River Ecosystems

What are River Ecosystems?Rivers are more than just the waterflowing between their banks. Thehealth of the land surrounding riversdirectly affects the water quality andthe life that exists in and aroundthem. Tennessee's rivers are home toa rich and diverse natural heritageand support a wealth of culturalhistory, with important archaeologicaland historical sites. There are morethan 15,000miles of tremendouslydiverse rivers that flow acrossthe state.

Why are River Ecosystems

Important?An extraordinary variety of aquaticcreatures, largely unseen andunfamiliar to most people, is hiddenbeneath the shimmering surface ofTennessee's rivers. Though manypeople are devoted to the beauty andrecreational values of Etreams, creeks,and rivers, few of us know thatTennessee's stream life is exceptionalon a global level, even when comparedwith the Tropics. This remarkablefreshwater diversity should be a greatsource of pride for Tennesseans.

Tennessee not only has the greatestdiversity of freshwater fish species inthe country, but it also supports anabundance of crayfish, mollusks, andsome aquatic insects. There are over300 fish species in Tennessee,71 crayfish, 129freshwater mussels,and 96 freshwater snails. In fact, theOhio River basin, which encompassesmost of Tennessee, contains theworld's richest diversity of freshwatermussels. The Nature Conservancy, intheir report entitled Rivers of Life,found that the center for aquaticbiodiversity is largely concentrated inthe Tennessee, Cumberland, Ohio,and Mobile River basins, ofwhichsizeable portions of each flow throughTennessee (Figure 1). They identifiednumerous Tennessee Riverwatersheds that are treasure-trovesof biological diversity in critical needof protection. In addition, theyidentified the Clinch River, innortheastern Tennessee andsouthwestern Virginia, as the mostbiologically diverse river in theUnited States. In fact, the Clinch andPowell Rivers are home to the mostendemic federally listed species offreshwater mussels remaining inthe world.

Rare and Unique Plants and AnimalsGenerally disregarded and unknown,non-game freshwater aquatic speciesare part of the web of life thatsupports the game species we enjoyfishing for and eating and the wildlifewe enjoy watching. Non-game fishspecies represent an important foodsource for fishes, birds, andmammals. Freshwater mussels arefilter feeders, acting like miniaturewater purifiers. They capture andremove large quantities of tiny algaeand plankton that most other aquaticanimals cannot eat. They, in turn,become food for river otters,muskrats, fishes, and other wildlifespecies. Crayfish are the scavengersof the underwater world, feeding ondead and decaying animals andplants. They recycle decayingmaterial into food for themselves andthen become food for larger animals.Abundant and diverse aquatic insectpopulations often indicate thatthriving populations of sport fishes,birds, and mammals are also present.

Freshwater mussels, non-gamefishes, and aquatic insects aresensitive to environmental and

chemical changes in our rivers and areexcellent indicators of water quality.Where there is a high diversity ofaquatic species, there is also cleanwater for wildlife and people. Wherediversity and numbers of aquaticspecies has declined, there is generallytrouble in the river and, thus, troublefor the wildlife and people that usethe river.

Rivers also have significant, but oftenoverlooked, economic values.Tennesseans consider rivers and theirsurrounding landscapes among thestate's most scenic areas. In fact, thebeauty of a river can greatly affect theappeal and value of the surroundingland. We use rivers not only for theirlife supporting values, like drinkingwater and crop irrigation, but also forrecreation. The 1996Survey ofFishing, Hunting, and WildlifeAssociated Recreation found thatTennesseans and visitors spent475 million dollars on fishing andother recreational activities related to

waterways. Rivers also provide ahighway to transport our goods andgenerate electricity. Finally, commonspecies of freshwater mussels fromthe Tennessee, Cumberland, and OhioRivers are at the center of a multi-million-dollar freshwater culturedpearl industry. Freshwater musselshells are used as the nucleus forcultured pearls.

Threats to River EcosystemsAlthough Native Americans usedmussels for food and fashioned musselshells for tools and adornments, theyhad little impact on the freshwateraquatic life of Tennessee's rivers.However, as European settlersmoved into the area, river ecosystemswere dramatically altered, and thediverse river life that once flourishedbegan to decline. River ecosystemsare dynamic systems that include allliving plants and animals and theirinteractions with the nonliving parts,such as the soil, climate, minerals, andwater. These systems are flexible and

can absorb some stresses but not on acontinuing and increasing basis.What we gain in the short term fromaltering rivers to serve our needs maycome at the long-term expense ofriver health and aquatic life.

Overall, species that depend on cleanwater are in trouble. In fact, of all theanimal groups in the United States,mollusks, non-game fishes, crayfish,and amphibians, are the mostimperiled. This far exceeds the loss ofbirds, mammals, reptiles, and insects.Tennessee has the second highestnumber of freshwater species (66)considered to be threatened orendangered in the United States.

To understand why aquatic speciesare declining so sharply, we must stepback and look at the big picture thelandscape. When we refer to riversand the surrounding land they drain,

we call it a watershed. Thewatershed is an easy concept tounderstand if we just remember that

Establish and maintainstream-side buffers of trees,shrubs, and gra.')ses.Severalfedera~ state and privateprograms are available toassist landowners, bothtechnically and financially,with restoring and protectingstream-side buffers anderoding riverbanks.Implement and maintainmeasures for controllingerosion and storm waterduring and after land-clearing and disturbanceactivities. Be careful with theuse and disposal offertilizers, pesticides, andother chemicals. Remember,what you put on your land ordump down the drain mayeventually end up in nearbywaters. Support loca~ state,and national clean waterlegislation. Report illegaldumping activities anderosion problems. Recycleas much as you can,eliminating the need for newlandfills. Get involved with alocal water conservationgroup and participate in astream or river cleanup.Volunteer to monitor waterquality in local rivers foryour county water authority.

water flows downhill and emptiesinto common points -rivers. Thinkof the rain flowing offyour roof,down your gutter, down the streetdrain, into a small creek, into astream, and, finally, into a river.Now think of this same concept on amuch larger scale, includingagricultural land, forests, parks,shopping malls, and communities, allin the same drainage area and alldraining into the same river. Thearea of land that collects this run-offis the watershed, or natural drainagebasin. Because water runs downhill,changes in water flow,temperature,and chemistry can be passedthroughout the watershed,negatively impacting miles and milesof a river and gallons and gallons ofwater. Therefore, human activitiesdirectly up slope or upstream mayaffect stream life and water qualityfor the neighbors downstream.

What are the human activities thatare adversely affecting our riversand river life? They are varied andcome from many activities, like non-point source pollution, which includesresidential, construction, municipal,and commercial storm-water run-offand agricultural run-off (containingsediment, pesticides, herbicides, andfertilizers); impoundments;deforestation of river banks; channelalterations; and the invasion ofnonnative species. These threatsdirectly and indirectly affect ournatural and cultural heritage, and,ultimately, public health and ourquality of life.

Ten percent of Tennessee's riversare of such poor quality that they donot meet their designated uses, and110miles are actually posted towarn against any human contact.Twenty percent of the TennesseeRiver system has been impounded,and most of the rivers ofwestTennessee have been turned intostraight-line drainage ditches. Bothof these activities have resulted in

enormous habitat loss and decline ofspecies, and channelization has causedthe loss of recreational opportunities.Impoundments have alsopermanently flooded importanthistorical and ecological resources.The loss of forested riverbanks hascaused property loss from streambanks that have eroded into riversand habitat loss from eroding soil thathas turned gravel riverbeds into mudbeds. Eroding soil enters our rivers,suffocating aquatic life and hinderingtheir reproduction. Moreover, morepollutants go directly into the riverbecause there is no buffer of trees andgrass to filter them out. Thenonnative zebra mussel is invadingour rivers, clogging water intakepipes, and suffocating and out-competing native aquatic life for foodand space.

When rivers are polluted, everyone isaffected. Pollution from a pipe orsediment from an eroding riverbankcauses obvious problems for peopleliving downstream and for everyoneelse. This results in highermaintenance costs that watertreatment plants charge for cleaningdirty, polluted water. Polluting awatershed is like trashing aneighborhood-it's unsightlyand costly!

What is Being Done to Protect

These Rare Places?Communities are banding togetherwith public and private agencies toprotect and restore rivers in theirwatershed. Working together,communities are able to support andmake greater improvements on theground. Livestock owners arehelping to reduce the amount of soilthat enters our rivers by fencingstream banks, which preventslivestock from trampling streambedsand shorelines. In many cases theseactions can improve the health andproductivity of the land. Many cropfarmers and gardeners are helping byusing the best management practicesrecommended by the state when

applying fertilizers and bymaintaining wide vegetated bufferstrips along rivers. Many homebuilders and others involved in

construction are helping to stabilizesoils exposed during buildingactivities so that the amount of soilwashing into the river is minimized.City planners are helping when theyimplement ways to slow storm-waterrun-off into natural waterways.Homeowners and managers ofrecreational land are pitching in toprotect water quality by maintainingnative plants along the river and byreducing the amount of fertilizers andpesticides used on their lawns. Byworking together we can improve ourrivers and maintain our rich culturaland natural heritage for our use andenjoyment today and tomorrow.

Seeing is Believing!Tennessee is lucky to have anabundance of rivers. Take sometime to check out a rivernear you!

Tennessee Watershed Map (Figure 1)

Conasauga 0.5%

Prepared by the Tennessee Rivers Assessment Project

In Tennessee, watersheds are grouped into five large drainage basins. Basins are simply a way of groupingwatersheds together based upon the water's destination. Most of the water in Tennessee empties into the Tennessee(55%),Cumberland (22.5%),and Mississippi (21%) River basins. A small amount of water also empties into the Ohioriver basin by way of the Barren River in Kentucky and the Mobile River basin by way of the Conasauga River inGeorgia. Which watershed do you live in and which river basin does your watershed empty into?

Pallid Sturgeon(Scaphirhynchus albus)

You Can Help!

Remember, what we puton the land may eventuallyenter the streams! Tell afriend about the pallidsturgeon. Reduce waterconsumption. Protect waterquality. Participate in alocal river cleanup. Usebiodegradable soaps.Control erosion on yourproperty, and report erosionsources. Watch for andreport illegal dumpingalong streams and rivers.Plant or maintain nativevegetation alongstreams. Take pride inTennessee's wildlife!

StatusThe pallid sturgeon was listed asendangered on September 6, 1990.

DescriptionThe pallid sturgeon is a large, long-lived freshwater fish. It has aflattened, shovel-shaped snout andfive rows of bony plates along thebody. The pallid sturgeon is lighter incolor and grows larger than mostother sturgeons. It has a toothlessmouth on the underside of its head. Itis one of the largest freshwater fishspecies in North America; adults canweigh up to 65 pounds.

HabitatPallid sturgeons live in large,turbid, free-flowing riverineecosystems. They are usually foundnear the bottoms of streams or lakesin sand flats or gravel bars. Thepallid sturgeon is almost entirelyrestricted to the Missouri and lowerMississippi Rivers.

life History

The pallid sturgeon feeds on smallfishes, aquatic insect larvae, andmollusks. Spawning takes place inspring or summer. Little else isknown about the life of thepallid sturgeon.

Role in the EcosystemAll species of sturgeon are an integralpart of the aquatic foodweb. Peoplein particular enjoy caviar (sturgeoneggs) and eating sturgeon meat ofthemore common sturgeon species.

ThreatsThe channelization of rivers andconstruction of reservoirs havedrastically altered nearly 80 percentof the pallid sturgeon's range. Theremaining habitat occurs below damsand is affected by decreased watertemperatures, reduced silt loads, andaltered water run-off patterns. Thesefactors also prevent the fish fromswimming to their spawning grounds.High levels of pollutantsand over-harvesting have alsoaffected the pallid sturgeon.

RecoveryEleven states within the pallidsturgeon's range have someregulations that prohibit taking thefish. Commercial fishing has beendiscontinued or restricted in manyareas on the Mississippi andMissouri Rivers.

Cumberland Monkeyface Pearlymussel(Quadrula intermedia)

Remember, what we puton the land may eventuallyenter the streams! Tell afriend about the Cumberlandmonkeyface pearlymussel.Reduce water consumption.Protect water quality.Prevent nonpoint sourcepollution. Participate in alocal stream or river cleanup.Use biodegradable soaps.Control erosion on yourproperty, and report erosionsources. Watch for andreport illegal dumping alongsprings and streams.Plant or maintain nativevegetation alongsidestreams. Take pride inTennessee's wildlife!

StatusThe Cumberland monkeyfacepearlymussel was listed asendangered on June 14, 1976.

DescriptionThe Cumberland monkeyfacepearlymussel is a medium-sized (3 to4 - inches) mussel. It has two bowl-shaped shells joined together by afleshy hinge. The surface of the shellis covered with small bumps. Theshell color is brownish-yellow withtriangular green markings. Theinside of the shell varies in color fromsalmon to pearly white.

HabitatThe Cumberland monkeyfacepearlymussel is typically foundliving in clean, fast-flowing streamswith gravel and sandy bottomhabitats. This species occurs withinonly three rivers in Tennessee - theDuck, Powell, and Elk. It also occursin Virginia and Alabama.

Life History

Fertilized mussel eggs develop intolarvae, called glochidia. One femalemay produce hundreds of thousandsof glochidia. These tiny, bean-shapedglochidia attach themselves to thegills of fishes and cling there for atime while they develop into adults.Once this change is completed, thetiny mussels drop to the streambottom. Adult mussels are filterfeeders; they consume tiny creaturesby pumping and filtering waterthrough their gills. Using their single"foot," they can move short distancesalong the streambed. Freshwatermussels can live as long as 50 years.

Role in the EcosystemThe presence of the Cumberlandmonkeyface pearlymussel and otherfreshwater mussels indicates goodwater quality. Mussels help remove

silt from the water and serve as a foodsource for fishes, otters, raccoons,turtles, and muskrats.

ThreatsCumberland monkeyfacepearlymussels are threatenedprimarily by the alteration anddestruction of their stream habitats.The construction of dams, graveldredging, strip mining, and pollutionhave all contributed to the decline ofthis species. Pollution from coalmining and other sources of nonpointsource pollution kill freshwatermussels. Silt from erosion and poorland-use practices clogs the mussels'gills and smothers them. The spreadof exotic species, such as the zebramussel and the Asian clam, is also athreat to freshwater mussels; theyuse up valuable space in freshwatermussel habitat. Zebra mussels alsoattach themselves to the shells ofnative mussels, covering andeventually suffocating them.

Recovery

Recovery goals include the reductionof factors that have contributed to thedecline of freshwater mussels.Research is needed to determine thebiological needs of the Cumberlandmonkeyface pearlymussel.

Smoky Madtom(Noturus baileyi)

Remember, what we put onthe land may eventuallyenter the streams! Tell afriend about the smokymadtom. Avoid disturbingstream rocks along Citicoand Abrams Creeks; asmoky madtom may behiding underneath! Protectwater quality. Participate ina local stream cleanup. Usebiodegradable soaps. Plantor maintain nativevegetation along springs andstreams. Reduce waterconsumption. Take Pride inTennessee's v.rildlife!

StatusThe smoky madtom was listed asendangered on October 26, 1984.

Description

The smoky madtom is a light browncatfish that grows to be about3 inches long. It has a relativelylarge, rounded head and small eyes.Four dark, saddlelike markings crossits back. Like other catfish species,the smoky madtom has "whiskers."

Habitat and BiologyThe smoky madtom is restricted toonly about 6 miles of Citico Creek inthe Cherokee National Forest inTennessee. This secretive fish lives inshallow riffles underneath palm-sizedslab rocks. During colder months thefish moves to shallow pools but stillspends most of its time under smallslab rocks. The smoky madtom eatssmall insect larvae and may feed bypicking up food items from the streambottom. The smoky madtom spawnsin late spring and early summer.There are 30 to 40 eggs in a cluster,which are deposited under large flatrocks. Male smoky madtoms remainat the nest site to guard the eggs andnewly hatched young.

Role in the EcosystemNongame fish species like the smokymadtom are a critical ecological link inthe food chain. They feed on insects

and are prey for sport fishes, birds,and other wildlife. They are alsoimportant indicators of water qualityand ecosystem health.

ThreatsThe limited distribution of the smokymadtom makes it very vulnerable toextinction. Logging, mining, road andbridge construction and maintenance,mineral exploration, and otherprojects within the watershed are allpotential threats to this species andits habitat. It is thought that much ofthe smoky madtom's historical rangewas destroyed by dam and reservoirconstruction on the Little TennesseeRiver; poor forestry practices werealso a contributing factor.

RecoverySmoky madtom recovery efforts areunderway. Researchers collectsmoky madtom eggs and young fromCitico Creek each spring and rear theyoung in captivity. Each fall they arereturned to Citico Creek to helpincrease that population. They arealso placed into Abrams Creek withinthe Great Smoky Mountains NationalPark, where the smoky madtom oncelived. For some good news about thesmoky madtom, see the successstory-Abram's Creek:Reintroduction of Four ListedFishes-found in this guide.

Nashville Crayfish(Orconectes shoupi)

Remember, what we put onthe land may eventuallyenter the streams! Tell afriend about the Nashvillecrayfish. Avoid disturbingcovered, vegetated areasalong Mill Creek. Protectwater quality. Participate ina local stream cleanup. Usebiodegradable soaps. Plantor maintain nativevegetation alongside springsand streams. Reduce waterconsumption. Take pride inTennessee's wildlife!

StatusThe Nashville crayfish was listed as

endangered on October 24, 1986.

DescriptionThe Nashville crayfish can grow to a

length of 7 inches and has large claws

with orange and black tips. The body

color of this crayfish is variable, with

light saddlelike markings over the

back and down the sides.

HabitatThe Nashville crayfish lives only

in Mill Creek, partly in a highly

urbanized area of the city of

Nashville. It lives in a wide variety of

stream habitats from pools to riffles in

areas where stream-bank vegetation

has not been removed. The Nashville

crayfish spends the day hiding,

usually under rocks and vegetation.

Crayfish are opportunistic eaters and

feed on a wide variety of both plant

and animal material. Little is known

about the life history of this

rare species.

Role in the EcosystemCrayfish serve as important links in

the food chain, feeding on plants,

invertebrates, and dead fishes, while

serving as food for sport fishes, birds,

and other wildlife species. They are

also indicators of environmental

quality and health, flourishing in clean

water and perishing in polluted water.

Did you know that in the Southeast

nearly 75,000 tons of crayfish, with an

estimated value of $50 million, are

farmed in ponds or trapped from

wetlands to be sold as gourmet food!

ThreatsThe Nashville crayfish is a hardy

species. It has survived stream

channelization, stream-side

vegetation removal, trash along the

banks of Mill Creek, soil erosion and

siltation, and toxic chemical spills. No

species can endure such treatment

forever; thus, this species is now

end~ngered. Should habitat quality

contmue to decrease, the species'

chances of survival are slim.

RecoveryRecovery goals include limiting

further siltation and pollution in the

Mill Creek watershed. More research

is needed to determine the biological

needs and life history of the

Nashville crayfish.