming and no crops. Farmers do not use any chemical on the soil which protect the land

3.4 Health benefits: Now day’s consumers are becoming more health

conscious due to that they are moving to organic food products. Whether people have health problems at old age or they are aware about the chemical and pesticides used in non organic food they are moving to organic food products. Parents want to give best health to their children so for their betterment organic food is best. The animals from which we get milk meat or eggs are feed by organic raw food so

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the output must be organic and pure. The employees work in it also gets benefited because no chemicals are used and it is good for their health.

3. 5 Wildlife Benefits: Organic farms are aware that on this planet

we the human beings are not only the creature but the animal insects also live on it. So the farmers focus on the whole eco system and product such organic crops that are useful for wildlife also. These farmers also manage pond, wetlands and many other activities to preserve animal including to their farming activities.

3.6 Support farmers: Organic farmers and other people include in

these activities gets a great benefit. First of all they get health benefits no chemical is used and they are safe. In non organic farming many

chemical and pesticides are used which badly harm the farmers. The farmer gets cancers, stomach problem and many skin diseases from these chemical. Second are they are getting economical benefits. In organic farming less input cost is required and in reply to that they get great premium from the outputs only they need is hard work and passions.

3. 7 Water: These organic food products not only protect land but also

protect water to get polluted. In no organic food harmful chemical and pesticide are used which mix with our water supply. This harmful chemical damage for health and we get suffer from many dieses. In market many purifiers are available but they are not much effective on their harmful chemicals. So organic food protect the water to get polluted and also protect us from many diseases.

3.8 Innovation: Organic food is products without the use of chemical

and instead of these chemical many innovative methods are used for cultivation. These farmers indulge in this new innovative methods and product organic food. These food items are safe for human beings and also safe for environment. Government regulated several programs to

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educated farmers about these methods. These methods motivate farmers to cultivate organic food which is beneficial to environment, human health and for the welfare of farmers.

3. 9 Strengthen species of food: In today’s world the major

environmental problem is we are losing a entire species of food. Many of the food products with was grown in past not they are not available. These chemical base farming spoil all the many of the species crops. This organic food farming tries to solve this problem by breeding many species to keep them in existence. These farmers are cataloguing every species and retaining seeds for future use and so that they can be

reproduces.

3.10 Safe for babies and children: The advantage or organic food is

very high for the babies and children. A baby born with 200 toxins carcinogen. By the time when he becomes 2 years old baby must have excited its limits for toxins. Feeding children by organic food a parent can decrease 1/6 amount of harmful chemical to indulge in its blood. By this babies immunity power increase which is incredibly important.

4. SWOT analysis of Organic food industry

Strengths Weakness Health and safety food Comparative advantage in

organic food production Better soil health Environment safety Low production cost High standard of quality with

nutrition Premium prices High water use efficiency Government policies like

NPOP Strengthen species/ varieties

of food

Not have established market Less incentives and subsidies

from government Production gaps Not have proper quality

management in production and processing

Less Rand D investment on organic farming research

Less strategy for development of organic market

Poor quality of organic inputs High labor cost and intensive

nature

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Large number of small farmers with weak organizational building

Opportunities Threats Growing market potential Increasing purchase power of

consume Increasing health awareness Reduce heavy subsidies on

food and fertilizers Control harmful chemicals Earning high export

premiums

Price Certification process Lack of facilities and

certification bodies Only export regulated

organic market Less awareness Introduction of GM crops

5. Opportunities

Organic farming is a growing market with several opportunities. In India have strong comparative and seasonal advantages in organic food market. Opportunities like purchase power of consumers, consumer’s health awareness, earning export premium and many more. Organic food industry is growing at a rate of 25 to 30 percent. The huge untapped potentialities in organic food market are discussed below:

5.1 Growing market potential: In India organic food market is the

most rapidly growing market. The organic food market in India is increases from 675 crore in 2010 to 7000 crore in 2015 with a CAGR of

60 percent this market is growing at 25-30 percent. The production and

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purchase figures are less from world average. Still price is the biggest factor behind consumer not moving towards organic food products. At some points this factor overcome factors such as health, taste, nutrition, quality and better environment. The global organic market was estimated at USD 90 billion in 2015 of this India share 0.6 percent only. To trap this potential market government Narender modi start a program named as Parampragat Krishi Vikas Yojna.

This market is growing at a very high speed still there is more potential

to grow. Government is spending crores of rupees on organic farming. Government is planning many programs and subsidies programs to promote organic food production. India is capable of growing all kind of organic food products. India has fertile land, water resources and hard working farmer which can make a huge amount of production of organic food. For this farmers must be educated to boost organic production/cultivation. These organic foods not only protect land and water resources but also improve farmers income and there living standard. In India the awareness of organic food products is very low and it is limited to metro cities only. Some of the studies suggest that the companies in collaboration with government should organize training programs and must increase the awareness level for this product. In 2015, India’s organic food sector was estimated to be INR 27 billion (approximately USD 415 million). While the domestic market

largely remains untapped due to reasons such as unawareness and high cost, the Indian organic food market is primarily driven by exports to developed nations The report predicts that by 2025 the Indian organic food business is likely to be USD 11 billion, a manifold growth from the current level. However, for such exponential growth both export and domestic markets are crucial. This would mean an additional USD 2 billion income per annum for farmers, impacting about 5 million farming families on about 6 million ha.

Source: http://mediaindia.eu/sector/organic-food/

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5.2 Growing purchasing power of consumers: The Gross Domestic

Product per capita in India was last recorded at 5565.05 US dollars in 2014, when adjusted by purchasing power parity (PPP). The GDP per Capita, in India, when adjusted by Purchasing Power Parity is equivalent to 31 percent of the world's average. GDP per capita PPP in India averaged 3120.57 USD from 1990 until 2014, reaching an all time high of 5565.05 USD in 2014 and a record low of 1760.02 USD in 1991. GDP per capita PPP in India is reported by the World Bank.

Last Previous highest Lowest Unit

GDP Growth rate

1. 90

1. 70

5.30

- 1. 70

Percent

GDP Annual growth rate

7.30 7.40 11.40 -5.20 Percent

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Source: www.tradingeconomics.com/india/gdp-per-capita-ppp

From the above data we can know that GDP per capital is increasing that means the consumer income and there purchase power of consumer in increasing. In organic food products price is a very big factor. Now consumers have purchase power and they are willing to pay more for these organic food products. Consumers are becoming more health conscious and now they want to eat best quality product. This is a very big opportunity for organic food market in India. In metro cities

a large consumer are taking organic food. And now government is also planning different programs to grow up this organic food industry.

5.3 Increasing health awareness: Till now organic food production

is mainly exported but now finding more consumers in domestic market. Health is the main key reason behind the increase in demand of organic food products in market. Great taste and protection to environment are also factors. Now day’s consumers are becoming more health conscious due to that they are moving to organic food products. Parents want to give best health to their children so for their betterment organic food is best. Whether people have health problems at old age or they are aware about the chemical and pesticides used in non organic food they are moving to organic food products. The employees work in it also gets benefited because no chemicals are used and it is good for their health. The animals from which we get milk meat or eggs are feed by organic raw food so the output must be organic and pure. Organic fruit and vegetables have up to 50 percent more

antioxidants, which scientists believe can cut the risk of cancer and heart dieses. Organic food products have more vitamins like iron and zinc. Organic food is better for fighting cancer. And eating organic food have improved immune system, better sleeping habits and are less likely to be overweight than when eating non organic foods. And are less and are less likely to be overweight than when eating. By all this benefits consumers are moving to organic food products. Consumers’

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are more health conscious and they are willing to pay more for organic products.

5.4 Reduce heavy subsidies on food and fertilizers : India is

expected to spend Rs 2.27 lakh crore ($37 billion) on major subsidies during the fiscal year starting April 1, according to budget proposals presented by finance minister Arun Jaitley on Saturday. Out of Rs 2.27 lakh crore, India is to provide Rs 1.24 lakh crore ($20.11 billion) in food subsidies for the fiscal year 2015-16. But overall, subsidies on food, fertilizer and petroleum have been reduced by over 10 per cent to Rs 2.27 lakh crore for 2015-16, mainly due to a sharp cut in petroleum

subsidies. The subsidy bill on food, petroleum and fertilizers is estimated at Rs 2, 27,387.56 crore for 2015-16.

Source: www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/budget-2015/union-budget-2015

Governments subsidy pay out in Rs crore

2011/ 2012

Actual

2012/ 2013

Actual

2013/ 2014

Actual

2014/2015 RE

2015/2016 BE

Fertilizer subsidy

70,013 65,613 67,339 70, 967 72, 968

Food subsidy

72,822 85,000 92,000 122,676 124,419

Petroleum subsidy

68,484 96,880 85,378 60,270 30,000

Interest subsidy

5,049 7,270 8,137 11,147 14, 903

Other subsidy

1, 573 2,316 1, 778 1,632 1, 520

Total 217, 941

257,079 24,632 266,692 243,811

RE: revised estimated, BE: budget estimated

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5. 5 Earn high export earnings: In India organic food market is the

most rapidly growing market. The organic food market in India is increases from 675 crore in 2010 to 7000 crore in 2015 with a CAGR of 60 percent this market is growing at 25-30 percent. India exports 13 products last year with total volume of 194088 including 16322 MT organic textiles. The organic agric export realization was 403 million US $ including 183 US $ organic textiles registering a 7.73 percent growth over the previous year. Around 3000 tonnes of organic products worth the value of around USD 8.1 million was exported to different Asian market in 2014 2015. The major Asian markets volume wise were

Israel, turkey, china with Japan leading at USD 4 million. A research reports predicts that by 2025 the Indian organic food business is likely to be USD 11million, a manifold growth from the current level. However, for such exponential growth both export and domestic market are crucial. This would mean an additional USD 2 billion income per annum for annum for farmers, impacting about five million farming families on about 6 million ha.

India ranks 10th among the top ten countries in term of cultivable land under organic certification. The certified areas include 15 percent cultivated area with 0.72 million hectares and rest 85 percent 3. 99 million hectare is forest and wild area for collection of minor forest products. The total area under organic certification is 4.72 million hectare. Indian marketer retails these products at much lower price. For example in India a product is for $3 while the same product in

retailed in the foreign market at approximately $ 22. This huge price difference is the real margin come from outside the Indian market. Organic products are exported to US, European Union, Canada, Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, South East Asian countries, Middle East, South Africa etc.

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Export Products

Products name Percentage of total export

Oil seeds and soybean 70 percent

Cereals and millets other than basmati

6 percent

Processed food products 5 percent

Basmati rice 4 percent

Sugar 3 percent

Tea 2 percent`

Pulses and lentils 1 percent

Dry fruits 1 percent

Spices 1 percent

Others **

Source: www.apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/organic

6. Challenges

Organic food industry is growing and having a great premium but the companies dealing in organic food have to face some big challenges in this industry. These challenged/ obstacles are making the making to grow slowly. To overcome these challenges is a big task for companies working in this industry. Some of these challenges are discuss below:

6.1 Certification in India: Certification agencies play an important

role for producers in facilitation access to organic market especially on the export level. This certification is very important and for all the

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companies. Before any Company sell its product in market they must be certified. Before 2003this certification is important for exports only but now government of India issue a law in which every company deali6ng in organic food must be certified. This certification process and cost is very high which is the biggest challenge for organic food industry in India. This process is very lengthy and time taking. Every certification agency has their own certification process. But commonly process used is belief below:

Step 1: Submitting of Application

Step 2: cost estimation

Step 3: invoicing and payment of fees

Step 4: Signing of inspection contract

Step 5: inspection and submitting inspection report to the certification department.

Step 6: Issuance of certification decision

Step 7: Compliance of certification decision and issuance of certification

Step 8: issue of transaction certificates/ inspection certificates for traded lots

According to all organic regulations, one annual inspection is compulsory for all the clients. At present in India there are 24 certification bodies are working and approved by central governments ministry of commerce. There name are mentioned below:

1) Bureau Varitas Certification India Pvt. Ltd

2) Ecocert India Pvt. Ltd

3) Imo Control Private Limited

4) Indocert

5) Lacon Quality Certification Pvt Ltd

6) Sgs India Pvt Ltd

7) Control Union Certification

8) Uttranchal State Organic Certification Agency

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9) Apof Organic Certification Agency

10) Rajasthan Organic Certification Agency

11) Vedic Organic Certification Agency

12) Indian Society For Certification Of Organic Products

13) Foodcert India Pvt Ltd

14) Aditi Organic Certification Society

15) Chattisgarh Certification Society

16) Tamil Nadu Organic Certification Department

17) Intertek India Pvt Ltd

18) Madhya Pradesh State Organic Certification Agency

19) Biocert India Pvt Ltd

20) Odisha State Organic Certification Agency

21) Natural Organic Certification Agro Pvt Ltd

22) Faircert Certification Services Pvt Ltd

23) Gujarat Organic Products Certification Agency

24) Uttar Pradesh State Organic Certification Agency

There are certain constrains affecting the certification of organic food products. Considering the various parameters involved in the certification of organic products, producers and exporters state that the biggest challenge in organic food industry is the certification process. Major constrains affecting organic certification:

Cost

Quality

Lengthy procedure

Availability of service

International validity

complicated

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6.2 Consumer Awareness: The second biggest challenge for organic

food industry is the awareness/ education of consumers. In India less than 30 percent of total population is aware about these products which are mainly in urban area. The sales ratio of organic food products to non organic food products is 1: 10. Yes it is true that organic industry is increasing at 20 25 percent but still there is a huge untapped market in this industry. Companies are doing their best. They are producing best quality product with certification but still some of the consumers think that it’s only a marketing strategy for product sales. Due to less demand of organic food in domestic market majorly production is for

exports only. Government is planning different programs for the education of consumer and for farmers so that both of them get profit. If some of the people know about organic products still didn’t use it, it’s all because of high price. The marketing of organic food products is very low. There is no television commercial, or internet used by companies for their consumer education. They rarely have posters or banners on road and other public place .Rather than this non organic food products have a hug marketing campaigns and by the help of marketing they have reach to every part of India whether it is urban cities or rural area.

6.3 Managing Price: Price is one of the biggest factor due to which

organic food industry didn’t get that growth which it really deserve. Every individual have its own economic conditions and purchase power. The purchase power of India is grown but still there is a huge population which is below poverty line. Some consumers can afford these products easily but for some consumer these products can’t be

afforded. There is a huge difference between organic and non organic food products. The sales ratio of organic and non organic food products is 1: 10. The price of organic products is double of non organic products but why the price is high. The price of organic food includes farmer training cost, processing cost, logistics and distribution cost since

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volume are lower, inventory holding cost including storage losses as no chemical is used, packing cost, premium to farmers, and last one retailer margin. All these cost add in the price of organic food product due to which the price got double and is not affordable by everyone.

Here is a comparison between the price of organic and non organic food products. Those products are compared which are used in daily kitchen.

24 letters mantra

Navdanya Morarka Non organic Product Weight

Wheat Flour 5 kg 240 225 249 150

Ghee 500 ml 600 750 595 390

Edible oil/

Mustard oil

1 ltr 200 229 190 115

Pulses

Chana dal

1 kg 155 165 170 95

Dalia 500 gm 65 70 55 28

Tea ½ kg 525 475 600 150

Rice 1 kg 195 225 200 189

Red chili 100 gm` 50 75 50 26

Green cardamom

50 gm 200 195 210 148

4 Marketing and Promotion: In organic food industry marketing is

very low. Pamphlets in newspaper, posters in supermarket and public places, door to door selling, follow up from customers are the some frequently used marketing strategy used by organic food companies. Special marketing strategies used by these companies are food event/ special parties. In these event/ parties they invite their customers and people to taste there organic food products and try to convince them to move on their products. This strategy is commonly used by the organic food producing companies. On the other hand non organic food

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companies have a hug budget for their marketing department. They use T.V advertisement, banner, posters, radio, celebrities show, internet, social media and many more for their promotion. There marketing strategy is so strong and wide that these non organic food products is available and know in every part of India whether it is urban area or rural area. There distribution channel is also so wide that these products are easily available at any place. There marketing is so strong that some of the consumers speak companies name instead of product

name for example Colgate is a company name but they used it for toothpaste, Xerox is a company name and they used it for photocopy and many more.

So for organic food companies is a very big challenge to beat the marketing strategy of non organic food products. There publicity/awareness in consumers are so strong that to fit their products in consumers mind is a challenge. Some of the consumers understand the importance of organic food so they move on them but still there are a hug number of consumers who consume non organic food products. Some of the consumers think that it’s only a marketing strategy for their sales. So it’s a big challenge for organic food companies to make the consumers aware about their product and convince them to move.

6. 5 Farmer’s education: In India total agriculture land is 60.6

percent that is 157.35 million hectare. Millions of farmers are cultivating crops on this area. Out of this 4.72 million hectare of land

area is an organic certified land in 2015. The organic food market in India is increases from 675 crore in 2010 to 7000 crore in 2015 with a CAGR of 60 percent Source: www.agcensus.nic.in. India comes on second place worldwide for the agriculture production. In India at present total 12 states are practicing in organic farming out of which two states are from northeast Sikkim and Mizoram. These two states are likely to become fully organic in next few years. Government of

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Sikkim had adopted the idea of making it organic state in 2003. Sikkim farmer’s mission 2015 is to convert 50,000 hectare of farmland by next years

It is clear that a very few area is organic certified and a small number of famers are cultivating organic food. This is because organic food needs time and proper method/ technology for the production. Farmers must be fully trained and aware about the process of cultivation. After the cultivation they must know how to protect their crop and in

warehouse they must know that how to maintain their freshness and quality. Organic farming is a long process. A farmer must leave its farm for 3 year before he starts its production. After 3 years the land become fully organic and the farmer get certification then after he can start his production. The organic crops have no chemical and pesticides due to which they grow slowly and there production is less than the non organic crops. The method and process for proper cultivation is very important for farmers. If the farmers have not proper knowledge about the process then it can damage its crop and farmer may get a great loss. So it’s a big challenge for farmer to get proper education/ knowledge about the cultivation of organic crops. Indian government has stated many new programs to make the farmer educated about the cultivation of organic crop. Our prime minister has started a program named as Parampragat Krishi Vikas Yojna. In this program every state

government is planning different training program for farmer’s education. Our government takes many more steps for farmers welfare like giving them subsidies, training school, online education, fund any many more. But still a hug number of farmers are not educated about the method. Farmers think that they get less premium due to less production but they didn’t know about the price and government planes for their betterment. Farmers still continues to non organic food cultivation because it is easy to produce with huge production and premium. This is really a big challenge for organic food industry to

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make the farmers educated and convince them to cultivate organic food.

6.6 Maintain Quality: For organic food product industry it is a hug

challenge to maintaining quality of their products with the price. The fertilizer used in organic crop is mush costly then the fertilizer used in non organic. This fertilizer don’t have chemical and it is natural made by animal excitation and other natural products. Use of this fertilizer is most of the organic farmers to maintain the quality and naturalists of the product/ crop. The use of costly fertilizer automatically increases the price of the product.

Crop rotation chemical weed killers, organic farmers conduct sophisticate crop rotation to keep their soil healthy and prevent weed growth. After harvesting a crop an organic farmer may use that area crop to grow cover crop which adds nitrogen to the soil to benefit succeeding crops. On the other hand non organic farmers can grow the crop at any time with most profit. They don’t have to wait for crop rotation because they use chemical to grow the crops. Organic farmers have to wait and grow the crop according the soil and atmosphere. It is a challenge that it directly affects the supply shortage as compare to non organic food. In order to avoid cross contamination, organic produce must be separated from non organic produce after being harveste.non organic crop shipped in large qualities and they are produce in large quantity. There sipping charges are not so high due to bulk shipping. On the other hand organic produce are shipped in small

amount resulting high cost and increase the price of the product. The farmer usually located far from the main cities it also increase the shipping cost. So to do the shipping and distribution in a budget is a tough job. . Non organic farmers use certain chemicals to reduce their loss of crops like synthetic pesticides repel insects and antibiotics maintain the health of the livestock. Since organic farmers don’t use these, their losses are higher which cost the farmers more and increase

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the cost to the consumer. Organic crops didn’t stay for long time because they don’t have preservatives. To maintain the quality and freshness of the crops is a big problem for all the companies. Organic food faces the problem of shorter storage time and shelf life.

Bibliography

1) Cela Samit May 2012 “The Study Of The Attitude And Purchase Behavior Of Customers Towards Environmentally Friendly Products”.

2) Chakrabarti Somnath 2010 “Factors influencing organic food purchase in India – expert survey insights” Vol. 112 ISSN: 8, Pp.902 – 915.

3) Emma Rex and Henrikke Baumann Beyond 2008 “Eco labels: What Green Marketing Can Learn from Conventional Marketing” Pages 567- 576.

4) Michaelidou Nina and Louise M. Hassan 2008 “The role of health consciousness, food safety concern and ethical identity on attitudes and intentions towards organic food” Vol: 32, Issue 2, Pp 163–170

5) Netravathi Vasudevaraju S and Sanjeev Padashetty 2013 ‘Organic Food Products: A Conceptual Overview” ISSN (O): 2279-0942, Vol:2, No 2

6) Polonsky, Michael bhaskaran suku, cary , john and fernanddez 2006“Environmentally sustainable food production and marketing : opportunity or hype?” Vol.108,no.8 , Pp.697-720

Webliography

www.agcensus.nic.in

www.apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/organic

www.tradingeconomics.com/india/gdp-per-capita-ppp

www.organic.org

www.morarka.com

http://ncof.dacnet.nic.in/

http://apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/organic/Organic_Products.htm

http://organicshop.in/

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FRESH LIGHT ON NEOLITHIC CULTURE OF KASHMIR WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RECENT SURFACE

COLLECTIONS FROM SOUTH KASHMIR

Abdul Adil Paray M. Phil. Research Scholar

Jammu & Kashmir Introduction

The knowledge about the Neolithic culture in Kashmir is based mainly on the excavated sites of Burzohom (1960-71) and Gufkral (1980-82) and the material culture found there. However, there are more than fourty explored and identified unexcavated Neolithic settlements in Kashmir. One can find abundance of fragmented Neolithic ceramics and scarce of other artifacts on surface almost at these sites. The

literature available regarding prehistory in general and Neolithic culture of South Kashmir in particular is very scarce and for most of the sites is nil, as one can see the passing references or just names of the sites mentioned in the Indian Archaeology-A Review volumes, without any description. So the reason of working on this topic is the deteriorating condition of the sites, which need the attention and care from the concerned institutions, departments and scholars of the subject.

Aims and Objectives of the Study

1) The present research work is intended for exploration and documentation of South Kashmir Neolithic sites.

2) The main aim of the study is collate archaeological information available regarding the Neolithic culture of South Kashmir, from written as well as field sources.

3) To recover the artifacts or surface evidences of the period in the shape of pottery, stone tools, and other finds.

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4) To recover data that may provide information relating to the social character of the sites, their status, function, technology and economy.

5) To make recommendations for appropriate future research on the Neolithic culture of Kashmir.

6) To trace the relationships, similarities and differences between the sites by analyzing the data collected.

Methodology

As it has been identified that researchers doing archaeology need more sophisticated ways to visualize and interact with their data in order to assess patterns that cannot otherwise be captured. The following

methods have been used in the study:

1) To observe the site features, availability of resources and surface finds through field survey and write their detailed description.

2) To use multiple lines of evidences including material remains, documentary sources and oral testimony to develop understanding of Neolithic culture of the region.

3) Application of both qualitative and quantitative methods by collecting data through which certain facts are obtained, analyzed and conclusions are drawn.

4) The use and analysis of archaeological data in the form of stone tools, beads etc. which comprise primary source for the study.

5) Use of exploration and excavation reports in particular and other literature in general about the area to prove my enquiry into the hypothesis.

Hypothesis

The settlement pattern, distribution and number of Neolithic sites

located in south Kashmir and the cultural sequence obtained in the area so for, material remains found there by surface collections and

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during excavation etc. show that south-Kashmir was the hub of Neolithic activities in Kashmir. Gufkral was earlier site and nucleus of Neolithic sites found in its close vicinity.

Description of the Artifacts Found during Field Survey:

The tool assemblage of the Neolithic Kashmir collected from the excavated sites is mainly represented by the stone and bone implements with some miscellaneous objects of other materials. Same type of remains of the period has been collected during the field survey of the sites under study. A brief description of the material remains collected during the field survey from the sites of the Neolithic period

used by the Neolithians of South Kashmir is given as under. The names and functions of these tools are determined on the basis of morphological resemblance and parallels from modern tools and not by using any scientific reasoning.

A Stone Celt:

A polished stone Celt or a ground axe of shale stone, about 18.6 cm long, 58.52 mm broad and 40.71 mm thick at centre and 17.16 mm at the cutting edge was found at Gufkral. (Plate I, No. 1) It is roughly cylindrical in appearance and broader at the cutting edge, narrower at the butt end and squarish or elongated in form. The broader surface invariably meets in a gentle slope to form a median cutting edge. The lateral sides are thick, square and tapering in a gentle slope. The butt end is round. It seems that the Celt was not hafted because of its size and weight. It might have been held free hand and was intended for heavy work. The possible purposes of the Celt were cutting, chopping, dressing, shaping, splitting etc. of the things. The celt might have been

used for cutting trees, chopping, slicing of fruit, vegetables, meat, grass, etc. The Celt was recovered in a cave.

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Bone Pendant:

A 4.91 mm long, 22.7 mm broad bone pendant of animal bone with rounded heads tapering towards the centers with 18.99 mm thickness was found at Gufkral (Plate I, No. 2). It seems a joint bone of an animal and a hole had been pierced through one end for hanging purpose. It might have been a neck ornament used as a pendant. Besides the rough hole no other work has been done on it.

Disc with circular Hole:

Item No. 3 on Plate I is a half or semi-circle disc with a circular hole. It has been polished and designed from a shale stone with18.74 mm whole. It is thick at centre thinner while moving towards its edges. Its both faces are finely polished and forming cutting edge all along the

outer periphery. The artifact is 126.69 mm long, 38.82 mm broad at the centre and 12.8 mm thick at middle. It might have been used as spindle whorl or a harvesting tool. A similar half of the disc was found during excavation of the site in 1981-82. This half was found at the slope of the mound at Gufkral.

Spindle Whorl or Mace Head:

It is a ring stone with 46.63 mm diameter and 11.38 mm thick made from shale stone (Plate I, No. 4). It has a perforation or a hole at the middle creating depressions at the centre on both sides. It is not much grounded. It might have been used as spindle whorl intended to act as a fly wheel on a spindle, giving momentum to its rotation. It gives the evidence of spinning during Neolithic period. It also seems that it might have been hafted through the centre perforation and plugged to hold tight while using as harvesting tool. In this operation it might have been mounted on a long stick which was struck against the standing crop and its edges ensured the harvesting of agricultural produce. As a

mace head it might have been used as a powerful offensive weapon. This tool was found near the menhirs in Gufkral.

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Half Ring Stone:

A half ring stone measuring 101.06 mm in length, 42.78 mm breadth and 28.13 mm thick was also found at Gufkral (Plate I, No. 5). It has a 22.32 mm perforation at the centre. It is broken at one end and is not polished on other side, revealing its formative stage. Such thick type of ring stones might have been used as weight units for digging sticks.

Stone Ball:

A stone ball was recovered from Balapora site (Plate I, No. 6). It is smooth sling ball almost spherical in shape. It was possibly used as loom weight for the weaving of cloths. It might have been used as net sinkers during the fishing operations, as it was found near the stream originating from a spring. A big pounder and a big quern were also seen

during the survey in the spring.

An Adze:

An Adze made from shale stone was found at Gufkral. It is thin, cylindrical and made on a flake. One of its faces is broad, flat and sharp, while the other is broken. The cutting edge sharp and over all finely ground. It is smaller and lighter than a Celt. It resembles with the present day carpenter’s metallic adze but without haft. Neolithic people had used it for slicing, chipping, dressing the wood and digging the earth. It is 75.20 mm long, 43.72 mm broad and 11.72 mm thick at middle. It was found outside a cave at Gufkral.

Beads: A bead is a small decorative object of different minerals chiefly

of rocks in various shapes, sizes and colours. It is the artistic embellishment of the hard work of the craftsmen to convert it into an ornament. In almost every period of history people used things to adorn themselves and decorate their surroundings, because of their aesthetic sense. Same was the case with the prehistoric people, who wore ornaments of different materials available as adornments. No doubt

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simplicity of the ornament was the general rule of the prehistoric people. Beads were one of the ornaments used by them for decoration, beautification and to counteract the evil of planetary positions. Beads are of three types i.e., non-stone, semi-precious and precious stone beads, depending upon the availability of material used in manufacturing in different regions. Beads are of different shapes like disc, spherical, cylindrical, barrel, tube, globular, bicone etc. So for the Neolithic culture of South Kashmir is concerned we have found twelve

beads of semi-precious stones during field survey of the sites. Below is given the description of the beads.

Description of the Beads:

Twelve Beads of Carnelian, Agate, Chert, and Jasper were collected from the archaeological mound of Gufkral site (Plate II). These beads were scattered over the top of the mound near the recently constructed water tank where about 30 feet each two trenches have been dug as the water reservoirs. It suggests that the beads were under soil, which came to the surface during the digging of trenches. The description of the beads is given as under.

Carnelian Beads:

Beads Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12 on Plate II are beautiful translucent red color carnelian beads. Carnelian is chalcedony that contains iron oxide formed in the vicinity of volcanic rocks. It is mainly red or brown-red in colour.

Bead No. 1 is a standard long cylinder with two convex ends carnelian bead. It has a hole pierced in the middle with smooth polished body. It is 13.57 mm long and 15.30 mm broad.

Bead No. 3 is a short cylinder carnelian with two convex ends. It is 12.2 mm in length and 14.14 mm broad. Both the beads have two round edges each to give the beads convex shape.

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No. 5 is a circular carnelian bead with plain ends measuring 9.22 mm X 12.83 mm. No.7 is a pure circular carnelian bead which is 7.87 mm long and 8.59 mm diameter.

Bead no. 8, which is 9.08 mm long and 9.90 mm broad is also a circular carnelian with wider hole as compared to Nos. 5 and 7.

No. 9 is a long convex bicone four faced carnelian bead with squarish ends and four longitudinal edges and one edge at the bulging centre of the bead. It is 17.55 mm long and 9.15 mm broad and 9.16 mm thick.

No. 10 has 13.22 mm length and 7.65 mm breadth. It is a circular long truncated convex bicone carnelian bead.

Bead No. 12 is a circular standard truncated concave bicone carnelian bead with 12.03 mm length and 9.01 mm breadth at centre.

No. 11 is a long truncated convex cone carnelian pendent with its hole vertically towards the small end. It is 14.32 mm long and 8.30 mm thick at the centre.

Other Beads:

On plate II, bead No. 2 is a circular white agate bead with black bands or eye bead. Agate is microcrystalline variety of silica found in various rocks. Its length is 12.60 mm and breadth is 15.59 mm.

Bead No. 4 on Plate II, is a disc shaped milky chert bead with 18.67 mm diameter and 7.62 mm thickness. Chert is a fine-grained silica rich microfibrous sedimentary rock. Earlier no bead of such material has been recovered from Gufkral during excavations.

Item No 6 on plate II is a dark-reddish roughly square shaped Jasper

bead. It is 19.46 x 12.85 x 16.67 mm bead with some small depressions. Jasper is an impure variety of silica and a form of chalcedony.

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Conclusion:

The recovery of various Neolithic stone tools, bone pendent and fractured bones of a human body testify the presence of Neolithic man and Neolithic activities associated with him. It is substantiated by the presence of dwelling pits and caves of the period. The presence of this material culture, points towards the fact that Neolithic people of south Kashmir were good craftsmen and practiced the art tool technology.

The recovery of the semi-precious beads of carnelian, agate and chert from the same site are not found locally and resemble with that of Harappan beads, attest that the Neolithic people of south Kashmir

were having contacts with the outside cultures. It also shows that there were trading activities taking place during that period. In order to find out the extent and volume of contact it is necessary to excavate the sites under reference. Earlier a hoard of 1400 such beads was obtained from Burzuhom and a few from Gufkral. The beads resemble in shape to the beads of Indus culture and these might have been acquired from Harappa. As Harappan people transported Alabaster and Lead from the valley through upper Jhelum river valley. Similarly the Neolithians of Kashmir would have transported beads from Harappan sites. In Kashmir fine agates and carnelians occur to the north of the Pangong Lake in the Rudok district of Ladakh. But, there is no evidence of contact with this region during Neolithic period. So it is obvious that these beads are not a local production because of the absence of the raw material in the region. There is also no evidence of bead manufacturing

at any of the sites excavated or explored because not a single unfinished bead has been found. But at the same time the presence of the beads at the Neolithic sites point towards the fact that there were trading activities going on; the economic condition of the people was good; people were having sense of glamour and aesthetics and were not living in a closed society. They had impact of the neighboring and foreign cultures as that of Harappan culture.

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PLATE I Neolithic tools found during field survey.

PLATE II Neolithic Beads

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References

Indian Archaeology-A Review, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, Volumes, 1960-61 to 1982-83.

Journals:

Agrawal, D.P., ‘The Kashmir Karewas- A Multidisciplinary Perspective’, in Man and Environment, Vol. VI, Journal of the Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary studies, 1982.

Dikshit, K.N.,‘The Neolithic Cultural Frontiers of Kashmir’, Man and

Environment, Vol. VI, Journal of the Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary studies, 1982.

Pant, R.K., et. al.,‘Some New LIthic and Ceramic Industries From Kashmir', Man and Environment, Vol. VI, Journal of the Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary studies, 1982.

Paray, Abdul Adil, Neolithic Culture of South Kashmir, Unpublished Dissertation submitted to the University of Hyderabad for M. Phil in History. 2013.

Khazanchi, T.N., et. al., ‘The Grey Ware Culture of Northern Pakistan, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab’, Puratattva No.9,Bulletin of the

Indian Archaeological Society, D.K. Printworld, (P) limited, 1977-78.

Mohapatra, G.C., ‘Neolithic of Western Sub-Himalaya’, Puratattva No.10, Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society, D.K. Printworld, (P) limited, 1978-79.

Sharma, A.K., ‘Excavations at Gufkral-1981’, Puratattva No.11,Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society, D.K. Printworld, (P) limited, 1979-80.

Sharma, A.K., ‘Animal Bones From Gufkral-Evidence of Human and

Non-Human Activities’, Puratattva,No.12,Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society, D.K. Printworld, (P) limited, 1980-81.

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Thapar, B.K., ‘Fresh Light on Neolithic Cultures of India’, Puratattva, No.13 & 14,Bulletin of the Indian Archaeological Society, D.K. Printworld, (P) limited, 1983-84.

Thapar, B.K., ‘Archaeology of South-Asia: A Perspective in Interrelationship’, Puratattva, No.22, Bulletin of the Indian

Archaeological Society, D.K. Printworld, (P) limited, 1991-92.

Allchin, Bridget and Raymond, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Select Book service Syndicate New Delhi, 1983.

Allchin, F. Raymond and Chakrabarti, Dilip K., A Source Book of Indian Archaeology, Vol. I, (Ed.),MunshiManoharlal Publishers, New

Delhi, 1979.

Asthana, Shashi, History and Archaeology of India’s Contacts with other Countries From Earliest Times to 300 BC, B.R. Publishing Corporation Delhi, 1976.

Bamzai, P.N.K. Kashmir and Central Asia, Light and Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1980.

Bandey, Aijaz A., Prehistoric Kashmir : Archaeological History of

Paleolithic and Neolithic Cultures, Dilpreet Publishing House, New Delhi, 2009.

Bhat, Dr. Nisar Ahmad Trali, Aien’aiTral, The Encyclopedia of Tral, (Urdu), Ikhlas Welfare Society, Srinagar, 2009.

De Terra, Hellmut, Paterson, T.T., Studies in Ice Age of India and Associated Human Cultures, Carnegie Institution of Washington,

(University of Michigan) Washington,1939.

Ghosh, A., An Encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology: Gazetteer of explored and excavated sites in India, Vol. II, A. and ICHR, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Delhi, 1989.

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Hussain, Majid, et. al., Geography of Jammu and Kashmir, Ariana Publishing House, New Delhi. 1985.

Jain, V.K, Prehistory and Proto-history of India- an Appraisal- Paleolithic- Non-Harappan Chalcholithic Cultures, D.K. Printworld (P)

Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.

Kaw, R.N., ‘The Neolithic Culture of Kashmir’ in Essays in Indian Protohistory, Ed. D.P. Agarwal & Dilip K. Chakrabarti, B.R. Publishing Corporation Delhi, on behalf of the Indian Society for Prehistory and Quaternary Studies,1979.

Kazanchi, T.N. ‘Our Earliest Ancestors’, in Kashmir and its People, ed.

M.K. Kaw, A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2004.

Pande, B.M., and Chattopadhyaya, B.D., Archaeology and History; Essays in Memory of Shri A.Ghosh, Vol. I, (Ed.), Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 1987.

Puri, Balraj, 5000 Years of Kashmir, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, 1997. Ed.

Raina, Dr. A. N., Geography of Jammu & Kashmir State, Radha

Krishan Anand and Co. Pacca Danga, Jammu, Aug. 2002.

Rice, Prudence M., Pottery Analysis A Source Book, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1987.

Saar, S.S., Archaeology: Ancestors of Kashmir, Lalit Art Publishers New Delhi, 1992.

Sankalia, H.D., Prehistory of India, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 1977.

Settar, S and Korisettar, Ravi, Indian Archaeology in Retrospect,

Prehistory: Archaeology of South-Asia, Vol. I, (Ed.) ICHR, Manohar, New Delhi , 2002.

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Shali, S.L., Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages, Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1993.

Sharma, A.K., Prehistoric Burials of Kashmir, Agam Kala Prakashan Delhi, 1998.

Sharma,A.K., Early Man in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, 2000.

Sharma, A.K., Excavating in a Cave, Cist and Church, Bhartiya Kala Prakashan Delhi, 2005.

Shaw, Ian and Jameson, Robert, Ed.,A Dictionary of Archaeology, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2002.

Singh, Purshottam, The Neolithic Cultures of West-Asia, Munshiram

Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. London, 1974.

Other Articles:

Agrawal, D.P., ‘Multidisciplinary Quaternary Investigations in Kashmir’, India, in Australian Archaeology, No. 12, (jun. 1981).

De Terra, Hellmut, ‘The Megaliths of Bursahom, Kashmir, A New Prehistoric Civilization from India’, in American Philosophical Society, Vol.85, No.5 (Sep.30 1942)

Sankalia, H.D., ‘New Evidence for Early Man In Kashmir’, in Current Anthropology, Vol.12, No. 4/5 (Oct.-Dec. 1971).

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TEACHING ENGLISH COMMUNICATION TO ENGINEERING

STUDENTS – PROBLEMS & PERSPECTIVES

Abhijit Gupta Assistant Professor in Management B.P.Poddar Institute of Management and

Technology , Kolkata

Abstract Adequate English communication skills are extremely important for Engineering students. After graduating with a B.Tech degree from the best institutes they often find themselves without a job only because they are not proficient in speaking and writing fluently in English. The communicative English faculty has to make use of innovative and modern approaches involving computer aided methods to develop the English communication skills of engineering students, especially of those coming from vernacular school background.

Keywords: Engineering Students, Communication in English, Problems, Proficiency, New Methodology

Introduction India is a unique country of as far as languages are concerned. There are 23 officially recognized languages but English holds a supreme position by virtue of being the de-facto link language and also the language of all official and administrative work in India. The language of higher education, law, science and technology is also English. Naturally proficiency in English has become an imperative for engineering students in India. The ability to communicate in English effectively has a direct bearing on the employability of the B.Tech. student. Organizations only recruit engineering graduates who are fluent in English as they would be expected to interact with pan-Indian

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or international clients where the language of communication is almost exclusively in English. However the problem arises from the fact that a large number of engineering students today are from vernacular medium schools who even after twelve years of school education have not learnt to communicate in English correctly. After completion of B.tech many of them remain similarly handicapped thereby affecting their career opportunities. Problems: The English language teacher has the task of increasing the proficiency level of the engineering students in English, both verbal and written. This involves i) increasing speaking skills ii) increasing writing skills iii) increasing listening comprehension skills . However the difficulty is

in making the students of rural and suburban backgrounds with vernacular schooling to take part in the learning process. The shyness and fear of being ridiculed by classmates at their inability in communicating in English makes them non-participative and hence they tend to loose interest and remain aloof or are absent in the language laboratory classes after the first few sessions. Many engineering colleges lack in having the proper infrastructure to hold interactive language learning sessions. The dry as dust top down approach or one way communication between teacher and student is followed which makes these sessions dull and boring for the students. Time constraints in the language lab sessions prevents the teacher from following up individually with the weaker students. As approximately 60students attend a language class of a three hours

duration it is not possible to pay individual attention to the students who are not proficient in communication skills in English as compared to the others who are more fluent in the language.

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English language laboratory classes are a part of the B.tech. syllabus in the 1st semester of 1st year and the3rd & 4th semesters in 2nd year i.e after a long gap. The monitoring of the progress of students with respect to English language Communication skills becomes difficult due to this long gap. The faculty teaching communication has to perform under these constraints and upgrade the communication skills of the engineering

students especially those from rural and suburban areas with inadequate knowledge of English. Perspectives on improving communication skills Increasing Oral communication skills: The biggest problem faced by vernacular school background students is the lack of ability to speak fluently and correctly in English.It involves being able to pronounce words correctly, using appropriate vocabulary and clear diction and developing a good acumen in sentence construction. Inherent shyness and fear of ridicule hinders these students in participating in oral communication exercises in the language laboratory classes. Instead of question answer type sessions on one to one basis it would be more fruitful if the faculty at the outset determines and segregates these students in small groups distinct from the students with English medium background. While strategies such as reading from selected

books, imitation and repetition, substitution, question-answer dialogues, day-to-day expressions, eliciting, guess and speak, directed dialogues, descriptions, group-discussions and role-play can be adopted to improve speaking skills in the laboratory for students in general, these small groups should be given a different standard of practice sessions at the beginning which would be more suitable to their lower level of knowledge in English. Gradually, the level of learning materials

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may be increased as the communication capabilities of these students start improving. Roy Chowdhury and Banerjee cite some activities as examples of oral communicative tasks or activities which would enhance speaking skills of students.

a) Dialogues: While one method is to practice functions of language

like greetings, agreeing, disagreeing, asking for information, suggestions etc. the other method is to give clues to students to improvise appropriate dialogues for example for places like a friend’s house, restaurant, cinema hall etc.(Nagaraj 117).

b) Role Play: To teach speaking skills this technique is effective. There are two kinds of Role Play, one is ‘Clued’ where linguistic and content clues are provided (Nagaraj 118),for instance specific details like places, people and the kind of role play. The other kind is ‘Free’ Role play where only the roles of characters are given and the students have to develop the situation and exchange of conversation appropriate to it (Nagaraj 118). For example ‘The Good Samaritan’ or ‘The Angry Neighbor’.

c) Questions and answers: This method helps the students to both answer and ask questions in mock interview sessions, surveys

and personal conversation on various topics. This can also be a group activity where a number of students interact with one another in a given situation such as a birthday party or meeting.

d) Opinions, expressions, dreams , ideas, suggestions: Opinions asked on various issues, narration of experiences, encouraging students to share their dreams and ambitions in an open ended manner, giving ideas and topics for discussion- all these activities can help students to learn to communicate better.

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Moreover the faculty has to motivate students to practice speaking in English with friends in social interactions and not use the vernacular language to the extent possible. Reading skills are also an important part of communication and reading skills can be developed gradually by giving students basic, intermediate and advanced reading matter in stages to students. Again it has to be remembered that appropriate levels of learning material has to be given to the groups of students who have been identified as having lesser communication skills in English.

Increasing written communication skills: In the world of industry written skills are as important as speaking skills as technical writing becomes an important part of the job content of engineering graduates. Here again there is a gap between students with English medium background and vernacular background. Writing grammatical English with proper use of tenses, cases adjectives and adverbs proves difficult for students of non-English medium background. Small groups of students based on similar levels of communication skills may be formed and innovative writing exercises may be given to them which includes rewriting, paraphrasing, transliteration, editing etc. as contrasted with mechanical grammatical tasks which would be more difficult to them and make them non-responsive. Teaching grammar in the formal instruction-execution

mode would not have the desired results. Increasing Listening comprehension skills: In the language laboratory the primary purpose of students during the sessions is to repeat and to understand the study material given. In this aspect rather than a very formal verbal approach, using material with audio and video components which the students would find interesting and fun to listen to should be used. Audio and video clippings from films, cartoons, presentations on subjects of Science and technology may be shared. Listening to these gives students the opportunity to imitate and

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memorize words, idioms, sentence and compositions . It is in this area that the new technology available involving multi-media could be utilized to greater effect. New Methodology and Technology: In today’s world the student of communication cannot be taught solely by the traditional chalk and duster method. Novel methodology with the use of Multimedia tools is a must for making learning effective English communication skills

interesting and stimulating for the students. Making use of the computer and relevant software defined as CALL(ComputerAssisted Language Learning) has become imperative for creating an interactive environment where the student can enthusiastically participate in the language laboratory sessions(Gupta 9).CALL methods involve harnessing interactive software offered by various vendors such as the Kharagpur IIT developed ISILS or Interactive software Integrated Learning System. E- classrooms have to be set up enabling students to access the computer individually or in groups of two so that they are exposed to the real world of English communication by using the web to access information, news, read scientific & technical journals, and great literature of the world. The freedoms to use e-mail, chat, and low end video-conferencing also allows students to build up their communication skills in on open -ended manner.

The faculty or instructor can make use of videos, pictures, written texts, PPT Presentations, Diagrams, to involve the students. On the other hand the students also have the opportunity to carry on their assignments outside the class on their laptops thereby increasing their effective hours of language learning. Using of computers enhances individual learning. Suitable study material conforming to their own level of proficiency and their interest areas can be selected by the students themselves and at their own pace. Using of computers helps in

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analyzing the areas of deficiency in each student and the teacher can address these areas accordingly. “Students think materials are new and fresh, if they are presented on computers, and they are often interested even in routine tasks such as learning to type. They seem to be willing to spend more hours and do more exercises on a computer than by hand” (D. Healy, an extract from: Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) –

www.Monografias.com) However it has to be remembered that learning or acquiring superior English Communication skills can not only happen out of superior pedagogical methods or with better resources. Creating and maintaining an ‘environment of English’ at all times especially at home is necessary. Students must be encouraged to read books and magazines in English, watch English programs, especially news and talk shows on television and listen to BBC programs on the radio. They must also be encouraged to converse in English with friends, fellow students and even family members in English and not in the vernacular to the maximum extent.

The engineering students who join reputed engineering colleges after going through the joint entrance exams at the state or all India levels tend to concentrate on their core subjects and excel in their domain knowledge. They tend to think that getting a CGPA of 8.5 would be good enough to get them plum jobs. It is for the faculty who has to get across to the students especially those who have lesser levels of communication skills in English that without proficiency in speaking and writing in the language they would have little chance of making it through the selection process now being followed by all organizations. The clearing of the HR round which involves testing of communication

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and soft-skills is as important as clearing of the Technical round for landing that dream job that all engineering students aspire for. References:

1. Gupta, Dipti. Teaching English to Engineering Students in India(2013) English for Specific

2. Purposes World, 14(39). www.esp-world.info/Art icles_ 39/39_Gupta.pdf

3. Healy, D. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL).

http://www.Monografias.com 4. Nagaraj, Geetha. 1996 English Language Teaching :

Approaches, methods, techniques Orient Longman 5. Roy Chowdhury,S and Banerjee, A. Post Graduate : English

Language Teaching. Paper-2, Module -1, Unit -2, NSOU

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METHOD EDUCATION OF THE BUDDHA IN PᾹLI NIKᾹYA

Ven. Do Dinh Tuan Ph.D Scholar

Gautam Buddha University Gautam Budh Nagar, G. Noida

Uttar Pradesh

The life of the Buddha was a great example of the preaching carrier. His whole work was carried on by oral communication and in form of

dialogues and conversations. The Buddha was not a college teacher with the ready-made teaching plan in his hand and his working milieu did not confined in monastic context. All his discourses or lectures were given at different places and to various kinds of person. But most of them were delivered in dependence on cause and condition, i.e., the Master could preach the dhamma wherever and whenever he thought to be necessary or in case of being requested. In this paper, we centralize our investigation into two main sides, on one side we refer to reasons for which the Buddha preached his dhamma and on the other, we mention some of the illustrated techniques applied by him in his

field of teaching.

Preaching the dhamma by request

One of the traditional features of the Buddha as he acknowledged1 is that he proclaimed the dhamma with causal connections and not without. This means that he would be ready to give his explanations to others in case he thought to be necessary or in case of being beseeched. Most of his discourses or lectures were given on this account. We can meet in the Pāli Sutta Pitaka with a lot of sentences thus: ‘It is good for monks, Blessed One, it is useful for monks, Blessed One, if the Blessed

1 See F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, Vol.I, p.254.

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One was to explain this out of compassion.’ In such cases, his explanation was given to brighten the views put forth and ended with his judgement therefore. He was said to be willing to repeat the teachings of which his disciples were unclear. Here his saying was that ‘If your knowledge is incomplete I will complete it for you.’2 Several minutes just before his parinibbāna he asked monks to bring up questions, if any, as to his teachings, but nobody among five hundred monks present at his parinibbāna was reported to have any doubt about his teachings.

Such a request was sometimes put to him by the laity. In the eye of lay

people, Gotama the Buddha was a fully Awakened One endowed not only with conduct and wisdom but also with supernatural abilities, searching for advice from such a person or taking refuge in him was a lifetime chance.

Preaching the dhamma to clear up queries or doubts

Sometimes the Buddha gave his teachings in order to disburden his disciples and others' minds of queries and doubts. It is said that there occurred in the mind of the monk Mālunkyaputta who was in musing the idea as to why the Master elucidated never the origin and nature of the universe and of the self. He immediately came to the Buddha's place and asked him to explain the reason. On this occasion, the Buddha made reply with his asserted view that the way leading the cessation of suffering propounded by him had nothing to do with such metaphysical views as the world is eternal or not, the Tathāgata exists after dying or

not, so he did not explain them. Instead, he taught the Four Noble Truths which, according to him, were fundamental for the making an end of suffering.

The rise in the sixth century BC of different schools of thought, moreover, the faultfinding of each other among opportunistic thinkers 2 See F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, Vol.I, p.168.

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caused a great deal of bewilderment and perplexity in the thoughtful life of the masses. It is recounted that Ajatasattu was completely disappointed with the perfunctory answers of the current masters, which he described to be ‘asked about a mango, breadfruit is the given answer.’ This king finally found in Gotama the Buddha the reliable replications. On a certain occasion the Kālāmas of Kesaputta came to see him and said this to the Blessed One: ‘Sir, certain recluses and brāhmins come to Ksaputta. As to their own view, they proclaim and

expound it in full, but as to the view of others, they abuse it, revile it, depreciate and cripple it. Moreover, sir, other recluses and brāhmins, on coming to Kesaputta, do likewise. When we listen to them, sir, we have doubt and wavering as to which of these worthies is speaking truth and which speaks falsehood.’ Then the Master helped the Kālāmas out of their bafflement by his very well-known admonitions:

“Yes, Kālāmas, you may well doubt, you may well waver. In a doubtful

matter wavering does arise. Now, look you, Kālāmas. Be ye not misled by report or tradition or hearsay. Be not misled by proficiency in the collections, nor by mere logic or inference, nor after considering reasons, nor after reflection on and approval of some theory, nor because it fits becoming, nor out of respect for a recluse (who holds it). But, Kālāmas, when you know for yourselves: These things are unprofitable, these things are blameworthy, these things are censured by the intelligent: these things, when performed and undertaken,

conduce to loss and sorrow, then indeed do ye reject them, Kālāmas."3

The Buddha continued his counsel to the Kālāmas by pointing out that greed, hatred and delusion are the root of all evil actions. If, therefore, any action is seen to be in connection with one of the three poisons, such an action is guilty, awful and then one should give it up. Conversely, if any action is seen to be free from greed, hatred and

3 F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, Vol.I, pp.171-72.

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delusion, that action is good, profitable and one should try to develop it. This method of experimental and rational verification confirms the scientific outlook of Buddhism. As a matter of fact, Buddhist ethics does not rely on any conventional authority. It is a universal morality free of all religious dogmas, class distinction, or convictions. The Buddha's teaching is just a means to truth; it is claimed to be for man to come and see, not to worship or believe.

Preaching the dhamma to comfort and encourage others

Some of his sermons or teachings available in the Pāli Sutta Pitaka were undoubtedly given in order to console and relieve others on some special occasions. The flow of the world is but the stream of tears that never dries up.4 To those who have freed from it life will be no longer a problem to think of or to worry about. But life is indeed full of tears

and misery to those who have not yet been aware of it and still a burden to those who are striving to leave it. That is why life needs comfort and helpfulness in some cases. The Buddha, the knower of the world, became therefore the refuge of the suffering minds. Several minutes before his final parinibbāna the Master comforted his devoted attendant whose face was then wet with tears with his beloved words: “Enough, Ᾱnanda, do not sweep and wail! Have I not already told you that all things that are pleasant and delightful are changeable, subject to separation and becoming other? So how could it be, Ᾱnanda - since

whatever is born, become, compounded is subject to decay - how could it be that it should not pass away? For a long time, Ᾱnanda, you have been in the Tathāgata’s presence, showing loving-kindness in act of

4 Of this the Buddha said: " For many a long day, brethren, have ye experienced the death of mother, of son, of daughter, have ye experienced the ruin of kinsfolk, of wealth, the calamity of disease. Greater is the flood of tears shed by you crying and weeping over one and all of these, as ye fare on, run on this many a long day, united with the undesirable, sundered from the desirable than are the waters in the four seas." See C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Vol.II, p.120.

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body, speech and mind, beneficially, blessedly, whole-heartedly and unstintingly. You have achieved much merit, Ᾱnanda. Make the effort, and in a short time you will be free of the corruptions.”5

Preaching the dhamma to the sick

Some discourses have been found to belong to this kind in the Nikāyas. Disease was a quite common situation in the vagrant way of life of bhikkhus. The constant regulation of the monastic rules relating to monk’s regimen as we could see in the Vinaya proves this. The Buddha did not disregard looking after physical health when he laid emphasis

on mental cure. To him, mind cannot be concentrated in case body is disturbed by painful feelings. Of the four needed things allowed to accept by a monk, medicine was one. Apart from the efficacy of medicaments, the method proposed by him to relieve bodily pains was that monks would take care of each other by recalling the sick to the seven limbs of enlightenment (satta bojjhangā) in cases of sickness. It is conventionally believed that if these, mindfulness (sati), investigation of truth (dhamma-vicāya), energy (viriya), rapture (pīti), tranquility of body (passaddhi), concentration (samadhi), equanimity (upekhà), were

reflected upon would result in alleviating agonizing feelings. Another method to help the ill release from his severe feelings was talking to him about the transitory, unsatisfactory and selfless nature of the five aggregates (pancakkhandhā). The Master in some cases used this method to exhort his diseased disciples. Customarily, some thus words were uttered by the Blessed One on this occasion: “Well, monk, I hope you are bearing up. I hope you are enduring. Do your pains abate and not increase?” If the monk was in a hopeless case then the following questions were added: “Have you any doubt, monk? Have you any remorse? Have you not anything, monk, wherein to reproach yourself

5 M. Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, p. 265.

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as to morals?” Finally, came his talk on Dhamma in which the unreal characteristics of personality were emphasized.

It is difficult to assert that a certain physical disease could be cured by merely mental energy but it is certain that to Buddhist monks of many generations this was the efficacious medicine not only for physical cure but also for mental one. The analytical contemplation on the five aggregates is a great theme of the Buddhist cure. Sāriputta said thus to a sick friend: “My friend, in so far as there is what we call process of the

five constituents (pancakkhandhā), the whole of suffering is a matter of feeling. But if just the constituents be absent, suffering is absent.”6

Teaching Techniques Adopted

We have so far dealt with the reasons for which the Buddha gave his teachings. Let us now examine some of his teaching techniques by which he could make his teachings available to the grasp of the listeners. To the Buddha, all human weal and woe depend on knowledge and ignorance; ignorance is the ultimate root of all evil, and the sole power, which can strike at the root of this evil, is knowledge. Deliverance is, therefore, above all, knowledge; and the preaching of deliverance, in any form, is but the expression of this knowledge, which means the unfolding of a series of abstract notions and propositions. It is for this that before delivering a discourse, the Buddha tried to form

an idea of the learning of the persons by putting to them questions on religious matters or answering the questions that he allowed them to put to himself. In this way, he used to select a subject most suited to the occasion and agreeable to the persons composing the audience and delivered a discourse on that topic. Explanations, examples, similes, parables, fables very often drawn from experience of the daily life were interspersed with his speeches along with pithy verses to make his arguments sweet and effective.

6 C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Brethren, p.79.

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The gradual teaching method

One of the features of the Buddha's teaching is that it is a course of gradual learning, gradual training, and gradual improvement. He pointed out that profound knowledge (truth) does not come to man straightaway, but it comes by a gradual training, a gradual doing, and a gradual course.7 “Pahārāda, just as the mighty ocean slopes away gradually, falls away gradually, shelves away gradually, with no abruptness like a precipice; even so in this discipline of Dhamma there is a gradual training, a gradual practice, a gradual mode of progress, with no abruptness, such as a penetration of gnosis."8 From this point of view, he has suggested the solution that anyone who wants to search for truth should firstly examine the master to ascertain whether or not he is worthy to be in association with. If after examining he knows that the master is worthy then he should take count of him. This method consists of the following steps:9 (1) examination, (2) faith, (3) drawing

close, (4) sitting down nearby, (5) lending ear, (6) hearing dhamma, (7) remembering dhamma, (8) testing the meaning of things, (9) approval of things, (10) desire, (11) effort, (12) weighing, (13) striving. According to the Buddha, the thirteen steps of free inquiry are absolutely necessary for the realization of truth and each step is of much service in the attainment of the other.10 As a result, most of his teachings were presented in a graduated form.

The concise and detailed teaching method

Another traditional form of his imparting the dhamma was that of brief and detailed teaching. Frequently, the Master preached the dhamma in

7 See I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, p.154; 363. 8 E. M. Hare, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, Vol.IV, p.138. 9 See I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, p.362. 10 See I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, p. 363-65.

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full but sometimes he gave his instruction in brief. Occasionally, he merely mentioned a certain matter in summary and then one of his chief disciples elaborated it. There are among the Pāli texts some discourses that were lectured in this form.11 Let us take the case of the Uddesavibhangasutta recorded in the Majjhima Nikāya. In this discourse, the Buddha appeared in the first episode of the dialogue as an inspirer with his brief teachings on spiritual advances and in the last as a master of the judgement on the exegetic skill of the disciple who correctly elaborated his short words, while the middle episode of the discourse was undertaken by Venerable Mahākaccāna. There were some reasons for which the Master could decide on his teaching in this way. Firstly, his education was given to various types of monk-disciples.

Buddhist sacred texts formally distinguish two kinds of monk, the learners (sekhā) and the masters (asekhā). The former implies the monks whose learning has not yet completed, while the latter pertains to the monks who have reached the ultimate goal of Buddhist education. Of the two, his teaching of course was vitally given to the former.12 Thus, the difference of the knowledge concerning Dhamma between the two categories of monk was the reason of his diverse instructions. As to the asekhā or arahants his exhortation could be given in summary, but as to the sekhā his teaching required detailed

elucidation. Again, among the monks who were learners, there were unlike levels of insight. Some of them were purely inexperienced monks or novices; others could attain the insight of the sotapannā, of the sakadagmi, or of the ānagāmi. The Pāli textual documents refer to some monks who after having lived in community for a time and fully 11 See the Anadabhaddekarattasutta, the Mahàkaccànabhaddekarattasutta, and the Uddesavibhangasutta of the Majjhima Nikàaya. 12 In the Ganïakamoggallànasutta, the Buddha says that his teaching is for those monks who are learners, who perfection being not yet attained, dwell longing for the incomparable security from the bonds, and conduces both to their abiding in ease here and now as well as to their mindfulness and clear consciousness as to those monks who are perfected ones.

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taken possession of the fundamental teachings of the Master determined to shape their life in solitude for spiritual striving. Traditionally, prior to their departure, these monks came to the Buddha and requested the exhortation of him. “Well for me, lord, if the exalted One would teach me a doctrine in a few words, so that hearing the doctrine of the Exalted One I might dwell solitary, secluded, zealous, ardent and aspiring.” It is textually reported that these monks - perhaps the ānagāmi - after having heard the brief words of the Master, after having dwelt solitary, secluded, zealous, ardent and aspiring, in no long time attained the final goal of the righteous life.13

The question-and-answer teaching method

Based on the spirit of truth safeguard (saccānurakkhana), i.e., just

showing one's own viewpoint and not condemning the other's belief, the Buddha's dialogues were sometimes carried on in form of question and answer. By this means, he made his doctrine known to the people, who wanted to sound his new-fashioned thoughts. It is natural that the advent of the Buddha and the glory rapidly won by him in the field of thought drew the attention of the contemporary intellectual circles. The Pāli Canon narrates that so many the coexistent learned brahmans and recluses were converted after having made the careful consideration of Gotama’s philosophical dispositions through their questioned conversations with him. In such discussions the Buddha often questioned or was questioned.

Thus is related to us the conversation of the Buddha with Kāpatīhika,14 a well-educated brahman youth who together with a crowded company led by the brahman Cankī went to see Gotama the Buddha when he

was on his tour through Kosala coming to a halt at Opasàda. In this 13 See F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Vol.III, pp.32-34, 64-66. 14 See I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, pp.359-66.

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dialogue, the brahman youth Kāpatïhika discussed with the Buddha about the brahmans' view on truth based on the Vedic tradition, asserting that only what is stated in the authority of the Vedas is truth, all else is falsehood. The Buddha asked Kāpatïhika whether there is any one, among the brahmans, the brahman teachers, the authors of the Vedas, who claims that he personally knows and sees: ‘This alone is truth, anything else is false.’ Kàpatïhika was frank and said: ‘No.’ Then the Buddha came to the conclusion that the statement of the brahmans about truth is entirely groundless. It is like a string of blind men holding on to one another, neither does the foremost one see, nor does the middle one see, nor does the hindmost one see. Finally, he showed his own view by saying that preserving a truth is not enough for an intelligent man inevitably to come to the conclusion: ‘This alone is the truth, all else is falsehood.’ The conversation goes on with questions

put to the Buddha by Kāpatïhika relating to the preservation of, the awakening to, and the attainment of truth of which his answers given in turn made Kāpatïhika very pleased and finally converted.

It can be seen from the context that this method of teaching helped monks so much in grasping the essence of his doctrine, which is by nature a series of abstract concepts and approaches. In a system of education placing stress on knowledge as the first and last means to freedom like Buddhism, all Buddhist efforts must be made firstly to grasp the basic concepts and ideas which are much seen in the Master's teachings. Then on the basis of this perception or right view (sammāditïtïhi) comes the putting into practical use of Dhamma until the releasing knowledge (vijjāvimutti) through discipline is finally

accomplished.

The analytical teaching method

The practice that made the Buddha well-known as a dialectician who surpassed his contemporaries in argument was his application of the

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analytical method of reasoning in all his dialogues and controversies. The Buddhadhamma as preserved in Pāli Canon is the product of wisdom, which originates from his teachings to his disciples and his discussions with the coexisting brahmans and recluses. The method of rationalization used in all of his conversations is obviously analytical. The Buddha himself claimed to be an analyst and not a dogmatist who gives categorical statements.15

What is meant by this claim is clear from the context16. The Buddha is asked for his opinion as to the truth of two propositions: ‘The householder succeeds in attaining what is right, just and good; the monk does not succeed in attaining what is right, just and good.’ The Buddha says that one cannot make a categorical assertion as to the truth or falsity of propositions of this sort. If, in the case of the first proposition, the subject has the quality of bad conduct, then the

proposition is false, but if the subject has the opposite quality, i.e., of good conduct, the proposition is true. Similar is his view that one cannot aver definitely that a certain occupation results in small fruit just because it is done with small duties, small administration, and small problems or it yields great fruit for the reason that it is done with great duties, great administration, and great problems. "There is, brahman youth, an occupation where there is a great deal to do: many duties, a large administration, great problems - which if failed of is of small fruit, if succeeded in is of great fruit. There is, brahman youth, an occupation where there is not a great deal to do: few duties, a small administration, small problems - which if failed of is of small fruit, if succeeded in is of great fruit."17 Thus, it seems to the author that there are certain propositions of which it is not possible to say whether they are true or false, without clearing up ambiguities and making

15 See I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, p.386. 16 Ibid, pp.386-87. 17 I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, p. 378.

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qualifications and the Buddha is an analyst in so far as he analyzes such propositions and makes the requisite qualifications without asserting that they are expressly true or false.

This method of teaching is absolutely needed in a system of education laying emphasis on personal emancipation like Buddhism. The Buddha’s teaching is taught for the purpose of removing individual problems, say, that which bind the individual to suffering such as craving, clinging, wrong view, etc. His work of preaching can be compared to that of the physician, who is capable of making a correct diagnosis of a disease and therefore can suggest the most effective medicine. Each disease has different sumptoms which should be analyzed and made clear so that it is possible for the patient to grasp the way of how to take care. Like the personally medicinal prescriptions that are made out for the concrete diseases, the Buddha's teachings are

made out for the concrete applications.

The teaching method illustrated by parable

We now come to another method of teaching, which C. A. F. Rhys Davids considered as a very prominent feature in the Suttas18, the method of parable and simile use. The Buddha’s work of preaching connects closely with the living facts and events drawn from life. “The operation of man as well as the life of nature are the fields of observation, with which these similes for spiritual life and effort, for deliverance, and the company of the delivered, deal.”19 According to H. W. Schumann, the Buddha's imagery reflects the subtropical world. “More than eight hundred similes have been counted in the Pāli Canon, drawn from all spheres of Indian life and from nature. We see the goldsmith at work, and the ivory-carver, the arrow-maker and the

18 See C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism, p.221; A Manual of Buddhism, p. 222. 19 H. Oldenberg, Buddha: His Life, His Doctrine, His Order, p.191.

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potter; the butcher cuts up the cow, the merchant manipulates the scales slightly to his advantage - there was not an occupation he did not draw on for a parable. He likewise drew images from nature: the lion and the elephant; the nervous greed of the monkey, the gracious shyness of the gazelle, the cunning of the crocodile - all these are referred to as well as the world of plants: lotus and banyan, mango and palm.”20

It is seen that whereas the analytical method which uses terms to interpret terms and which becomes very marked in the Abhidhamma Pitaka seems to be appropriate only for those who have been ‘skilled in

the Dhamma’, the method of preaching illustrated by parable and simile serves the purpose of majority. According to G. C. Pande, this method fits in with the non-learned character of much of his audience, the inspired and original character of his message and the state of literary development in his times.21 ‘Indeed,’ remarks Rhys Davids, ‘the method of teaching of the Buddha includes also attracting the attention of his audience and convincing it by parables. A parable is certainly not an argumentation, but the mind and even the intellect is more effectively influenced by a parable than a thousand arguments. The Buddha was well versed in the art of dressing his talks with a number of parables and his disciples followed him in this regard.’22

The above observation of the former president of the Pāli Text Society is utterly sensible in the case of the Pāli literature in general and

especially in that of the Pāli Sutta Pitaka in particular. For their originality, the parables used in the Pāli suttas show their original creativeness in comparison with those that are automatically applied in the Milindapanña, one of the Pāli post-canonical works. The abundance of the parables and metaphors found in the suttas together

20 W. H. Schumann, The Historical Buddha, p.206. 21 G. C. Pande, Origins of Buddhism, p.32. 22 Rhys Davids, Early Buddhism, p.69.

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with the concrete occasions on which they were put to use prove the inventiveness of the Master and his first disciples in the field of teaching. According to Richard F. Gombrich, the Buddha had a simple, urgent message to convey, and was ingenious in finding ever new terms and analogies by which to convey it. Therefore, the suttas are full of his inventiveness.23 Whenever it was possible, the Buddha applied his common knowledge to popular talks so that it could make the listeners grasp his ideas. The making use of the mass language and concept to communicate religious thoughts was the typical in his way of teaching. Of whom he was talking to as well as of which language and concept he

should use in his conversations the Buddha was clearly conscious. He is said to have used thus words to talk to Kasibharadvāja, the brahman farmer he met in the rice-field:

‘Faith is the seed, and the rain the discipline. Insight for me is plough fitted with yoke, my pole is conscience and sense-mind the tie, and mindfulness my ploughshare and my goad. Such is the ploughing that is ploughed by me. The fruit it bears is food ambrosial. Whoso this ploughing hath accomplished, he from suffering and from sorrow is set free.”24

Other methods

The Buddha also adopted special methods for imparting special training to individual disciples. His way of education is that of individualized education. His aim was to help everybody be conscious of the present difficulties and to show him the way of how to overcome. All this shows the practicality and universality of his teaching which lays much

emphasis on individual improvement and emancipation and which is therefore given in accord with the faculty and inclination of each individual.

23 Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism began, p.65. 24 C. A. F. Rhys Davids, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Vol.I, pp.217-18.

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Conclusion, the lord Buddha is the great master, is a unique personality in the field of culture and education not only in India but

also in the world. “Few personalities in the history of human thought have had such a wide and lasting influence as Siddhattha Gotama, the ‘Buddha’, and none has left his mark more deep on Asia. The religion founded by him has not only brought to innumerable people, but has also provided the basis of a lofty humanism and a culture of great sensibility. The first sermon preached by the Buddha at Sarnath near Benares in 528 BC was an event whose beneficent effects continue to this day.”25

The life of Gotama the Buddha was bound up with the educational career that he sought to pursue ‘for the welfare and happiness of the

manifold.’ According to the Buddhist historical sources, Gotama attained his Bodhi, becoming Buddha, the Awakened or Enlightened One at his age of thirty-five and from that time forward he was interested in the teaching work until he breathed his last at the age of eighty. During the forty-five years of his ministry, Gotama the Buddha met and discussed with the people of various classes, his philosophical thought astounded the learned while his simplistic way of life attracted the folk. He led the way of life of a wandering bhikkhu, except three months in the rainy season when he spent his rain retreat at one place, he was constantly on tours in order to preach and convert those who were ready of listening to his teachings.

Bibliography

1. Bhiksïu Thich Minh Chau, The Chinese Madhyama Àgama and the

Pàli Majjhima Nikàya.

25 H. W. Schumann, The Historical Buddha, p.ix.

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2. F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, PTS, London, 1990.

3. G. C. Pande, Origins of Buddhism, Motila Banarsidass Publishers, 1995.

4. I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings,

(Majjhima-nikāya) translated from the Pāli by ib Horner Publisher: Oxford : Pali Text Society, 1989-1993.

5. Rhys Davids, Early Buddhism, Kessinger Publishing Published, 1942.

6. Rhys Davids, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Vol.I, Pali Text

Society, 1956.

7. Rhys Davids, The Birth of Indian Psychology and its Development in Buddhism, Oriental Books Reprint Corp: [exclusively distributed by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers], 1978.

8. Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism began, Munshiram

Manoharla, 1997.

9. I. B. Horner, The Collection of the Middle Length Sayings, Vol.II, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Limited, 2004

10. H. Oldenberg, Buddha: His Life, His Doctrine, His Order, Book Company, 1927.

11. M. Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Londoan Pali text

society.

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THE MAO NAGA TRIBAL RELIGION AND ITS RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Dr. M. Daniel Assistant Professor

Department of Studies in Philosophy University of Mysore

Mysore , Karnataka, India

The Mao Nagas inhabit in the North East of India. The Mao tribe is one of the major Naga tribes from Manipur State in India.

Today, the Maos are scattered in different States of the North East India and many also lived in other parts of the country as well. Even though they are living different parts of the country, they, more or less, carry the same baggage of shared and common history, culture and tradition. A major section of the peoples live in the hills. Particularly, by their appearance, language called “Maola” and their colourful and gorgeous traditional attires made them easily identifiable as Maos, wherever they may be. Not long ago, the Maos lived in isolation and ruled themselves. However, their society was cohesive and effective in bringing about a harmonious life for members of the community. Earlier there were sixteen Mao villages, but now with the increase in their population it has gone up to over forty five villages.

From the pre-historic stage the Mao Nagas was predominantly

Mongoloid in race and their language belongs to Tibeto-Burman groups. The constitution of India categorized them as Scheduled Tribes; they practice the traditional religion called ‘Opfoo Ope Chiina’ or also known as the ‘forefathers’ religion’.

In all cultures human beings make a practice of interacting with what are taken to be spiritual powers. These powers may be in the form of gods, spirits, ancestors, or any kind of sacred reality with

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which humans believe themselves to be connected. Sometimes a spiritual power is understood broadly as an all-embracing reality and sometimes it is approached through its manifestation in special symbols. It may be regarded as external to the self, internal, or both. People interact with such a presence in a sacred manner – that is, with reverence and care. Religion is the term most commonly used to designate this complex and diverse realm of human experience.

The religious tradition of the Mao Nagas was called in Mao language “Opfoo Ope Chiina”. The Maos reflected on the origin of the world and came to the conclusion that this universe was created by ‘God’ whom they called ‘Oramai’ who is the creator, the sustainers and the destroyer. He took control of the course of nature and human life as he has infinite power and is greatly wiser than human beings. Not only the Mao people but also the other neighbouring tribals of the Maos believe in the existence of a powerful ‘God’ who is the creator and the controller of the whole universe. They give different names to this Supreme Being as they used different languages. For the Chakhesang Nagas call Him “Thurukozho-o and the Angami Nagas call Him “Ukepenuopfu”. They considered their God to be the source of everything, He would protect mankind from danger and bring good luck to the human beings.

The Mao people strongly believe that displeasing Oramai could invite His wrath; individual punishments like sickness and social/community punishments like epidemics, hailstorms, bad harvest, lost of cattle and so on would be awaiting for anyone who offended Oramai. But the Maos do not really worry about their God as he is regarded to be a benevolent, good and harmless. He is reverentially remembered on social occasions like feast of merits, festivals, marriage, childbirth, success in war and competitive games. Oramai was the giver of all that humans could look up to and if one was good to the other, Oramai would bless him. This world was

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conceived as place where one can have happiness through the favour of God. There was plentiful in everything and life was in happiness. It is their beliefs that the blessing of God man would live a long and happy life in this world. The Maos considered the Sky as the father and the vast landscape as the mother. They believe that the father Sky who is above protect everything where as the Mother earth would nurtured and takes care of everything that is on earth.

According to traditional Mao beliefs, Oramai created human beings in a special way by giving them more knowledge and ideas, so that they could take care of all the other living beings in this universe. Though the Maos acknowledge the existence of the supreme deity and the spirits, they never entertained image or idols worship. This fact can be gathered from the wood carvings of the Maos, among which one can notice no carvings on the deities. The Maos are good in wood carvings which they used for their house decorations. The traditional Maos may be considered polytheistic as they believe that there is one supreme God ‘Oramai’; at the same time they believe that there are lesser gods or spirits. In Mao religion there are two types of lesser gods – the one that cause evils and misfortunes called ‘orakashi’ and the one that cause good fortunes called ‘orakayi’. The Maos believe that orakayi and orakashi have extra-human power they can also be

overpowered by human beings who follow the right stratagem. Though orakashi and orakayi are like superhuman beings or demigods the higher place in Mao religion is occupied by Oramai. Orakashi and orakayi are regarded as present everywhere, moving around with the people in the society though they are invisible most of the time. People believed that orakashi brought nightmares, suffocation, pain and terror in their lives and they are considered dangerous and destructive and cause all kinds of human suffering. The orakashi and orakayi were thought to be moving with the cloud and wind, and they were believed to be present on mountains, rivers, jungles and lowland areas. These

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deities were not worshipped though some sacrifices were offered to them by giving them domestic animals, clothes, food, cut metals and coins. This was done just to mollify them, instead of worshipping them because they were to be feared. They believed that orakayi appeared white in colour and orakashi black.

Orakayi are the benevolent spirits. Benevolent spirits are thought to be responsible for the welfare and property of humans.

They guard and protect the village from disease, pestilence, outside enemy attacks, and natural devastations such as crop failure, storms, hailstorms, landslides and flooding. According to the Maos, the day was for the human beings or Omai and the night was for the lesser gods. They believed that when human saw orakashi and orakayi during the day, they suffered pain and even the loss of hair. Similarly, when Omai was seen by the orakashi and orakayi in the night, they also suffered. It is said that once in the olden days the human beings could see orakashi and orakayi. This ability was taken away from the humans and given to the dogs. For the Maos, the dog is considered to be one of the best companions of human. The element of fear is reduced with the presence of a dog.

The Maos also believe that the spirits of their ancestors are deeply involved with them in their eartly life. It cannot be deciphered

from the oral tradition whether the ancestral spirits themselves are orakashi and orakayi. However, this does not really matter since there are good and bad ancestral spirits also. Some humans who died unnatural deaths due to accidents etc., are believed to become unfulfilled haunting spirits. The traditional Maos were a very religious people; they acknowledge their God in everything they did. They believed that if they did not live according to the wish of their God, they might become crippled in life, that their generations might become perverted, that their cattle and crops perish, that they might fall sick and die premature and poor. These beliefs among the

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traditional Maos kept their social fabric intact and individual lives morally exemplary. Thus helping the helpless like widows and orphans was a serviced rendered to Oramai. A person who lived a good life in the community with his fellow beings is known as a person who knows Oramai or ‘Orachithobo Kopfo’. Strangely, the notion of orachithobo kopfo is that of a humble patient person, who forgives wrongs done to him or never takes revenge.

An important aspect of any religion is the organization of ritualistic actions, namely public sacrifices, prayers etc. When the Maos make propitiary offerings to God in order to be blessed by Him, they choose the best cow, cock or eggs. These animals or eggs chosen for sacrifice should not be defective in any way. For example, chicken to be offered at sacrifice should not have cracked toes or broken combs or mixed colours. Mostly a full white coloured cock is used. In the same way a cow to be offered at sacrifice should not be defective with broken horns, injured tail or ears. They also should not be handicapped in any way and should not have patches or spots. In fact, completely black cows were used for sacrifices. Since it was difficult to find such particular kind of cows for sacrifice, they used to go in search for them in different villages and areas of the community. After the sacrifice, the cow is killed and its meat is distributed among the villagers,

whereas the sacrificial chicken is mostly released free after the sacrifice. However, sometimes it is also killed and sacrificed. Sacrificial eggs are carefully kept near the village gate or other safe places. Just anyone could not perform the rituals and sacrifices; instead sacrifices were performed by the appointed village elders called ‘khehrepfoona’ or by the appointed elders from the clan.

The Maos believed that through the sacrifice, the state of the sick person’s health could be known. For instance, if the sacrificial chicken that is taken beyond the village gate and let off moves back towards the village of the sick person, then it is learned that the sick

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person may not recover from the illness and he may die, because, as it is said, God did not accept the offering or sacrifice. But if the chicken on the other hand, moves away into the jungles or move away from the village, it is believed that He is happy with the sick person’s offering. During the sacrifices spontaneous prayers were uttered. The prayers reveal the motive and character of the propitiatory offering. The prayers were mainly supplications for good harvest, freedom from

sickness and victory over enemies. Prayers were also offered with food and drinks to the ancestral spirits. They believe that ancestral spirits never depart from them even after the physical death they are still considered to be present with the family and helping the family directly or indirectly. They are often invoked for help and for the welfare of the living members of the family and clan. In all major festivals and during any special occasions like marriage, entering into newly constructed house they appeal to the ancestral spirits to join them. The worshipping and giving respect to the ancestral spirit makes an essential component of the Mao religion.

The Maos believe that there is a spirit present in all the human bodies and here after this life goes into the land of the death called ‘Kathe Lozho’. It is their beliefs that all the dead people’s spirits go into this land and continue their life there. For the Maos the

strongest proof for life after death is the practice of necromancy in their village life. Necromancy is the ability to communicate with the dead person’s spirit. The practitioner of necromancy is actually not the active agent of the process. Instead, it is the dead spirit that wants to communicate to the living person according to the Mao notion of necromancy. The living person, with whom the spirit wants to communicate, falls unconscious and he or she gets into a state of delirium. In this state of unconsciousness, the person speaks out regarding his or her communication with the spirit. The spirit is the active agent. The Maos did not have any particular place of worship.

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There was neither temple nor church nor mosque. They believed that one could pray anywhere. However the village gate was of utmost importance, because most of the offerings were made at the village gate. The village gate could be taken par with the temple, church, and mosque. This is considered as the sacred place according to the Maos religion. Similarly the hearth of each home was considered sacred and place fitting for prayer and offering. They worshipped Oramai and

offered sacrifices in their houses, at the village gate and for some occasional offerings they offered on the roadside, jungles and in the field.

The Maos considered violating the customary law as a direct offence against God. Such transgressors are even liable to face excommunication from the community. Going against the will of the elders in the community is also an offence because the Maos considered the elders as the messengers of Oramai and they were thought to be next to Oramai. The elders command great respect in the society.

Thought the religion is the same for all the Maos, it may be noted the norms and rites differed from village to village and from clan to clan according to their needs and demands. With the change of times and the coming of Christianity in the Mao area, majority of the

people have embraced Christianity, and the Mao religion was shaken and reduced to a minority religion practiced only by about five per cent, mainly elders, of the Mao population. The Mao religion, it should be mentioned here, has been not a static religion as its practices, rituals and ceremonies kept changing in response to needs and circumstances. Hence it was a dynamic religion and not static religion. The demise of the elders is also one of the main reasons to the deteriorating condition of the Mao religion. The elders are the backbone of the community and they show and teach how to perform rituals and sacrifices. With their death there is a break in tradition

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and even the system of the community also collapsed, because the knowledge which they had could not be comprehensively passed on to the next generation. The village elders are considered as the ‘seen God’.

The Mao religion is an oral tradition and it is not based on any scripture unlike the classical religions of the world. The term ‘animism’ was introduced by the 19th century British anthropologist

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, who described the origin of religion and primitive beliefs in terms of animism. In Primitive Culture (1871) Tylor defined animism as the general belief in spiritual beings and considered it ‘a minimum definition of religion.’ According to Tylor, primitive peoples, defined as those without written traditions, believed that spirits or souls are the cause of life in human beings; they picture souls as phantoms, resembling vapours or shadows, which can transmigrate from person to person, from the dead to the living, and also transmigrate into plants, animals and lifeless objects. The Mao religion has several common characteristics with Tylor’s notion of ‘animism.’ However, his use of the term as primitive in a disparaging manner cautions me from using the same here. In my view, the Maos had a living spiritual tradition which was an authentic engagement with the spiritual realities and sufficient to make their life meaningful

and moral. Hence, rather than using the terms ‘animism’ and ‘primitive.’ I intend to use the expression ‘traditional religion’ as may be differentiated from the classical religions.

References;

1. M.Daniel, Socio-Cultural and Religious life of the Mao Naga Tribe (New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2008).

2. Athikho Kaisii & Heni Francis Ariina.,ed., Tribal Philosophy and Culture: Mao Naga of North-East (New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2012).

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3. Saji Varghese, ed., Nature, Culture and Philosophy: Indigenous Ecologies of North East India (New Delhi: Lakshi Publishers & Distributors, 2014).

4. Lois Meyer and Benjamin Maldonado Alvarado, ed., New World of Indigenous Resistance (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private Limited, 2011).

5. W.R. Inge, Mysticism in Religion (New Delhi: Sarup Book

Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2012).

6. M.V Kamath, Philosophy of Life and Death (Mumbai: Jaico Publishing House, 2010).

7. Karen Armstrong, The Case for God: What religion really means (London: Vintage Books, 2010).

8. A.R Mohapatra, Philosophy of Religion: An approach to world religions (New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1985).

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PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ITC AND HUL

Dr. Khyser Mohammad

Associate Professor & Chairman-BOS

Dept. of Business Management Telangana University

Dichpally Nizamabad, Telangana

Arif Arfat Associate Professor

Trinity College of Engg. and Technology Karimnagar

Telangana

Abstract

The basic intention of any business entity is to make high profits, but the companies with high profits does not always indicates the sound efficiency and in the same way the low profits is not always a sign of organisation sickness, the most likely acceptable criteria to measure the efficiency level is profitability analysis, which is closely related to the profit, but conceptually they are not same, profitability is a measure to determine the ability of a firm to produce a return on an investment based on the resources available in comparison to alternative investment. The present article is focused to examine and

compare the operating efficiency of the leading brands in FMCG Sector i.e., HUL and ITC Ltd for the period of seven years by using profitability ratios and the statistical tools, such as Mean, Covariance, Standard Deviation, F test and T test.

Key Words: Efficiency, FMCG Sector, Profitability.

I. INTRODUCTION

The FMCG Sector is the fourth largest sector in India with a estimated market size of Rs130000 to 150000 crores which is expected to grow by 20.6 percent for the period of (2016-2020) and the total consumption expenditure and the customer spending is also estimated to reach USD

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3600 billion by 2016-2020 from the USD 1411 billion in 2014, It is the important contributor to the GDP of India.

II. MEANING AND CONCEPT

Profit is a financial return or reward for the investment made by sacrificing the present consumption, time, acceptance of risk and for their efforts; it is absolute term which determines the excess amount to the total cost which is calculated by deducting total cost from the total revenue. Where the profitability is distinct from the profits because the term profitability is composed of two words namely profit and the

ability which denotes the ability of a firm to produce a return on the investment based on the resources available in comparison to the alternative investment.

Even though the term profit is an absolute number but has no relevance to compare the efficiency level of the business it means a company with high profits does not always indicate the sound efficiency and the low profits is not always indicates the sign of organisation sickness therefore the term profit is not a prime factor to measure the operational and financial efficiency of an organisation, insight the concept of profitability can be considered sound to measure the productivity on the total investment and to measure the organisational efficiency.

III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

Shine and Soemen (1998) found that there is a strong negative relation between the cash conversion cycle and corporate profitability for a large sample of listed American companies for the 1975-1994

periods, Dr. S.K. khartik titto Varghese, (2011) they found the profitability more or less depends upon the better utilization of resources and to manpower. It is worthwhile to increase production capacity and use advance technology to cut down cost of production and wage cost in order to increase profitability, not only against the

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investment, but also for investor’s return points of view. Vijayakumar and Venkatachalan (2003) In their study indicated a moderate trend in the financial position and the utilization of working capital, variations in working capital size should be avoided attempts should also be made to use funds more effectively, by keeping an optimum level of working capital. Because, keeping more current assets cause a reduction in profitability. Hence, efforts should be made to ensure a positive trend

in the estimation and maintenance of the working capital

IV. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To study the profitability and financial efficiency of the selected companies in FMCG sector.

2. To compare the financial efficiency levels of the selected companies in FMCG sector.

V. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The present study is mainly based on the secondary data for the period of seven years i.e., (Mar-09 to Mar-15) and the relevant data is collected from the annual reports of the companies, magazines, journals and websites. The profitability of the companies are analyzed with the help of accounting ratios and the statistical tools such as mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variance, has been used to interpret the results. The F Test is used to measure the variance between the two samples and t. - test for the decision on hypothesis.

Hypothesis: the present study is based on the following Null Hypothesis

Ho: “There is no significant difference in the profitability of the companies under the study”

VI. ANALYSIS AND FINDING:

Profitability Analysis:

The financial performance of the companies is based on how the companies are efficiently utilising the resources to maximize their

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returns for which the following accounting ratios has been selected of HUL and ITC Ltd. Accounting ratios are the mathematical relationship expressed between the interconnected accounted figures, The following two ratios has been used to measure the overall profitability of the selected companies of FMCG Sector.

A) Profitability Ratios

B) Profitability in Relation to Investments Ratio

A. Profitability Ratios: The word profitability is a computation of

two words profit and ability it means the ability of profit making. Which indicates the capacity to generate surplus in the process of operational activities and the lower profitability indicates the lack of control on the expenses.

i. Cash margin ratio:-It is ratio indicates how efficiently a

company converts its sales to cash, since the expenses and purchase of assets are paid from cash.

TABLE 1: Cash Margin Ratio Chart: 01

YEAR ITC HUL

Mar-09 24.22 12.29

Mar-10 23.98 12.76

Mar-11 25.60 11.59

Mar-12 26.38 12.46

Mar-13 26.63 12.96

Mar-14 28.19 13.61

Mar-15 27.77 12.53

MEAN 26.11 12.60

SD 1.62 0.62

CV (%) 6.20 4.93

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Source: Annual Reports of ITC and HUL Ltd

Inference: The above table depict that the cash profit margin of ITC

Ltd was not so consistent for the period of study where a pitfall in the ratio is observed in the year 2009-10 and in the year 2014-15, and the Mean of cash profit margin for the period of study was 26.11. Where in the case of HUL the cash margin ratios are lesser than the ITC ltd and it is observed that the less degree of fluctuations and the mean for the period of study is 12.60,

On the basis of Mean of cash profit margin it can be concluded that the ITC Ltd performed better than HUL ltd even though the fluctuation were high as the coefficient of variation was 6.20 percent which need to be considered and controlled, while the coefficient of variations of HUL Ltd is 4.93 percent shows a moderate consistency.

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

Mar-09 Mar-10 Mar-11 Mar-12 Mar-13 Mar-14 Mar-15

RATI

O IN

(%)

Cash Margin Ratio

ITC HUL

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TABLE 2: CALCULATION OF F –Test

Analysis of F-test of ITC and HUL under the Study Period

Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value

Level of Significance P- Value Finding Result

6.81 4.28 0.05 0.0171072 Fc> Ft Unequal Variance

TABLE 3: CALCULATION OF T -Test

Analysis of T-Test of ITC and HUL under the Study Period Assuming Unequal Variance:

Type n

d.f. (Degree of Freedom)

Tc: Computed Value

Tt: Table Value

Level of Significance

Finding Result

Unequal Variance

14 8 20.58 2.30 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of CASH PROFIT MARGIN Ratio

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of CASH PROFIT MARGIN Ratio.

Null Hypothesis: H0=µ1=µ2 and Alternative Hypothesis: H1=µ1≠µ2

The calculated value of ‘t’ is more than the table value. The Null Hypothesis is rejected

ii. Gross Profit Ratio: It shows the relationship of gross profit to net sales, gross profit is the difference between the Net Sales and Cost of Goods Sold and it can be obtained by dividing the gross profit by net sales as it is expressed as and The Higher the ratio is better the performance

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TABLE 4: Gross Profit Ratio CHART: 02

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 29.17 13.50

Mar-10 29.74 14.70

Mar-11 31.48 12.45

Mar-12 32.37 13.89

Mar-13 32.88 14.59

Mar-14 34.76 15.04

Mar-15 34.27 15.97

MEAN 32.09 14.30

SD 2.12 1.14

CV (%) 6.61 7.97


0.005.00

10.0015.0020.0025.0030.0035.0040.00

Mar

-09

Mar

-10

Mar

-11

Mar

-12

Mar

-13

Mar

-14

Mar

-15

RATI

O IN

(%)

GROSS PROFIT MARGIN

ITC

HUL

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Inference: From the above table it is noted that the ITC ltd gross profit has marked a increasing trend for the period of study except for the year 2014-15 with a slight down trend and the mean was 32.09 percent which is appositive sign that the company able to generate profit through it operational activities and in the case of HUL the gross profit margin is low than the ITC with a high degree of volatility for the entire period of study with a mean of 14.30

It is observed that the Coefficient variation of HUL i.e., (7.97 per cent) which is more than the ITC Ltd (6.61) which indicates the degree of inconsistency in marinating gross profit margin, so it clearly indicates that the companies should focus on operational efficiency.



Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value


P- Value Finding Result

3.46 4.28 0.05 0.078 Fc< Ft Equal Variance


Analysis of T-Test of ITC and HUL under the Study Period Assuming Equal Variance:

Type n d.f.

Tc: Computed Value

Tt: Table Value


Finding

Result

Equal

Variance

14 12 19.54 2.18 0.05 Tc>Tt

H1

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H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of GROSS PROFIT Ratio

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of GROSS PROFIT Ratio.


The calculated value of‘t’ is more than the table value. The Null Hypothesis is rejected

iii. Net Profit Ratio: It is the ratio which indicates the portion of

sales which is the portion left to the proprietor after all deductions, expenses from the revenue, Net profit is the ratio of net profit after tax to net sales, it is use full to measure the overall profitability and the focus is on the non-operating

activities.

TABLE 7: Net Profit Ratio CHART: 03

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 21.18 12.09

Mar-10 21.87 12.39

Mar-11 23.24 11.68

Mar-12 24.47 12.16

Mar-13 24.80 14.70

Mar-14 26.43 13.80

Mar-15 26.31 14.00

MEAN 24.04 12.97

SD 2.04 1.16

CV (%) 8.49 8.94

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Inference: From the above table it is noted that ITC Ltd able to maintain the stability and consistency in maintaining their net profit margin and the average for the period of study was 24.04 per cent which is a positive indication for the company, where the performance of HUL is not satisfactory due the degree of inconsistency and for the

percentage of net profit margin maintained.

So it is observed that the ITC ltd performed better than the HUL with a high rate of net profit margins and low degree of instability the Coefficient of variation of ITC ltd is 8.49 per cent and of HUL is 8.94 percent. , Both the companies should take appropriate steps in maintaining the NP Margins.

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

RATI

O IN

(%)

NET PROFIT RATIO

ITC

HUL

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Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value





Analysis of T-Test of ITC and HUL under the Study Period Assuming Equal Variance:

Type n d.f. Tc: Computed Value

Tt: Table Value


Finding Result

Equal Variance

14 12 12.43 2.18 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of NET PROFIT Ratio

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of NET PROFIT Ratio.

Null Hypothesis: H0=µ1=µ2 Alternative Hypothesis: H1=µ1≠µ2


iv. Operating Profit Ratio: It express the relationship between

the operating profit to net sales, operating cost is the total COGS and all other operating expenses i.e., office and admin

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expenses, sales and distribution expenses. It is also indicates the portion of rupee remained after all operating cost and expenses are deducted.

TABLE 10: Operating Profit Ratio Chart: 04

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 32.84 14.46

Mar-10 33.02 15.74

Mar-11 34.54 13.57

Mar-12 35.15 14.88

Mar-13 35.54 15.51

Mar-14 37.47 15.97

Mar-15 36.90 16.90

MEAN 35.06 15.29

SD 1.77 1.08

CV (%) 5.05 7.06


0.0010.0020.0030.0040.00

RATI

O IN

(%0

OPERATING PROFIT RATIO

ITC

HUL

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Inference: It is noted from the above table that the operating profit ratio of ITC ltd is satisfactory compare to HUL ltd because of there is consistency in maintaining the operating profit margin with a coefficient of variation of 5.05 percent compare to 7.06 per cent of HUL and the percentage of operating profit to Net sales was high with a mean of 3506 percent, which builds the confidence for both shareholders and stakeholders.



Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value





Analysis of T-Test of ITC and HUL under the Study Period Assuming Equal Variance


Tt: Table Value

Level of Significance Finding Result

Equal Variance 14 12 25.18 2.18 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of OPERATING PROFIT Ratio

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of OPERATING PROFIT Ratio.

Null Hypothesis: H0=µ1=µ2 Alternative Hypothesis: H1=µ1≠µ2


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B. PROFITABILITY IN RELATION TO INVESTMENT RATIOS:

i. Return on Assets: This is the ratio which indicates how

profitable are the company’s asset in generating the revenue, It is obtained by dividing the Net Profit After Tax divided by Total Assets to ascertain whether the company assets are being used optimally.

TABLE 13: Return on Assets Chart: 05

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 36.24 9.45

Mar-10 36.69 11.84

Mar-11 20.55 12.31

Mar-12 23.97 16.25

Mar-13 28.14 12.36

Mar-14 32.95 15.15

Mar-15 38.28 17.21

MEAN 30.90 13.51

SD 6.88 2.77

CV (%) 22.27 20.50

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Inference: The above table enumerates the performance of both the companies in utilisation of assets to generate the revenue, it has been observed that the ITC ltd has shown a down fall trend in effective utilisation of asset with a high degree of inconsistency, even though the average mean of ITC Ltd (30.9) is greater than the HUL (13.51) per

cent the coefficient of variation is High for ITC ltd (6.88) per cent which shows the degree of inconsistency. Overall both the companies to take the appropriate steps in utilisation of company Assets



Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value



6.17 4.28 0.05 0.022 Fc>Ft Un-Equal Variance

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

40.00

45.00RA

TIO

IN (%

)

RETURN ON ASSETS

ITC

HUL

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Analysis of T-Test of ITC and HUL under the Study Period Assuming Un- Equal Variance:

Type n d.f Tc: Computed Value

Tt: Table Value


Finding Result

Un-Equal Variance

14 8 6.24 2.30 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON ASSETS

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON ASSETS

Null Hypothesis: H0=µ1=µ2

Alternative Hypothesis: H1=µ1≠µ2


ii. Return on Capital Employed: It is a guide to compare the

profitability of the business and also indicates the utilisation of net capital employed towards achieving a desirable profit, the computation of capital employed in business can be obtained from the following equation.

Capital Employed: {Fixed Asset + (Current Asset – Current Liabilities)}

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TABLE 16: Return on Capital Employed CHART : 06

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 34.60 118.59

Mar-10 42.64 106.78

Mar-11 45.88 102.69

Mar-12 47.69 95.42

Mar-13 48.29 163.63

Mar-14 48.21 147.59

Mar-15 45.74 148.75

MEAN 44.72 126.20

SD 4.88 26.88

CV (%) 10.91 21.30


0.0020.0040.0060.0080.00

100.00120.00140.00160.00180.00

RATI

O IN

(%)

RETURN ON CAPITAL EMPLOYED

ITC

HUL

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Inference: The above table clearly depict that ITC ltd able to maintain the average of 44.72 per cent in attaining the desirable profit for their capital employed and the coefficient of variation is 10.91 per cent for the entire period of study, Were in the case of HUL the company able to maintain the mean of 126.20 percen of their capital employed it clearly indicates that the company is efficient in generating high revenue with regards to capital employed but fail to maintain the consistency with a

high per cent of coefficient of Variation (21.30).



Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value






Type n d.f. (Degree of Freedom)

Tc: Computed Value

Tt: Table Value


Finding Result

Un-Equal Variance

14 6 7.93 2.45 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON CAPITAL EMPLOYED

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON CAPITAL EMPLOYED.

Null Hypothesis: H0=µ1=µ2

Alternative Hypothesis: H1=µ1≠µ2

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The calculated value of‘t’ is more than the table value. The

Null Hypothesis is rejected

iii. Return on Long Term Fund Ratio: It express the

relationship between the Earning before the interest and taxes and the long term funds, which can be obtained by dividing EBIT by the long term funds. The long term fund refers to the total investment made in business for the long term.

TABLE 19: Return on Long Term Fund Ratio Chart: 07

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 34.75 142.88

Mar-10 42.64 106.78

Mar-11 45.89 102.69

Mar-12 47.70 95.42

Mar-13 48.29 163.63

Mar-14 48.21 147.59

Mar-15 45.74 148.75

MEAN 44.75 129.67

SD 4.83 27.20

CV (%) 10.79 20.98

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Inference: From the above table it is clearly indicates that the “return on long term funds” is satisfactory for ITC Ltd, that the average return for the period of study is 44.75 per cent and able to consistency level

with Coefficient of Variance =10.79 percent and in the case of HUL the mean is129.67 per cent with a low degree of consistency were the coefficient of variation is 20.98 per cent which is greater than ITC Ltd.



Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value




0.0020.0040.0060.0080.00

100.00120.00140.00160.00180.00

RATI

O IN

(%)

RETURN ON LONG TERM FUNDS

ITC

HUL

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Tt: Table Value


Un-Equal Variance 14 6 8.14 2.45 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON LONG TERM FUNDS

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of RETURN

ON LONG TERM FUNDS.



iv. Return on Net Worth: It is also famous by Return on Shareholders fund which indicates the profitability of the

owner’s investment. The term net worth includes the Equity Share capital, Preference share capital and Reserve and Surplus less accumulated loss.This ratio is useful to measure the rate of return which really belongs to the owners and it is a grea interest of both present as well as prospective shareholder. A higher ratio indicates the better utilization of owner’s funds and vice-versa.

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TABLE 22: Return on Net worth Chart: 08

Year ITC HUL

Mar-09 23.85 121.34

Mar-10 28.98 85.25

Mar-11 31.36 86.72

Mar-12 32.88 76.62

Mar-13 33.36 142.01

Mar-14 33.51 118.04

Mar-15 31.31 115.87

MEAN 30.75 106.55

SD 3.43 23.94

CV (%) 11.15 22.47


0.0020.0040.0060.0080.00

100.00120.00140.00160.00

RATI

ON

IN (%

)

RETURN ON NET WORTH

ITC

HUL

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Inference: The above table depict that the return on net worth is more in the case of HUL but with a high degree of variability in returns were the average mean for the period of study is 106.55 per cent and the coefficient of variation is 22.47 per cent, In the case of ITC Ltd the mean for the period of study is 30.75 per cent and the Coefficient of Variation is 11.15 per cent



Fc: Computed Value

Ft: Table Value






Type N d.f. Tc: Computed Value

Tt: Table Value


Un-Equal Variance 14 6 8.3 2.45 0.05 Tc>Tt H1

H0= There would be no significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON NET WORTH

H1=There would be significant difference in mean score of RETURN ON NET WORTH.


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VII. CONCLUSSION:

It is evident that the cash profit margin of ITC ltd is within the range of 23.9 per cent to 28.19 per cent and the mean for the entire period of study is 26.11 which is a positive sign for the company when the opponent company HUL with less ratio of cash margin ranging from 11.59 per cent to 13.61 per cent and a mean is 12.60 and the coefficient of variation is 6.20 per cent which indicates a high degree of fluctuations compare to HUL with 4.93 per cent even though the ITC ltd performed better than HUL With a high cash margin ratio, There is a enough scope for the companies for

improvement

The gross profit of ITC Ltd is higher than the HUL with a mean of 32.09 per cent (ITC Ltd) and 14.30 per cent of (HUL Ltd) for the period of study and it is observed that the Coefficient of variation of HUL is more than ITC which indicates high degree of fluctuation in ratio. Overall from both the companies ITC performed well there a enough scope for improvement for HUL Ltd.

The Net Profit ratio of the ITC Ltd with a mean of 24.04 per cent is more than the HUL Ltd 12.97 percent and the coefficient of variation is 8.49 percent for ITC Ltd and 8.94 per cent for HUL Ltd, Here in this case both the companies fluctuations are very near but overall the ITC ltd is efficient compare to HUL but there is enough scope for both the companies to improve.

The operating profit of ITC Ltd with a mean of 35.06 percent is higher than the HUL ltd mean which is 15.29 per cent and the coefficient of

variation is 5.05 in the case of ITC and 7.06 percent for HUL Ltd it indicates that the fluctuation in HUL is greater than the ITC Ltd

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Return on total asset the mean of ITC ltd is 30.90 percent and the HUL is 13.51 percent which depict that how they are efficient in utilisation of assets, in this case the ITC ltd is far better than HUL but enable to maintain the consistency in ratio so coefficient of variation is 22.27 percent which is a pitfall in maintaining the efficiency.

Return on capital employed ratio is ranging between 34.60 per cent to 48.29 percent with a mean of 44.72 percent for ITC ltd were in the case

of HUL Ltd the ratio range is between the 95.42 percent to 148.75 with a mean of 126.20 for the entire period of study and the fluctuation in more in the case of HUL.

Return on Long term fund ratio is observed more satisfactory in the case of HUL ltd comparison to ITC Ltd because the average mean of HUL is 129.67 per cent comparison to ITC Ltd with 44.75 percent but the fluctuation in ratio is high in the case of HUL with a high coefficient variation of 20.98 percent, Were the appropriate financial mix to be maintained for the consistent results.

Return on Net worth is also known as return on shareholders’ fund it is one of the important profitable ratio for the shareholders who eagerly waiting the portion of risk and it also had a influence on the proposed investors, were in this case of ratio the HUL ltd occupied a better place ITC ltd but enable to control the rate of fluctuations.

The Overall performance on Profitability ITC ltd was excellent and in the case Profitability in relation to Investment the HUL was performed better than ITC Ltd all though there is better scope for both the companies to increase their overall operational efficiency.

VIII. Refernces:

1. Dr. S.K. khartik Titto Varghese, Profitability Analysis of Public Sector Undertaking: A Case Study of Hindustan Newsprint

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Limited (HNL), The Management Accountant, November 2011. Vol.46. No.11, pp.1067-1073.

2. V&V, „Working Capital Management‟, A Case Study of Tamil Nadu Sugar Corporation, Finance India, (2003), pp.95-110.

3. Shine and Soemen, „Efficiency of Working Capital and Corporate Profitability‟ Finance India,Vol.8, No.2, (1998), pp.37-45

4. I M Pandey.(2013) “ Financial Management” Vikas Publications pvt Ltd Noida.

5. S.P Jain & K L Narang .(2010) “ Cost and Management Accounting” Kalyani Publications.

6. Hingorani, N.L., Ramanthan A.R. and Grewal T.S.(2005), “Management Accounting” New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India.

7. Subhindra Bhat (2009) .“Financial Management” Excel books New Delhi.

8. Annual Reports of ITC Ltd From 2008-09 to 2014-15

9. Annual Reports of HU L From 2008-09 to 2014-15

Websites:

1. www.google.com

2. www.itc.com

3. www.hul.com

4. www.investopedia.com

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RIGHT TO LIFE AND PERSONAL LIBERTY – A STUDY FROM

HUMAN RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE

Dr. T. Konaiah Advocate

Ananthapuramu District Andhra Pradesh

INTRODUCTION:

Article 21 explains with “Protection of life and personal liberty”. The inspiration of the Article 21 of our Constitution is the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America which guarantees the fundamental right to life and liberty. It lays down: “No person shall be deprived of his life, liberty or property without due process of law”. The phrase without due process of law is not found in Article 21. However similar words are used giving similar meaning in Article 21. Dr. Ambedkar suggested to change the phrase “to the procedure established by law” and it has been unanimously agreed and adopted by Constituent Assembly.

Personal Liberty: Article 21 of the Constitution prohibits deprivation

of personal liberty. Diecy has defined it as a right not to be subjected to imprisonment, arrest or physical coercion of any kind that does not admit of legal justification. This definition was approvingly cited by Justice Mukherjee when he said that personal liberty means “liberty

relating to, or concerning the person or body of the individual … and it is antithesis of physical restraint or coercion.”

However, a wider meaning could be attributed to the word “personal liberty”. Chief Justice Kania and Justice Fazal Ali thought that “personal liberty” not only includes liberty of the person but also rights attached to the person. As the Chief Justice observed:

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Deprivation of personal liberty. Inter alia includes the right to

eat or sleep when one likes or to work or not to work as and when one pleases and several such rights.”

In a later case, Kharak Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh,

the majority view regarding the phrase “personal liberty” was reiterated. It was remarked.

“Personal liberty” is used in the Article as a compendious term to include within itself all the varieties of rights which go to make up the personal liberties of man other than those dealt with in the several clauses of Article 19(1).

In another case, Satwant Singh vs. Assistant Passport Officer, Chief Justice Subba Rao interpreted the phrase as,

including the right of locomotion and travel abroad. The Supreme Court held in that case that no Indian would be arbitrarily denied the issue of a passport which is a necessary document for traveling abroad. After this judgement, the issue of passport to Indians has been liberalized and the law regarding the procedure for issue of passport simplified and further enacted in 1967. In Maneka Gandhi’s case, it

was held that the phrase – personal liberty – “is of the widest amplitude and it covers a variety of rights which go to constitute the personal

liberty of man. “The Court reaffirmed the statement of Chief Justice Tambe in the case of A.G. Kazi that personal liberty under Article 21 not only means freedom from physical restraint but “include a full range of conduct which an individual is free to pursue within the law, for instance, eat or drink whatever he likes, mix with people whom he likes, read what he likes, sleep when and as long as he likes, travel whenever he likes, read what he likes, sleep when and as long as he likes, travel whenever he likes, go wherever he likes, follow a profession, vocation or business as he likes, of course, in the manner and to the extent permitted by law.” Justice Iyer cited Justice Douglas

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to show that the right to travel is a part of liberty which cannot be denied without due process of law. According, to him, “personal liberty makes for the worth of a human person. Travel makes liberty worthwhile. Life is a terrestrial opportunity for unfolding personality. The spirit of Man is at the root of Article 21. Absent liberty, the other freedoms are frozen”.

Personal liberty is indeed the essence of all rights. Some of them are given in Article 19(1). The residue are enjoyed under Article 21. The phrase “personal liberty” should mean freedom of action for a person to do what he wants to do or not to do what he does not want to do within the precincts of the law. It should give him the freedom to make his choice. Thus, it is left to him to emigrate and settle abroad or return to his country as he may desire. The right given to a person to leave his country and to return to his country under Article 13 is

implied under Article 21 of the Constitution. So also, the right given to the person to seek and enjoy asylum elsewhere under Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (U.D.H.R.) In Francis Mullin’s case, it was held that personal liberty would include the right

to person including prisoner or detenue, within limited circumstances, to socialize with members of his family and friends. It was further stated by Justice Bhagwati in the same case that under Article 21 the detenue would have the right to consult a legal adviser of his choice for the defense or for securing his release from preventive detention as part of living with human dignity and personal liberty. Earlier, in Sunil Batra’s case, it was held that bar fetters on a prisoner deprive him of “locomotion which is one of the facets of personal liberty”.

United nations universal declaration of human rights states

The Universal declaration of Human rights consists of a preamble 30 articles setting forth the basis human rights and fundamental freedoms to which all men and women everywhere in the

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world are entitled, without discrimination. The civil and political rights recognized in Articles 3 to 21 of the declaration include the right to life, library and security of person.

The right to life is the bedrock and corner stone of all other human rights. This presupposes the existence of human life; this is so self evident that no comments or demonstration seem necessary. It is, however, useful to consider the right to life as representing the complementary and independence of human rights. Why does life seem inseparable from the freedom and security of the person? Is existence possible without freedom and security? It is clear that the purpose of this right to preserve the Physical existence of human beings and to condemn severally those states and groups that assume the right to take human life.

International covenants on human rights

Civil and political rights

Article 6 to 27 of the International covenant on civil and political rights provide for protection of the right to life (Article 6). The covenants elaborates the political and civil rights identified in the

universal Declaration, which include the right to life privacy, fair trial, freedom of expressions freedom from torture and equality before Law.

Some of the rights can be suspended in times of public emergency which threatens the life of nation, provided that the derogation will not involve discrimination on grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion or social origin. If a country wants to 'opt out' in this way. It must immediately inform the secretary – General of the United Nations States of emergency thus declared unfortunately often create the conditions under which gross violations of human rights occur. In no circumstances, in peace or war is derogation permitted the rights to life, recognition before the Law, freedom from torture and slavery, freedom of thought conscience and religion, the right not to be

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imprisoned solely for inability to fulfill a contractual obligation, and the right not to be held guilty for committing a crime which did not constitute a criminal offence at the time it was committed.

The covenants unlike the universal declaration, are legally binding treaties for those states which are parties to them and they are thus obliged to respect the procedures for their implementation, including the submission of periodic reports on their compliance with their obligations under the covenants. Both covenants entered into force in 1976. Since that time about 130 states have become parties to the ICE SOCR and to the ICC PR. The first optional protocol to the ICCPR (International covenants civil and political rights) also entered into force in 1976 and by now has been ratified by about ninety states. The second optional protocol, which entered into force in 1991, has now been ratified by about thirty states. International covenant on civil and

political rights article -6.

1. Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by Law. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life.

2. In countries which have not abolished the death penalty, sentence of death may be imposed only for the most serious crimes in accordance with the Law in force at the time of the present covenant and to the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide. This penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgment rendered by a competent court.

3. When deprivation of life constitutes the crime of genocide, it is understood that nothing in this article shall authorize any state party to the present covenant to derogate in any way from any obligation on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide.

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4. Anyone sentenced to death shall have the right to seek pardon

or commutation of the sentence. Amnesty, pardon or commutation of the sentence of death may be granted in all case.

5. Sentence of death shall not be imposed for coins committed by persons below eighteen years of age and shall not be carried out on pregnant women.

6. Nothing in this article shall be invoked to delay or to prevent the abolition of capital punishment by any state party to the present covenant.

The universal declaration of human rights was written in response to the devastating events of the Second World War. In this connection, Article 3 clearly spells out that. Everyone has the right to life, universal literary of the values of this booklet tries to promote should make the outbreak of war more difficult and prevent the

recurrence of the type of genocide that took place during the second world war. Genocide is not new. However, the technology of our nuclear age has made this possible on a much greater scale them ever before. We are all endangered by Nemesis the daily threat of nuclear war, as we now have on earth the power equipment to threatens of conventional explosives per man, woman and child. The 'right to life' has therefore taken on a meaning it has never had before.

Human Rights perspective:

Right to life and personal liberty is most fundamental of all fundamental rights. Article 21 of the Constitution secures this right to all persons. It provides:

No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

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This article advances the object of article 3 of the Universal Declaration of human Rights. Similar provision is also found in article 6 of the international covenant on civil and political rights.

In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, Bhagwati, J. while expanding the scope and ambit of article 21 observed:

The expression ‘personal liberty’ in Article 21 is of the widest amplitude and it covers a variety of rights which go to constitute the personal liberty of men and some of them have been raised to the status of distinct fundamental rights and given additional protection under Art. 19.

He was further of the opinion that the attempt of the Court should be to expand the reach and ambit of the fundamental rights rather than attenuate their meaning and content by a process of judicial construction. Justice Bhagwati also observed that the

expression “procedure” under “procedure established by law” must mean as “just, fair and reasonable” procedure. In other words, the “procedural due process” was interpreted as implicit in article 21. Justice Krishna Iyer in the same case took the view that even the “law” under article 21 must also be ‘just, fair and reasonable”. Thus, according to Justice Krishna Iyer, even “substantive due process” is also implicit in article 21 of the Constitution.

This new interpretation of article 21, expanding its scope and ambit has resulted in the development of a new human rights constitutional jurisprudence. Now a variety of rights are interpreted in article 21 of the Constitution and thus made enforceable in the court of Law. The right to ‘live’ is not merely confined to physical existence but it includes within its ambit the right to live with human dignity. This right is not restricted to mere animal existence. In Francies Coralie v. Union Territory of Delhi, the Supreme Court observed that the

right to ‘live’ is not confined to the protection of any faculty or limb

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through which life is enjoyed or the soul communicates with the outsides world but it also includes “the right to live with human dignity” and fall that goes along with it, namely, the bare necessities of life such as, adequate nutrition, clothing and shelter and facilities for reading, writing and expressing ourselves in diverse forms, freely moving about the mixing communicating with fellow human beings. The Supreme Court observed: The expression “personal liberty” occurring in article 21 is of the widest amplitude and it includes the right to socialize with members of the family and friends subject, of course, to any valid prison regulations and under articles 14 and 21, such prison regulations must be reasonable and non-arbitrary.

The Supreme Court has held that several unremunerated rights fall within article 21 since “personal liberty” is of widest amplitude. The right to “personal liberty”, inter-alia, covers the right to go abroad;

the right to privacy; the right against solitary confinement; the right against bar fetters; the right to legal aid; the right to speedy trail; the right against handcuffing, the right against delayed execution; the right against custodial violence; the right against public hanging; the right to doctor’s assistance; right to shelter; and protection against use of third degree methods by the police.

The Supreme Court has also given very wide interpretation to the expression ‘life’ In article 21 of the Constitution of India. The right to “livelihood” has been held to be implicit in the expression “life” in article 21 of the Constitution. In Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation, the Supreme Court observed:

The sweep of the right to life conferred by Article 21 is wide and far-reaching. It does not mean merely that life cannot be extinguished or taken away as, for example, by the imposition and execution of death sentence, except according to procedure established by law. That is but one aspect of the right to life. An equally important facet of that right is

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the right to livelihood because, no person can live without the means of living, that is the means of livelihood. If the right to livelihood is not treated as a part of Constitutional right to life, the easiest way of depriving a person of his right to life would be to deprive him of his means of livelihood to the point of abrogation. Such deprivation would not only denude the life of its effective content and meaningfulness but it would make life impossible to live.

The Supreme Court has also regarded as right to live in healthy environment and right to maintenance and improvement of public health as a part of the right to live with human dignity enshrined in article 21 of the Constitution.

Recently, the Supreme Court in the case of Mohini Jain V. State of Karnataka has interpreted the “right to education”, implicit

in right to life under article 21 of the Constitution, The Court observed:

“Right to life” is the compendious expression for all those rights which the Courts must enforce because they are basic to the dignified enjoyment of life. The right to education flows directly from right to

life. The right to life under article 21 and the dignity of all individual cannot be assured unless it is accompanied by the right to education.

This new interpretation of article 21 of the Constitution will help in achieving the objective of corresponding provision, i.e., article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as enforceable right. The right to education is also recognized in articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. India is a party to the Covenant and the status of this new right will be a useful reminder of the problems inherent in any attempt to create a social right of this kind for individuals against their states.

Thus, article 21 of the Constitution is the heart of human rights and has rightly received expanded meaning from time to time by the Apex Court.

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Prior to Maneka Gandhi’s Decision:

The meaning of the words “personal liberty came up for

consideration of the Supreme Court for the first time in A.K. Gopalan v. Union of India. In that case the petitioner, A.K. Gopalan, a

communist leader was detained under the Preventive Detention Act, 1950. The petitioner challenged the validity of his detention under the Act on the ground, that it was violative of his right to freedom of movement under Art. 19(1) (d) which is the very essence of personal liberty guaranteed by Arty. 21 of the Constitution. He argued that the words “personal liberty” include the freedom of movement also and therefore the Preventive Detection Act, 1950 must also satisfy the requirement of Art 19(5). In other words, the restrictions imposed by the detention law on the freedom of movement must be reasonable under Art. 19(5) of the Constitution. It was argued that Art. 19(1) and Art. 21 should be read together because Art. 19(1) dealt with substantive rights and Art. 21 dealt with procedural rights. It was also said that reference in Art. 21 to “procedure established by law” meant “due process of law” of the American Constitution which includes the principles of natural justice and since the impugned law does not satisfy

the requirement of due process it is invalid. Rejecting both the contentions, the Supreme Court by the majority held that the ‘personal liberty’ in Art. 21 means nothing more than the liberty of the physical body, that is, freedom from arrest and detention without the authority of law. This was the definition of the phrase ‘personal liberty’ given by Prof. Dicey, according to whom personal liberty means freedom from physical restraint and coercion which is not authorized by law. The word ‘liberty’ is a very comprehensive word and if interpreted it is capable of including the rights mentioned in Art. 19. But by qualifying the word ‘liberty’ the Court said, the import of the word ‘personal liberty’ is narrowed down to the meaning given in English law to the expression ‘liberty of the person’. The majority took the view that Arts.

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19 and 21 deal with different aspects of ‘liberty’ Art. 21 is guarantee against deprivation of personal liberty while Art. 19 affords protection against unreasonable restrictions on the right of movement. Freedom guaranteed by Art. 19 can be enjoyed by a citizen only when he is a freeman and not if his personal liberty is deprived under a valid law.

In Gopalan’s the Supreme Court interpreted the ‘law’ as “state made law’ and rejected the plea that by the term ‘law’ in Art. 21 meant not the state made law but jus naturale or the principles of natural justice Fazal Ali, J., however, in his dissenting judgment held that the Act was liable to be challenged as violative the provisions of Art. 19. He gave a wide and comprehensive meaning to the words ‘personal liberty’ as consisting of freedom of movement and locomotion. Therefore, any law which deprives a person of his personal liberty must satisfy the requirements of Arts. 19 and 21 both.

But this restrictive interpretation of the expression ‘personal liberty’ in Gopalan’s case has not been followed by the Supreme Court in its later decisions. In Kharak Singh’s case, it was held that ‘personal liberty’ was not only limited to bodily restraint or confinement to prisons only, but was used as a compendious term including within itself all the varieties of rights which go to make up the personal liberty of a man other than those dealt within Article 19(1). In other words, while Article 19(1) deals with particular species or attributes of that freedom, ‘personal liberty’ in Article 21 takes in and comprises the residue.

Finally, in Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, the Supreme Court has not only overruled Gopalan’s case but has widened the scope of the words ‘personal liberty’ considerably, Bhagwati, J (as he then was) observed:

“The expression ‘personal liberty’ in Article 21 is of widest

amplitude and it covers a variety or rights go to constitute the personal

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liberty of man and some of them have raised to the status of distinct fundamental rights and given additional protection under Article 19”.

The Court said that the provision relating to fundamental rights should be interpreted widely; Bhagwati, J. said.

“The attempt of the Court should be to expand the reach and ambit of the Fundamental Rights rather than to attenuate their meaning and content by a process of judicial construction”. The Court lays down great stress on the procedure safeguards. The procedure must satisfy the requirement of natural justice. i.e., it must be just, fair and reasonable.

In Kharak Singh v. State of U.P. it was held that the expression ‘life’ was not limited to bodily restraint or confinement to prison only but something more than mere animal existence. In that case the petitioner, Kharak Singh, had been charged in a decoity case but was

released as there was no evidence against him. Under the U.P. Police Regulations, the Police opened a history sheet for him and he was kept under police surveillance which included secret picketing of his house by the police, domiciliary visits at nights and verification of his movement and activities. ‘Domiciliary visits’ mean visits by the police in the night to the private house for the purpose of making sure that the suspect is staying home or whether he has gone out. The Supreme Court held that the domiciliary visits of the policemen were an invasion on the petitioner’s personal liberty. By the term ‘life’ as used here something more is meant than mere animal existence. The inhibition against its deprivation extends to all those limits and faculties by which life is enjoyed. The provision equally prohibits the mutilation of the body or amputation of an arm or leg. It is true that in Article 21 the word ‘liberty’ in qualified by a word ‘personal’ but this qualification is employed in order to avoid overlapping between those incidents of

liberty which are mentioned in Article 19. An unauthorized intrusion

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into a person’s home and the disturbance caused to him is the violation of the personal liberty of the individual. Hence the Police Regulation authorizing domiciliary visits was plainly violative of Article 21 as there was no law on which it could be justified and it must be struck down as unconstitutional.

But in Govind v. State of M.P., the Supreme Court held that M.P. Police Regulations 855 and 856 authorizing domiciliary visits were constitutional as they have the force of law. These Regulations were framed by the Government under Section 46(2)(e) of the Police Act. The petitioner challenged the validity of those Regulations on the ground that they were violative of his fundamental right guaranteed in Article 21 which also includes the ‘right of privacy.’ The Supreme Court held that Regulations 855 and 856 have the force of law and, therefore, they were valid. As regards the ‘right of privacy’ the Court said that the

right to privacy would necessarily have to go through a process of case by case development. Therefore, even assuming that the right to personal liberty, the right to move freely throughout the territory of India and the freedom of speech create an independent right of privacy as an examination from them which can be characterized as a fundamental right, the right is not absolute. Depending upon the character and antecedents of the person subject to surveillance and the object and limitations under which surveillance is made, it cannot be said that surveillance by domiciliary visits would always be unreasonable restriction upon the right of privacy. The impugned Regulation 855 empowers surveillance only of persons against whom reasonable material exists to include the opinion that they show ‘a determination to lead a criminal life.’ The petitioner was shown to be a dangerous criminal whose conduct showed that he was determined to lead a criminal life. The Regulations imposed reasonable restrictions on

the fundamental right of petitioner guaranteed in Article 21 and therefore, they are valid.

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It is to be noted that in Kharak Singh’s case, the validity of a

similar Police Regulation was challenged. In that case the Regulations were declared unconstitutional because they did not have the force of law. On the other hand, in Govind’s case the validity of a similar Police Regulation was upheld as they had the force of law.

Right to travel abroad – In Satwant Singh v. Assistant Passport Officer, New Delhi, the Supreme Court further extended the scope of this Article and held that the “right to travel abroad” was part of a person’s ‘personal liberty’ within the meaning of Article 21 of the Constitution. In that case the petitioner who was a citizen of India had to travel abroad frequently for business purposes. The Government ordered him to surrender his passport. He challenged the action of the Government on the ground that it was violative of his fundamental rights under Article 21. His contention was that right to leave India or

travel abroad and return to India was part of his personal liberty which could be restricted only by authority of law. The Government cannot deny him a passport in the exercise of its executive power.

The contention of the Union Government was that the right to travel abroad was not included in the expression ‘personal liberty’ and that a passport was a political document to which no one had a legal, much less a constitutional right. The Supreme Court accepted the contention of the petitioner and held that the right to travel abroad was part of a person’s ‘personal liberty’ within the meaning of Article 21 and therefore, no person could be deprived of his right to travel abroad except according to procedure established by law. In fact there was no such law on which the Government could justify its action. The Court observed that the expression ‘liberty’ in Article 21 is a comprehensive term. ‘Personal liberty’ in Article 21 takes in the right of locomotion – to go where and when one pleases, and the right to travel abroad is

included in it. It only excludes the ingredients of liberty mentioned in Article 19.

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Maneka Gandhi’s Case – New Dimension

In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, the meaning and

content of the words ‘personal liberty’ again came up for the

consideration of the Supreme Court. In that case the Court has given the widest possible interpretation to the words ‘personal liberty’. In that case the petitioner’s passport was impounded by the Central Government under Section 10(3)(c) of the Passport Act, 1967. The Act authorized the Government to do so if it was necessary ‘in the interest of the general public’. The Government of India declined ‘in the interest of the general public’ to furnish the reasons for its decision. The petitioner challenged the validity of the said order on the following grounds that (1) Section 10(3)(c) was violative of Article 14 as conferring an arbitrary power since it did not provide for a hearing of the holder of the passport before the passport was impounded. (2) Section 10(3) (c) was violative of Article 21, since it did not prescribe ‘procedure’ within the meaning of that Article 21. (3) Section 10(3)(c) was violative of Article 19(1)(a) and (g) since it permitted imposition of

restrictions not provided in clauses (2) or (6) of Article 19. The reasons for the order were, however, disclosed in the affidavit filed on behalf of the Government which stated that the petitioner’s presence was likely to be required in connection with the proceedings before a Commission of inquiry. Regarding the opportunity to be heard the Attorney – General filed a statement that the petitioner could make a representation in respect of impounding passport that the representation would be dealt with expeditiously in accordance with law.

The Supreme Court held that the Government was not justified in withholding the reasons for impounding the passport from the petitioner. Delivering the majority judgement. Bhagwati, J. asked – Is the prescription of some sort of procedure enough or must the procedure comply with any particular requirement? He then held that

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the procedure contemplated in Article 21 could not be unfair or unreasonable. And this principle of reasonableness which was an essential element of equality or non-arbitrariness, pervaded Article 14 like a brooding omnipresence and the procedure contemplated in Article 21 must answer the test of reasonableness in order to be in conformity with Article 14. Hence, any procedure which permitted impairment of individual’s right to go abroad without giving him a reasonable opportunity to be heard could not but be condemned as unfair and unjust. The order withholding reasons for impounding the passport was therefore not only in breach of statutory provisions (Passport Act) but also in violation of the rule of natural justice embodied in the maxim “audi alteram partem”. Although there are no positive words in the statute (Passport Act) requiring that the party shall be heard, yet the justice of the Common Law will supply this

omission of Legislature. The power conferred under Section 10(3)(c) of the Act on the passport authority to impounded a passport is a quasi-judicial power. The rules of natural justice would therefore be applicable in the exercise of this power. Natural justice is a great humanizing principle intended to invest law with fairness and to secure justice. Fairness in action, therefore, demands that an opportunity to be heard should be given to the person affected. A provision requiring of such opportunity to the affected person can and should be read by implication in the Passport Act, 1967. If such provisions were held to be incorporated in the Act by necessary implication, the procedure prescribed for impounding passport would be right, fair and just and would not suffer from the vice of arbitrariness or unreasonableness. It must, therefore, be held that the procedure ‘established’ by the Act for impounding a passport is in conformity with the requirement of Article 21 and is not violative of that Article.

Thus Art. 21 requires the following conditions to be fulfilled before a person is deprived after property.

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1) There must be a valid law.

2) The law must provide a procedure.

3) The procedure must be just, fair and reasonable.

4) The law must satisfy the requirements of Arts. 14 and 17 i.e., it must be reasonable.

However, in view of the statement of the Attorney – General that the Government was agreeable to consider the representation of the petitioner, it was held by the majority of the Supreme Court (Beg, C.J. Dissenting) that the defect of the order was removed and the order was therefore passed by the passport authority in accordance with the procedure established by Law. In the instant case the petitioner was deprived of her right to go abroad in a accordance with the procedure established by law (Passport Act, 1967). The procedure prescribed by the Act was not arbitrary or unreasonable. The Act lays down proper

guidelines for the exercise of the powers by the Passport Authority. The power conferred on the Passport Authority is not unguided or unfettered. The grounds denoted by the words ‘in the interest of general public’ have a clearly well-defined meaning and cannot be said to be as vague or undefined. These words are in fact taken from Article 19(5) of the Constitution. Section 10(3)(c) of the Passport Act is therefore not violative of Articles 14, 9(1)(a) or (g) or Article 21.

Inter-relation of Arts. 14, 19 Art. 21:

In Gopalan’s case the Supreme Court held that Art. 19 has no application to laws depriving a person of his life and personal liberty enacted under Article 21 of the Constitution. It was held that Articles 19 and 21 death with different subjects. Article 19 deals only with certain (six freedoms) important individual rights of personal liberty and the restriction that can be imposed on them. Article 21 on the other hand, enables the State to deprive individual of his life and

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personal liberty in accordance with procedure established by law. Thus the view taken by the majority in A.K. Gopalan’s case was that so long as a law of preventive detention satisfies the requirements of Art. 22, it would not be required to meet the challenges of Art. 19.

Procedure Established by Law

Article 21 of the Constitution says that no one shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty, except, according to procedure established by law. Article 31 of the Japanese Constitution says the same thing. So also, Article 9(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. What is the meaning of “procedure established by law”? It has been held in the Maneka Gandhi case that there cannot be semblance of procedure which may otherwise be arbitrary and fanciful. The procedure which seeks to deprive man of his life or personal liberty must be fair, just and reasonable.” Justice Bhagwati further applied the rules of natural justice in such cases and held that the principle of audi

alteram partem (no one shall be condemned unheard) will be applicable and judiciary will supply the omission made by the legislature. All functionaries which discharge judicial or quasi-judicial functions must observe rules of natural justice. Justice Bhagwati remarked that there is no distinction between quasi-judicial action and administrative action. Therefore, rules of natural justice will be applicable to administrative actions as well.

Law, which affects life or personal liberty, must be fair, just and reasonable. This was reiterated in Francis Mullin’s case. It has further been held that free local aid is an essential ingredient of reasonable, fair and just procedure under Article 21.

Conclusion:

“Human Rights” are those rights which in here in every human being by virtue of being a person. These are nothing but the modern

home of what had been traditionally known as “natural” rights i.e.,

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rights bestowed upon human rights by nature. These are sacred rights and no derogation is permitted in civilized society. Human Rights” means the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the constitution or embodied in the international covenants and enforceable by courts in India. In part III and other parts of the Constitution of India consist of human rights. The most important Articles which deal with human rights are Article 21 and Articles 32 and 226. Judiciary in every country has an obligation and a constitutional role to protect Human Rights of citizens. In India this role is effectively played by the Supreme Court and High Courts. These Constitutional Courts from time to time acted as protectors of Human Rights in regard to various aspects as discussed here under. The right to life includes the right to live with human dignity and all that goes along with it, namely the bare necessaries of life such as

adequate nutrition, clothing and shelter and facilities for eating, writing and expressing our self in diverse forms, freely moving about and mixing and commingling with fellow human beings.

References:

1) Gade Veera Reddy “The Constitutional Law of India” Sujatha Law Books Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad.

2) Dr. J.N. Panday, “The Constitutional Law of India” Central Law agency 45th edition, Hyderabad.

3) The Human Rights Universal Declaration – Indian Institute of Human Rights, New Delhi.

4) Instruments of Human Rights and Covenants – Indian Institute of Human Rights, New Delhi.

5) M.P. Jain “Constitutional Law of India” Gogia Law Agency, Hyderabad.

6) B.L. Bansal, “Human Rights” Gogia Law Agency Hyderabad. 7) Justice P.S. Narayana “Law Relating to protection of Human Rights,

Gogia Law Agency, Hyderabad. 8) S.K. Awasthi “Protection of Human Rights” Gogia Law Agency,

Hyderabad.

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JUDICIAL ACTIVISM: DIRECTIVE LEGISLATION BY THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA

Dr. Jagtar Singh Assistant Professor

Department of Political Science Khalsa College, Patiala ,Punjab

Abstract

In a democratic society, there are perhaps two approaches to any judicial role: performance and perception. The judiciary can adopt a

proactive approach or it can act within the boundaries of self-restraint. Judicial activism refers to the first one. In India, it is termed as judicial over-reach and transgression of the principles of separation of powers and a delicate jurisdictional balance between the three organs of the government because such directions come to mean an intrusion in the domains of the Legislature and the Executive. It is a fact at the same time, that the Supreme Court has earned an increasing public trust and support for its active role in the course of its correction of the government policies. The Supreme Court has developed new methods of dispensing justice to the masses through the public interest litigation. Instances are cited of judicial intervention in matters entirely within the domain of the Executive, including policy decision. In this paper, an attempt has been made to discuss the main instances of judicial intervention in the domains of the Legislature and the Executive by

issuing directions to fill the gaps of legislation.

Introduction

India, for centuries, has been a home of social systems which bred inequality, exploitation and injustice. The disadvantaged, downtrodden and depressed classes, which have been named as notified communities, the scheduled castes and tribes, landless labours and such other groups

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have not only suffered economic exploitation but have undergone and are still being subjected to social indignities of all kinds. The system implies to them bondage for generations and has lived a stigmatised and respective existence, generation after generation. They are socially oppressed and work in primitive and sub-human conditions. Poor are hardly aware of their rights. The urban society suffers from the agony of environmental pollution, food and drug adulteration, labour exploitation and misuse of public power and funds. There are serious

challenges to the laws of the welfare state, such as sanitary structures, garbage, starvation deaths, discharge of trade effluents into rivers, corruption of ministers and officials, political misuse of the ordinance making power, the decline in political morality etc. It was for the Supreme Court of India to rise up to the occasion with the activist magnitude and boldly came out of the crippling inhibitions of the old legal order as to access to justice. The Supreme Court assumed the role of a creator, law reformer, and a saviour of the teaming million have nots and starved. Soon there came a new wave of judicial activism which started changing the face of judiciary. In this process, the judicial creativity is utilised to fill in the gaps between ‘the law’ as it is and the ‘the law’ as it ought to be. Inbuilt in this process is the ability of ‘proper perception and commitment to proper social values. This judicial creativity is called’ Judicial Activism.1 Justice J.S. Verma said that

judicial activism is required only when there is inertia in others. Proper judicial activism is that which ensures proper functioning of all other organs and the best kind of judicial activism is that which brings about results with the least judicial intervention. If everyone else is working, we don't have to step in.2

Mainly, the judicial activism has arisen mainly due to the failure of the Executive and Legislatures to act and for this thus main culprits have been the politicians. Instead of working for the general welfare of the people, they have been involved in self-aggrandizement and

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corruption. As a result, a vacuum was created in which the governmental machinery seemed to be totally helpless or even connived with the corrupt politicians. The vacuum was filled in by the judiciary. When the judiciary is appraised of and is satisfied with gross violations of basic human rights, it cannot fold its hands. It must respond to the knock of the oppressed and the downtrodden for justice with a positive response by adopting certain operational principles within the parameters of the Constitution and pass necessary directions in order

to render full and effective relief. The existence of a particular piece of legislation cannot solve the problems of society at large unless the judges interpret and apply the law to ensure its benefits to the masses.

Some Instances of Directive legislation by the Supreme Court:

In the Indian constitutional set up, legislation is the main function of the Parliament. But in contemporary times by the Supreme Court, directions are either issued to fill in the gaps in the legislation or to provide for matters that have not been provided by any legislation. The court has taken over the legislative function not in the traditional sense but in an overt manner and has justified it as being an essential component of its role as a constitutional court. In M.C. Mehta Vs state of Tamil Nadu,3 although the actual petition was in respect of child

labour in Sivakasi in Tamil Nadu, where a large number of children were engaged in the hazardous work of matchbox manufacture, the court thought it fit to travel beyond the confines of Sivakasi and to deal with the issue in wider spectrum and broader perspective taking it as a national problem. Referring to the directive principles of state policy in general and particularly the principle enjoining upon the state to provide free and compulsory education for children below the age of fourteen years contained in Article 45, the court observed:

“It is the duty of all the organs of the State to apply these principles. Judiciary being also one on the three principal organs of the

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State has to keep the same in mind when called upon to decide matters of great public importance. Abolition of child labour is definitely a matter of great public concern and significance.”

Among many directions which the court gave, the most significant were that:

(a) The government must either provide a job to an adult member of a family in lieu of the child belonging to that family who has been employed in any factory, mine, or other hazardous work or it must

deposit Rs. 5000 for every child.

(b) The offending employer must be asked to pay Rs. 20,000 as compensation for every child employed in contravention of the provisions of the child labour Act;

(c) All amounts received from the employers as well as governments should be deposited in a fund called the child labour Rehabilitation cum welfare fund;

(d) The alternative employment given as per above direction or the interest on Rs. 25,000 payable to the parent or guardian of a child worker shall be stopped if the child is not sent to school;

(e) The inspectors appointed under section 17 of the act shall ensure compliance with its provisions.

In Laxmikant Pandey Vs Union of India,4 the Supreme Court

gave directions as to what procedures should be followed and what precautions should be taken while allowing Indian children to be adopted by foreign adoptive parents. There was no law to regulate inter-country adoptions and such lack of regulation could cause incalculable harm to Indian Children, considering the possibility of child trade for prostitution as well as slave labour.

After that in Vishaka Vs Rajashtan,5 the Supreme court was asked to lay down directions for the effective implementation of gender

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equality, which was threatened by sexual harassment of working women. The court observed;

"The primary responsibility for ensuring such safety and dignity through suitable legislation, and the creation of a mechanism for its enforcement is of the Legislature and Executive. When, however, instances of sexual harassment resulting in the violation of fundamental rights of women workers under Articles 14, 19 and 21 are brought before us for redress under Article 32, and effective redressal

requires that some guidelines should be laid down for the protection of these rights to fill the legislative vacuum."

The Supreme Court laid down the following guidelines :

(a) All employers persons incharge of workplace, whether in the public or private section, should take appropriate steps to prevent sexual harassment without prejudice to the generality of his obligation.

(b) Where such conduct amounts to specific offences under the Indian Penal Code or under any other law, the employer shall appropriate action in accordance with law by making a complaint with the appropriate authority.

(c) The victims of sexual harassment should have the opinion to seek transfer of the perpetrator or their own transfer.

This was a clear case of judicial legislation and usurpation of the power of the Legislature, but ultimately it benefits the people. When

the legislature shumbers, judicial usurpation obtains legitimacy and approval from the general public.

Directions in Common cause Vs Union of India,6 provided for how blood should be collected, stored, and given for transfusion and how blood transfusion could be made free from hazards. Directions were given to the government to disseminate knowledge about the environment through slides in cinema theatres or special lessons in

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schools and college.7 The Court has insisted that it undertook law making through directions only to fill in the vacuum left by the legislature or the executive and that its directions could be replaced by legislation enacted by the legislature or, where no legislation was required, by the executive, whose power was continuous with the legislature. Thus, Supreme Court has increasingly been enacting judicial legislation, taking on a task that is meant for the legislature and elected representatives. This trend reached a new high when the

apex court recently ordered the Central Government to distribute foodgrains, found rotting for want of storage facilities, to the poor and hungry. After this, the Prime Minister has to intervene to make it clear that the court is stepping into the domain of policymaking, an area means for the executive and legislature.

The Supreme Court had asked the government to distribute foodgrains rotting in government godowns or rotting due to lack of storage facilities for free to the poor and hungry. According to the Times of India the Supreme Court said ;

"The foodgrains are rotting. You can look after your own people. As a part of short-term measures, distribute it to the hungry for free."

Besides this, the court suggested that the government should increase the quantity of food supply to the people living below poverty line and the government should open the fair price shops for all the 30

days in a month.8 More recently, the Supreme Court commented on the ongoing tussle between the centre and the Delhi government. The observed that they (Centre and Delhi government) should deliberate over issues of governance since a court's direction cannot become “amrit dhara”, resolving everything with one order. The Court also said that it was for the two governments to sit together and resolve the disputes and give good governance.9

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Conclusion:

The progress of the society is dependent upon the proper application of law to its needs and since the society realises more than ever before its rights and obligations, the judiciary has to mould and shape the law to deal with such rights and obligations. The existence of a law cannot solve the problems of society at large unless the judges interpret and apply the law to ensure its benefit to the right quarters. The new role being played by the judiciary, which is known as judicial activism, has been supported by the evolution of a new practice known as public interest litigation in the country near the end of 20th century.

PIL has come to mean a mode of enabling the marginalised to have access to justice and a method to save them from exploitation and discrimination. The coalition politics, that appears to have come to stay in India, has also made a difference to the role of judiciary or the Supreme Court and also the use of PIL even at the risk of being charged for usurping the functions of the legislature and the executive and of running the country by its directives to the government and administration.

The critics assert that the Court has started legislating by giving directions. Those who oppose the growing judicial activism of the higher court, do not realise that it has proved a boon for common men. It has set a number of wrongs committed by the states as well as an individual. From the perspective of the Supreme Court, it is only attempting to achieve the constitutional purpose in the best way it feels

appropriate in the situation. In the process, it has advanced the cause of justice and ensured proper implementation of the rule of law. In a democratic polity, whenever the Legislature or Parliament behaves in an irresponsible manner and the executive becomes utterly unresponsive, then it becomes the duty of the courts to protect the human rights of the masses. The present role of the Supreme Court should not be called the overreach of courts in the domains of the

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Parliament because the Parliament has failed to perform the duties assigned to it by the Constitution. On the other hand, the real source of strength of the judiciary lies in the public confidence in it and the judges have to ensure that this confidence is not lost. It is the fear of groundswell of public opinion that will prevent the democracy from judicial overstepping.

References:

1. Gupta, Gulab, ‘Judicial Activism - A National Necessity’, Central

India law Quarterly, Vol. 12, Part 1, Jan.-March, 1999, p 1.

2. Sharma, Sudesh Kumar, ‘Public Interest Litigation: A Revolution in Judicial Process’, Bhatia K.L. (ed), Judicial Activism and Social Change, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1990, p 209.

3. AIR 1997, SC 699.

4. AIR 1987, SC 232.

5. AIR 1997, SC 3011.

6. 1996, (1) SCC 753.

7. M.C. Mehta Vs Union of India AIR 1992, SC 382.

8. The Times of India, August 13, 2013.

9. The Indian Express, September 22, 2015.

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ANALYTICAL STUDY ON CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION IN

MARKETING

D. Srujan Kumar Lecture in Business Administration

Greater India Degree College Hyderabad

Introduction: Marketing can be defined as a revenue generating

activity in any organization. And it is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producer to consumers. Firms produce goods and services from consumers to consumer utilize the goods only when they reach them. Therefore distribution is the key between the production and marketing function of a business unit. It is one of the four core concepts of a firm

marketing system. It has also other inputs namely, price, promotion and product are known as marketing mix. The marketing mix is influences and supported by a company’s internal non marketing resources. Distribution channels or channels of distribution are the ways or paths by which a manufacture sells his goods in the market to consumer. Therefore it is one of the most complex and challenging marketing activities. The study of these channels of distribution through which the goods reaches the ultimate consumer makes it possible for us to know the degree of their efficiency and to evaluate them. The present study is confined to the topic of channel of distribution.

The topic channel of distribution is chosen to study the marketing channels adopted in MYPOL. This paper deals with how MYPOL distribution its products through its channels in best way to

satisfy their customer’s needs and wants competitively and profitability and what are the channels of distribution adopted by MYPOL and to find out the suitable channel of distribution.

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Objectives of the Study: The main objective of the study are

To know about the channels of distribution used by selected

company.

To analyze the sales performance of the company through the distribution channels.

To identify geographical and products wise sales performance of

the channels.

To suggest measures if any, to further improvement the

performance and effectiveness of the channels of distribution.

Study Area: the company selected for the study was Mysore polymers

(MYPOL) has a widespread presence across India, in all major states. The purchase of MYPOL tubes are spread over the major towns and cities of India, and hence dealers and distribution are spread over major cities of India.

Methodology: The primary data was collected from the field and it

consists of original information gathered for a specific purpose. The secondary data are the data which the investigator barrows from the other source like published books/hand bills/journals/ project reports. Data from the units of the sample was obtained through the

presentation of the questionnaire.

Sample is that part of statistical practice concerned with the selection of individual observations intended to yield some knowledge about a population of concern, especially for the purpose of statistical inference. Workers of the MYPOL was the sample unit with 30 number of workers and the simple random sample was adopted for the study.

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Results and Discussion:

Year of business with MYPOL:

Graph 1 : Graph showing year of business with MYPOL.

Analysis: The above graph shows the result that 10% are dealing

in business between the 0 to 2 years, 30% are dealing in business between the 2 to 5 years, 20% are dealing in business between the 5 to 10 years and remaining 40% are dealing in business less than 10 years.

Factor influencing dealers to start business with MYPOL:

Graph 2 : Graph showing factors influencing dealers to start business

with MYPOL.

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Analysis:The above graph shows that 44% of are dealing with MYPOL

for its Brand name, 16% are dealing with MYPOL for its quality, 14% are dealing personal contact with MYPOL, 20% are dealing with MYPOL because of its price, 6% are dealing for some other reasons.

Sales of various products in the shop of dealers:

Graph.3 : Graph showing Sales of various products in the shop of dealers.

Analysis: The above graph shows that the sales of various products in

the shop of dealers. The 24% of sales is in tyres, 48% of sales in tubes, 18% of sales in spares and 10% of sales in other products.

Demand for products in the shop of dealers:

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Graph4 : Graph showing demand for products in the shop of dealers.

Analysis: The above graph shows that the demand of the products in

the shop of dealers. The 30% demand for the product of Tyres, 50% demand for the product of Tubes, 14% demand for the accessories and remaining 6% demand for the other products.

The purchase habits of the customer from the various dealers:

Graph 5: Graph showing tyres of customer buying tubes from dealers.

Analysis: The above graph shows that showing the purchase habits of the customer from the various dealers. The 16% is buying from the

owner, 20% is buying from wholesalers, 20% is buying from the service centres and remaining 24% is from the small retailers.

Percentage of customers opting for MYPOL tubes:

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Graph 6: Graph showing percentage of customers opting for MYPOL

tubes.

Analysis: The above graph shows that the 10% of the respondents are

between the 0-25%, 30% of the respondents are between 25-50, 40% of the respondents are between the 50-75 and remaining 20% are between the 75 to 100.

Factors attraction dealers about MYPOL

Graph 7: Graph showing factors attraction dealers about MYPOL.

Analysis: The above graph shows that factors attract dealers about the

MYPOL. The 12% of dealers are attracted because communication, 20% of dealers are attracted because of defectless products, 30% of dealers are attracted because of delivery, 20% of dealers are attracted because of packing and remaining 18% is attracted because of the price of the product.

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Graph 8: Graph showing annual sales of MYPOL tubes

Analysis: The above graph shows the sales of MYPOL tubes of various

products. The 81.39% of sales are 2 wheelers, 2.12% of sales are LCV, 5.73% of sales are Trucks/Tractors remaining 10.76% of sales are passengers.

Graph 9: Graph showing response of customers towards MYPOL products.

Analysis: The above graph shows response of customers towards

MYPOL products. Out of total respondents 20% of the respondents are excellent, 48% of the respondents are very good, 35% of the respondents good.

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Factor to rate MYPOL.

05

1015202530

1 2 3 4 5

After SalesServiceTranportationQuality

Packing

Graph 10: Graph showing the factor to rate MYPOL.

Analysis: The above graph shows the factors rate to MYPOL. The rate

of scale of 5 out of that after sales service the rate scale are respectively 1,6,11,20,12. The rate of scale of 5 out of that transaction the rate scale are respectively 2,3,10,15,20. The rate of scale of 5 out of that quality the rate scale are respectively 0,5,20,10,15. The rate of scale of 5 out of that packing the rate scale are respectively 1,3,10,26,10. The rate of scale of 5 out of that advertisement the rate scale are respectively 0,5,10,10,25.

Factors that customer look at the tubes:

0

5

10

15

20

PerformanceBrand Value Price Others

Graph 11: Graph showing factors that customer look for in the tubes.

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Analysis: The above table shows that factor that customer look for in

the tubes. Out of total respondents 30% of respondents look for the tubes as performance, 40% of respondents look for the tube per brand value, 20% of respondents are look for the price and remaining 10% are look for the other factors.

Factors that MYPOL is best in.

Graph 4.15: Graph factors that MYPOL is best in.

Analysis: The above table shows the factor is best in by the MYPOL.

Out of 50 respondents 30% of respondents are dealers service, 34% of respondent dealers scheme, 20% of respondents good interaction and remaining 16% of respondents are other factors.

CONCLUSION: The dealers are having long years of business with

MYPOL. This shows that MYPOL has adopted its retention strategy in the best way. Brand name has influenced dealers to start up business with MYPOL. As the dealers are selected in the manner that most of them concentrate on the tubes the sales of tubes are more at their shop. Wholesalers are the middlemen who buy products in bulk. They are the prospective customers of the dealers. The MYPOL is having a large distribution channels which have wide spread customers and most of the customers demand for MYPOL products. Company is not providing

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incentives to dealers and distributors to increase sales of higher tonnage tubes. The company is not having its own transport fleet . MYPOL advertising strategies are comparatively less.

Mysore Polymer and Rubber Products Limited is one of the India’s largest Butyl inner Tube Manufacturers. From the time of inception till date, MYPOL has gained a reputation of being a producer of high quality, reliable tubes, for all vehicles classes and segments. The company’s distribution network has also steadily grown over the years

and continues to grow with a strong dealer/distributor presence across India.

MYPOL’s channel of distribution is indeed effective, with strong sales in all segments in most states. Credit for this can be given to the efficiency of the sales and marketing department and strong dealers and distributors of MYPOL.

References

1. Kothari C.R (2004), “Research Methodology”, second revised edition-2004, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.

2. Mirza s Saiyadain (2003) “Human Resource Management”, Third Edition-2003, Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing Company New Delhi.

Web Resources

3. WWW.MYPOl.COM ,viewed on 8th may for collecting information regarding company profile, and product profile - - http://www.mypol.com/home.html

4. www.wikipedia.com, viewed on 14th may 2014, for collecting information regarding channels of distribution - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/channelsofdistribution,

5. www.google.com/images for collecting images of company’s products competitors, viewed on 18th May 2014

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ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES AMONG HIGH

SCHOOL STUDENTS

A.Bharathi Lecturer

MNR College of Education Hyderabad

Dr. C.Grace Indira Associate Professor in English

St.Joseph ‘ s College of Education Sambasivapet, Guntur

Abstract

There is a great deal of moral degradation in the present day society. The so called philosophical foundations of India are declining day to day leaving the country in a state of social turbulence. A complete neglect of moral values might further accelerate social degradation. Education is the foundation on which the good society will build itself. The teacher is thus expected to be very sensitive and responsible in providing the right

opportunities that can enhance the moral development of the child. At the stage of adolescence more is expected from the teacher in preparing the student as a moral agent. The present study is thus an attempt to understand the attitude of teachers in the development of moral values among secondary school students. The study was done on 120 high school teachers , selected from both the Government and private schools of Sangareddy mandal, Medak district, Telangana state.

Introduction

The whole world today is passing though an unprecedented crisis of search for peaceful and happy living. It is evident from the rising incidents of corruption, violence, exploitation, adulteration, nepotism, smuggling, hoarding and social vices of all kinds that selfishness has entered into thoughts, words and deeds of man. The present generation is starved of peace and contentment and the rising generation has unsafe future. Innovation in science & technology have brought revolution almost in all walks of life but, huge array of luxuries and

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material prosperity is of no avail when one is not getting eternal and perennial flow of peace and bliss. An over fed stomach and over informed head have produced not only fatal diseases but have polluted the mind with deadly sins of envy, hatred, jealousy, selfishness etc. The dark realities of the present times call for greater emphasis and assertion of moral values. A complete neglect of moral values might further accelerate social degradation. An urgent need in thus being felt to anchor our social system on a strong value system. We need

individuals strong in moral character, will, commitment and sincerity to re-establish a system based on universal values. How do we achieve this? When and how can we inculcate moral values in an individual and develop them further.

No child is born moral or immoral. His continuing experiences with people and things in his environment help him acquire whatever moral sensitivity he gradually acquires. Right living is reached only through value education which only stands against cardinal sins as Mahatma Gandhi has cautioned us: “Pleasure without conscience; Politics without principles; Prayer without devotion; Education without character; Wealth without work; Science without humanity; and commerce without morality.”

Education is the foundation on which the good society will build itself. Education is not merely a cognitive knowledge on academic

subjects alone but to educate one self and emerge as a complete human being. School is surely a place where one learns and makes deliberate efforts to excel in academics, but a school includes much more than that. It is a place where both the teacher and the taught explore the outer world, their inner self, their own thinking, their own behavior and journey forward towards excellence. School is the place where a teacher shapes the destinies of the societies. The societies, the world over, at the threshold of the 21st century are witnessing deep distress

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and anguish, environmental degradation, civil strife and armed conflict, political turmoil and total value deterioration.

According to T. Roosevelt, “To educate a man in mind and not in

morals is to educate a menace to society.” The supreme end of education is expert discernment in all things – the power to tell the good from the bad, the genuine from the counterfeit, and to prefer the good and the genuine to the bad and the counterfeit.

Values have become the neglected lot in the current educational system and value based education is definitely an unavoidable necessity. Responsibility of inculcating and internalizing human values

in a growing child to such an extent that the child adheres to certain moral standards, ethical principles and spiritual life is vested definitely in the hands of a teacher.

The teacher is thus expected to be very sensitive and responsible in providing the right opportunities that can enhance the moral development of the child. It in only the ideal teacher, a source of love, an exemplary role model, who can shape an impressive and acceptable moral behavior in the formative years of the child. Moral character development in adolescents is a continuation of what has already begun in infancy or childhood. Moral development in adolescents is characterized by moral reasoning and the formation of moral identity. As children move through adolescence, their criteria for judging between right and wrong, shifts from self - oriented concerns to socially oriented concerns and develops a self – constructed sense of self. At this

stage of adolescence more is expected from the teacher in preparing the student as a moral agent. The teacher should be able to markedly influence the child’s self concept on values, moral reasoning maturity, knowledge on morality, pro-social behavior, moral judgment competence and so on.

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Review of related literature:

Rizvo, S.A.H. (1996) in his Ph.D thesis, made an attempt to

study the opinions of students towards religious education in relation to the value system and to know whether they regarded religious education as useful in life. The major findings of the study were.

(i) A majority of students held moderate opinions towards religious education, but the students of the Hindi and Muslim religious groups were found to hold different opinions toward religious education.

(ii) Favorable opinion towards religious education was found to be associated with such values as helpfulness, preserving traditions and adoption to nature.

Varam, R.P.R (2002) made “A Study on relationship between the patterns of Interpersonal Relation and the values of Teacher and

Students in secondary school”, to find out the extent to which values are related to patterns of interpersonal relations; to one’s socio-economic status and to find out the value system of teacher and student.

The important findings were as follows: (i) The values system of the teacher and student were found to be quite different from each other and teachers were found to be more concerned with their status and power and less with knowledge and social virtue. (ii) Friendly interpersonal relation between pairs of individuals were found to be unrelated to the value system of the paired members (iii) The unfriendly interpersonal relation between the pairs of individuals were not found to be related to the value system of the paired members (iv) The role of a value, in its individual capacity as a correlate of interpersonal relation, was found to be dependent on its own nature

such as affinitive or competitive, and on its position in the value system of the group.

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Sarangi (2004) studied “the bases and implications of moral

education in school”. His objective was to study the extent of utilization of moral education and the interest of children in moral education. His study revealed that there is necessity of imparting moral education at primary school level. Guest lecturers, discussions, social services programmers are organized in schools for awakening moral values and instilling good behavior, co-operation and helpfulness among children. Special period of moral education is taken by specially trained teachers. Moral talks and question-answer methods are useful for imparting moral education. From the opinions of students, for moral education

they preferred morning prayer, discussions, moral talks, T.V. programs and books

Mani Jacob (2005) made a study on “Ego ideals and values of

students”. The study aimed at finding out as to how many of our young men and women are tied up with the old values and ego ideals, the vector of social change and to locate the particular segment of the society, which has been mostly affected by the modern social change. The study was conducted on a sample of 240 college’s students of the age group sixteen to twenty four years with equal distributions, drawn from the college of Dehradun.

It was found that 1) a change has occurred in the values and ego ideals of the Indian college students, and they are no longer tied to the old values and ego ideals. 2) The change has largely been felt in the peripheral values than central values of the Indian college students. 3) The change in values and ego ideals have been felt in both sexes, the girls values and ego ideals contrary to the expectations have changed

equally in comparison to the boys 4) The process of modern social change has equally influenced the values and ego ideals of the upper and the lower strata of Indian college students. 5) The agencies of social change are education, western culture, industrialization, organization,

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desire for higher standards of livings and media of mass communications.

Dr. Goyl, B.R (2006) made a study on “A methodology for

developing value education programme”. A growing concern is that the Indian social order, which was orderly for generations, somehow is losing its moral respective. This apparent image is leading to some distortion in the perception of new generation about the role of values for principled living by individuals and social groups. The process of conscientisation of the learners has also been conceived in a set of statements of educational goals. But seriousness of purpose is lacking

to implement it in the system.

Need for the study-

There is a great deal of moral degradation in the present day society. Due to liberalization, industrialization and globalization rapid changes are occurring. The so called philosophical foundations of India are declining day to day with the country in a state of social turbulence. There is seen a lack of respect for the sanctity of human life; lack of respect for other people and property; lack of respect for authority, seen through the brazen breaking of the law and total disregard for rules and regulations. There are innumerable incidents of crime and corruption; abuse of women and children; alcohol and drug abuse etc.

To undo the evil prevailing in the society and to solve problems

bothering mankind, the only solution is education. It is only through education that we can connect to every human being in the right way and teach the values of the culture and society and continue the traditions of the society. Through education of values to children, we can enable them to distinguish between right and wrong and form a conscience among youngsters to make

meaningful the practices and beliefs. The youngsters of today are even more confused because of the change in value system in the

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society and this leads them to many dilemmas. Thus, the goals and functions of formal education need to be Reassessed and updated. Education in moral values needs to be delivered in the right perspective. Therefore, a teacher has to function as an agent who stimulates, provokes, informs and sensitizes the learners with reference to value situations in life. Through involving the learners actively in discussion, dialogue and practical activities, the teacher should make them think and reflect on human actions and events.

Though there is a greater emphasis on moral education and as also revealed in the research studies, in the existing scenario of the present education system, it becomes a matter of great concern if teachers are committed in this direction. The present study is thus an attempt to understand the attitude of teachers in the development of moral values among secondary school students.

Objectives:

1. To find out the distribution of opinions of teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students.

2. To find out of the influence of the following variables on the attitude of the teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students.

a) Gender

b) Teaching Experience

c) Management

d) Medium

Hypotheses

1. Gender does not influence the attitude of teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students.

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2. Teaching experience does not influence the attitude of teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students.

3. Management does not influence the attitude of teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students.

4. Medium does not influence the attitude of teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students.

Sample

Out of 40 high schools in Sangareddy Mandal of Medak district in Telangana state, 10 schools were selected by random sampling

procedure. For the purpose of the study 120 high school teachers were selected from the selected list of schools.

The table below shows the distribution of the sample based on the variable taken into consideration for the study.

Table1- Sample distribution

Variable Number of Teachers

Percentage (%)

Gender

Male 76 63.3

Female 44 36.7

Teaching Experience

Below 8Years

68 56.6

Above 8Years

52 43.4

Management

Government 67 55.8

Private 53 44.2

Medium

English 48 40

Telugu 72 60

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Tool

The present study is aimed to know the attitude of teachers towards the development of moral values among high school students. The tool (opinionnaire) was self constructed with items placed under five different areas namely syllabus, co-curricular activities, religion, culture and class room. A self constructed tool of forty five items was initially framed and the tool was tested for content and face validity by way of subject expert analysis.

The reliability of the tool tested by Spearman-Brown split half method was 0.82. The final tool then has 30 items. The sample was

supposed to give their opinion on a 3 point scale. The marks allotted were 3, 2, 1 for the three options, Agree, Undecided, Disagree respectively. Thus, the maximum obtainable score is 90 and the minimum score 1.

Data Analysis and interpretation

For the present study, statistical analysis of the data was done by calculating mean, standard deviation and‘t’ value.

Table 2 presents information about the total number of teachers (also expressed in %) who were in agreement / disagreement with respect to their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students. The values are distributed variable wise.

Table-2 Variable wise teachers’ response

S.No Variable Agree Disagree

1 Male 65 85% 9 12%

Female 33 80.8% 5 10.8%

2 Below 8 Years 55 81.06% 9 12.5%

Above 8Years 45 85.75% 6 12.25%

3 Government 79 84.75% 11 13.25%

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Private 54 85.66% 9 10.33%

4 English 32 86.12% 3 9.88%

Telugu 58 70.42 17 20.58%

From table 2, it is evident that as majority of teachers are in agreement, the teachers do possess a favourable attitude towards the development of moral values.

Table 3 presents information about the obtained mean, Standard Deviation and ‘t’ values with respect to gender, teaching experience,

management and medium.

Table-3 Variable wise statistical analysis

S.No Variable N AM SD t value

1

Gender

Male 76 75.38 5.314 1.436

NS Female 44 75.98 4.579

2

Teaching

Experience

Below 8 Years

68 75.76 5.11 0.918 NS

Above 8 years

52 75.39 5.04

3

Management

Government 67 75.5 4.45 0.485 NS

Private 53 75.69 5.57

4

Medium

English 48 75.24 5.186

Telugu 72 76.36 4.771 **2.6898

NS- Not significant ** Significant at 0.01 level.

. From table 3, it is evident that-

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There is no significant difference between the male and female

teachers in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students. Null hypothesis is accepted as the obtained ‘t’ value is not significant at any level.

There is no significant difference between the teachers with less

than 8 years and above 8 years of experience in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students. Null hypothesis is accepted as the obtained‘t’ value is not significant at any level.

There is no significant difference between the teachers working

in government and private management schools in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high School students. Null hypothesis is accepted as the obtained’ value is not significant at any level.

There is a significant difference between the teachers working

in English Medium and Telugu Medium Schools in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students. Null hypothesis is rejected as the obtained’ value is significant at 0.01 level.

Findings:

1. Male & Female teachers do not differ in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students.

2. Teachers below 8 years and above 8 years of teaching experience do not differ in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students.

3. Teachers working in Government and Private management schools do not differ in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students.

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4. Teachers working in English & Telugu Medium schools do differ in their attitude towards the development of moral values among high school students. Teachers from Telugu medium schools had moral favorable attitude towards the development of moral values.

Educational Implications:

1. Separate teachers have to the appointed in the school to impart value education.

2. Every teacher needs to first identify the values to be inculcated among students, practice those values and thus indirectly help the students to internalize values.

3. Every teacher should take care in creating a value- rich environment in school.

4. The activities organized in the school-curricular, co-curricular and extracurricular, should be sources of value education and help in the moral development among students.

5. A guidance and counseling cell in every school should be made mandatory to improve decision making among students in issues of moral concern and in value judgment.

6. Values should be imparted though curriculum, multimedia, educational aids and instructional methods by every teacher.

Conclusion:

In teaching and inculcating values, the teachers have a great role to play. As values are caught more than taught, the students need to grow up in an atmosphere of well being. The teacher should be an impressive role model, with her responsibility not limited to the imparting of academic knowledge alone, but should also expose

students to works of art, beauty in nature, and in human relationships and actions of moral worth, and develop their moral sensibilities. The

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teachers should help in creating an atmosphere of love, trust, cooperation and security in the school conducive to the development of high ideals and values. Development of moral values is an important aspect of education affecting the students and the society as a whole. Negligence will be detrimental to the well being of our society on the whole. For adequate inculcation of values, educational institutions need to give support and the role played by teachers as transmitters; inspirers and promoters should be taken as a goal to be constantly

striven for.

Bibliography

Anitha Pathania (2011). Teacher’s Role in Quality Enhancement and Value Education, Acadame, Vol. XIV, No.l.

Buch, M.B. (2000). Fifth survey of Educational Research, New Delhi: NCERT.

Buckeridge, J.S. (2002).Ethics and the Professional. Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University of Technology.

Crain, W.C. (1985). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. N.J: Prentice Hall.

Dayakar Reddy, V. & Bhaskara Rao, D. (2004). Value oriented Education, New Delhi: DPH Publishing House.

Rokeach, Milton. (1973). The nature of Human values. New York: The free press.

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AGGRANDIZED ASPECT BASED MOSAICING TECHNIQUE FOR SCIENTIFICALLY STIGMATIZED AIRBORNE

SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR

D.Bhavya Lakshmi P.G Student

Department of CSE Thirumalai Engineering

College Kilambi, Kanchipuram

Tamil Nadu, India

Prof.N.Sathianandam

Assistant Professor Department of CSE

Thirumalai Engineering College Kilambi, Kanchipuram

Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: - In the digital image processing, enhancement and

removing the noise in the airborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image is a critical issue. We have proposed a Kaze algorithm to enhance radar image interpretation and the computational time are reduced by using the Adaptive Random Sample theory which limits the search space and work well for feature detection of synthetic aperture radar image(SAR).The performance of the proposed approach has been evaluated and compared to the existing technique, The statistics obtained from each randomly selected feature is used to update this

distribution, by reducing the total required number of random trials. The re-estimation for those selected features are done within a smaller search space with a more accurate algorithm like the RANSAC fitting, thus the proposed technique show that this two-stage algorithm reduces the total computation time by limiting the search space. The entire algorithm is simple and effective. Thus the image interpretation is enhanced by invariant feature Point detector in the areas of computer vision, real time image matching and object recognition.

1 INTRODUCTION

Unlike Passive optical sensors the active microwave sensor that transmits in microwave and detects the wave that is reflected back by

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the objects using Synthetic Aperture Radar. For providing the high- resolution imagery this systems take the advantage of the long-range propagation characteristics of radar signals and the complex information processing capability of modern digital electronics. Specifically Microwave pulses are transmitted by synthetic aperture antenna towards the earth surface in SAR imaging. SAR images are formed using the principal of radar and the microwave energy of the backscattered signal reflected back to the antenna. Time delay of the backscattered signals is measured.

SAR transmits a microwave beam towards the ground at right angles to the direction of flight revealing a swath which is offset from nadir. For measuring the range and range resolution from the antenna to the target this imaging system relies on or across track dimension

perpendicular to the flight direction. The elapsed time between the transmission of a pulse and receiving the echo determines the range or line-of-sight, distance. Width of the receiving pulse is used to govern the range resolution of the target. Narrower the pulses, finer the resolution. This imaging system relies on another important dimension that is the azimuth or the along-track dimension parallel to the flight direction and perpendicular to range. The azimuth beam width which is inversely related to antenna size is used to govern the resolution in this direction. A smaller antenna will generate a larger beam width and its images will have poor azimuth resolution. For getting a fine azimuth resolution a physically large antenna is needed to focus the transmitted and received energy into a sharp beam.

Doppler processing is another approach which explains how the SAR imaging achieves fine azimuth resolution. Doppler frequency of the echoes from the ground determines a target’s position along the

flight path. If the target is in front of aircraft the offset will be positive and if it is behind the aircraft the offset will be negative. Synthetic aperture radar has the ability to penetrate clouds and darkness. Data

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are ideal for land surface mapping owing to their high spatial resolution. The problem of acquiring large-scale airborne SAR imaging scene in military and civilian fields, such as battlefield investigation, flood supervision and so on, need to be resolved by image mosaic. Image mosaic has several advantages like resolving the problem in multi-image matching and giving high quality results using multi-band blending. In broad remote areas like rain forest and boreal forest regions the Mosaics produced from SAR images serve as valuable base maps. These data sets are extremely valuable for scientific research. In situ observations are usually sparse and optical remote sensing technologies are often disabled due to cloud coverage. Because of the inherent compensation for the large range walk it has been presented that the SAR image formation process can be beneficially extended to

the aforementioned mosaicing operations.

The strip map SAR image acquisition process, La is the length between the position of the aircraft and Ls is the length of the strip of SAR image. In general strip map SAR imaging, there will be overlap regions between two strips. And due atmosphere variations, the sensors also fail sometime and there will some geometric variations between two consecutive strips which has common area. However, to most SAR imaging algorithms, the geometric distortions, spectrum alias, and border discontinuities in the neighboring results remain as inevitable problems for high-quality mosaics Generally, the SAR image mosaicing will be performed based on location which uses latitude, longitude and movement parameters of the plane given by INS to calculate the longitude and latitude of every pixel of image.

In case of absence of the sensor information and navigation information, the SAR image cannot be mosaiced. In that situation, the

gray based and feature based methods are commonly used. The gray distribution of the SAR image is not stable as that of the optical images. The feature based methods such Hough corner point can be used for

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SAR image mosaicing. But SURF doesn’t acknowledge the geometrically distorted SAR image. In this project, a methodology to produce the continuous full image automatically is presented based on the KAZE feature with modified SHIFT algorithm that has been improved to handle the difficulties successfully. In this project, enhance feature based SAR image Mosaicing technique is explained. The performance and robustness of the proposed method are verified by the experiments. Synthetic Aperture Radar Image Features Interpretation The brightness or darkness of a SAR image pixel is dependent on corresponding ‘patch’ on the earth’s portion of the transmitted energy that is returned back to the radar.

In contrast to most optical remote sensing and surveillance systems, where aerial photographs and satellite images must be

captured during the day and generally at a time when the sun is in a favorable position, active system such as radar has the advantage of providing its own source of energy for target illumination. The radar signal interacts with ground surfaces through reflection, scattering, refraction or being absorbed. Pixels in the image represent the back-scattered radiation from an area in the imaged scene. Brighter areas are produce by stronger radar response and darker areas are from weaker radar responses. The amount of the occurrence of backscattering depends greatly on factors such as wavelength of the radar used; orientation or polarization, incidence angle of the radar wave and nature of the surroundings. The length of the wavelength determines the resolution and penetration depth.

A surface is considered smooth or flat if the height variations are smaller than the radar wavelength. For smooth surfaces, little of the radar signal will be reflected back to the radar system. This causes

the area in the image to appear darker or invisible. In contrast, a surface appears rough to a shorter wavelength and a significant portion of the energy will be backscattered to the radar such that the rough

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surface will appear brighter in tone on an image. Longer wavelength can penetrate deeper into the canopy of trees and create multiple backscattering between the soils, leaves, branches and trunks. The large backscattering will cause the vegetation to give a brighter signature in image. Shorter wavelength will just interact with the top of the canopy causing detailed features such as small hills that are cover by the canopy to be hidden. The incidence angle refers to the angle between the incident radar beam and the direction perpendicular to the ground surface. Incidence angle can alter the appearance of the image and reduce the image distortion. Larger angles cause weaker signals and larger radar shadow but image is less susceptible to layover.

When features such as wall of a building or hedges lie in the direction of the flight-path, the radar beam can have two or double

bounces occurring once on the wall surface and another off from the ground. This is known as corner reflection and most of the energy is reflected directly back to antenna resulting in a very bright appearance of the object in the image

2 ARCHITECTURE FRAMEWORK

Images formed due to nonlinearities in the aircraft path and geometric changes in the images acquired, are mosaiced. The block diagram of enhanced feature based mosaicing technique consists of image enhancement, feature extraction, feature matching, warping and blending as shown in figure 1. The key problem in compututerizing the process lies in developing a better algorithm to accurately determine the features between images of neighbouring regions. Because of the distortion of the lens and other unknown natural factors, the overlapping areas of two images cannot be matched completely. In the case when there is a large overlap between the images, a new algorithm has proposed for image enhancement by directly minimizing the search

space in intensities between pairs of images. The main problem to

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overcome in this part is to find the overlapping region between two neighbouring images. It frequently uses computer graphics knowledge to confirm overlap area.

In the vicinity of the point two dominant and different edge directions which are present in a point said to be a corner position. A corner can also be determined as the intersection of two edges. A sharp change in image brightness is referred as edges of image. They are predominantly described as interest point detection, corner detection; these methodologies used within computer vision systems to obtain certain kinds of features from a given image. To locate matching regions in different images, the initial operator concept of points of interest in an image is used. The Moravec operator is used for corner detector because it implies interest points as points where in all

directions, there are large intensity variations are found.

The Kaze method is effective for images including Gaussian noise. As the statically result shows that the number of Harris corner detected for obtaining features from the original image is less to the same with the number of points detected by de-noised image using Kaze method

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3 KAZE FEATURE WITH MODIFIED SHIFT

Our proposed algorithm considered the images formed due to nonlinearities of the platform and geometric changes in the images acquired. The Enhanced Feature based Mosaicing technique consists of image enhancement technique, Feature Extraction technique, matching, warping and blending, which describe the novel method for feature detection and description in nonlinear scale spaces to the given input image, then, to detect features of interest that exhibit maxima of the scale-normalized determinant of the Hessian response through the nonlinear scale space. Finally, computing the main orientation of the points and obtain a scale and rotation invariant descriptor considering first order image derivatives. Now, the procedure will describe each of the main steps in our formulation.

3.1 Enhancing the image-

1. Let the pixels of the image value A (i,j) ranges from 0 to 255.

2. Assume the threshold values, high limit and low limit. In this experiment, threshold values are 125, low limit is 22 and high limit as

223.

3. Calculate the mean adjustment value.

Mean _adjustments=threshold-mean(mean (A));

4. Calculate the value of pixels

A (i,j) = A(i,j)+ mean_adjustments*(1-A(i,j));

5. Calculate the minimum value and maximum values corresponding to high limit and low limit values.

a. Sort the pixel values of the image A(i,j).

b. The minimum value taken from the ordered indexed value of the low limit.

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c. The maximum value is taken from the ordered indexed value of the high limit.

6. The enhanced pixel values of the image is given as A(i,j)=(A(i,j)-minimum value) / (maximum value – minimum value )).

3.2 Feature detection by KAZE- Nonlinear scale space is computed

first, and then image is convolving with a Gaussian kernel of standard deviation σ to reduce noise and possible image artifacts. From that base image we compute the image gradient histogram and obtain the contrast parameter k by giving the contrast parameter and the set of evolution times, it is straightforward to build the nonlinear scale space in an frequentative way using the Additive Operator Splitting schemes depicts a comparison between the Gaussian scale space and the nonlinearity by using the g3 conductivity function. As it can be observed, Gaussian blurring smoothes for equal all the shape in the image, whereas in the nonlinear scale space strong image edges remain

unaffected.

Where (퐿 퐿 )the second are order horizontal and vertical

derivatives respectively, and퐿 is the second order cross derivative.

Then 푤search for maxima in scale and spatial location. The search for extremes is performed in all the filtered images except i=0 and i=N. Each extrema is searched over a rectangular window of size 휎 × 휎 on the current푖, upper 푖 + 1 and lower푖 − 1 filtered images. For speeding-up the search for extrema, have to check the responses over a window of size 3×3 pixels, in order to discard quickly non-maxima responses. Finally, the position of the key point is estimated with sub-pixel accuracy.

퐿 = 휎 (퐿 퐿 −퐿 )

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The set of first order and second order derivatives are approximated by means of 3 × 3 Scharr filters of different derivative step sizes휎 . Second order derivatives are approximated by using consecutive Scharr filters in the desired coordinates of the derivatives. From these filters approximate rotation invariance significantly better than other popular filters. Although there is need to compute multiscale derivatives for every pixel, we save computational efforts by using this method.

3.4 Feature Matching- We use the M-SURF descriptor arrogate to

our nonlinear scale space framework. For a detected feature at scale휎 , first order derivatives 퐿 푎푛푑퐿 of size σi are computed over a 24σi ×

24σi rectangular grid. This grid is divided into 4×4 sub regions of size 9휎 ×9 휎 with an overlap of 2σi. The derivative responses in each sub region are weighted with a Gaussian (σ1 = 2.5)휎 centered on the subregion center and summed into a descriptor vector .Then, each sub region vector is weighted using a Gaussian (σ2 = 1.5휎 ) defined over a

mask of 4×4 and centred on the interest key point. When considering the dominant orientation of the key point, each of the samples in the grid is rotated depending to the dominant orientation. In addition, the derivatives are also computed depending to the dominant orientation. Finally, the descriptor vector of length 64 is normalized into a unit vector to achieve invariance to contrast, so that the same number of scales O = 4, and sublevels S = 3 for the SIFT and KAZE cases. Computing a specification and dominant orientation or few of them in the case of SIFT

3.3 RANSAC fitting - The RANSAC is an algorithm, in which is

applied to delete the error matching point pairs. After correcting the matching points, the matched points between the images are merged together to form a mosaiced image. The basic algorithm is summarized as follows:

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1. Choose randomly the minimum number of points required to find the model parameters.

2. To solve for the parameters of the model.

3. To find how many points from the sets of all points fit with a predefined tolerance ε.

4. If the fraction of the number of inliers over the total number points in the set exceeds a predefined threshold τ, re-estimate the model parameters using all the recognize inliers and terminate.

5. Otherwise, repeat steps 1 through 4 (maximum of N number of times).

After this RANSAC algorithm has done its processing Due to the nature of the projection models used by the method, at the minimum of four correspondences are needed between the images. Also, when there

is a large numbers of outlier features present, the probability that the evaluation process will fail is relatively high. A simple technique is used to deal with the situation: the image under registration is eliminate and a new image is considered if (Matches after RANSAC technique/ Matches before RANSAC technique) <휏.

3.5 Feature warping and blending -The interpretation projection

model established during the foregoing stages can now be used to transform the new image into the sub-mosaic image. To achieve the final projection model between the new image and the mosaic, the projection models are integrated with an alternative. The evolution in a backward manner is realized. In this way neither holes nor overlaps can arise in the resulting mosaic image. The registered image data from the new image are intent using the synchronization of the target pixel and the inverse of the estimated projection model. The image interpolation takes place in the new image on the regular grid. Bilinear interpolation is out performed by higher-order methods in terms of exactness and

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visual appearance of the transformed image; it offers probably the good trade-off between accuracy and computational complexity.

Registration of new image with the current mosaic is performed. If new areas were conquered, the pixels belonging to these areas are allocated values directly from the warped new image. Due to various reasons, such as non-linearity in aircraft path, radar sensors, there may be possibility of occurrence of intensity differences in the area of overlap. This may cause visible disruption in the resulting mosaic image. Therefore, the area of overlap is taken differently from the new areas.

In order to seamlessly merge the new image into the mosaic, the blending stage is attached to the method. The blending is a process of finding the updated pixel values in the area of overlap by applying a

blending method that outputs a weight between 0 and 1 for each pixel in the new images. The updated pixel values are now generated as follows:

I0 (0) = b (i) I (i) + (1 − b (i)) I0 (i0))

Where I and I 0 stand for the pixel values of the new image and mosaic, respectively. A blending function that reduces near the boundary of an image will efficient block visible discontinuities from occurring .Gaussian-style blending function b(x) is used. The blending is not only used to remove the visual discontinuities, but can be identified as an best way of making the method more robust against the accumulation of small registration errors, small errors can be removed by revisiting the erroneous area.

4 CONCLUSION

In this paper, KAZE features, a novel method for multiscale two dimensional (2D) feature detection and description in nonlinear scale spaces is described. The new method has been developed to enhance the

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image by KAZE with modified SHIFT. The designed new method is faster and more accurate. The reconstructed image is more sensitized; the entire algorithm is simple but effective in the areas of and real time image matching and object recognition. For future research, the computational time for feature detection can be decreased. And also the research can be focused on more geometric distortion

References

[1] Ali Cafer Gurbuz “FEATURE DETECTION ALGORITHMS IN COMPUTED IMAGES,” In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology August 2008.

[2] Ali Cafer GÜRBÜZ “Line detection with adaptive random samples,” Department of Electric and Electronics Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Sögütözü Cad.

No 43, Ankara-TURKEY,2013.

[3] D. I. Barnea; and H. F. Silverman,”A class of algorithms for fast digital registration,” IEEE Trans. Comput, vol.C-21, pp.179-186, 1972.

[4] David Peter Capel, Doctor of Philosophy,”Super-resolution and Image Mosaicing,” Balliol College Trinity Term, 2001.

[5] Liu, C., Yuen, J., Torralba, A.: “Dense scene alignment using SIFT flow for object recognition,” In: IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, CVPR 2009.

[6] Manglesh Khandelwal Shweta, Saxena Priya Bharti, Priya Bharti, “An Efficient Algorithm for Image Enhancement,” Manglesh Khandelwal et al. / Indian Journal of Computer Science and Engineering (IJCSE) India, 2005. Milindkumar V. Sarode, Prashant R. Deshmukh, “Reduction of Speckle Noise and Image

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Enhancement of Images Using Filtering Technique,” International Journal of Advancements in Technology http://ijict.org/ ISSN 0976-4860,Jan 2011.

[7] Neeta Nain, Vijay Laxmi and Bhavitavya Bhadviya “Feature Point Detection for Real Time Applications,” Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering, London, U.K, 2008 Vol I,WCE 2008, July 2 - 4, 2008.

[8] Pablo F. Alcantarillay, Adrien Bartoliy, and Andrew J. Davisonz ,”KAZE Features,”ISIT-UMR 6284 CNRS, Université d’Auvergne, Clermont Ferrand, France Imperial College London, UK,2015.

[9] Paul Viola Michael J. Jones, “Robust Real-time Object Detection,”February 2001.

[10] Satya Prakash Mallick,” Feature Based Image Mosaicing”,

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,University of California, San Diego, [email protected], Dec2007.

[11] Udhav Bhosle, Subhasis Chaudhuri, Sumantra Dutta Roy, “A Fast Method for Image Mosaicing using Geometric Hashing,” Indian Institute of Technology,Bombay,Powai,Mumbai400706,

1994.

[12] Wolberg,G. “Digital Image Warping,” IEEE.Computer Society Press,pp 169-172 ,1990.

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ALCOHOL & DRUG DEMAND REDUCTION AND REVENTIVE

POLICIES Dr.B.Mukunda Naidu Department of Sociology

S.V.University Tirupati

Introduction - Natural Vulnerability to Drug Abuse

India with a population of over 1 billion people, spread over an area of 3.28 million sq. kms. (3214 km. from North to South and 2933 km. from East to West), has about 3 million (about 0.3 per cent of total population) estimated victims of different kinds of drug usages, excluding alcohol dependents. Such population comes from diverse socio-economic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds. The use of dependence-producing substances, in some form or the other, has been a universal phenomenon. In India also, the abuse of alcohol, opium and cannabis had not been entirely unknown. India is the biggest supplier of licit demand for opium required primarily for medicinal purposes. Besides this, India is located close to the major poppy growing areas of the world, with "Golden Crescent" on the Northwest and "Golden Triangle" on the North-East. These make India vulnerable to drug abuse particularly in poppy growing areas and along

the transit/trafficking routes

The Scenario - Need for State Intervention

Over the years, drug addiction is becoming an area of concern as traditional moorings, effective social taboos, emphasis on self-restraint and pervasive control and discipline of the joint family and community are eroding.

The processes of industrialization, urbanization and migration have led to loosening of the traditional methods of social control rendering an individual vulnerable to the stresses and strains of modern life. The fast changing social milieu, among other factors, is mainly contributing

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to the proliferation of drug abuse, both of traditional and of new psychoactive substances.

The introduction of synthetic drugs and intravenous drug use leading to HIV/AIDS has added a new dimension to the problem, especially in the Northeast states of the country.

Studies/Reports - Reported Trends in Drug Addiction

The rough estimation i.e. about 3 million population dependent on drugs (0.3% of the population), excluding those dependent on alcohol, has been the basis for various interventions. A long felt need to have an authentic profile of drug addicts and accurate data about the extent, pattern and trends of drug abuse has been accomplished through a survey undertaken in collaboration with the UN0DC and ILO (Project D-83). This project has three major components viz. National Household Survey, Rapid Assessment Survey and Drug Abuse Monitoring System with sub-studies on drug abuse among rural population, prison population, women, and in border areas. The data

emerging out of this survey and the studies undertaken through professional agencies would be used for future planning to address the multi-faceted problem of drug abuse. The survey and studies indicate a high concentration of drug addiction in certain social segments and high-risk groups, such as, commercial sex workers, transportation workers, and street children and in the northeastern states/border areas and opium growing regions of the country. The situation in northeast states has been little aggravated due to high incidence of Intravenous Drug Use (IDU), especially in the state of Manipur, leading to HIV/AIDS. The sero-positivity amongst them is about 70%.

Constitutional and Legal Framework

Article 47 of the Constitution of India directs the State to regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties, and,

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in particular, to endeavour to bring about prohibition of consumption, except for medicinal purposes, of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health.

Section 71 of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (as amended) provides as under:

"Power of Government to establish centres for identification, treatment, etc., of addicts and for supply of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances -

1. The Government may, in its discretion, establish as many centres as it thinks fit for identification, treatment, education, after-care, rehabilitation, social re-integration of addicts ....."

2. The Government may make rules consistent with this Act providing for the establishment, appointment, maintenance, management and superintendence of ..... the centres referred to

in sub-section (1) and for the appointment, training, powers, duties and persons employed in such centres."

Demand Reduction Strategy - A Welfare Approach

The issues relating to drugs are tackled by the Government of India through its two-pronged strategy viz. supply reduction and demand reduction. Whereas the supply reduction is under the purview of the enforcement agencies with the Department of Revenue as the nodal agency, the demand reduction strategy is under the domain of social sector and the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment in Government of India is responsible for implementation of demand reduction strategy in the country.

Over the years it was realized that the drug abuse is not only a problem arising out of the availability of such intoxicating drinks and drugs but it has a great deal to do with the social conditions which create the demand for or the need for consumption of such substances. The

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vulnerability of the modern society plays a catalytic role in promoting the consumption and abuse of narcotic and psychotropic drugs.

With this the need arose for implementing strategies for prevention of drug abuse, educating the people about its ill effects and rehabilitation of the addicts. The recent UN documents have also stated Demand Reduction as the pillar of drug control strategies and have urged upon all the Members States to take immediate steps so as to make significant achievement by the end of year 2003 in controlling the demand for consumption of illicit drugs. The findings of studies/reports indicate to the relationship of drug abuse with the socio-economic conditions or the social dynamics of the population. Therefore, the approach is to recognize drug abuse as a psycho-socio medical problem, which can be best, handled through community based interventions. Keeping the aforesaid approach in view, the Govt. of India has a three-

pronged strategy for demand reduction consisting of:

Building awareness and educating people about ill effects of drug abuse Building awareness and educating people about ill effects of drug abuse Dealing with the addicts through programme of motivational counselling, treatment, follow-up and social-reintegration of recovered addicts. To impart drug abuse prevention/rehabilitation training to volunteers with a view to build up an educated cadre of service providers. The objective of the entire strategy is to empower the society and the community to deal with the problem of drug abuse.

Treatment and Rehabilitation of Addicts - Govt - NGO Collaboration

The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, as the focal point for drug demand reduction programmes in the country, has been implementing the Scheme for Prohibition and Drug Abuse Prevention since the year 1985-86. As implementation of programmes for deaddiction and rehabilitation of drug addicts require sustained and

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committed/involved effort with a great degree of flexibility and innovation, a State-community (voluntary) partnership appears to be particularly strong mechanism for service delivery. Accordingly, under the Scheme, while major portion of the cost of services is borne by the Government, the voluntary organisations provide actual services through the Counselling and Awareness Centres; Deaddiction cum Rehabilitation Centres, Deaddiction Camps, and Awareness Programmes. Under this Scheme, the Ministry is assisting around 390 voluntary organisations for maintaining more than 400 Integrated Rehabilitation Centres for Addicts (IRCAs) spread all over the country. Average annual allocation for this programme has been to the tune of Rs. 40 Crore.

The basic objective in creating facilities for treatment, at Centres run through voluntary organisations, is to ensure that the support of the

family and the community is mobilized to the maximum. These Centres adopt a wide variety of approaches, systems and methodologies for treatment and rehabilitation of the addicts suitable and adaptable to the social customs, traditions and culture. However this do not in any way undermine adoption of scientific, modern and established systems of treatment. The rehabilitation and social reintegration of an addict is the mainstay of any such initiative. Therefore all programmes for treatment of addicts must compulsorily integrate into delivery system, programmes for psychosocial counselling of the addict and his family/peer groups; programmes for vocational training/rehabilitation and comprehensive programme for after-care and follow-up.

To attain these objectives, all Centres are equipped with a cadre of experts from various fields including doctors, counsellors, community workers, social workers etc. Thus, it is a multi-disciplinary approach being applied according to the needs of individual cases. They work in

coordination with the community resources as well infrastructure and services available under other related agencies.

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To facilitate the medical treatment of hard-core addicts who require intensive long-term medical attention, 100 Deaddiction Centres are being run in Government hospitals/Primary Health Centres, etc.

Awareness and Preventive Education

The Counselling and Awareness Centers are engaged in a wide range of awareness generation programme in varied community settings including village panchayats, schools etc. Besides these Centers, the Ministry has been actively utilizing the various media channels, print as well as audio-visual for educating the people on the ill effects of drug abuse and also disseminating information on the service delivery. The overall approach is based on the need to comprehensively address the widespread ignorance and lack of information on the ill- effects of drug abuse prevention/rehabilitation services and to build up a climate of abstinence from drugs through sensitising the community at large. In this perspective, the strategy for public awareness about the damage consequences of drug abuse takes into account the culture-specific

aspects of the problem. A differential approach has been adopted towards educating the public vis-à-vis groups at risk.

Training and Manpower Development - Development of Service Providers

The Government has established a National Centre for Drug Abuse Prevention (NC-DAP) under the aegis of the National Institute of Social Defence, New Delhi, to serve as the apex body in the country in the field of training, research and documentation in the field of drug abuse prevention. To meet the growing demand of rehabilitation professionals in the country, the Centre has been conducting three months' Certificate Course on Deaddiction Counselling and Rehabilitation of Drug Abusers. The Centre has been conducting advocacy programmes, seminars, conferences and training courses all

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over the country in collaboration with the State Govt. Institutions and NGOs for sensitisation, awareness generation and training.

The NC-DAP is mandated to serve as a Centre of Excellence in the region with an in-house team of experts as faculty, being complemented and supported by eminent experts and professionals as guest faculty.

Inter-Sectoral Collaboration

The problem of alcoholism and drug abuse is a social malaise and is dealt holistically by targeting all spheres of human activity. The Government of India has been following an integrated approach involving all concerned Ministries and Departments who could complement and supplement the initiatives being taken by each other. The initiatives being taken include imparting education on drugs and positive alternative to the youth through appropriate modification in school curriculum and sensitisation of school environment. Programmes are being developed for the sensitisation of the teachers, parents and the peer groups in a school environment through the

participation of the Non-Government Organisations.

The cooperation of the media and various youth organisations has also been solicited for dissemination of information on ill effects of alcohol/drugs and in engaging the community in positive/healthy alternatives. Available Government infrastructure and services have been integrated with the services offered by the NGO sector for dealing with associated health problems such as TB, HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis etc. Efforts are also being made to provide the medical professionals in the health sector with the knowledge on rehabilitation and after-care of alcohol and drug dependents. Simultaneously, steps have been initiated for providing training to the NGO professionals on various medical inputs for providing effective service to the clients. One of the successful initiatives towards inter-sectoral collaboration has been the integration of HIV/AIDS prevention programme into the substance

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abuse programme of 100 NGO run Deaddiction Centres supported by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.

International Cooperation - An Enrichment Process

The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, in collaboration with the International Labour Organization and UNODC, implemented a project on "Developing Community Drug Rehabilitation and Workplace Prevention Programmes", to sensitise and train the voluntary organisations and workplace settings on prevention of alcoholism and substance abuse in workplace. It is viewed that the work environment of an individual is the most important area of preventive intervention for a potential addict as he still enjoys economic security. The loss of a job further aggravates the addictive behaviour. This aspect was not getting its due importance under the on-going programme. With the sincere efforts made under the project, a number of corporate institutions have also volunteered their involvement in the project.

This was followed up with two community-based interventions in

collaboration with UNODC and ILO, namely:

1. Community Wide Demand Reduction in India

2. Community Wide Demand Reduction in North-Eastern States of India

These initiatives were primarily addressed towards strengthening the delivery of services through capacity building of the service providers, developing infrastructure for decentralization of programme

monitoring at the regional levels, developing networking and linkages amongst the NGOs, the concerned agencies and the Government as well as sister UN organisations drawing upon the experience gained in the earlier project. The project for the Northeast was specifically designed keeping in mind the local customs, cultural traditions, community bonding as well as infrastructural inadequacies. The

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projects have adopted a comprehensive approach to the development of the target communities of these States.

Areas of Strength - Success Stories

Quality Assurance and Minimum Standards: The sheer size of

population and geographical expanse of the country with cultural diversity makes it a real challenge to ensure delivery of quality services across the country. The quality assurance has, however, been ensured by developing a Manual of Minimum Standards of Services with adequate flexibility for adaptations to suit regional requirements, and by making institutional arrangements for professional training of service providers.

Professional Manpower Development: The assurance of quality in

delivery of the services being the benchmark, creation of infrastructure of professionally trained service providers has been in the centre stage of Government agenda. National Centre for Drug Abuse Prevention (NCDAP) has come up as an apex institution with the mandate for training, research and development in the drug sector. Training requires regional and local variations. Further to ensure that training is imparted indigenously, eight non-government organisations (NGOs) have been established as Regional Resource and Training Centres

(RRTCs). These objectives have been realized under the collaborative projects of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, UNODC and ILO, popularly known as E40 and E41.

Networking of Service Providers: The uniform delivery of services

across the vast country with basic minimum standards is considered paramount in drug prevention programme. FINGODAP (Federation for Indian NGOs in Drug Abuse Prevention) is a movement to facilitate networking amongst member NGOs (essentially those funded by the Government of India) so as to gain from each other's experience, and

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also to ensure self-restraint towards implementation of minimum standard of services.

Focused Interventions for Vulnerable Targets: The work places

prone to drug addiction among the employees have warranted focused interventions to check the prevalence of drug abuse at these places. The Workplace Prevention Programme (WPP), a collaborative effort of the Government, ILO, NGOs and corporate sector has come up as a result. This collaboration has led to the formation of an effective group of various stakeholders, known as ARMADA, the Association of Resource Managers against Alcohol and Drug Abuse.

Inter-sectoral Convergence: Since drug demand prevention has to

be addressed at the level of individuals, families and communities, India has adopted a holistic approach by way of convergence of advocacy, prevention and rehabilitation programmes of all relevant Government departments as also of other non-government activities. This convergence has been concretised by way of dovetailing the drug issues in the curriculum of schools/colleges, educational and informative programmes of media, activities of youth and sports organisations and

health programmes.

Areas which need to be Highlighted in Future - Possibilities of Future Collaboration

Information linkage

Better & personalised data management

Research on usage of indigenous methods of treatment both in medicinal & therapeutic

Accelerated awareness campaign

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Conclusion

While all round efforts are being made for prevention and containment

of drug abuse in our society, a long journey is yet to be covered before we can draw some satisfaction. The problem having transnational causes and implications shall require Herculean efforts on the part of all the institutions. The empowerment of society through sensitisation and awareness is the only solution to support the efforts of enforcement agencies in containing the proliferation of drug trafficking and drug abuse.

References

1. Charles E. Faupel; Alan M. Horowitz; Greg S. Weaver. The Sociology of American Drug Use. McGraw Hill. p. 366.

2. "Failed states and failed policies, How to stop the drug wars". The Economist. 5 March 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2009.

3. Moyer, VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task, Force (May 6, 2014). "Primary care behavioral interventions to reduce illicit drug and nonmedical pharmaceutical use in children and adolescents: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement.". Annals of Internal Medicine 160 (9): 634–9. doi:10.7326/m14-0334. PMID 24615535.

4. WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008 5. Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004 6. "National Drug Strategy Household Survey detailed report:

2013". 7. David Farber (2004). The Sixties Chronicle. Legacy Publishing.

p. 432. ISBN 141271009X. 8. Decades of Drug Use: Data From the '60s and '70s

http://www.gallup.com/poll/6331/decades-drug-use-data-from-60s-70s.aspx] Jennifer Robison, Gallup.com, 2 July 2002, Accessed 13 November 2013

9. "Marijuana: History of Marijuana Use". infoplease.com. 10. MacDonald, Keza (5 November 2014). "Why Are Drugs Always

So Lame in Video Games?". Vice. Retrieved 16 November 2014.

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NATIONAL RURAL EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE ACT 2005

Dr.C.Ramanaja Neyulu Reader in Political Science

SSVN Degree College Anantpur, A.P. India

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 was later

renamed as the "Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act" (or, MGNREGA), is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims to guarantee the 'right to work'. It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. Starting from 200 districts on 2 February 2006, the NREGA covered all the districts of India from 1 April 2008. The statute is hailed by the government as "the largest and most ambitious social security and public works programme in the world".

In its World Development Report 2014, the World Bank termed it a "stellar example of rural development". The MGNREGA was initiated with the objective of "enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year, to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work". Another aim of MGNREGA is to create durable assets (such as roads, canals, ponds, wells). Employment is to be provided within 5 km of an applicant's residence, and minimum wages are to be paid. If work is not provided within 15 days of applying, applicants are entitled to an unemployment allowance.

Thus, employment under MGNREGA is a legal entitlement MGNREGA is to be implemented mainly by gram panchayats (GPs). The involvement of contractors is banned. Labour-intensive tasks like creating infrastructure for water harvesting, drought relief and flood

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control are preferred.Apart from providing economic security and creating rural assets, NREGA can help in protecting the environment, empowering rural women, reducing rural-urban migration and fostering social equity, among others." The law provides many safeguards to promote its effective management and implementation. The act explicitly mentions the principles and agencies for implementation, list of allowed works, financing pattern, monitoring and evaluation, and most importantly the detailed measures to ensure transparency and accountability. Using public employment as a social security measure and for poverty alleviation measure in rural areas has a long history in India.

After three decades of experimentation, the government launched major schemes like Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, Employment Assurance Scheme, Food for Work Programme, Jawahar Gram

Samridhi Yojana and Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana that were forerunners to Mahatma Gandhi NREGA. Unlike its precursors, the Mahatma Gandhi NREGA guaranteed employment as a legal right. Maharashtra was the first state to enact an employment guarantee act in the 1970s. Former Maharashtra Chief Minister late Vasantrao Naik, launched the revolutionary Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme which proved to be a boon for millions of farmers ravaged by two ferocious famines. The Planning Commission later approved the scheme and the same was adopted on national scale.

The relief measures undertaken by the Government of Maharashtra included employment, programmes aimed at creating productive assets such as tree plantation, conservation of soil, excavation of canals, and building artificial lentic water bodies. Starting from 1960, the first 30 years of experimentation with employment schemes in rural areas taught few important lessons to the government

like the ‘Rural Manpower Programme’ taught the lesson of financial management, the ‘Crash Scheme for Rural Employment’ of planning

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for outcomes, a ‘Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Programme’ of labour-intensive works, the ‘Drought Prone Area Programme’ of integrated rural development, ‘Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Scheme’ of rural economic development, the ‘Food for Work Programme’ (FWP) of holistic development and better coordination with the states, the ‘National Rural Employment Programme’ (NREP) of community development, and the ‘Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme’ of focus on landless households.

The government had been merging old schemes to introduce new ones while retaining the basic objective of providing additional wage employment involving unskilled manual work, creating ‘durable’ assets, and improving food security in rural areas through public works with special safeguards for the weaker sections and women of the community In later years, major employment schemes like Jawahar

Rozgar Yojana (JRY) in 1977, National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) in 1980, Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), Food for Work Programme (NFFWP) in 2004, Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) and Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) were launched. Some of them (e.g. NFFWP) provided foodgrains to complement wages.On 1 April 1989, to converge employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural areas, the government integrated NREP and RLEGP into a new scheme JRY.

The most significant change was the decentralization of implementation by involving local people through PRIs and hence a decreasing role of bureaucracy. On 2 October 1993, the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was initiated to provide employment during the lean agricultural season. The role of PRIs was reinforced with the local self-government at the district level called the ‘Zilla Parishad’ as the main implementing authority. Later, EAS was merged with SGRY

in 2001.]

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On 1 April 1999, the JRY was revamped and renamed to JGSY with a similar objective. The role of PRIs was further reinforced with the local self-government at the village level called the ‘Village Panchayats’ as the sole implementing authority. In 2001, it was merged with SGRY. In January 2001, the government introduced FWP similar to the one initiated in 1977.

Once NREGA was enacted, the two were merged in 2006. On 25 September 2001 to converge employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural areas, the government integrated EAS and JGSY into a new scheme SGRY. The role of PRIs was retained with the ‘Village Panchayats’ as the sole implementing authority. Yet again due to implementation issues, it was merged with Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in 2006.The total government allocation to these precursors of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA had been about three-

quarters of �1 trillion (US$15 billion).

Overview

According to the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–12), the number of Indians living on less than $1 a day, called Below Poverty Line (BPL), was 300 million that barely declined over the last three decades ranging from 1973 to 2004, although their proportion in the total population decreased from 36 per cent (1993–94) to 28 percent (2004–05), and the rural working class dependent on agriculture was unemployed for nearly 3 months per year The plan targeted poverty through MGNREGA which promised employment as an entitlement. Financial allocations for the NREGA increased steadily between 2006-2010 when

it touched nearly Rs. 40,000 crores.

Since then, however, allocation for NREGA has stagnated just below Rs. 40,000 crores. In 2014-15, allocations were cut dramatically to less than Rs. 30,000 crores. The UPA Government had planned to increase the number of working days from 100 to 150 before the 2014 Lok Sabha

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Elections in the country but failed.

The NDA government has decided to provide 150 days for rain hit areas.

Details of the law

The Act is to be implemented by the State Government, with

funding from the Central Government. According to Section 13, the "principal authorities" for planning and implementation of the Scheme are the Panchayats at the District, Intermediate and village levels. However, the division of responsibilities between different authorities is actually quite complex. The basic unit of implementation is the Block. In each Block, a "Programme Officer" will be in charge. The Programme Officer is supposed to be an officer of rank no less than the Block Development Officer (BDO), paid by the Central Government, and with the implementation of NREGA as his or her sole responsibility. The Programme Officer is accountable to the "Intermediate Panchayat" as well as to the District Coordinator. Implementing agencies include any agency that is "authorized by the Central Government or the State Government to undertake the implementation of any work" taken up under NREGA [Section 2(g)].

The main implementing agencies are the Gram Panchayats: at

least 50 per cent of the works (in terms of share of the NREGA funds) have to be implemented through the Gram Panchayats [Section 16(5)]. Other implementing agencies include the Panchayat Samiti, the District Panchayats, and "line departments" such as the Public Works Department, the Forest Department, the Irrigation Department, and so on. NREGA also allows NGOs to act as implementing agencies. Even the works of implementing agencies other than the Gram Panchayat must be presented before the gram sabha and included in the annual shelf of works.

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The registration process involves an application to the Gram Panchayat and issue of job cards. The wage employment must be provided within 15 days of the date of application. The work entitlement of ‘100 days per household per year’ may be shared between different adult members of the same household. The law also lists permissible works: water conservation and water harvesting; drought proofing including afforestation; irrigation works; restoration of traditional water bodies; land development; flood control; rural connectivity; and works notified by the government. The Act sets a minimum limit to the wage-material ratio as 60:40.

The provision of accredited engineers, worksite facilities and a weekly report on worksites is also mandated by the Act.Furthermore, the Act sets a minimum limit to the wages, to be paid with gender equality, either on a time-rate basis or on a piece-rate basis. The states

are required to evolve a set of norms for the measurement of works and schedule of rates.

Unemployment Allowance must be paid if the work is not provided within the statutory limit of 15 days.[25] The law stipulates Gram Panchayats to have a single bank account for NREGA works which shall be subjected to public scrutiny. To promote transparency and accountability, the act mandates ‘monthly squaring of accounts’. To ensure public accountability through public vigilance, the NREGA designates ‘social audits’ as key to its implementation. The most detailed part of the Act (chapter 10 and 11) deals with transparency and accountability that lays out role of the state, the public vigilance and, above all, the social audits. For evaluation of outcomes, the law also requires management of data and maintenance of records, like registers related to employment, job cards, assets, muster rolls and complaints, by the implementing agencies at the village, block and state

level.] The legislation specifies the role of the state in ensuring transparency and accountability through upholding the right to

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information and disclosing information proactively, preparation of annual reports by CEGC for Parliament and SEGCs for state legislatures, undertaking mandatory financial audit by each district along with physical audit, taking action on audit reports, developing a Citizen's Charter, establishing vigilance and monitoring committees, and developing grievance redressal system.

The Act recommends establishment of ‘Technical Resource Support Groups’ at district, state and central level and active use of Information Technology, like creation of a ‘Monitoring and Information System (MIS)’ and a NREGA website, to assure quality in implementation of NREGA through technical support. The law allows convergence of NREGA with other programmes. As NREGA intends to create ‘additional’ employment, the convergence should not affect employment provided by other programmes.

The law and the Constitution of India

The Act aims to follow the Directive Principles of State Policy enunciated in Part IV of the Constitution of India. The law by providing a 'right to work' is consistent with Article 41 that directs the State to secure to all citizens the right to work. The statute also seeks to protect the environment through rural works which is consistent with Article 48A that directs the State to protect the environment.In accordance with the Article 21 of the Constitution of India that guarantees the right to life with dignity to every citizen of India, this act imparts dignity to the rural people through an assurance of livelihood security.

The Fundamental Right enshrined in Article 16 of the Constitution of India guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, place of residence or any of them. NREGA

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also follows Article 46 that requires the State to promote the interests of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and exploitation. Article 40 mandates the State to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.] Conferring the primary responsibility of implementation on Gram Panchayats, the Act adheres to this constitutional principle. Also the process of decentralization initiated by 73rd Amendment to the

Constitution of India that granted a constitutional status to the Panchayats is further reinforced by the Mahatma Gandhi NREGA that endowed these rural self-government institutions with authority to implement the law.

The law in action

Academic research has focused on many dimensions of the NREGA: economic security, self-targeting, women's empowerment, asset creation, corruption, how the scheme impacts agricultural wages. An early overall assessment in the north India states suggested that NREGA was "making a difference to the lives of the rural poor, slowly but surely." The evidence on self-targeting suggests that works though

there is a lot of unmet demand for work One of the objectives of NREGA was to improve the bargaining power of labour who often faced exploitative market conditions. Several studies have found that agricultural wages have increased significantly, especially for women since the inception of the scheme .

This indicates that overall wage levels have increased due to the act, however, further research highlights that the key benefit of the scheme lies in the reduction of wage volatility. This highlights that NREGA may be an effective insurance scheme. Ongoing research efforts try to evaluate the overall welfare effects of the scheme; a

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particular focus has been to understand whether the scheme has reduced migration into urban centers for casual work.Another important aspect of NREGA is the potential for women's empowerment by providing them opportunities for paid work. One third of all employment is reserved for women, there is a provision for equal wages to men and women, provision for child care facilities at the worksite - these are three important provisions for women in the Act. More recent studies have suggested that women's participation has remained high, though there are inter-state variations.]

One study in border villages of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat studied the effect on short term migration and child welfare. and finds that among children who do not migrate, grade completed is higher. The same study found that demand for NREGA work is higher, even though migrant wages are higher.On asset creation, there have

not been too many detailed studies. A few focusing on the potential for asset creation under NREGA suggest that (a) the potential is substantial and (b) in some places it is being realized and (c) lack of staff, especially technical staff rather than lack of material are to blame for poor realization of this potential Others have pointed out that water harvesting and soil conservation works promoted through NREGA "could have high positive results on environment security and biodiversity and environment conservation"[ A study conducted by researchers at the Indian Institute of Science and other collaborators attempts to quantify the environmental and socio-economic benefits of works done through the NREGA

Corruption in government programmes has remained a serious concern, and NREGA has been no exception. According to recent estimates, wage corruption in NREGA has declined from about 50% in 2007-8 to between 4-30% in 2009-10. Much of this improvement is

attributable to the move to pay NREGA wages through bank and post office accounts. Some of the success in battling corruption can also be

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attributed to the strong provisions for community monitoring. Others find that "the overall social audit effects on reducing easy-to-detect malpractices was mostly absent".

A few papers also study the link between electoral gains and implementation of NREGA. One studies the effect in Andhra Pradesh - the authors find that "while politics may influence programme expenditure in some places and to a small extent, this is not universally true and does not undermine the effective targeting and good work of the scheme at large." The two other studies focus on these links in Rajasthan and West Bengal.

Assessment of the act by the constitutional auditor

The second performance audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of Indiacovered 3,848 gram panchayats (GPs)in 28 statesand 4 union territories (UTs)from April 2007 to March 2012. This comprehensive survey by the CAG documents lapses in implementation of the actThe main problems identified in the audit included: a fall in

the level of employment, low rates of completion of works (only 30 per cent of planned works had been completed), poor planning (in one-third of Gram Panchayats, the planning process mandated by the act had not been followed), lack of public awareness partly due to poor information, education and communication IEC) by the state governments, shortage of staff (e.g., Gram Rozgar Sewaks had not been appointed in some states) and so on.

Notwithstanding the statutory requirement of notification, yet five states had not even notified the eight-years-old scheme. The comprehensive assessment of the performance of the law by the constitutional auditor revealed serious lapses arising mainly due to lack of public awareness, mismanagement and institutional incapacity. The CAG also suggested some corrective measures.

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Major recommendations of the CAG audit on MGNREGA Even though the mass social audits have a statutory mandate of Section 17 (as outlined in Chapter 11 of the NREGA Operational Guidelines), only seven states have the institutional capacity to facilitate the social audits as per prescribed norms.] Although the Central Council is mandated to establish a central evaluation and monitoring system as per the NREGA Operational Guidelines, even after six years it is yet to fulfill the NREGA directive. Further, the CAG audit reports discrepancies in the maintenance of prescribed basic records in up to half of the gram panchayats (GPs) which inhibits the critical evaluation of the NREGA outcomes. The unreliability of Management Information System (MIS), due to significant disparity between the data in the MIS and the actual official documents, is also reported.

To increase public awareness, the intensification of the Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities is recommended. To improve management of outcomes, it recommended proper maintenance of records at the gram panchayat (GP) level. Further the Central Council is recommended to establish a central evaluation and monitoring system for "a national level, comprehensive and independent evaluation of the scheme". The CAG also recommends a timely payment of unemployment allowance to the rural poor and a wage material ratio of 60:40 in the NREGA works. Moreover, for effective financial management, the CAG recommends proper

maintenance of accounts, in a uniform format, on a monthly basis and also enforcing the statutory guidelines to ensure transparency in the disposal of funds. For capacity building, the CAG recommends an increase in staff hiring to fill the large number of vacancies.

For the first time, the CAG also included a survey of more than 38,000 NREGA beneficiaries. An earlier evaluation of the NREGA by the CAG was criticized for its methodology.

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Evaluation of the law by the government

Ex-Prime Minister of IndiaManmohan Singhreleased an anthologysof

research studies on the MGNREGA called "MGNREGA Sameeksha" in New Delhi on 14 July 2012, about a year before the CAG report.]Aruna Royand Nikhil Deysaid that "the MGNREGA Sameeksha is a significant innovation to evaluate policy and delivery".The anthology draws on independent assessments of MGNREGA conducted by Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)and others in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)published from 2008 to 2012.The Prime Minister said: The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA story in numbers is a story worth telling... the scheme scores high on inclusivness...no welfare scheme in recent memory has caught the imagination of the people as much as NREGA has ... under which �1,10,000 crore (about USD$25 billion) have been spent to pay wages to 1,200 crore (12 billion) peopleMinister of Rural Development Jairam Ramesh says in the 'MGNREGA

Sameeksha': It is perhaps the largest and most ambitious social security and public works programme in the world. ... soundness and high potential of the MGNREGA are well established ... . That, at any rate, is one of the main messages emerging from this extensive review of research on MGNREGA. It is also a message that comes loud and clear from the resounding popularity of MGNREGA—today, about one-fourth of all rural households participate in the programme every year.Meanwhile, the social audits in two Indian states highlight the potential of the law if implemented effectively.

Further the Minister says:

MGNREGA’s other quantitative achievements have been striking as well:

1. Since its inception in 2006, around �1,10,000 crore (about USD$25 billion) has gone directly as wage payment to rural

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households and 1200 crore (12 billion) person-days of employment has been generated. On an average, 5 crore (50 million) households have been provided employment every year since 2008.

2. Eighty per cent of households are being paid directly through bank/post office accounts, and 10 crore (100 million) new bank/post office accounts have been opened.

3. The average wage per person-day has gone up by 81 per cent since the Scheme’s inception, with state-level variations. The notified wage today varies from a minimum of �122 (USD$2.5) in Bihar, Jharkhand to �191 (USD$4) in Haryana.

4. Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) have accounted for 51 per cent of the total person-days generated and women for 47 per cent, well above the mandatory 33 per cent as

required by the Act.

5. 146 lakh (14.6 million) works have been taken up since the beginning of the programme, of which about 60 per cent have been completed.

6. 12 crore (120 million) Job Cards (JCs) have been given and these along with the 9 crore (90 million) muster rolls have been uploaded on the Management Information System (MIS), available for public scrutiny. Since 2010–11, all details with regard to the expenditure of the MGNREGA are available on the MIS in the public domain.[77]

Social audit

Civil society organisations (CSOs), nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), political representatives, civil servants and workers of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh collectively organise social audits to

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prevent corruption under the NREGA. As the corruption is attributed to the secrecy in governance, the 'Jansunwai' or public hearing and the right to information (RTI), enacted in 2005, are used to fight this secrecy. Official records obtained using RTI are read out at the public hearing to identify and rectify irregularities. "This process of reviewing official records and determining whether state reported expenditures reflect the actual monies spent on the ground is referred to as a social audit." Participation of informed citizens promotes collective responsibility and awareness about entitlements.

The process of a social audit

A continuous process of social audit on NREGA works involves public vigilance and verification at the stipulated 11 stages of implementation: registration of families; distribution of job cards; receipt of work applications; selection of suitable public works; preparation of technical

estimates; work allocation; implementation and supervision; payment of wages; payment of unemployment allowance; evaluation of outcomes; and mandatory social audit in the Gram Sabha or Social Audit Forum. The Gram Panchayat Secretary called ‘Sarpanch’ is designated as the authority responsible for carrying out the social audit at all stages. For some stages, the programme officer and the junior engineer is also responsible along with Sarpanch.The statute designates the Gram Sabha meetings held to conduct social audit as the ‘Social Audit Forums’ and spells out three steps to make them effective: publicity and preparation of documents; organizational and procedural aspects; and the mandatory agenda involving questions verifying compliance with norms specified at each of the 11 stages of implementation.An application under the RTI to access relevant official documents is the first step of the social audit. Then the management personnel of the social audit verify these official records by conducting field visits.

Finally, the 'Jansunwai' or public hearing is organised at two levels: the

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Panchayat or village level and the Mandal level. The direct public debate involving the beneficiaries, political representatives, civil servants and, above all, the government officers responsible for implementing the NREGA works highlights corruption like the practice of rigging muster rolls (attendance registers) and also generates public awareness about the scheme. These social audits on NREGA works in Rajasthan highlight: a significant demand for the scheme, less that 2 per cent corruption in the form of fudging of muster rolls, building the water harvesting infrastructure as the first priority in the drought-

prone district, reduction of out-migration, and above all the women participation of more than 80 per cent in the employment guarantee scheme. The need for effective management of tasks, timely payment of wages and provision of support facilities at work sites is also emphasized To assess the effectiveness of the mass social audits on NREGA works in Andhra Pradesh, a World Bank study investigated the effect of the social audit on the level of public awareness about NREGA, its effect on the NREGA implementation, and its efficacy as a grievance redressal mechanism. The study found that the public awareness about the NREGA increased from about 30 per cent before the social audit to about 99 per cent after the social audit. Further, the efficacy of NREGA implementation increased from an average of about 60 per cent to about 97 per cent

Save MGNREGA

'Save MGNREGA' is a set of demands proposed during the joint meeting of the national leadership of CITU, AIAWU, AIDWA and AIKS in New Delhi. The agenda was to discuss the dilution of MGNREGA scheme by the new government. Following demands were proposed:[

1. Government of India should increase the Central allocation for the scheme so that number of workdays can be increased to 200 and per day wage can be increased to Rs. 300.

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2. Job card to be issued for everyone who demands job, failing which, after 15 days employment benefits should be given.

3. Minimum 100 days of work should be ensured to all card holders

4. Minimum wage act should be strictly implemented. Delay in wage payment should be resolved.

5. MGNREGA should be extended to urban areas.

6. Gram Sabhas should be strengthened to monitor proper implementation of the scheme and also to check corruption.

New Amendments Proposed in 2014

Union Rural development Minister, Nitin Gadkari, proposed to limit MGNREGA programmes within tribal and poor areas. He also proposed to change the labour:material ratio from 60:40 to 51:49. As per the new proposal the programme will be implemented in 2,500 backward blocks coming under Intensive Participatory Planning Exercise.[ These blocks are identified per the Planning Commission Estimate of 2013 and a Backwardness Index prepared by Planning Commission using 2011 census. This backwardness index consist of following five parameters - percentage of households primarily depended on agriculture, female literacy rates, households without access to electricity, households without access to drinking water and sanitation within the premises

and households without access to banking facilities.Both proposals came in for sharp criticism. A number of economists with diverse views opposed the idea of restricting or "focussing" implementation in a few districts or blocks In the November 2014 cabinet expansion, Birender Singh replaced Nitin Gadkari as rural development minister. Among the first statements made by the new minister was an assurance that NREGA would continue in all districts. Around the same time, however, NREGA budget saw a sharp cut and in the name of 'focusing' on a few blocks the programme has been limited to those blocks.

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Controversies

A major criticism of NREGA is that it is making agriculture less

profitable. Landholders often oppose it on these grounds. The big farmer’s point of view can be summed up as follows: landless labourers are lazy and they don’t want to work on farms as they can get money without doing anything at NREGA worksites; farmers may have to sell their land, thereby laying foundation for the corporate farming. The workers points of view can be summed up as: labourers do not get more than Rs. 80 in the private agricultural labour market, there is no farm work for several months; few old age people who are jobless for at least 8 months a year; when farm work is available they go there first; farmers employ only young and strong persons to work in their farms and reject the others and hence many go jobless most of the time.

References

1. Aiyar, Yamini (2009). "Transparency and Accountability in NREGA – A Case Study of Andhra Pradesh" (PDF). Retrieved 29 October 2013.

2. Chandoke (2007). Engaging with Civil Society: The democratic Perspective. Center for Civil Society, London School of Economics and Political Science.

3. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2013). "The Comptroller and Auditor General of India". The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG). Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

4. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2013). "Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India on Performance Audit of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme". Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Retrieved 5 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

5. Centre for Science and Environment (2007). "The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) Opportunities and Challenges (DRAFT)" (PDF). Centre for Science and Environment. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

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6. Dobhal, Harsh (2011). Writings on Human Rights, Law, and Society in India: A Combat Law Anthology : Selections from Combat Law, 2002–2010. Socio Legal Information Cent. p. 420. ISBN 978-81-89479-78-7.

7. Dreze, Jean. "Learning From NREGA". Retrieved 17 November 2014.

8. Dreze, Jean (2004). "Employment Guarantee as a Social Responsibility". Retrieved 17 November 2014.

9. Dutta, Puja. Right to Work? Assessing India's Employment Guarantee Scheme in Bihar. World Bank.

10. Goetz, A.M and Jenkins, J (1999). "Accounts and Accountability: Theoretical Implications of the Right to Information Movement in India". 3 20. Third World Quarterly.

11. Ghildiyal, Subodh (11 June 2006). "More women opt for rural job scheme in Rajasthan". The Times of India. Retrieved 25 October 2013.

12. Khera, Reetika (2011). "The Battle for Employment Guarantee". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014.

13. Khera, Reetika (2014). "The Whys and Whats of NREGA". India Spend.

14. Novotny, J., Kubelkova, J., Joseph, V. (2013): A multi-dimensional analysis of the impacts of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: a tale from Tamil Nadu. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 34, 3, 322-341. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sjtg.12037/full

15. The Times of India (2012). "PM directs Planning Commission to address gaps in NREGA". The Times of India. Retrieved 22 November 2013.

16. The Times of India (2013). "CAG finds holes in enforcing MNREGA". The Times of India. Retrieved 23 November 2013.

17. The Hindu (2001). "PR Dept. loses Central assistance". The Hindu. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

18. The Hindu (2006). "CAG report reveals irregularities in Sampoorna Rozgar Yojana". The Hindu. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

19. The Hindu (2012). "Manmohan directs Planning Commission to address gaps in NREGA". The Hindu. Retrieved 21 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

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20. Roy, Aruna; Dey, Nikhil (2012). "Much more than a survival scheme". The Hindu. The Hindu. Retrieved 21 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

21. Malekar, Anosh (21 May 2006). "The big hope: Transparency marks the NREGA in Dungarpur". InfoChange News & Features. Retrieved 25 October 2013.

22. Menon, Sudha (10 January 2008). "Right To Information Act and NREGA: Reflections on Rajasthan". Munich Personal RePEc Archive. Retrieved 25 October 2013.

23. Ministry of Law and Justice (2008). "Constitution of India" (PDF). "Ministry of Law and Justice", Government of India. Retrieved 5 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

24. Ministry of Rural Development (2002). "Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) Guidelines" (PDF). "Ministry of Rural Development", Government of India. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

25. Ministry of Rural Development (2002). "Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) Guidelines" (PDF). "Ministry of Rural Development", Government of India. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

26. Ministry of Rural Development (2005). "Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (Mahatma Gandhi NREGA)" (PDF). "Ministry of Rural Development", Government of India. Retrieved 5 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

27. Ministry of Rural Development (2005). "The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA) – Operational Guidelines" (PDF). "Ministry of Rural Development", Government of India. Retrieved 5 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

28. Ministry of Rural Development (2012). MGNREGA Sameeksha, An Anthology of Research Studies on the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, 2006–2012 (PDF). "Ministry of Rural Development", Government of India (New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan). ISBN 978-81-250-4725-4. Retrieved 21 November 2013. External link in |website= (help)

29. Pasha, Dr. Bino Paul GD and S M Fahimuddin. Role of ICT in Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). S M Fahimuddin Pasha. p. 59. ISBN 978-81-921475-0-5.

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30. Planning Commission (2007). "Chapter 4: Employment Perspective and Labour Policy" (PDF). "Planning Commission", Government of India. Retrieved 29 October 2013. External link in |website= (help)

31. Shira, Dezan & Associates; Devonshire-Ellis, Chris (31 May 2012). Doing Business in India. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-27617-0.

32. World Bank (2008). "Social Audits: from ignorance to awareness. The AP experience". Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.

33. NewsYaps (2009). "NREGA: Effects and Implications". Retrieved 12 March 2014.

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EVOLUTION IN HR PRACTICES: CHANGING THE FACE OF

BUSINESS

Chitra Assistant Professor

Chandigarh University Mohali

“In a rapidly changing world, the winners may not be those companies that can produce and distribute a specific product, but those that can deploy their core capabilities across all possible futures they encounter.” – Dr. Roch Parayre, Wharton Business School

Abstract

To become accustomed to the demands of a changing global marketplace, HR is progressively required to span the boundaries between its function, the organization as a whole, and the dynamic environment within which it operates. The demands of day-to-day HR may be crowding out the focus, passion and spirit that are necessary if practitioners are to take a leading role in helping organizations capitalize on opportunities offered by emerging trends. This research paper review changes in a global sample of firms that shows how emerging trends in HR, changing the face of business across the countries providing in international benchmark against which to measure a company’s practice changing countryside. The research findings suggest that human resources can make great progress by simply allocating more time, budget and expertise to the emerging trends that have the greatest potential effect on organizations.

Key words : HR, , Globalisation, Retention, Potential, Emerging

Trends, Innovation

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INTRODUCTION

A mere 20 years ago, not many people would have been able to predict the sheer scale of technology’s impact on the nature of work and the culture of the workplace. Nor would very many mainstream thinkers have forecast the rise of new economic powerhouses, such as China and Brazil. Many business leaders in the early 1990s would have found it difficult to believe that not only would India’s GDP, within a couple of decades, be ranked in the top ten highest among global economies, but that more than half of its workforce would regularly telecommute instead of visiting a conventional place of work. But, as

Peter Drucker, the eminent management theorist, once put it, “The only thing we know about the future is that it will be different.”

The rapid changes in technology and volatility led to companies shifting their paradigm approach. The need of the hour for HR is to address this change and transform into an esteemed and valued advisor for the company that brings forward thinking, innovative ideas, fresh insights and perspectives to the business at all levels. To become accustomed to the demands of a changing global marketplace, HR is progressively required to span the boundaries between its function, the organization as a whole, and the dynamic environment within which it operates. The demands of day-to-day HR may be crowding out the focus, passion and spirit that are necessary if practitioners are to take a leading role in helping organizations capitalize on opportunities offered by emerging trends. This research paper review changes in a global sample

of firms that shows how emerging trends in HR, changing the face of business across the countries providing in international benchmark against which to measure a company’s practice changing countryside. The research findings suggest that human resources can make great progress by simply allocating more time, budget and expertise to the emerging trends that have the greatest potential effect on organizations.

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OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of this research paper is to provide feedback on how key human capital trends are impacting business and HR function. The study will allow us to know:

The emerging trends in HR.

The importance of trends in achieving the goals of business.

Implications of HR trends in organizations

Literature Review

Dave Ulrich (1997), famous HR guru, credited with developing the “HR business partner” model and other influential ideas in books including “HR Champions”. He had developed a multi-faceted approach that meets the needs of both employees and employers, and positions of HR

as a significant contributor to organizational success. Ulrich presented four approaches: strategy execution, administrative efficiency, employee contribution, and capacity for change and also four corresponding roles of HR to play within a business as a strategic partner, administrative expert, employee champion and change agent. a) as a strategic partner working to align HR and business strategy.

Assist line managers in solving organization, people and change-related issues, b) as an administrative expert working to improve

organizational processes and deliver basic HR services, ensures internal and external customer focus, applies information technology to rapidly deliver quality HR products and services. c) as an employee champion, listening and responding to employees needs, develops

strategies and helps implement actions that enhance the human capital contribution, ensures fair, ethical, and equitable people, processes and practices and d) as a change agent managing change processes to

increase the effectiveness of the organization, understands the organization’s culture and what is effective and ineffective. Institutionalizes change capability within the organization, assists line

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managers to lead and facilitate change, enhances management development. He had all of the ways that HR can deliver value to an organization, rather than shifting focus from one area to another.

Similarly, Johnson (1997) emphasized on the qualities of the HR leaders they want to hire. They should be people who will be successful business partners, strategic thinkers, and people who will understand the pressures of running an effective business in today's market. He reports that, when hiring a leader for the HR function, most CEOs ask

for someone who is, "not a typical HR person," and that most of the successful candidates describe themselves that way.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH IN BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS: REVIEWS

Recently at a National Conference on “Emerging Trends in Business: Opportunities and Challenges on 24th Nov, 2015 held at Chandigarh University, Mohali, (Pb.), Mr. Vishnu Iruvanti, Head (HR), (Myntra.co) emphasized on four major approaches to become a successful entrepreneur in this technology driven business environment i.e. collaboration, empowerment, leadership and transparency. In his words, innovation in the technology has revolutionized the whole scenario of the business world.

The world of business is changing and these changes have posed many challenges to the HR practices. Mr. Ajit Thakur – Head (HR) – Hyundai Construction Equipment India Pvt. Ltd. spoke on various challenges and opportunities of HR. He shared that 52% HR professionals have serious concern over building next generation organizational culture. 59% HR professionals believe that in order to

retain talent they should be rewarded and for increasing employee productivity and efficiency, flexible time arrangements can be a winning factor. As emphasized by Mr Thakur, main challenges being

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faced by HR are attracting and retaining the talent, transparent work culture and open leadership.

According to Mr. Pramod Misra, Head HR – Simplex Infrastructure Ltd, there is need of three important parameters to enter into corporate world i.e. Attitude, Skills & Knowledge (ASK). One has to work upon one’s communication skill and express views with authority and confidence. In order to develop competency, we should do regular SWOT analysis for finding out our grey areas.

EMERGING TRENDS IN HR

In India, with the rise of the knowledge economy and high levels of

churn in the technology sector, HR has come to assume an importance it was hitherto not given. The year 2015 will be seen as one in which HR functioning in Indian companies was reformed further to include more staff-centric management approach focusing on easily adaptable and a streamlined work environment. Innovative revolutions in the conventional workplace traditions remained the highlight of this year. Therefore, 2015 has been a year of creativity, innovative thinking and imaging of the HR practises. Based on research, top trends were identified that we believe will most significantly impact the HR function in the future. Some of the trends that companies etched more strongly in their culture this year were:

Freedom and Flexibility

The demand for a flexible workplace environment, increased more as the data became more fluid, work got more technology based and widespread geographically. There was an increasing acceptance of the fact that convenient working hours and the freedom to work from home

or any geographical area ensure high rate of employee retention, thus, saving the costs of replacements and trainings of new joiners for the company.

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In today’s fast-paced world with offices at long distances, working from home also saves travel time for the employees which they can utilise in numerous productive ways. Many organisations like Amazon, Convergys, IBM, etc. supported this trend with several other joining the band.

Talent Hunt

In order to find and look for potential candidate, HR professionals should hunt for the talent within the organizations. By doing so we can retain our most dynamic and value added employees. It also helps the existing workforce to take up a new job or responsibility, perhaps in the

form of promoting them or provide the employee a career development opportunity.

Creativeness with Innovative ideas

With Millennials manning several key operations, more and more organizations followed the concept of using creative and attractive designations for employees instead of using boring titles in 2015. There were new and inventive descriptions for people depending on their area of expertise.

Open Workspace

Another trend which received the thumbs up from most firms this year was the culture of open workspaces. Open workspaces act as a room for team ideation that brings up innovative ideas and creativity. Informal set ups are used as think tank rooms by the employees as such environment brings openness and frankness in discussions and meetings. Various start-ups embraced this concept that led to great ideas/ campaigns.

Enhancing Organizational Values

Although this is not a new challenge for HR, it remains a critical one. HR is still perceived by many within today's organizations as simply a

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non-revenue generating function. It is important to make apparent the value provided by working with the management team to hire the right people, manage them well, pay them appropriately, and build a working environment that encourages success of business.

Social Network

Organisations are continuing to recognise the need to focus on Corporate social networking. An insight report on Social Media around the World-2012 indicated that 7 out of 10 users use social connect, share content and stay informed. Collaborative platform materialised as such a critical utility for enterprises that without it, enterprises

tendency to become less productive than their counterparts loose an edge over the competitive market. Enterprise Social Networking (ESN) platforms like Hallwaze act like a smart leader who knows how to encourage effective collaboration in an organisation, identify employees’ skill sets, help in the exchange of ideas, put decisions into action, and produce a more satisfied workforce.

Performance Management

The year saw a huge change in the Indian Organisations’approach towards managing, evaluating and rewarding the workforce. Traditional approach to evaluation techniques was replaced with innovative performance solutions. New, improved performance management systems was adopted by the companies to monitor, evaluate and reward employees. The latest Networking mediums like LinkedIn, and Glassdoor has enabled people to easily monitor the market for better career opportunities. Details about an organisation’s working environment are available at the click of the button, providing

insights about companies to employees and potential employees alike. The power today is in the hands of the employee who is more connected, well aware and open to modern work culture.

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These trends are happening now and will only get more real and impactful. A very different set of HR and talent management practices will be required, which are better suited to a highly volatile, global and knowledge-oriented age.

HR functions that recognise this and react will have an unprecedented opportunity to help organisations and people become leaders in the new world of work. For those companies that don’t heed the call, HR risks irrelevance.

KEY FINDINGS FROM RESEARCH INTO GLOBAL TRENDS IMPACTING THE FUTURE OF HR MANAGEMENT

With a forward-looking economic growth and increasing job opportunities across sectors, India’s job market witnessed a healthy

trend of employment in 2015.

Hiring activities grew by nearly 10 per cent and broadly an upward trend was witnessed barring a few blips around May-June.

The key hiring trends of 2015 were higher use of social media and technology, especially among start-ups and e-Commerce firms.

Companies doled out average pay hikes of 10- 12 per cent this year, while the average increment has been higher at about 25 per cent for the top talent.

India is growing at the fastest rate among the larger economies like US and China. According to the International Monetary Fund’s (IMF's) World Economic Outlook (published in October), the Indian economy is expected to grow by 7.3 per cent, which is the fastest when compared to a much larger economy like China, which is projected to grow by 6.8 per cent.

A recent study by the Top Employers Institute reveals that as talent mobility is particularly high in India and company loyalty low, embracing a total rewards philosophy is relevant to attract and retain

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specialized employees with specific skills that are increasingly in demand for organisational growth. The compensation and benefits need to be tailored to the different demographic groups of employees.

CONCLUSION

Changing employee expectations, new technologies, increasing globalisation and a need for agility in the face of a turbulent business environment mean that tomorrow’s workplace will be barely recognizable from today. HR will need to respond accordingly. Companies will need to update their practices accordingly. They must devote more effort to building partnerships with educational

institutions and governments, with the aim of ensuring an adequate pipeline of the skills they claim are in worryingly short supply. New thinking on people management is another necessity. Many of the previously trusted techniques for managing culturally uniform, co-located teams, composed largely of male, long service employees, are now as redundant as the office typewriter. This report provides a comprehensive summary of the seismic developments already underway in the global workforce, and various challenges that these developments raise for human-capital management. We hope that it will be a valuable aid for human resource professionals as they reflect and plan for the future.

References:

1. Armstrong, Michael, A handbook of human resource management practice , Kogan Page, 2001

2. Sparrow, Paul; Brewster, Chris ; Harris, Hilary, Globalizing human resource management , Routledge, 2004

3. Harrison, Rosemary; Kessels, Joseph, Human resource development in a knowledge economy : an organisational view, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004

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4. Beardwell, Ian; Claydon, Tim, ed. ; Holden, Len, ed., Human resource management : a contemporary approach, Prentice Hall, 2004

5. Society for Human Resource Management. (2012). 2012 employee benefits. Retrieved from http:// www.shrm.org/ Research /Survey Findings/ Articles/ Documents/ 2012_EmpBenefits_Report.pdf

6. Brewster, C, Sparrow, P. and Harris, H. (2005) 'Towards a New Model of Globalizing HRM', International Journal of Human

Resource Management, 16(6): 949-7

7. Kinnie, N., Swart, J. and Purcell, J. (2005) 'Influences on the Choice of HR System: The Network Organization Perspective', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(6): 1004-28.

8. Towers Perrin (2003). Changing the Face and Pace of HR Services. Available at http:// www.towersperrin.c om/hrservice s/webcache/t owers/Unit ed_Kingdom/ publicati ons/Repo rts/HR_Transf orma tion/hr_transformation.pdf.

9. http://howtomanagehumanresources.blogspot.com

10. http://www.onlineprnews.com/news/661644-1454394770-hr-trends-in-2 016-after-the-successful-year-of-creativity-2015.html

11. http://www.itvoice.in/index.php/it-voice-news/hr-trends-in-2016-after-the-successful-year-of-creativity-2015

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HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA-ISSUES & CHALLENGES

Dr. D. Eswara Rao Faculty of Chaitanya College of Education

P.S Bonangi, Visakhapatnam

Introduction:

The Higher education system in India has witnessed remarkable growth; it is being heralded as the largest system of its kind in the world. However, the system continues to be fraught with numerous issues. There are the issues concerning management, which include aspects like access, equity and relevance. There are the issues related to financing and ensuring that education in the country continues to be a public service. It should not be allowed to degenerate into a profit making venture.

A large number of additional students continue to know the doors of our institutions for higher education. As a nation we can’t escape the moral obligation of providing high quality higher education to each and every son and daughter of this country. New policies and strategies that will give rise to larger number of high quality institutions are the need of the hour. It is imperative that we find the

solutions to these problems, as we are now engaged in the using higher education as a powerful tool for creation of a knowledge-based information society that will take India into a bright new future.

Issues :

Higher education in India suffers from several systemic deficiencies. As a result, it continues to provide graduates that are unemployable despite emerging shortages of skilled manpower in an increasing number of sectors. The standards of academic research are low and declining. Some of the problems of the Indian higher education, such as the unwieldy affiliating system, inflexible academic

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structure, uneven capacity across various subjects, eroding autonomy of academic institutions, and the low level of public funding are well known.

There are issues equally critical or even more so; a more encompassing account would certainly have to include such issues as

- The provision of education, higher and otherwise, to disadvantaged groups in Indian society (the issues of “ inclusion” and

“affirmative action”)

- The quality and relevance of the curriculum in higher education,

- The effect that problems in higher education have on primary and secondary schools, and d vice-versa,

- The role of assessment and evaluation in higher education and

- The state of research both within and outside institutions of higher education.

Challenges:

The problem of quality

Engineering pharmaceuticals, business, and computer applications have been the recipients of most of the growth in higher education in India. Both the number of engineering colleges and their enrolment have grown at a rate of 20% a year for 30 years. At the height of this boom from 1995 to 2010 India opened the doors to approximately one new engineering college and one new management institute each day. In 2012-13, India had around 3,500 engineering college and 2,500 management institutes in 2013 out of the nearly 1.5 million approved engineering seats, almost 1.2 million new students

were admitted to various engineering programs across India. This is a 30-fold increase over the 1983 annual enrolment of 40,000 engineers.

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This growth has contributed directly to India's abundance of engineers, but raising their quality is a pressing concern and represents the first challenge.

To keep the quality of an engineering education level with the quality it had 30 years ago (hardly an ambitious goal), the number of faculty would need to have increased 30-fold. Because PhDs in science and engineering have only doubled and those holding a Master's degree in science and engineering have only tripled, the number of those who

have achieved the credentials to teach at the tertiary level has not kept pace, so the number of faculty needed to ensure quality teaching falls very short. In fact, a severe faculty shortage affects almost every Indian institute.

Various attempts have been made to address the quality problem. Most of these have focused on regulation, which can dictate the physical infrastructure for institutes and the qualification requirements for faculty. More useful measures have taken the form of various schemes to entice Indians with PhDs who are working overseas to come back home (an example is the Ramalingaswani Re-entry Fellowship programme) and programmes to make a career in academics and research more attractive to recent graduates (such as the J.C. Bose National Fellowship programme). Such programmes will have some impact, but it will be felt mainly at the top end of the institutional

scale. Well over half the faculty at the great bulk of institutes in India are 'temporary' faculty who do not have to meet the requirements, and who have to date displayed little interest in graduate programmes or research. It seems that trying to regulate quality into institutes has largely failed. Instead, a combination of market and institutional mechanisms has much greater potential for providing an effective boost to quality in education.

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For many years, when demand for professional course seats exceeded supply, tertiary institutions had little incentive to improve the quality of their faculty or their facilities. The supply of places at institutes of higher learning has now exceeded demand in India for the last five years in the southern states of the country,' and institutes are finally being forced to compete with each other to attract enough students. Simply relying on the market to weed out those institutes that cannot perform at an improved level and thus provide a higher-

quality education, therefore, will address much of the problem. The state can also play a useful role in ensuring that this happens, however, first by ignoring the cry of incumbent colleges to limit the number of new seats and new institutes. Second, introducing a strong compulsory accreditation and assessment programme that publishes college quality indicators would go a long way towards harnessing this market solution. And third, one could emulate the state university system prevalent in the United States of America (USA) in the second half of the 20th century, where a few excellent (and 'relatively inexpensive) state universities provided an excellent 'quality control' pool for more expensive private universities that must either be better in some way than their public counterparts or admit less-qualified students.

What evidence is there that relying on the market to improve matters in higher education will work? As noted above, some

improvement in the five states where supply exceeds demand is already in evidence. Moreover, consider the geographical concentration of India's higher education system. In 2003, the five southern states accounted for two-thirds of seats and less than one-third of the population.' This mismatch was entirely a supply-and-demand issue. The five southern states had been the first to permit private engineering colleges, and student demand followed. Recent work by Chandrashekhar and Sharma shows how, over the last 10 years, 5 million students migrated from states such as Bihar,. Uttar Pradesh,

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West Bengal, and Rajasthan to prosperous states such as Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Delhi in search of an education.' That migration prompted other states to join in the private education boom to meet the demand of their own students. By 2013, many other states—such as Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Punjab—had caught up, and their share of engineering students now reflects their share in the population

The need to build graduate education and research universities

The concentration by field has combined with a focus on teaching programmes. Graduate technical education has stagnated relative to undergraduate education. There are some signs of life now, with the better private engineering colleges starting Master's degree

programmes and the Indian Institutes of Technology (IlTs) growing their PhD programmes in a big way. But India will need 10 years of increased output to address the faculty shortages just at the top technical institutes, even before beginning to substantively address the shortages that are rife across the country's mainstream technical edu-cation system. Even at the very top, a recent article indicates that the 15 IITs have over 2,000 faculty vacancies—equivalent to more than one-third of its total faculty positions.

Thus the second challenge is to raise the quantity and quality of graduate technical education, an issue linked to where public research is done. Although India was also an early investor in public scientific research, this investment went overwhelmingly into autonomous scientific research institutions. The result of doing scientific research in autonomous institutions has been that research has largely bypassed

the university system.

A few leading institutes, especially the IITs, are now focusing much more on research than they did in earlier years," but most pub-licly funded research is still done in autonomous institutes. Although

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research in the higher education sector has grown (from 1% to 4% of national research and development, or R&D, funds) over the last 20 years, even its current level of 4% compares poorly with an international norm of 15% to 25% of national R&D spending. Instead India continues to locate over 90% of its public research spending within autonomous institutes. Every other major economy concentrates public research within the university system.

Doing public research within the university system is a long-established

international principle." High-quality graduate education requires research, and combining research and teaching will benefit both. World-class graduate education requires teachers who do research. And the benefits to be had by combining research and teaching do not flow only one way, to teaching. Research too benefits, which is particularly important for India's innovation system.

The successful experience of the Republic of Korea and Taiwan, Province of China, for example, indicates that the flow of innovation runs sequentially from industrial development to industrial in-house R&D and then to public scientific research. An industrial sector com-peting with the best firms in the world in increasingly sophisticated industrial sectors is a requirement for sustaining investment in in-house R&D, and strong in-house R&D is a requirement for sustaining investment in public scientific research of value to industry. It is only

since 1991 that Indian industry has increasingly had to compete with the world's leading firms. This competition in turn has driven greater investment in in-house R&D by specific Indian firms and industries such as pharmaceuticals. The more advanced technological sectors in Indian industry are only now capable of utilizing, and therefore sustaining, public investment in scientific research. By combining this research with teaching, the Indian economy will get the primary benefit of doing research: availability of trained researchers.

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The issue of the isolation of Indian public research has simply received no public attention and is not on the reform agenda. Indeed, at a minimum India should grandfather the problem and allocate increases in public research spending to the higher education sector. Instead, the problem is perpetuated. In the government's 11th Plan (2007-2012)," 14 new autonomous public research institutes were initiated; in the current 12th Plan (2012-2017), doors are opening on another seven public research institutes.' Opening new autonomous

research institutes outside of the higher education system remains the number one long-term problem with the Indian higher education system. It is foolish to remain. oblivious to something where contrary international evidence is so overwhelming, so well founded, and so well known.

Providing equity of access

The rapid growth of the Indian education system has overwhelmingly taken place in the private sector, leading to concern about equity and access. Engineering enrolment rose from 15% in private institutes in 1960to over 90% by 2006-07." Growth in public-sector higher education over the last 30 years has been small, with some renewed investment only in the last eight years.

Obtaining clear data on just what proportion of spending on higher education is put towards public. Education and what is put towards private education is not easy in India. The official numbers indicate that India spends around 0.5% of GDP on higher education. Many

private engineering and medical colleges charge before the admission what are called 'capitation fees'—they collect a certain amount as a cash donation (sometimes with no receipt) and put this in a trust that is formed to receive the money. The amount charged for the capitation fee varies considerably, based on course and institute desirability. A good private engineering institute in Maharashtra, for example, would

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charge an official fee set by the state of US$1,500 per year, but would add a capitation fee of US$15,000 as an immediate, one time 'donation' to the trust before admission is granted. The fees for attending a medical college would be even more extreme.

Conclusion:

Overall, Indian higher education is increasingly private and increasingly expensive, in spite of the growing state regulations regarding what can be charged and who can be admitted. The fact that spending on private education is evident in surveys of consumer spending but not in official education data means that capitation fees,

long made illegal, are alive and well.

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FERTILITY AND MORTALITY TRENDS OF MALAS IN THE SELECT MANDALS OF CHITTOOR DISTRICT, ANDHRA

PRADESH

Dr.Enamala Ramesh Babu Post Doctoral Fellow

Dept.of Anthropology SVU College of Sciences

S.V.University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh. India

ABSTRACT

Fertility is the actual reproductive performance of an individual or a group. fertility is determined by various social, cultural, economic and psychological factors. The fertility is low in the beginning, it reaches a peak in the middle and again declines at the end of the reproductive age. The Fertility and mortality trends of Malas in the Select Mandals of Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh have been measured. The GFR for Pokanati Mala is 105.43, while it is 146.03 for

Rampala Mala population. This indicates that on the whole the

Pokanati Mala. The present analyses of age-specific fertility rates indicate that on the whole the Pokanati Mala women’s total fertility in

the reproductive age yields to 2.75, i.e., 3 children, while it is 4.80 i.e., 5

children for the Rampala Mala women. Thus, TFR per woman

summarizes the pattern of fertility exhibited by ASFR and presents a single index of total fertility. Accordingly the infant mortality rate for

Pokanati population is 147.05 and it is 184.78 for Rampala Mala

population. Accordingly, the CMR for Pokanati Malas is 102.94 and for

Rampala it is 206.52. Again, in this index also, the Pokanati population

have the ability to survive better over Rampala Malas. The MMR for the all India stands at 440. While these rates are, however, minimum

in the present series of populations; 44 for Pokanati Malas and 76 for

Rampala Malas. Further, among the two populations the Pokanati

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Mala registered low MMR (44) than over Rampala (76). Among the

Pokanati women, the average number of live births per woman aged 40

years and above is 3.01 and its variance (VF) is 7.86, and for Rampala

Mala women these values are 6.12 and 13.62 respectively. The results

the mortality (Im) and fertility (If) components are 0.207 and 0.393 for

Pokanati women and 0.336 and 0.700 for Rampala women respectively

which give the index of selection intensity (I) as 0.655 for Pokanati and

0.936 for Rampala Mala population. It thus appears that the mortality component is lower than fertility component in both the populations. Thus, the index of total selection intensity (I) among both Mala

populations is more towards the lower half of the range (0.6-3.7) and

thus selection is acting with a moderate intensity. Bringing a

comparison between the two Mala populations, it is evident that the

Pokanati Mala has low fertility and mortality indices (0.393 and 0.207)

than the Rampala (0.700 and 0.336).

1.INTRODUCTION

Fertility and mortality are two important measures in human life and that are now being considered as important indicators for the development of a population or a nation. In the history of human life

there have been occurred atleast two important demographic transitions. The first transition was by limiting the death rates. With

this transition, there had been a boom in population growth. The

second transition was by limiting the fertility rates, thereby the

population growth has been checked. For controlling the death rates, the population of nation should progress in health measures. For

limiting the fertility rates, the population need to have several cultural, biological and medical stages. These stages bring a definite change in

the reproductive performance of couples, increase in surviving capacity

of offsprings, thus bringing biological and cultural well- being. India, consisting several heterogeneous populations, it is worthwhile to study these life aspects in greater detail and to understand the developmental

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measures of the population. Today is the era of modernity. Population

choose to have smaller families by limiting their fertility and increasing the survival capacity of the offsprings that they have possessed. Several developing nations have already formulated higher age for marriage and further propagating a family norm of two children. This

has brought a tremendous change in reproductive life of the couples. However, it is now interesting to study the processes of limited fertility

performance by studying the age at marriage, the age at first birth of

the child and the total number of children couples desire to plan and the age at which the couples undergo permanent sterilizations. In the

present study considerable care is taken to present these aspects sequentially by way of presenting their rates and ratios as there is a wide gap between the potential level of fertility (fecundity) and actual performance of the potentiality (actual fertility). In reality, we have to

rely upon the latter method for measuring the actual fertility performance. The measures of fertility rates and ratios help in

understanding the relation between the general conditions of the people and levels of fertility.

OBJECTIVES

1. To measure important fertility and mortality rates and ratios such as GFR, TFR, ASFR, IMR, CMR and MMR in both populations and compare the levels and differences to assess population development.

STUDY AREA

Malas are a big and extensive population which requires a team work to cover the entire population and is thus beyond the scope of the present study. The total population of Malas in Chittoor district is

presented in Table 1.

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Table 1 Population of Malas in Chittoor District

Year Males Females Total population

1971 2,03,204 1,95,935 3,99,139

1981 2,42,910 2,35,966 4,78,876

1991 3,05,199 2,94,317 5,99,516

2001 3,53,441 3,45,882 7,02,323

The present study aims at finding out the influence of socio-economic status of the population in its biological well-being. Thus, this problem has been taken up and studied in two sub-groups of larger Mala population namely, Pokanati and Rampala, who are socio-

economically contrast populations and found suitable for the present study. The spatial distribution of these sub-groups of Malas, has

therefore, been studied in three selected Tehsils of Chittoor district, namely, Chandragiri, Madanapalli and Chittoor.

SCHEDULED CASTES

MALA CASTE MADIGA

TELUGU MALA (SUB GROUPS) TAMIL MALA (TANGALA) (NO SUB GROUP) POKANATI RAMPALA REDDY BOOMULA GAMPASATI MALADASAH MALA MALA MALA MALA MALA

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5.1 Population Density

This is one good measure of population to describe its biological character in terms of its environment. The Pokanati Malas have moderately high density of population (235 per sq.km) over Rampala (205 per Sq.km). This speaks of the ecological advantage of the Pokanati Malas as they have good agricultural land holdings and as such the income generation is high over the Rampala Malas. This reflects on the distribution of the population with 235 individuals per Sq.km. Whereas, among Rampala Malas the density of the population is 205, lower than the Pokanati Mala. The Rampalas are more

agricultural labourers than possessers of land. The density of the population thus highlights not only the ecological measurement of population but also the economic conditions of them. The two populations differ significantly for the parameter The climate of Chittoor taluk is rather hot, while it is moderate and cool in

Chandragiri and Madanapalli. The Chittoor Tehsil lies between 130 2’

and 130 26’ 56” north latitudes and 780 53 ’7” and 790 19’ 10” east longitudes. The Chandragiri and Madanapalli lies between 130 27’ and

140 5’ north latitudes and 780 4’ 33” and 780 45’ east longitudes.

The plan was to study the demographic profile and its changing dimensions among two contrasting endogamous populations of the same large Mala population. The field work was divided into four

phases, covering the locale of the respective endogamous populations. In total 26 villages were surveyed randomly to cover 1500 couples (750 couples in each group) in eight Mandals of Chittoor district (Table 2).

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Table 2

List of Sample Villages and Sample Size of Pokanati and Rampala Malas

Sl.

No.

POKANATI RAMPALA

Name of the village

No. of couples studied

Name of the

village

No. of couples studied

1 Booragamanda 97 Jogivaripalli 47

2 Marathavaripalli 78 Sodam 98

3 Chinthamakulapalli 28 Kallur 62

4 Pullaiahgaripalli 52 Piler 59

5 Cherukuvaripalli 98 Kalikiri 88

6 Yerrathivaripalli 37 Papanaidupalli 42

7 Jogivaripalli 69 Marakuntavaripalli 43

8 Mannarpalli 98 Kommepalli 22

9 Vasanthapuram 62 Pallicheruvu 49

10 Ramapuram 24 Vaddivanicheruvu 67

11 Krishnapuram 38 Settivaripalli 42

12 Mamidiguntapalli 47 Irala 84

13 Maredupalli 22 Pakala 47

Total 13 Villages 750 Total 13 Villages 750

METHODOLOGY

Data Collection

On the basis of a pilot survey undertaken earlier with the interview method as a tool, an open ended questionnaire was

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developed for the study. The door to door survey was conducted using

the indirect and non-formal conversations not only with the primary informants, females, but also with the other members of her

household. Consequently, one did not have to rely entirely on the

memory of the informant for recording vital data relating to marriage, births and more particularly ages. Further, the questionnaire itself

was designed in such a way so that answers to various questions were cross-checked to remove inconsistencies, if any. For instance, we have

checked the off-hand reply of the subject regarding her age with four to five more answers as-age at marriage, duration of married life, age at

first birth and age at the last birth. The questionnaire included the

questions pertaining to demographic data such as age, sex, marital status, age at marriage, menarche, menopause, matrimonial distance, fertility and mortality date and use of birth control devices. The data thus, were collected by direct interview schedule method according to the serial number from each household following Roberts (1973), Johnson et al., (1969), Salazano and Freire-Maia (1970), Cavallisforza and Bodmer (1971), Mukherjee (1972 and 1974) and Rao (1976).

Statistical Formulae Used

Simple percentages, standard deviations (SDs), standard errors (SEs), co-efficient of Variations (CVs) have been calculated wherever necessary in order to gain insight into the distribution and quality of data, variance ratio tests (F-tests), t-values and z values have also been used for understanding the level of significance for the differences in qualitative and quantitative characteristics respectively. .

1) The socio-economic data in terms of occupation, income and education levels; frequency distribution of family types and family

size, age and sex composition and marital distribution.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General Fertility Rate (GFR)

Another important measure of fertility in the series, is the

general fertility rate (GFR). It presents a considerable improvement

over the CBR as it takes into account the age and sex composition of the population. The general fertility rate is calculated from the number

of live births in a year per 1000 women of child bearing age. Thompson

and Lewis (1965) defined that GFR is usually four to five times as high as the GBR in the same population because the women of child bearing age normally constitute one fourth to one fifth of the total population. Table 3 presents the values of general fertility rates for the two Mala

populations. The GFR for Pokanati Mala is 105.43, while it is 146.03

for Rampala Mala population. This indicates that on the whole the

Pokanati Mala women have limited number of live births over the Rampala Women during the current year.

Table 3

General Fertility Rate among Mala Women of Pokanati And Rampala

Population

Number of Women Aged 15-44

Number of

Live Births

General Fertility Rate

(GFR) z-value

Pokanati 630 68 105.43 2.5617*

Rampala 630 92 146.03

The two populations differ significantly for the parameter as the z-

value of it is 2.5617 which indicates 1% level of significance. However, the GFR is still a relatively unsophisticated guide to fertility taking no

account of the age pattern of fertility as it fails to give a fair picture of

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population growth because GFR cannot fully estimate the effects of variation in the proportion of women in the different phases of reproductive period and also does not count the marital status of women. The general fertility rate in some Andhra populations as well

some Indian data are given in table 4. Accordingly, the Mala

populations, Pokanati and Rampala, are in close agreement with earlier

studies on Mala and Madiga populations of Andhra Pradesh and differ from certain tribal populations.

Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

As the rate of child bearing is not uniform throughout all ages, the schedule of age specific fertility rates reveals the extent and pattern of age differentials. Thus, it is more accurate than the estimates of

CBR and GFR. This is due to the fact that only the women in the child

bearing age are considered here and not the whole populations, the

emphasis is being made to specific period of time in relation to live births and women. The age specific fertility rate is obtained by dividing

the number of live births for mothers of each cohort group by the number of women of that age and multiplying by 1000.

Table 4

General Fertility Rate (GFR) In Some Andhra Populations

S.No.

Population

Sample

size

General Fertility

Rate (CBR)

Source

1 Panta Kapu

200 70.67 P.Swaroop, 1983

2 Vysya 200 74.38 “

3 Muslim 200 102.41 “

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4 Mala 200 13s6.78 “

5 Chenchu 100 166.64 “

6 Madiga 100 138.12 “

7 Bestha 200 88.88 “

8 Kamma 200 76.67 “

9 Pattapu 200 89.43 “

10 Chakali 200 90.46 “

11 Reddi 500 73.86 C.Sudarsan

Reddy, 2002

12 Vodde 500 119.04 “

13 Mala : Pokanati

645 105.43 Present study

(2003)

14 Mala : Rampala

630 146.03 “

The age specific fertility rates of women of the two Mala populations, the Pokanati and Rampala, are given in table 5. A close

observation of these tables indicate that among Pokanati women the cohort groups 20-24 (230.77), 25-29 (161.54) and 30-34 (118.18) have

higher age specific fertility rates followed by 15-19 (31.58) and 35-39

(8.69) age cohorts. Whereas in Rampala Mala women the age-specific

fertility rates are higher in age-cohorts, 20-24 (284.62), 15-19 (189.47)

and 25-29 (161.54) followed by 30-34 (81.82), 35-39 (43.48) and 40-44

(40.00) age cohorts. Thus, the Total Fertility Rate for Pokanati Mala women is worked out to be 2753.80 while the same is 4805.58 for the

Rampala Mala women. Further, the TFR per woman is 2.75 for

Pokanati and 4.80 for Rampala. The present analyses of age-specific

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fertility rates indicate that on the whole the Pokanati Mala women’s

total fertility in the reproductive age yields to 2.75, i.e., 3 children, while it is 4.80 i.e., 5 children for the Rampala Mala women. Thus the

two populations differ significantly for the parameter (z-value : 0.7483). Thus, TFR per woman summarizes the pattern of fertility exhibited by

ASFR and presents a single index of total fertility.

Mortality Measures

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

Apart from CDR, the other important mortality measures are, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Child Mortality Rate (CMR) and Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR). Deaths occurring due to old age, disease and

accidents are all

Table – 5

Age Specific Fertility Rates of Ever Married Women Aged 15 - 44 For Pokanati And Rampala Mala Women

Age Grou

p

No. of Wome

n

No. of Live Births Age-Specific

Fertility Rate

Pokanati Rampala Pokanati

Rampala Tot

al M F Total M F

15-19 95 3 2 1 18 7 11 31.58 189.47

20-24 130 30 17 13 31 21 16 230.77 284.62

25-29 150 21 9 12 21 9 12 161.54 161.54

30-34 120 13 8 5 9 4 5 118.18 81.82

35-39 100 1 1 0 5 3 2 8.69 43.48

40-44 50 0 0 0 2 1 1 0.00 40.00

Total 645 68 37 31 92 45 47 550.76 800.93

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Pokanati

Total Fertility Rate = 550.76 x 5 = 2753.80

TFR per Woman = 2.75

Rampa

Total Fertility Rate = 800.93 x 6 = 4805.58 z-value : 0.7483*

TFR per Woman = 4.80

* Indicates 5% level of significance.

extraneous and not given attention to them. The IMR, CMR and MMR

are very useful population indices as they indicate the population’s life

conditions and thus their progress in the fields of socio-economy, education and health. The WHO is particular in getting these details

especially from developing and underdeveloped countries as they serve good indicators for the respective nations as well specific populations.

The infant mortality rates (IMR) among the Mala populations, Pokanati and Rampala are given in table 6. Accordingly the infant

mortality rate for Pokanati population is 147.05 and it is 184.78 for

Rampala Mala population. Out of 68 live births during the year of

investigation 10 infant deaths have occurred to Pokanati Malas and 17 infant deaths out of 92 live births among Rampala Malas. Thus, IMR

values indicate that Pokanati population have been experiencing lesser IMR than Rampala. The two populations differ significantly for the

parameter (z-value : 2.528). Comparing the IMR with values given for India as 74 (Mahadevan et al., 1999) the present series of Mala

population registered higher IMR rates than India and other countries (table 7).

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Child Mortality Rate (CMR)

This is another rate of mortality measure indicates the proportion of survival capacity of children belonging to the age-groups of 1- 4 years in relation to the number of live births during the year of investigation. The CMR for both Mala populations is given in table 8. Accordingly, the CMR for Pokanati Malas is 102.94 and for Rampala it

is 206.52. Again, in this index also, the Pokanati population have the

ability to survive better over Rampala Malas. The two populations

differ significantly for the parameter (z-value : 0.7178).

Table 6 Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)Among The Mala Populations

Population

Sample

size

No. of Live births

during the year

Infant deaths during

the year

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

z-value

Pokanati 3433 68 10 147.05 2.528*

Rampala 3288 92 17 184.78

* Indicates 1% level of significance

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Table – 7 Infant Mortality Since 1898 In Selected Countries

Country 1898-1902

1918- 1922

1956- 1960 1972 1980 2002

Group-I Sweden 98 65 17 11.7 9 Japan 155 172 36 13.0 9 Norway 88 - 20 13.8 9 Denmark 131 84 24 14.8 10 France 154 112 32 15.1 11 England & Wales

152 85 23 18.4 14

United States

162 85 26 19.2 13

Group-II USSR - - 81- 24.4 31 Hungary 204 - - 34.0 24 Spain 190 158 49 27.9 16 Italy 167 141 47 29.2 18 Argentina - - 61 58.0 45 Group-III Nigeria - - - 180 157 Kenya - - - 135 83 Mexico - - 76 69 70 Guatemala - - 95 92 76 India 200 212 198 139 134 Present study Mala : 1. Pokanati - - - - - 59

2. Rampala - - - - - 76

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Table 8 Child Mortality Rate (CMR) Among Mala Populations

Population

No. of Children in 1-4

Age group

No. of live births

during the year

No. of children

of 1-4 years dead

Child Mortality Rate (CMR)

z-value

Pokanati 427 68 7 102.94 0.7178*

Rampala 414 92 19 206.52

* Indicates 5% level of significance.

Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)

The MMR is an important measure of mortality which indicates the maternal deaths occurring at the time of deliveries. The MMR for

the all India stands at 440 (Mahadevan et al., 1999). While these rates

are, however, minimum in the present series of populations; 44 for

Pokanati Malas and 76 for Rampala Malas. Further, among the two populations the Pokanati Mala registered low MMR (44) than over

Rampala (76) (table 9). There is statistical significance for the

character as the two populations differ (z-value : 2.5853).

It is worthwhile to make note that the Pokanati Malas have altogether low values for all mortality measures over Rampala. This

situation leads us to conclude that the Pokanati Malas are progressive and a developing population. The maternal mortality rates for selected

countries are given in table 10.

Table – 9 Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) Among Mala Populations

Population No. of Deliveries

No. of Mothers

died MMR z-value

Pokanati 68 3 44 2.5853*

Rampala 92 7 76 * Indicates 1% level of significance.

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Table – 10 Maternal Mortality Since 1898 Of Selected Countries

Country Maternal deaths per 100000 live births

America 22 Kenya 82 Malavi 48 Nigeria 34 Senegal 35 Bangladesh 54 Bhutan 55 Pakistan 194 India 37

Present Study:

Mala : 1. Pokanati 44

2. Rampala 76

Source : Molnar Stephen, 1983, Human Variation.Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jerjey.

4.4.4.1 Bio-Demographic Implications of Differential Fertility and Mortality

Opportunity of Selection

The overall fertility and mortality measures are influenced by natural selection and the selection is operated through fertility and mortality indices. It is a fact that the fertility performance is depended

on overall mortality. Thus, high fertility in any populations means that

the population has already been experiencing high mortality. These

processes have mutual interaction and thus bring changes in the population and usually will have strong environmental influence. Selection is a major evolutionary factor brings about micro level changes first and then lead to macro level changes in the population. Selection is thus a measure of fitness of particular population in a

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particular environment in the ongoing patterns of fertility and mortality. Further, selection intensity is a measure of total potential of

the population. The Index of total selection, (I) and its fertility and

mortality components, (If) and (Im) have been calculated according to

Crow’s original method (1958). Crow’s total index has two components

– Index of selection due to differential mortality (Im) prior to reproductive age and If due to differences in fertility among women of completed reproductive period. The Index sets an upper limit of the

possibility of rate of change in the structure of a population by natural selection. The two indices Im and If, give an estimate of the relative

opportunity for the operation of natural selection. According to the

above formula the indices of mortality, fertility and total selection

intensity for both populations have been worked out and are given in table 11.

Table – 11 Opportunity Of Selection Among Mala Populations:

Pokanati And Rampala

Population Im If I

Pokanati 0.207 0.393 0.655

Rampala 0.336 0.700 0.936

Basic data on Fertility and Mortality of Mala Population

Population

Mothers’ aged 40 years

and above

Survivors

Upto 15 years of age

Live Births

N + Vf

Pokanati 350 1382 1624 3.01 7.86

Rampala 350 1558 2082 6.12 13.62

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Among the Pokanati women, the average number of live births

per woman aged 40 years and above is 3.01 and its variance (VF) is

7.86, and for Rampala Mala women these values are 6.12 and 13.62

respectively. The total number of live births (N2) to the women of all

ages in both the populations and the total number of premature deaths are, 1624 and 396 for Pokanati women and 2082 and 524 for Rampala

women. From these results the mortality (Im) and fertility (If)

components are 0.207 and 0.393 for Pokanati women and 0.336 and

0.700 for Rampala women respectively which give the index of selection

intensity (I) as 0.655 for Pokanati and 0.936 for Rampala Mala population. It thus appears that the mortality component is lower than

fertility component in both the populations. Thus, the index of total

selection intensity (I) among both Mala populations is more towards the lower half of the range (0.6-3.7) and thus selection is acting with a

moderate intensity. Bringing a comparison between the two Mala

populations, it is evident that the Pokanati Mala has low fertility and

mortality indices (0.393 and 0.207) than the Rampala (0.700 and

0.336). The Rampala women in particular have higher fertility

variance and also have experienced moderate mortality. The results of

this parameter indicates that the Pokanati women experience lower fertility rates than the Rampala women while the latter experience higher mortality rates of their offspring before reaching to the reproductive age. The results corraborate to the earlier finding that the pyramidical population structure of Rampala is due to large availability of children during 0-4 years; while the cylindrical population structure of Rampala is due to lower fertility rates in the initial years and mortality rates in later years of life span.

Indices of opportunity of selection of some Andhra and Indian populations are given in table-29. A close and detailed observation of

this table indicates that the total selection as observed in the present Mala population is moderate and are in agreement with many forward

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and backward populations. For most of the populations the selection

operates through mortality component. Only in populations who are

declared forward castes based on their socio-economic conditions and in whom the education and health are self assets, in such populations

selection operates through limited fertility with little variance in fertility. In the present series of populations, Pokanati is said to

maintain moderate Vf, i.e., little variation in progeny number due to

differential fertility.

CONCLUSION

The GFR for Pokanati Mala is 105.43, while it is 146.03 for

Rampala Mala population. This indicates that on the whole the

Pokanati Mala. The present analyses of age-specific fertility rates indicate that on the whole the Pokanati Mala women’s total fertility in

the reproductive age yields to 2.75, i.e., 3 children, while it is 4.80 i.e., 5 children for the Rampala Mala women. Thus the two populations differ

significantly for the parameter (z-value : 0.7483). Thus, TFR per

woman summarizes the pattern of fertility exhibited by ASFR and presents a single index of total fertility. Accordingly the infant

mortality rate for Pokanati population is 147.05 and it is 184.78 for

Rampala Mala population. Accordingly, the CMR for Pokanati Malas is

102.94 and for Rampala it is 206.52. Again, in this index also, the

Pokanati population has the ability to survive better over Rampala Malas. The two populations differ significantly for the parameter (z-

value : 0.7178). The MMR for the all India stands at 440. While these

rates are, however, minimum in the present series of populations, 44

for Pokanati Malas and 76 for Rampala Malas. Further, among the two

populations the Pokanati Mala registered low MMR (44) than over Rampala (76) (table 9). There is statistical significance for the

character as the two populations differ (z-value : 2.5853). Among the Pokanati women, the average number of live births per woman aged 40

years and above is 3.01 and its variance (VF) is 7.86 and for Rampala

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Mala women these values are 6.12 and 13.62 respectively. The

mortality (Im) and fertility (If) components are 0.207 and 0.393 for

Pokanati women and 0.336 and 0.700 for Rampala women respectively

which give the index of selection intensity (I) as 0.655 for Pokanati and

0.936 for Rampala Mala population. It thus appears that the mortality

component is lower than fertility component in both the populations. Thus, the index of total selection intensity (I) among both Mala

populations is more towards the lower half of the range (0.6-3.7) and thus selection is acting with a moderate intensity. Bringing a

comparison between the two Mala populations, it is evident that the

Pokanati Mala has low fertility and mortality indices (0.393 and 0.207)

than the Rampala (0.700 and 0.336).

References

1. Roberts, D.F. and B.Bonne. 1973. Reproduction and inbreeding among the Samaritans. Soc. Biol. 20, 64-70.

2. Johnson, F.E., Kensinger, K.M., Jantz, R.L. and Walker, G.F. 1969. The population structure of the Peruvian Cashinahua- demographic genetic and cultural inter-relationship. Human Biology, 41(1), 29-41.

3. Salzano, F.M. and Freire-Maia, N. 1970. Problems in Human Biology : Study of Brazilian populations. Wayne State Univ. Press, Detroit, USA, 112.

4. Cavalli – Sforza, L.L., and W.F.Bodmer. 1971. The Genetics of Human Populations. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

5. Mukherjee, D.P. 1972. Some recent trends in population genetics in India. In : Genetics and Our Health. ICMR Technical Report Series. 20, 234-242.

6. Mukarjee, D.P. 1974. Fourth Annual Report on the Genetic Studies in Relation to Fertility, ICMR Project, New Delhi.

7. Rao, Ramana and T. Aruna, 1976. Menarcheal age of Chenchu Women. Man in India, 56, 65-70.

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UNDERSTANDING OF EDUCATION WITH PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE

Dr. Ravitheja Tirumalasetty Dept of Philosophy

SV.University, Tirupati

The term “education” has its roots in the Latin term “educatum” which is a combination of the terms “E” and “Duco”. “E” means movement from inside to outside. “Duco” means developing. Accordingly, education means progressing of the potentialities of the individual from inner to outer. It is a process of making the inner

abilities of the student to become outward. The term “education” is also said to have been derived from another Latin term “educare” which means propulsion from ‘within’ to ‘without’. In this sense, education means bringing about a change for the better in the individual. Basing on its root meaning, the term education has been used in its wider and narrower senses. In its wider sense, education means the total transformation of the person. It implies an all round development of the student comprising the physical, mental and spiritual dimensions. It means inculcating the supreme values such as truth, beauty and goodness in the student. In its narrower sense, education means the progress of a person confined to physical and psychological growth. It means giving training to the student for his or her physical and mental well-being. It implies teaching some technique for earning a livelihood. It is learning a skill involving physical and

mental abilities. It is equipping the student for the struggle of life. Broadly speaking, the western type of education is narrower while the Indian type of education is wider. The former is called formal while the latter is called spiritual.

Education may be characterized both as an art and as a science. Education is an art in the sense that it brings about the artistic

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qualities in the student. It concentrates on improving the traits of personality. It aims at building the character of the student. The artistic dimension consists in its ability to develop cultural aspects in the pupil. And education is science in the sense that it concentrates on the objective approach to the problem of study. Education develops an attitude that is impartial and universal. It gives a framework that is essential for an experimental study. It provides a methodology for acquiring knowledge based on factuality and definiteness. Education as

a science seeks to provide causal relations and makes predictions based on them. The principles that education seeks as a science have a practical application. Thus, education as an art raises the individual to a higher level. As a science, education confines the individual to the materialistic level. As an art education is concerned with skill. And as science it is concerned with knowledge only. “It is evident from the above delineation that education can be called a science as well as an art. Skill in teaching cannot be derived merely from theoretical or verbal knowledge. It is only after long practice that an individual can acquire some skill. This skill is not derived from his knowledge but from the qualities of his personality and character and his ability in explaining new problems in ever changing situations in education. In this manner the educator is an artist but at the same time, he is also a scientist. He approaches all elements which enter the sphere of

teaching scientifically. He observes them, and on the basis of his observation he arrives at general principles which can help in making forecasts for future situations”1.

So, education is not exclusively a science. Nor is it exclusively an art. It is both a science and an art. It consist the aspects of both science and art. There is the science of education as well as the art of education. Education has a practical as well as theoretical dimension. It is possible to place the discipline of education in the category of both applied and theoretical sciences. It can both be a social science and a

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normative science. It can deal with the problems of the individual and the society. It can also deal with the norms of right education. Education as an art requires the objectivity of the physical sciences. It also requires the social aspect of the sciences like psychology. It also involves the value considerations of normative sciences like logic and ethics.

We have tried to understand the nature of education by considering it as a science and an art. We can also understand it

further by looking into the functions of education. Education encompasses the whole of our life. All that we acquire in the name of knowledge is possible through education only. It is through formal and informal education that we learn the skills and attitudes which require for our daily living. Process of education begins at an early stage in our life. When the child is born, he or she has no knowledge of the surroundings. But he acquires it through his senses and in relation to others. He learns many things just by observing others. Nature teaches many things and we learn various things by instinct. We form many of our habits naturally. But the natural process of learning is not enough. Learning by instinct is incomplete. Instinctual life does not make the human being fully developed. It confines us to the realm of the animals. So we as human beings require formal education. Formal education distinguishes human being from the animal kingdom. It

enables us to live in a society which is a group of individuals. It equips us to live in a civilized society. That is why the human beings have given immense importance to the system of education. Unlike other species, human beings have formulated the discipline called education. We have been trying to become more and more civilized through the process of education. We have been cultivating our faculties by means of education. We have also been sharpening our intellect to understand the secrets of Nature. We have also been nurturing our intuitive powers to understand our inward nature. Thus it is through education

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that we are trying became the civilized and cultured people. The process of education has a long history. It began in the primitive society and has been progressing to higher levels. The process of learning is continuous and ever new, since life itself is a never ending process. “To put it briefly, the individual’s character, personality, culture, thinking, common sense, skills, habits and even the other less significant things in life depend upon education. The importance of education in human life is thus evident”.2

Education has many functions to perform. Firstly, education contributes for the development of the natural abilities of a person.

Human being is born with certain natural abilities. Each one of us is endowed with certain innate qualities. Some are endowed with special kinds of talents also. But these abilities may not develop fully without a certain aid. There is a need for some kind of exercise for them to grow to their full potential. Education provides suitable conditions for the growth of such abilities. It gives the student appropriate opportunities for their manifestation. It provides the stimuli for an appropriate response of the student to the challenges of life. So the process of education involves putting various kinds of instruments at the disposal of the student. It should help the student to learn by using his senses and the mind. It should also help the students to improve his or her power of thinking by exposing them to different kinds of problems. Education improves the power of imagination through the medium of various kinds of skills and arts. It has to enhance the

student’s power of attention by using different kinds of techniques. The process of education involves teaching the student the ways and means of putting his faculties to proper use. It aims at the development of the power of imagination, concentration and observation. This process begins very early in the student’s life. The basic activities like eating, sleeping, walking and so on are taught to the child by the parents. The process of educating has its roots in the

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institution of family. Thus the function of education begins at an early stage of our life.

Besides shaping the child’s natural abilities an early age, education performs many other important functions in the life of the human being. Education develops the personality of the individual. Personality is an important aspect of the individual. It is our personality that determines our behavior. It is the basis of our choices and decisions. Personality is at the root of our adjustment with others.

It is also the basis of our attitudes to nature and objects. Personality forms the background of relationship with the whole environment around us. The nature of the individual is revealed through his or her personality. As is the personality so is the individual. And, as is the individual so is the society. Education therefore should centre round the development of good personality. No doubt personality development begins in the family itself. It is also shaped by the environment in which we live. This may be called an informal kind of personality development. But education should aim at the proper development of personality. The personality that education develops should be such that it creates a worthy human being. It should be conducive for the creation of good society also.

Education can accomplish the task of personality development by providing the student the opportunities to play, to work and to

think. It should train the student in the activities of community development and problem solving. Besides helping the student to improve the intellectual skills, it should help to improve the emotional aspect of his personality. It should also contribute to the progress of the social dimension of his or her personality. Social aspect of personality can be improved by exposing the student to good traditions and customs of a culture. Social control plays an import role in forming the social aspect of personality. Study of literature comprising the stories and lives of great men is one of the sources of personality

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development. Parents, teachers and even psychologists have a significant role in the development of good personality. “The teacher can take the assistance of the psychologist and also of the parents in ensuring a healthy development of personality. If the child does not develop a balanced personality, it can be said that his education is incomplete”.3

Another important function that education performs is character formation. It is said that character formation begins at an early age. The foundation of child’s character is laid in the infancy itself. The impressions about conduct and behavior take root in the

first few years of child’s life. These impressions will later on develop as the character. So we have to tackle the child at the very tender age itself. Non-formal education also contributes to character formation. Character is built more by the examples than the lectures. That is, the child learns more from the people around him than from the lessons taught in the school. The examples in the family, school and community play a greater role in character formation. Parents and teachers play a prominent role in building the character of the child. It is said that character is the organisation of various sentiments. Self-esteem and self-regard are the best sentiments which contribute to character formation. They form the foundation for character building. They are the spring board for the development character. Character is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong in behaviour. Education in the arts and humanities contributes a lot to building

character. Human values are the important source of character formation. Since character is a vital factor of our life, it is held that the development of good character is an important function of education. Building an excellent character in the child amounts to educating the child to a greater extent. It is said that the child is the father of the man. As is the child so will be the man. So formation of exemplary character in childhood is of utmost importance. This can be done by

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putting the child in a good social environment. “Socialization is an important factor in the development of a moral character. This is aided by story-telling, setting good examples and providing education of social life”.4

Preparing the child for the adult life is another function of education. That is, education should provide the student the means of livelihood. Economics is an important factor of our life. Money plays a dominant role in our well-being. Everything including the most essential items like water and air are commercialized. Earning money has become inevitable in life. Education has to equip the student with

knowledge and skill which would earn a decent livelihood. It has to give the student the ability to earn for his safe and secure life. Besides this, education has to prepare the pupil for a happy married and family life. The individual should be in a position to fulfill his obligations towards others also. That is, education has to make the individual to lead a good domestic and community life. Besides equipping with technical knowledge, education should also develop in the child a good character and personality. It should equip the child with the Excellency of both head and heart. “If education can perform this task, then men and women become highly responsible and useful citizens”.5

Education should make the student refined by controlling the instincts. Sublimation of the child’s basic instincts is an important aspect of education. We are born with certain instincts that are detrimental to moral growth. The student should be so educated that their instincts are ethical. The expression of instincts should be such that it does not hurt other. As we are inclined to live in groups,

education should teach the student to live in co-operation with others. The student should be trained to respect the freedom and dignity of others. Education is a process of awakening humanity in oneself. It is also a means of making the student to see humanity in other. Eradication of animal instincts in us should be one of the aims of

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education. Inculcation of the values like freedom, equality and fraternity goes a long way in establishing a good society. Civilized life would be impossible if the instincts such as aggressiveness, hatred and envy were not sublimated. Education helps in the sublimation and change of these instincts. Various kinds of arts can serve as the means of controlling them. Education in humanities helps the child to learn to control his instincts. The system of reward and punishment found in the family, college or society can also serve the purpose. Rules of

administration and the customs of social control also can help in this regard. Thus education can create the citizens who are responsible and duty bound. True citizens are those who are not the breakers of the law of the land. They always work for the nation’s welfare. They are not self-centred and short sighted. They have a long and broad vision of building the nation. They work for the eradication of the problems in the nation. True democracy is possible only when the citizens are properly educated. Respect for the Constitution and the values of the nation form an important part of citizenship. Education should create citizens who are aware of their station and its duties. This awareness can be created even through the medium of the mass media like radio, television and news papers.6

Besides the functions mentioned above, education should develop in the child a sense of community feeling and universal culture. Communities feeling with the culture of universal values are necessary for the creation a good citizen and good society. Making the student

economically independent is not enough. Providing the student with a job is not the ultimate aim of education. So also making the individual civilized is not the sole aim of education. Living a life of sophistication using the modern gadgets is not the end of education. Education should create in the student a sense of concern for others. The student should be taught to work for others who are deprived of the essential things in life. So also the student should learn to live a life based on

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the cultural values like truth, beauty and goodness. Social welfare, national development and protection of eternal values should be an important part of education.

Education should increase the awareness of the value of other cultures. Respect for other cultures reduces conflict among cultures and increases harmony among them. Thus education can lay a foundation for one world and one humanity. It can also eradicate the war- like situation in the world. It can reduce the arms race which has

been eating away the vitals of the economy of every nation. Global feeling cutting across nationalism and patriotism is the need of the hour. International approach is required for the removal of the problems of poverty, hunger, environmental degradation and so on. So education with a global approach can establish a world of peace and plenty. The function of education is not the creation of the economic globalization of the markets but spiritual globalization of the emotional unity of all humanity. “As a result of the unprecedented improvements in the means of transport and communications, people of different nations are constantly coming into contact with each other. All kinds of people are also realizing the importance of internationalism, after having witnessed the havoc caused by the recent world wars. All contemporary educationists in India, including Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore, Swami Vivekananda have stressed the

importance of creating this feeling of internationalism in all educands. In the present context, therefore, one of the main tasks of education is to generate this sense in the student community”.7

In order to further understand the nature and aim of education it is necessary to inquire into the philosophy of education. Philosophy of education aims at the understanding of the philosophical foundations of education. Philosophy in the western sense is the love of wisdom. It is a constant search for more and more reasonable knowledge. It is a critical analysis of the given knowledge and improving upon it by

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further inquiry. Philosophy thus involves several methods of arriving at truth. It also involves various areas of philosophical inquiry. The methods are deduction, induction, analysis and synthesis. Besides these methods there is another important method known as dialectical method. The dialectical method may be idealistic or materialistic. Deductive method is deriving a conclusion from a premise. The conclusion is particular whereas the premise is universal. Deduction is strictly logical for it follows the rules of thought. It is otherwise known

as syllogism. Inductive method is the opposite of deduction. In it, a universal conclusion is derived from a several particular premises. This method is mostly used in sciences. Unlike the deductive method which is rational, the inductive method is experimental. The former is based on reason whereas the latter is based on experience. Analytical method is a process of distinction between different elements of a particular issue. Synthetic method is a process of connecting together the scattered elements in a particular experience. The synthesis brings into focus the new facts about the issue. Dialectical method is the movement of inquiry in triads, namely, thesis, antithesis and synthesis. In the dialectical process a thesis becomes its antithesis. The thesis and antithesis become the synthesis. Synthesis is the combination of the best elements of the thesis and antithesis.8

Besides these methods, philosophy comprises of three more methods of inquiry. They are the correspondence theory, the coherence theory and the pragmatic theory. Correspondence theory says that a

proposition is true when its meaning corresponds to the facts existing in the real world. For example, the statement ‘Today is Sunday’ is true only when it is uttered on a Sunday. It is false on all other occasions. This theory is advocated by the realist philosophers. They hold that ideas should be verified by sense experience and “correspond to concrete, physical existence”.9 According to coherence theory, a

statement is true only when it is in agreement with other statements of

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a system. In order to be true, the statement should fit into the whole system of which it is a part. A part is meaningful only when it is in coherence with the system. This theory is held by the idealist philosophers. They say that “an idea is true when it is consistent with the existing and accepted body of truth”.10 And according to

pragmatism, an idea or a statement is true only when it is expedient or useful. Utility is the criterion of truth in pragmatism. To be true or meaningful, an idea should be able to serve the purpose. It should act as an instrument for attaining some practical end. A meaningful idea is one which is tried in practice. William James says that ideas are true in

so far as they help us to get into satisfactory relation with other parts of experience. John Dewey says that “a thought must be regarded as the instrument which is employed in finding a solution to the problems encountered in the course of living”.11

Philosophy comprises not only the methods but also the branches like metaphysics, epistemology, logic, axiology and ethics. Depending upon the nature of the problems with which it deals philosophy is called either metaphysics or epistemology and so on. Metaphysics is the study of the problems relating to the existence of the world, mind and soul. It is concerned with the issues which are beyond the purview of physics. It deals with the existence of death, life beyond death, causality, space and time. In brief, metaphysics discusses the three aspects of Reality, viz. the world, the self, and the God. Epistemology is a theory of knowledge. It deals with the nature of knowledge and the means of arriving at it. It provides conditions for knowledge to be valid. Logic is concerned with the rules of correct

thinking. “It studies the structure of thought, its laws and fallacies”.1 Axiology is concerned with value. As the science of value, it

investigates into the nature of the art and beauty. Aesthetics is the main branch of Axiology which inquires into the issues of creativity and the criteria of judging beauty. Ethics is the study of right conduct. Like

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logic and aesthetics, ethics is also a normative science. It is concerned with the norms of right conduct. It deals with the problems of what is good, freedom, duty and responsibility. “Ethics also discusses the ultimate good and explains rights and duties in its light”.13

Philosophy of education consists in applying the methods of philosophy in the field of education. The educator should utilize the deductive, inductive and other kind’s methods in arriving at knowledge relating to education. The teacher must be clear about the kind of method he or she is using in learning or teaching. So also education is intimately related to the branches of philosophy like metaphysics,

epistemology, and logic and so on. The metaphysical problems like what is reality, mind and matter have significant implications for education. The methods and the conception of truth advanced by these metaphysical theories form a basis for the theories of education. Epistemological theories dealing with the nature and means of knowledge have a profound bearing on education.14 similarly; logic also

serves the purpose of educating the student in a significant way. As the basis of right knowledge, logic gives the student and the teacher ability to think correctly. Educator has to be fully aware of the laws of valid thought. The avoidance of fallacies in thinking and theories is possible only when the teacher is fully equipped with logical attitude. Aesthetics forms an important part of education. The student has to be taught the way of appreciating beauty in arts like music, dance, poetry and painting. Education is incomplete without a sense of beauty. Aesthetics is the basis of all literary and artistic criticism. “As literature and art contribute significantly to education, the value of

aesthetics in education is clear”.15

And ethics which is an important branch of Philosophy forms an

integral part of education. As it has already been mentioned inculcation of moral values is an important aim of education. Character building is an essential ingredient of the process of

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education. As the sciences of character, ethics analyses the psychology of moral consciousness. It prescribes the norms for right conduct. The educator should be aware of the factors involved in determining the character of an individual. He should be in a position to create the individual who is excellent not only in technical skills but also in behaviour. He should teach the student the science of good which deals with “what ought to be done and what ought not to be done”.16

Philosophy of education is essentially a method of approaching the problems of education. It is not a body of conclusions but a specific method which makes education philosophical. Philosophy of education

is the critical analysis of the general theory of education. It comprises of critical evaluation and synthetic reflection of the ideas of education. It is both an analysis and synthesis of the facts, methods and values of education. It is also a philosophical way of dealing with the problems of education. It is arriving at the theories of education philosophically. It is evaluating the results found in education by applying philosophical methods and theories. Philosophy of education deals with the aims and ideals of education. Its scope includes investigation into the issues like the place of school, the role of teacher, the nature of curriculum and values. It is also concerned with the relationship between the individual, the citizen and the society. In this process, it critically examines the prevailing systems of education and modifies them. It may also create new systems and methods of education relevant to the salvation of the contemporary problems. In this sense, philosophy of

education is not only a critical but a constructive approach to the problems of education. Its approach is not only deductive and analytical but also comprehensive and synthetic. It contributes to a synthesis of the various aims and ideals of education. “Thus, philosophy of education is an important branch of applied philosophy. Of the three divisions of philosophy, metaphysics, epistemology and axiology, philosophy of education falls in the third. It is, therefore, mainly

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concerned with educational values. As a branch of philosophy it utilizes philosophical methods for the solution of philosophical problems with philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions. In this comprehensive process it includes facts concerning education and synthesizes them with values”.17

References

1. Ram Nath Sharma, Text Book of Educational Philosophy, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 2000, p. 15.

2. Ibid., p.17.

3. Ibid., p.19.

4. Ibid., p.18.

5. Ibid., p.20.

6. Ibid., p.21.

7. Ibid., p.24.

8. Ibid., pp.34-35.

9. Namita Roy Chowdhury, On Philosophical Perspectives of Education, A.P.H. Publishing House, New Delhi, 1999, p. 28.

10. Ibid., p. 15.

11. Ibid., p.44.

12. Ibid., p.42.

13. Ibid., p. 43.

14. Ibid., pp. 53-64.

15. Ibid., pp. 68-69.

16. Ram Nath Sharma, Op.Cit., p. 67.

17. Ibid., p.74.

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EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Dr. B.V.Srinivasa Rao Faculty Member of English

Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya Peddapuram E.G.Dt

Abstract

It is an attempt to explain clearly that communication competence is the ability to relate to others with accuracy, clarity, comprehensibility, coherence, expertise, effectiveness and appropriateness. It is a measure of determining to what extent the goals of interaction are achieved. It explains clearly about various means, varieties and methods of communication. It also mentions various actions, dos and donts for effective communication.

Key Words: Communication, lexeme, grammar, dialect, Esperanto,

verbal and non-verbal means of communication, prosody, web design, repertoire of skills, communicology, skimming, scanning.

Introduction

Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender’s intent to communicate at the time of communication. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the sender.

Human Communication

Human spoken and picture languages can be described as a system

of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word “language” also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for

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symbols which enable communication with others around them. There is no defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

A variety of verbal and non-verbal means of communication exists such as body language, eye contact, sign language, paralanguage, haptic communication, chronemics, and media such as pictures, graphics,

sound and writing.

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the communication to include the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, large print, accessible multimedia, as well as written and plain language human reader and accessible information and communication technology.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Research shows that the majority of our communication is non verbal, also known as body language includes gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact. Non-verbal communication is also called silent language and plays a key role in human day to day life from employment relations to romantic engagements.

Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as para-language. These include voice quality, emotion and speaking style as well as

prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts include non-verbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of emotions to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.

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Visual communication

Visual communication is the conveyance of ideas and information through creation of visual representations. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes – signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colours and electronic resources, video and TV. Recent research in the field had focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in their professional practice.

Oral Communication

Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, typically relies on words, visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of the meaning. Oral

communication includes discussion, speeches, presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face communication the body language and voice tonality plays a significant role and may have a greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words.

A great presenter must capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For example, out of two persons telling the same joke one may greatly amuse the audience due to his body language and tone of voice while the second person, using exactly the same words, bores and irritates the audience. Visual aid can help to facilitate effective communication and is almost always used in presentations for an audience.

A widely cited and widely misinterpreted figure used to emphasize the importance of delivery states that “communication comprises 55%

body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words”, the so-called “7%-38%-55% rule”.

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Written communication and its historical development

Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through progression of technology. Advances include communications psychology and media psychology; an emerging field of study. Researchers divide the progression of written communication into three revolutionary stages called “Information Communication Revolutions”.

During the first stage written communication first emerged through the use of pictographs. The pictograms were made in stone; hence written communication was not yet mobile. During the second stage, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax etc. Common

alphabets were introduced and allowed for the uniformity of language across large distances. A leap in technology occurred when the Gutenberg printing-press was invented in the 15th century.

Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonal procession, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures and evaluating, enables collaboration and cooperation.

Barriers to successful communication include message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message complexity.

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules_

Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols)

Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between

signs/expressions and their users) and

Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and

what they represent).

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Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores auto communication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talks, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competencies within social interactions.

Communication as academic discipline

Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called “communicology”, relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication

discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are narrower, only including human beings within the different parameters of human symbolic interaction.

Types of Communication

People in managerial roles have many opportunities to communicate

with others. Communication can be classified in the following different ways.

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a) Intrapersonal Communication – When people talk to themselves,

communication takes place within the brain. It embraces their thoughts, experiences and perceptions during a communication event. Behavior responses on all other levels of communication essentially begin on intrapersonal level. On this level, the individual forms personal rules and patterns of communication. Intrapersonal communication encompasses-

* Sense-making e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols

*Interpreting non-verbal communication e.g. gestures, eye contact

*Communication between body parts; e.g. “My stomach is telling me

it’s time for lunch.”

*Day-dreaming

*Nocturnal dreaming and

*Many others…

b) Interpersonal Communication – Interpersonal communication is

also referred to as dyadic communication or communication between to individuals. This type of communication can occur in both a one-on-one and a group setting. This also means being able to handle different people in different situations and making people feel at ease. Gesturers such as eye contact, body movement, and hand gesture are also part of interpersonal communication. The most common functions of interpersonal communication are listening, talking and conflict resolution. Types of interpersonal communication vary from verbal to non-verbal and from situation to situation. Interpersonal communication involves face-to-face communication in a way that accomplishes the purpose and is appropriate.

c) Small Group Communication – Small group communication is an interaction process that occurs among three or more people interacting

in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face

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or through mediated forms. This is sometimes included in the interpersonal level – the most obvious difference is the number of persons involved in the process. The small group may be a family of three talking at supper, or a meeting of an organization with just a few members.

d) Public Communication or Public Speaking – The speaker

sends messages to an audience, which is not identified as individuals. Unlike the previous levels, the speaker is doing most, if not all, of the talking.

e) Mass Communication – Mass communication occur when a small

number of people send messages to a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience using specialized communication media. It

represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous audience through the media.

f) Non-Verbal Communication – In non-verbal communication,

people and messages to each other without talking. They communicate through facial expressions, head positions, arm and hand movements, body posture and positioning of legs and feet. How people use “space” also transmits a message.

By being aware of non-verbal communication, one can interpret the signals of others, or send signals to others. Awareness of non-verbal communication helps people-

Project an image of confidence and knowledge.

Demonstrate power or influence

Express sincerity, interest and co-cooperativeness.

Create trust

Recognize personal tension in self and others.

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Identify discrepancies between what people are saying and what

they are actually thinking.

Change behavior and environment to encourage productive

discussion.

Three Myths about Communication

Myth One – Communication is the magical cure for all our woes –a Panacea.

Myth Two – Communication can break down (here can be a difference of opinion about communication cannot break down, machines break down)

Myth Three- Communication is merely skill building. Communication is a complex process that must be taken and understood as whole.

Methods of Communication

Communication occurs in an organization in the context of people trying to fulfill one or several of the following six needs-

*To feel respected

*To give or get information

*To be empathically understood and respected

*To cause change of action

*To create excitement and reduce boredom

*To avoid something unpleasant, like silence or confrontation

The methods used by them to fulfill those needs include listening, speaking, reading and writing.

1. Listening- Various studies stress the importance of listening as a

communication skill. They point out that many of us spend 70 to 80 percent of our waking hours in some form of communication. Of that

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time, we spend about 9 percent writing, 16 percent listening, 30 percent speaking and 45 per cent listening. Studies also confirm that most of us are poor and inefficient listeners. Most people listen at an efficiency level of less than about 25 percent. Studies also show that, immediately after listening to a 10-minute oral presentation, the average listener has heard, understood, properly evaluated, and retained only half of what was said. Management Guru Stephen Covey differentiates listeners as those listening with the intent to reply, and those listening

with the intent to understand. Because, listening is so vital to workplace success.

2. Speaking – By age sixteen, Washington had copied out by hand 110

rules of Civility & Decent Behaviour in Company and Conversation. They are based on a set of rules composed by French Jesuits in 1595. They all have in common a focus of our own self-interests that we find so prevalent today. Fussy or not, they represent more than just manners. These rules proclaim respect for others and in turn give people the gift of self respect and heightened self-esteem. When it concerns the manners of speaking, some relevant rules of civility that can be drawn from Washington’s book are –

* be considerate of others. Do not embarrass others.

*Don’t draw attention to yourself.

*When you speak, be concise.

*When a person tries his/her best and fails, do not criticize him/her.

*When you must give advice or criticism, consider the timing, whether

it should be given in public or private and the manner and above all be gentle.

*Do not make fun of anything important to others.

*If you criticize someone else of something, make sure you are not guilty of it yourself. Actions speak louder than words.

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*Do not detract from others not be overbearing in giving orders.

*Do not go where you are not wanted. Do not give unasked-for advice.

*Do not be quick to talk about something when you don’t have all the facts.

*Do not speak badly of those who are not present.

Show interest in others conversation, but don’t talk with your mouth full.

While manners of speech matters a great deal in defining the

workplace relationships, it is also essential that managers keep in mind that the following ground rules while speaking to their colleagues or subordinates.

*Keep the message clear.

*Be prepared

*Keep the message simple

*Be vivid when delivering the message

*Be natural

*Keep the message concise.

3.Reading- Good reading habits and strategies help managers handle

their tasks more efficiently. Kellie Fowler (Reading Strategies – Mind Tools) offers the following six reading strategies to managers for optimal results-

*Knowing what is needed to be known, and reading appropriately.

*Knowing how deeply to read the document – skimming, scanning or studying.

*Using active reading techniques to pick out key points and keeping the mind focused on the material.

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*Using the table of contents for reading magazines and newspapers and clipping useful articles.

*Understanding how to extract information from different article types

*Creating a table of contents for reviewing material.

*Using indexes, tables of contents and glossaries to help assimilate technical information.

4.Writing- Crisp and correct writing is essential to successful

leadership communication. When a letter, report, or program handout includes an error, readers are likely to remember the error rather than the message. The following are some of the principles that we must

bear in mind while setting out to write.

*Proof-read aloud everything. By reading aloud, your ear will catch mistakes your eye misses.

*Make no assumptions. The ideas you are presenting must be explained in full to be understood. People read only what is on the page.

*Do not lecture. Write only what must be understood to make the proper decision or choice.

*Rough draft all important letters and reports. Check them for content, sequential development of ideas, and conciseness.

*Always put yourself in the “other person’s shoes” and ask yourself, “Would I want to read this letter or report? Why? Does it say something of value and real importance to me?”

*Many people are too busy to read carefully. Be sure your ideas are

clear and easy to follow. As a general rule, the most effective manner in which to develop an idea is – Concept Benefit Example Data.

*Define all “terms” and eliminate vague pronouns. These two traps cause more problems in writing than any other set of conditions.

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*Grammar, punctuation and spelling should be perfect. Use a dictionary – either a good unabridged volume or the “spelling checker version on your computer.

*Plan your time to allow for proofreading and correcting. When your success depends upon the quality of your letters and reports, there are no excuses for ineptitude.

Seven Actions for Effective Communication

Communication skills expert Dennis Rivers – author of the popular “The Seven Challenges-A Workbook and Reader about Communicating More Cooperatively” – proposes the seven following actions as essential

for effective interpersonal skills.

Action 1. Listen more carefully and responsively. Listen first and

acknowledge what you hear, even if you don’t agree with it, before expressing your experience or point of view. In order to get more of your conversation partner’s attention in tense situations, pay attention first; listen and give a brief restatement of what you have heard (especially feelings) before you express your own needs or position.

Action 2. Explain your conversational intent and invite consent. You

can help your conversation partners cooperate with you and reduce possible misunderstandings by starting important conversations with a stated invitation to join you in the specific kind of conversation you want to have. The more the conversation is going to mean to you, the more important it is for your conversation partner to understand the big picture.

Action 3. Express yourself more clearly and completely. Slow down

and give your listeners more information about what you are experiencing by using a wide range of “I-statements.”

Action 4. Translate your (and other people’s) complaints and

criticisms into specific requests, and explain your requests. In order to

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get more cooperation from others, whenever possible, ask for what you want by using specific, action-oriented, positive language rather than by using generalizations.

Action 5. Ask questions more “open-endedly” and more creatively.

“Open-endedly…” in order to coordinate our life and work with the lives and work of other people, we all need to know more of what other people are feeling and thinking, wanting and planning. But our usual “yes/no” questions actually tend to shut people up rather than opening them up. In order to encourage your conversation partners, to share more of their thoughts and feelings, ask open-ended” rather than

“yes/no” questions. Open-ended questions allow for a wide range of responses. For example, asking “How did you like that food/movie/speech/doctor etc?” will evoke a more detailed response than “Did you like it?” which could be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”.

Action 6. Express your appreciation. To build more satisfying

relationships with the people around you, express more appreciation, delight affirmation, encouragement and gratitude. Because life continually requires us to attend to problems and breakdowns, it gets very easy to see in life only what is broken down needs fixing. But satisfying relationships (and a happy life) require us to notice and respond to what is delightful, excellent, and enjoyable, to work well done, to food well cooked, etc. It is appreciation that makes a relationship strong enough to accommodate differences and disagreements. Thinkers and researchers in several different fields have reached similar conclusions about this – healthy relationships need a core of mutual appreciation.

Action 7. Make better communication an important part of your everyday life. In order to have your new communication skills available

in a wide variety of situations, you will need to practice them in as wide a variety of situations as possible, until, like driving or bicycling, they

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become “second nature”. The seventh action is to practice your evolving communication skills in everyday life, solving problems together, giving emotional support to the important people in your life, and enjoying how you are becoming a positive influence in your world. This action includes learning to see each conversation as an opportunity to grow in skill and awareness, each encounter as an opportunity to express more appreciation, each argument as an opportunity to translate your complaints into requests, and so on.

One deeper level of this seventh step concerns learning to separate you from the current culture of hatred, animosity and violence and learning how to create little islands of cooperation and mutuality.

Some DOs of Effective Communication

1. Analyze the issue at hand thoroughly before developing a plan.

2. Identify the role of communication in an early stage.

3. Know the target groups and stakeholders.

4. Define communication targets.

5. Identify partners and intermediaries.

6. Always pre-test.

7. Evaluate results.

8. Define the medium for the message.

9. Establish a budget

10. Think creatively.

Some DONTs of Effective Communication

1. Don’t only send, listen.

2. Don’t jump to means

3. But don’t over focus on strategies either.

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4. Do not disregard communication barriers.

5. Do not overestimate the potential of communication.

6. Do not underestimate the potential of communication.

References :

1. Dennis Rivers : The Seven Challenges – A workbook and Reader about Communicating More Cooperatively.

2. Kelly Fowler : Reading Strategies – Mind Tools 3. Dan Bobinski : The Seven Deadly Sins of( Not) Listening . 4. Canary and Cody : Interpersonal Communication. 5. 5. Cegala D.J : Interaction Involvement – A Cognitive Dimension of

Communicative Competence, Communicative Education.

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ADAPTATION OF OUTCOME BASED LEARNING FOR COMMERCE TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATORS

Dr. Anshu Radha Aggarwal

Principal KIIT college of Education

Sohna Road,Gurgaon

Abstract :

Recent years, Outcome-Based Learning (OBL) has gained increasing prominence in many parts of the world. A key concept of OBL is that

teaching should be driven by outcomes that are desirablefor students and that greater clarity in relation to what is to be achieved simply involves adjusting teaching and assessment. This is a sample plan on commerce teaching for commerce teachers and teacher educators on Outcome-Based Learning in the Education Department at the KIIT group of institution, and an OBL adaptation framework that has been developed. First, a set of Programme. Educational Objectives (PEOs)are developed, second, Programme Learning Outcomes( PLOs) for the Bachelor of Education (Commerce) Programme are introduced. Third,design of Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) in the programme are discussed. Fourth, the alignment of teaching and assessment strategies with learning outcomes are illustrated through a sample course.Fifth curriculum mapping done for continuous improvement in teaching and learning It is hoped that this paper will inspire some

reflection on how effective teaching and learning among commerce perspective teacher students in teacher training education institutions can be achieved through an outcome-based learning approach.

Keywords: Outcome-Based Learning, Programme Learning Outcomes,

Course Learning Outcomes, commerce education programme, Curriculum Mapping.

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OUTCOME-BASED LEARNING: THEORY AND PRACTICE

William Spady, the leading advocate of OBE, introduced his model of curriculumplanning into the U.S.A. some 30 years ago. He (Spady, 1994, p.1) defines OBE as a processof “clearly focusing and organizing everything in an educational system around what isessential for all students to be able to do successfully at the end of their learning experiences.This means starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do,then organizing the curriculum, instruction and assessment to make sure this learningultimately happens.” To Dejager&Nieuwenhuis (2005), outcome-based education

is alearner-centred, results-oriented approach to education. In contrast to traditional methods, theOBE model defines learning not by what students have been taught, but by what learningoutcomes they are able to demonstrate. As Finn (1990) explains, under the new definition,education is the result achieved through an effective learning process.

STRUCTURE OF OBL

OBL structure has been designed in such a way that learning outcomes have beendeveloped at three different levels – the Institute level, the programme level, and the course level. At the Institute level programme objectives(PO)were developed first. The PO’s represent the Institute’s expectations for all prespective teachers of the varied programmes they undertake and articulate various generic abilities encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes and dispositions. These POs guide the development of Programme Learning Outcomes (PLOs) for each degree programme, and the PLOs then further guide the

development of Course LearningOutcomes (CLOs)

What are Programme Learning Outcomes?

Programme Learning Outcomes (PLOs) are statements of what graduates from a particular university degree programme should be

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able to do.They represent the knowledge, skills and dispositions we intend graduates to possess as a result of undertaking the programme. Consequently, they provide the basis for developing a coherent set of teaching and learning activities that will assist students in their learning.In higher education, Programme Learning Outcomes are often derived from a vision of a notional, ideal graduate and are determined by faculty in the programme area in consultation with other stakeholders such as employers, experts in the field, and accrediting

and professional bodies. They should state clearly and concisely how students may demonstrate their mastery of programmegoals They are necessarily broader than those at the course level. PLOs provide a common language for staff to discuss intended student achievement.According to Eames (2003), PILOs must address a number of questions, for example,the kind of knowledge, skills, abilities and dispositions that an ideal graduate should demonstrate upon completion of a programme, the ways these capabilities are to be demonstrated, the pre-requisite preparatory courses that are needed for students to do well onthe programme, and the types of assessments that can be used to demonstrate growth instudents’ knowledge, skills, abilities and dispositions.

Developing Course Learning Outcomes (PLOs)

A course learning outcome is a statement of what the learner is expected to be able to do upon successful completion of a particular course in order to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding, skills

and/or competences (Bowe & Fitzmaurice, n.d.). CILOs provide clear guidance for the planning and development of the teaching process (Biggs,2003). When drafting CILOs, we need to make sure that all the outcomes are assessable, and they assist students to achieve the Programme Learning Outcomes. Over a sustained period of time, students can develop increasingly sophisticated understandings that move them towards attainment of the Programme Learning Outcomes.

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When we are designing learning outcomes for a course, we might ask ourselves the following questions: What do we particularly value about our course? What kind of knowledge is to be involved? What level of understanding desirable for students to achieve and how is it to be displayed? George Brown College developed a set of ‘Guidelines to the Development of Standards of Achievement through Learning Outcomes’ (College Standards and Accreditation Committee, 1994). These guidelines cover aspects such as stating clear expectations,

representing culminating performances of learning and achievement, describing performances that are significant, essential, and verifiable, not dictating curriculum content, reflecting equity and fairness, and representing the minimal acceptable level of performance that a student needs to demonstrate in order to be considered successful

Curriculum Mapping

Curriculum mapping is an assessment method which is used to determine where, when, and how learning outcomes are taught and assessed within a degree program. It provides an effective strategy for articulating, aligning and integrating learning outcomes across a sequence of courses, and explicitly identifying to students, instructors, administrators and external stakeholders how student learning outcomes are delivered within a degree program (Uchiyama and Radin, 2009; Kopera-Frye et al., 2008; Bath et al., 2004). Curriculum mapping provides an opportunity for instructors to reflect upon and have meaningful discussions about the curriculum and to engage in broader

discussions related to teaching and learning within their discipline (Kopera-Frye et al., 2008).mapping provides an important opportunity to evaluate what has been intended and delivered in the program, it is equally important to evaluate what learning is actually experienced by students.

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• How much has this course contributed to the following skills and outcomes? • Which of these outcomes do you feel has had the greatest/least amount of time spent on it in this course? • Which of these outcomes do you feel you developed to the highest/lowest level of sophistication in this course? • Is there any outcome mentioned that was not covered, that you felt should have been covered? Comparing the views of student and faculty perceptions allowed for better alignment and validation of the curriculum. The instructors

collaboratively developed an improved view of the program by identifying the program strengths, mapping the unintended positive learning outcomes into the existing courses, and developing strategies to deal with gaps between intentions and students’ experience of the curriculum

Assessing and Evidencing Learning Outcomes

Assessing and evidencing learning outcomes are inherently complex tasks that are best approached through a comprehensive process, involving multiple methods and stakeholders (Green et al., 2009). When implemented effectively, learning outcomes assessment can provide evidence of student learning and progression, and prioritize recommendations for continuous curriculum improvement (Cummings et al., 2008.

Any system seeks to provide a framework within which teachers and schoolscan choose and plan experiences that they think children should have. In orderto realize education objectives, the curriculum should be

conceptualized as astructure that articulates required experiences. For this, it should address somebasic questions:

(a) What educational purposes should the schools seek to achieve?

(b) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to achievethese purposes?

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(c) How can these educational experiences be meaningfully organized?

(d) How do we ensure that these educational purposes are indeed beingaccomplished?

The review of the National Curriculum Framework, 2000 was initiatedspecifically to address the problem of curriculum load on children. A committeeappointed by the Ministry of Human Resource Development in the early 1990shad analysed this problem, tracing its roots to the system’s tendency to treatinformation as knowledge. In

this report, learning Without Burden, the Committeepointed out that learning at school can not become a joyful experience unless wechange our perception of the child as a receiver of knowledge and move beyondthe convention of using textbooks as the basis for examination

The Quality Dimension

The issue of quality presents a new range of challenges. The quality dimensionalso needs to be examined from the point of view of the experiences designed forthe child in terms of knowledge and skills.The representation of knowledge in textbooks and other materials needs to be viewed from the larger perspective of the challenges facing humanity andthe nation today. No subject in the school curriculum can stay aloof fromthese larger concerns, and therefore the selection of knowledge proposed to beincluded in each subject area requires careful examination in terms of socioeconomic and cultural conditions and goals. Meeting this challenge implies that we make quality and social justice the central theme of curricular reform.A clear orientation

towards values associated with peace and harmoniouscoexistence is called for. Quality in education includes a concern for quality oflife in all its dimensions. This is why a concern for peace, protection of the environment and a predisposition towards social change must be viewed as corecomponents of quality, not merely as value premises

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Lesson Planning & Preparation

Lesson planning is one of the most important component of all teacher trainingprogrammes. as teachers have to transact the curriculum in a given period oftime which is spread over different terms, weeks, days, and periods. Every dayteacher completes some content and the task becomes focused if he prepares his lesson or plans out the various teaching points, content, teaching methodology,Teaching –aids or instructional material. What kind of techniques he/she willapply in the class room for continuous evaluation, recapitulation or what kind of activities can be designed to introduce & develop the context. The

innovativehome assignments can also be planned in advance so that the class-room teachingbecomes focused & interactive.There are many lesson plan formats, which are being followed duringinternship or teaching practice programme under teacher training courses.Teachers these days have less flexibility about what to teach as content prescribed drive the curriculum, but there is considerable choice in how to teach. Matchinglesson plan formats to the content (what skills/knowledge are being taught) andcontext (who is being taught etc.) is an important component of good teaching.Following the spirit of constructivist approach/inquiry teaching & learning,it is notices that there are times when other approach OBL may be more appropriategiven the needs & goals of situation.

Transaction of Themes

In the following sections, the design of learning outcomes at programme and course levels in a Two year Bachelor of Education (Teaching of commerce) (B.Ed) Programme will be discussed in detail,

so as to illustrate how such learning outcomes can be properly designed under the guiding principles of OBL.

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DEVELOPING PLOS AND CLOS IN THE B.ED PROGRAMME

Programme Educational Objectives/Goals (PEOs) : The students

will be able to

1. Develop philosophical perspectives for analyzing contemporary school practices. Develop competencies for inquiring into social structure, culture and values existing in Indian society. Develop sensitivity to social issues and their educational implications

2. Inculcate competencies for identifying learners of different abilities and interests in adapting curriculum, teaching strategies, evaluation procedure for learners in inclusive classrooms and to acquire knowledge about various innovative practices in teacher education and quality aspect of education Acquire competencies for use of ICT and tools for

assessing quality in education.

3. Develop competencies for conducting research in education. Develop skills for interpreting statistical findings. Develop critical thinking skills 12. Inculcate spirit of life-long learning.

PLOs(Programe learning outcomes)

After completion of the course, the student teachers will be able to:

Programme Learning Outcomes: (PLOs)

Programme Learning Outcomes (PLOs) are statements of what graduates from B.Ed degree programme should be able to do. They represent the knowledge, skills and dispositions we intend graduates to possess as a result of undertaking the programme.

PLO1

• Ability to explain the concepts and aim of Education • Ability to appraise knowledge of policies and practices prevalent in the field of teacher education and course curriculum in schools. • Ability to apply assimilated knowledge and skills in multidisciplinary environment. • Ability to apply different

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methods and strategies related to teaching of different school subjects. • Ability to integrate knowledge & skills for optimum learning. • Ability to develop conducive & constructive teaching learning environment in classroom.

PLO2

• Ability to develop new knowledge through classroom teaching and teacher education content knowledge. • Ability to demonstrate independent, analytical, creative and constructive thinking. • Ability to develop innovative teaching techniques & application in classroom.

PLO3

• Ability to describe the importance of technology applied in the field of education. • Ability to analyze, synthesize and evaluate knowledge of ICT. • Ability to use and apply contemporary techniques in classroom teaching.

PLO4

• Ability of identifying possible problems in class and amongst students. • Ability to solve existing problems and crisis management. • Ability to justify educational decisions in relation to school and students.

PLO5

• Ability to develop effective communication skills for effective and optimum teaching and learning. • Ability to demonstrate skills of effective expressions of thoughts and ideas. • Ability to use technology effectively in precise and accurate expression.

PLO6

• Ability to develop skills of interpersonal understanding &collaboration. • Ability to relate to all fellow teachers and students irrespective of caste, creed, gender, etc. • Ability to create motivating environment in classroom. • Ability to solve educational problems of the students. • Ability to demonstrate skills for creating positive classroom discourse. • Ability to identify the demanding situations in classroom practices.

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PLO7

• Ability to show understanding & respect for global issues &local values of different cultures. • Ability to develop understanding school environment as a dynamic representation of society. • Ability to develop environmental awareness &

responsibility for its conservation.

PLO8

• Ability to define ethics, values & beliefs as a responsible citizen • Ability to value collective responsibility to preserve & converse culture & traditions, values, ethics, environment & surroundings. • Ability to develop self-identity as a responsible & competent teacher

PEOs/PLOs

PLO1

PLO2

PLO3

PLO4

PLO5

PLO6

PLO7

PLO8

Correlation

PEO1 3 1 1 2 3 2

PEO2 3 3 2 3 1

PEO3 1 1 3

Table 1. Strength of Correlation of PLOs and PEOs

Developing Course learning Outcomes (CLO) in Pedagogy of Commerce

A course learning outcome is a statement of what the learner is expected to be able to do upon successful completion of a particular

course(Pedagogy of commerece) in order to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding, skills and/or competences (Bowe & Fitzmaurice, n.d.). CLOs provide clear guidance for the planning and development of the teaching process (Biggs,2003). When drafting CLOs, we need to make sure that all the outcomes are assessable, and they assist students to achieve the Programme Learning Outcomes. Here for guiding purpose taking a course of B.EdIst Year Pedagogy of

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Commerce from all courses of B.Ed as given B.Ed curriculum annexure 1, CLOs are designed according to learning domains as shown below.Which are subsequently correlated with PLOs as shown in Table 2.

CLOs of the course Pedagogy of Commerce for the B.Ed program

CLO1: To gain insight on the meaning and nature of commerce for determining aims, strategies of teaching learning by relating every day experience with learning commerce

CLO2: Understand lesson planning, application of knowledge, analyzing commerce contents in terms of the techniques and aids with evaluation aspects in teaching commerce.

CLO3: Develop interests in knowing the recent development in teaching methodology and technological developments and critical attitude to design pedagogical content knowledge to be imparted in actual teaching learning system.

SAMPLE -----CONSUMER CHOICE

Sample Unit of Work: Consumer Choice

Unit description: Consumer Choice

Focus Students learn how to identify, research and evaluate options when making decisions related to solving those problems and issues that confront consumers. Time allocation 20 indicative hours

Resources • www.choice.com.au (Australian Consumers’ Association) • www.scamwatch.gov.au (Ministerial Council on Consumer Affairs) • www.lawstuff.org.au (National Children’s and Youth Law Centre) • www.fairtrading.nsw.gov.au (Office of Fair Trading: NSW Consumer Protection Agency) • www.fpa.asn.au (Financial PlanningAssociation of Australia Limited)

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Outcomes A student: 5.1 applies consumer, financial, business, legal and employment concepts and terminology in a variety of contexts 5.2 analyses the rights and responsibilities of individuals in a range of consumer, financial, business, legal and employment contexts 5.3 examines the role of the law in society 5.4 analyses key factors affecting commercial and legal decisions 5.5 evaluates options for solving commercial and legal problems and issues 5.6 monitors and modifies the implementation of plans designed to solve commercial and legal problems and issues 5.7 researches and assesses commercial and legal information using a variety of sources 5.8 explains commercial and legal information using a variety of forms 5.9 works independently and collaboratively to meet individual and collaborative goals within specified timelines.

Students learn about:

Students learn to: Integrated teaching, learning and Assessment

Evidence of learning/feedback

Commerce and choice

• investigate the scope of Commerce

and choice • identify and classify examples of

different types of commercial and legal decisions that people make on a daily basis

Teacher: • introduces the subject • raises questions about Commerce. Students: • collect articles and information relating

to the activities of a consumer

• classify a range of examples into legal

and commercial decisions

Students’ collection of consumer articles indicates their understanding of the scope of commerce and choice. Students identify and classify legal and commercial decisions.

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Students learn about: Students learn to: Integrated teaching, learning and Assessment

Evidence of learning/feedback

• classify a range of examples into legal

and commercial decisions • discuss the values and attitudes of a

consumer society. Teacher: • discusses aspects and values of

consumerism • provides a consumer problem for

students to solve. Students: • analyse the problem and make a decision • discuss the process of what it involves

to be a consumer in society today

• write a paragraph about what commerce is.

Students’ written response demonstrates their understanding of commerce, commercial activity and consumer problems. Teacher provides oral and written responses on the types of commercial and legal decisions of individuals.

• decisions affecting the quality of our

lives: consumer, financial, business employment, legal,

• recognise the consequences of

commercial and legal decisions on the quality of our lives

Teacher: • provides instructions on accessing

websites • provides the internet

Students research and investigate the actions and activities which improve the quality of our lives.

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environmental and the

environment address of the

Australian Consumers Association: www.choice.com.au

Students: • use a website to research the impact of

consumer choice and commercial activities on the quality of our lives

• investigate the constraint and protection

of laws • analyse information on the

environmental impact of business activity in their local area.

Students show their understanding of the consequences of commercial and legal decisions by developing: • information pamphlets • talks to the class/assembly • letters to businesses. Teacher provides guidance and assesses students’ understanding through pamphlets produced, talks to the class and letters to businesses.

Consumer decisions • comparison shopping:

− types of goods and services − different brands and products − choosing what to buy

• research consumer information from

a variety of sources that may include the internet, advertising material, specialist magazines and comparison shopping surveys

Teacher: • provides students with stimulus

materials illustrating a variety of goods and services.

Students’ comparison charts show how they rank and apply criteria.

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Table 2. Mapping of PLOs to CLOs with the strength of correlation

Course

code

Course

name

CLOS/PLOs

PLO1

PLO2

PLO3

PLO4

PLO5

PLO6

PLO7

PLO8

PLO9

IV & V

(GROUP

D)

Pedagogy

Of com

merce

CLO1 1 1

CLO2 3 1

CLO3 3 2 1

Continuous Quality Improvement in curriculum

Above stated curriculum mapping shows that all PEOs, PLOs and CLOs are related to assessment part of teaching which can be measured through this curriculum mapping and continuous qualityimprovement in teaching learning can be imparted through OBL model.

8.10 CQI and Remedial step to attain CLO2

Table No.2 shows mapping of PLOs to CLOs with the strength of correlation which shows that CLO2 is closely related to PLO1. Further Table No.3 shows that PLO1 is related to Delivery Methods D1, D3 and D4 which are Lecture, practical aspect and presentation. So these delivery methods can be modified and changed with other methods.

References

1. Adam, S. (2006) An introduction to learning outcomes, in EUA Bologna Handbook,

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2. Froment E., Kohler J, Purser L, Wilson L (Eds), article B.2.3-1.

Berlin, 3. Raabe. 4. Allan, J. (1996) Learning outcomes in higher education, Studies in

Higher Education, 21 (10) p. 93 – 108. 5. Anderson, L.W., &Krathwohl, D. (Eds.) (2001).A Taxonomy for

Learning, 6. Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives. 7. New York: Longman.

8. Biggs, J., (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment.Higher Education, 32, 347-364.

9. Biggs, J. and Tang, C., (2007) Teaching for quality learning at university: what the student does. 3rd ed, Buckingham: Society for Research in Higher Education and Open University Press.

10. Brown, G., (2001). Assessment: A Guide for Lecturers. LTSN Generic Center Assessment Series No 3. Available at http://hca.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/detail/assessment/assessment_series([Accessed)

11. Baume, D. (2005). Outcomes-based approaches to teaching, learning & curriculum.

12. Powerpoint presentation on 15 December 2005 for Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Retrieved January 30, 2010 from

13. http://www.slidefinder.net/o/outcomes_based_approaches_teaching_learning/14218143

14. Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for Quality Learning at University (2nd Edition). Open University Press.

15. Biggs, J. & Tang, C. (2009).Teaching for Quality Learning at University (3rd Edition Reprinted).Open University Press.

16. Bowe, B. and Fitzmaurice, M. (n.d.).Guide to Writing Learning Outcomes. Retrieved April

17. 12, 2011 from http://www.e-teaching-austria.at/pdf _s/D IT_Gu ide.pdf

18. Camosun College.( n.d.). Programme Learning Outcomes. Retrieved January 30, 2010, from

19. http://edp.camosun.bc.ca/mod03/mod3u1.php#programLO

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20. College Standards and Accreditation Committee. (1994). Guidelines

to the Development of Standards of Achievement through Learning Outcomes.George Brown College.

21. Retrieved April 11, 2011, from

22. http://liad.gbrownc.on.ca/programs/InsAdult/currlo.htm#Guidelines

23. Pideaux, D. 2003. ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: curriculum design. British Medical Journal 326:268- 270.

24. Treleaven, L. and Voola, R. 2008. Integrating the development of graduate attributes through constructive alignment.Journal of Marketing Education 30: 160-173.

25. Uchiyama, K.P. and Radin, J.L. 2009. Curriculum mapping in higher education: a vehicle for collaboration. Innovative Higher Education 33: 271-280.

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THE DOCTRINE OF KAMMA IN PALI BUDDHISM

Dr. Renu Research Scholar

Delhi University, Delhi Introduction

Kamma is the most important doctrine of Buddhism. The basic principle of kamma is ‘as a man sows, so shall he reap’. It refers to the

law of moral cause and effect that operates automatically for all beings throughout the universe. According to this doctrine, right actions produce good consequences, wrong actions bad consequences. It is regarded as a natural causal law, which works in realm of morality as the law of retributive justice and personal responsibility based on one’s action.

Definition of Kamma

The word karma is a Sanskrit word, derived from the root kri meaning to do or to make. Buddha used kamma word in Pali literature. So the Pali word kamma and Sanskrit term karma literally means action or doing. Kamma refers to all kind of intentional action, whether physical (kaya-kamma), verbal (vaci-kamma) and mental (mano-kamma).1 Volition (cetanā or intention) or motive behind an action is considered as the most important factor in determining the ethical quality of an action. According to Peter Harvey, kamma or cetanā is the “psychological impulse behind an action, which sets going

a chain of cause’s culmination in a karmic fruits.”2 In ultimate sense, Kamma refers to all moral and immoral volition. A person cannot be held morally responsible for any action, if it is not intentional. As Buddha says:

“O monks, I declare the volition (Cetanā) is karma; for through volition one performs the action by body, speech and mind”3

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Types of Kamma

An action is called unwholesome (akusala) or immoral when it is motivated by the forms of craving that are associated with greed (lobh), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha). It is called wholesome (kusala) or moral when it is motivated by the opposite factors, non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa) and non-delusion (amoha).

There are ten wholesome courses of action, which are stated in Buddhist texts. They are

1. Abstention from killing (pānātipātā veramanī)

2. Abstention from taking what is not given (adinnādānā veramanī)

3. Abstention from sexual misconduct (kāmesumicchācārā veramanī)

4. Abstention from false speech (Musāvādā veramanī)

5. Abstention from slanderous speech (pisunāyā vācāya veramanī)

6. Abstention from harsh speech (pharusāya vācāya veramanī)

7. Abstention from vain talk (samphappalāpā veramanī)

8. Non-covetousness (anabhijjhā)

9. Non-illwill (abyāpādā)

10. Right view (sammādiññhi)4

The first three are good conduct through body, the next four are good conduct through speech, and last three are good conduct through mind.

Kamma and Vipāka relation

According to Buddha, kamma is the law of cause and effect. The results of kamma are called vipāka i.e. the ripening. As kamma may be good or bad, so may vipāka be. To put it simply, this law states that all actions

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have consequences, which will affect the doer at some future time. Wholesome (kusala) or moral actions bring good result, while unwholesome (akusala) or immoral actions bring bad results. In Samyutta Nikaya, Buddha clearly states that

According to the seed that’s sown,

So is the fruit one reaps therefrom

Doer of good receives good,

Doer of bad receives bad.5

It should be noted that the law of kamma is not concerned with the general relation between actions and their consequences but with a specific aspect of certain actions, namely the moral, and its consequences, for human happiness and unhappiness. It implies for morality that moral actions result in success, happiness etc., while immoral actions produce suffering. Therefore, it is said that the law of kamma is accepted as the law of universal causation in Buddhism, according to which every action or event is caused. It is the law of cause and effect, by which individuals can determine their own future by their own actions.

As the Buddha says

“Neither in the sky, nor in the depths of sea, nor even by entering a mountain cave, shalt thou find anywhere on earth, a state where thou may escape the fruits of their

actions”6

Thus, it can be said that in Buddhism, law of kamma is the law of retributive justice i.e. a doer cannot escape from the consequences of his own kammas.

It is necessary to mention here that in Pali Buddhism, intention or motive is necessary and sufficient condition for considering an act to be

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moral or immoral. A person’s actions will produce good or bad results, depending on one’s motivations or intention. A person could perform a morally good action, but gain evil result, if its motive is not itself morally good. For example, if one person donates money in order to be praised by other people or obtain some other desired results, only the action is itself good, but the direct cause of the action is the motivation of greed, guarantees that karma involved will bring evil result.

Kamma and Rebirth

Now, the question arises that ‘how can kamma be matured and produces consequences’? To answer this question, Buddha explained

the concept of Rebirth. Kamma and Rebirth are interrelated doctrines of Buddhism. The word rebirth means Punarbhava, Abhinibbatti or Punarupatti. According to Buddha, effects of kamma are manifested sometime in the distant future, either in this life or in the next life. A person who is endowed with bad actions will be reborn in the woeful state, the hell and vice-versa.

The concept of kamma and rebirth is used to explain the causes of the inequality that exist amongst mankind. In Cūlakammavibhaṅgasutta of Majjhimanikāya, it is mentioned that moral agent’s origin, identity, conditions, future birth and destiny are determined by Kamma. According to this sutta, once a young man named Subbha went to Buddha and put this question:

“What now, Sir Gotama, is the cause, what the reason that lowness and excellence are to be seen among men…? For, Sir Gotama, short-lived men are seen, and long-lived ones are seen; men with many illness are seen, and ones free from illness are seen; ugly men are seen, and beautiful are seen; weak men are seen, and mighty are seen; men of lowly families are seen, men of high families are seen, men of little wisdom are seen, and ones

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possessed of insight….What now, Sir Gotama, is the cause, what the reason that lowness and excellence are seen among men even while they are in human form?”7

The Buddha answers that:

“Possessed of their own kamma, young Brahmin, beings are heir to kamma…Kamma distinguishes being, that is to say, by lowness and excellence”8

Thus, according to Buddha, this inequality is due to not only heredity

and environment, but also to the result of own inherited past action and our present doing. In Buddhism, Kamma is the connecting link of one life of an individual and another. Past kamma mature in the present and the present ones in the future explains the suffering and happy life of a man in the present for which, to the best of his knowledge, he has not done any kamma.

Here, it is important to examine a problem at this point concern that Buddha denied the existence of any permanent soul in which one can find a continuing basis for a correlating link between action and consequences, then how can we consistently accept the theory of kamma along with the notion of rebirth. It can be said here that though Buddha denied the immortality of the soul, he did not deny the continuity of personality i.e. the unbroken continuity of karma that compose human life. Every action accordingly produces its effect not

only in the physical world but also causes certain impressions in inner self of the agents. These impressions or samskaras transmigrate from one life to another and inevitably determine the future state of existence of the agents and one cannot escape them. Thus, the flow of kamma goes one life to another through a combination of mental and physical factors (name-rupa). Buddha analyzed these factors into five fundamental aggregates or khandhas i.e. 1. Sensations (vedana) of pain, pleasure and indifference 2. Perception (sanjna) including

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understanding and naming 3. Predisposition (sanskaras) or tendencies generated by impressions of past experience and 5. Consciousness. Hence, Buddha taught that soul is nothing but a combination of mental and physical factors that are in constant flux. Hence, the past actions determine our present mode of existence and our present actions would in turn determine our future mode of existence.

Kamma is not Blind Mechanism

It is to be pointed out here that the doctrine of kamma is not a blind mechanism i.e. if you do ‘A’ act, then you will necessarily bear ‘B’ consequence. According to Buddhism, the consequences of kamma do

not depend on particular kamma solely but also on the character of a person and the appropriate circumstances under which it is done. In fact, in grain of the salt sutta of Aṅguttaranikāya, Buddha states the view that the same action can have different result for different individuals because he understands kamma as involving both intentions and consequences. A good person who is habitually virtuous and wise, errs in a moment of weakness will not suffer the same consequences as a habitual evildoer who performs the same immoral deed. The principle is explained by an example that suppose, he says, if a grain of salt is dropped in a cup of water and the same amount of salt is dropped in the river Gangas which has huge amount of water then what would be the result. A small amount of salt in a cup will make it

very salty and undrinkable, whereas the same amount of salt placed in river Gangas will have no effect on the purity of the water. In the same way, an immoral deed by habitual evildoer will suffer, whereas the same act of a habitually virtuous person would not affect him. Thus, it can be said that in Buddhism, law of kamma is the law of retributive justice i.e. a doer cannot escape from the consequences of his kamma but it is neither a blind mechanism nor determinism.9

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Kamma and Moral Responsibility

However, it should be noticeable here that kamma does not necessarily mean past action. It embraces both past and present deeds. It endorses retributive justice and assignment of moral responsibility to the agent. Buddha opposed any kind of fate or niyati according to which a man is not responsible for his action. He also refused the view that a man is simply a puppet in the hand of God or external determining factors. In fact, in Aṅguttaranikāya10, Buddha rejected any theory that undetermined the sense of moral responsibility. On one hand, he rejected determinism that states that either all pleasant, unpleasant or

neutral experiences in life are due to past karma or to the will of God; on the other hand, he refused the indeterminism that states that all experiences arise due to pure chance, without reliance on any conditions.11 Buddha believed that individuals have a capacity, not only, to distinguish between right and wrong action but also have a capacity of a free will. Agent can control his kamma. The proof of this view is Nibbana concept of Buddhism, which is a way of freedom from suffering and rebirth, whose aim is to remove all bondage forces, which encourage to do wrong actions. According to Buddhism, the first and important way to reach Nibbana is by the means of the Eight Fold Path and all expressions that deal with the realization of emancipation from hatred, lust and illusion apply to practical habits. In other words, to get Nibbana, one has to do moral or kusala action in one’s life. Hence, in one sense, we are the result of what we were; we will be the result of

what we are. In another sense, we are not totally the result of what we were. The present is no doubt determined by the past and is the parent of future, but the present is not always a true index of either the past or the future. Thus, the Buddhist law of kamma links freedom with responsibility.

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Conclusion

The doctrine of karma is, therefore, based on certain fundamental postulates and they are:

1. It is the law of causality of cause-effect. All kamma produce effect or bear results. In the case of volitional kamma, they are classified as good and evil, just and unjust, right and wrong, depending on the intent of the doer.

2. It is a law of personal responsibility in which a doer himself must bear the consequences of his kamma. This liability cannot be shifted.

3. It is the law of retributive justice. A doer cannot escape from the consequences of his kammas.

4. The kamma is supposed to have no beginning, but it can have an end. The means of attaining that end or destroying the working of kamma is Eight Fold Path.

1 Pali English Dictionary, Rhys David T.W., Delhi, 1975, p. 190. 2 Harvey. P., An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 17. 3 Aṅguttaranikāya, iii, 415, (quoted in Harvey. P., An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000, p. 17) 4 Majjhimanikāya, I., 287 (Tr. I.B. Horner, The Collection of Middle Length, vol-1, PTS, London, 1954-1959.) 5 S.I. 227 6 The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttaranikāya), tr. by F.L. Woodward, Vol. 1, 127, PTS, London, 1955-1970. 7 Majjhimanikāya, III, pp. 202-203 (quoted in O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2007, p-174.) 8 Ibid, pp. 202-203 (quoted in O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2007, p-174.) 9 Aṅguttaranikāya, i, 250. 10Aṅguttaranikāya, i. 173-175. 11Majjhimanikāya, ii, 214.

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