Upload
vijay2382
View
180
Download
4
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
INTRODUCTION
PART – I
An organism is always in the state of perfect balance with the environment.
The environment refers to various conditions surrounding an organism which
directly or indirectly influence the life and development of the organism and its
population. In an ecosystem a basic functional unit called “Organism” interact
with the environment and other chain of organisms various physico chemical and
climatic conditions.
Water is important natural resource for the survival of living beings. Water
reservoirs, lakes, dams, ponds, rivers serve as natural habitat and help to maintain
ecological balance of different kinds microbes in natural habitats in water. In
water bodies various organism act together and allows continuous recycling of
each chemical element available in the system. When this stops for some
reason, pollution results and pollution pushes the environment out of balance and
the scheme of nature is that it will react to reestablish the balance Dugan (1974)
In biological literature, this nine letter dirty word pollution has several
connotations; to biologists, it can presage the development of conditions adverse
to the continued existence of certain types of microbes inhabiting in a body water.
In Inland water study of lakes, ponds or dams usually seem to receive
nutrients from bottom sediments. Interaction between sediments and over water
mass usually govern the productivity potential of water body. Human beings by
their anthropogenic activity are making fresh water as dumping grounds for
receiving solid and liquid waste from nearby human settlement. Eighty percent of
water supply of cities find its way to drainage system as domestic and industrial
waste. Most of the precipitation take place during rainy season which contributes
substantially to the surface flow. During this period of time a heavy inflow of water
results in to the natural aquatic systems and result in to exposing benthic substrata
in to main chain.
Lakes are locked up systems and basin soil plays a predominant role in
determining water quality. In tropical reservoirs phosphate level in water usually
govern ecology of lakes. Usually there is a quick recycling and rapid turnover of
nutrients in lakes, Ehrligh (1960); Abbot (1967). Plankton by virtue of their
drifting habit and short turnover period, constitute the major link in the trophic
structure and events in the reservoir ecosystem. A rich plankton community with
well marked seral succession is hallmark of Indian reservoirs.
In water bodies, it is the myriad of diverse organism acting in convert that
allows continuous recycling of each chemical element available in the system.
When this stops for some reasons, pollution results, which pushes the
environment out of balance, and the scheme of nature is that it will react of
reestablish the balance (Dugan, 1974).
Microbes, though they are intricate in their detail offer examples of changes
in molecular structures, metabolic pathways or structural elements which are often
taken as full time monitors of this process. As pollutional stress is increased on
the system, a number of ambient species are usually eliminated or reduced in
number while the other native tolerant species become even move dominant thus
widening the range of individual per species (Cairns and Lanza, 1972). It is then
likely that any possible permutation or combination of nutrient factors may be
involved in eliciting microbial growth in water, depending upon other environmental
influence. And, eutrophic water have one of the most important problems in the
progressive enrichment of water with nutrient concomitant with mass production of
microbes, increased water productivity and other undesirable biotic changes.
Such a progressive deterioration of water is regarded as eutrophication Cairns and
Lanza (1972).
The term “Water bloom” is widely understood to refer to the accumulation of
planktonic algae and microbes at the surface of lakes and reservoirs. Although
the constituent algae and microbes are themselves microscopic in size, the
intensity of scums and rapidity with which they develop are such as to impress the
most casual observer; blooms can form and disperse again within a matter of
hours, Reynolds and Walsby (1975). The great sometimes cataclysmic
productivity phenomenon is world ide and described by various synonyms. The
flowering, breaking or working of water, Hutchinson (1967); Wasserbluthe, flos
aque Whipple (1899); Pea soup Nemerow (1974); ‘Tsvetenie Vody’ the Russian
equivalent; Topachevski (1968). In temperate regions, blooms may develop most
frequently during calm weather in summer and autumn; in tropics they can form
bloomsat almost any time of the year, Reynolds and Walsby (1975). In some
countries additional algal and microbial bloom is welcomed since directly or
indirectly it may be beneficial to freshwater fisheries, Prowse (1964). Algae from
blooms mainly Spirulina SP are also consumed directly by man in Chad, Pirie
(1969).
In western countries and in India, however, algal blooms are usually
regarded as being objectionable. They are plentifully expensive nuisance in water
supplies where the algae present problems of filtration, and many species taint
water with unpleasant taste and adours. Blooms also spoil fishing and water
sports in recreational lakes. Some bloom forming algae are toxic and have
been implicated in many instances of fish kills, Gorham (1964); Chaeko and
Ganapati (1949) ; Venkatraman et al., (1957) ; Boyd et al., (1975) ; Barica (1975)
and remain fatal to domestic animals Gorham (1964).
Growing concern over problems caused by water blooms is one of the
factors which has prompted a great deal of research in to biology of algae and
microbes. The tropholytic zone has a steady supply of free carbon dioxide, which
reacts with carbonates to produce bicarbonates. This results in an increase of
bicarbonates towards the bottom.
Similarly, due to the increase in the hydrogen ions, the pH drops rapidly.
Thus the increase in total alkalinity, specific conductivity and CO2 decrease in pH
value occur towards the bottom layers and these Laxers acts as useful indicators
of productivity. Blue-green algae from the main stay of plankton community in
vast majority of the manmade lakes are studied. The overwhelming presence of
Microcystis aeruginosa in Indian reservois is remarkable. The productive water
of the Gangetic plains, Deccan Plateau, South Tamil Nadu and Orrisa invariably
have good standing crops of Microcystis. A common feature of all these
reservoirs is the bright sunshine, isothermal water column, klinogracde oxygen
curve and an extensive Eatchment area, draining calcium high from forested or
cultivated lands. The species are almost omnipresent in the southern peninsula,
except in the reservoir of Karnataka and Kerala which tend to be oligotrophic and
have poor plankton count with desmids and other green algae as the main
constituents. Reservoirs of Rajasthan receiving scanty rainfall and poor flushing
rate favour macrophytes and despite being productive they do not harbour blooms
of Microcystis. The oligotrophic lakes of the North-East have a desmid dominant
plankton community. Most of the reservoirs have three plankton pulse coinciding
with the post – monsoon (Sep to Nov.), winter (Dec to Feb) and summer (March to
May) seasons. The monsoon (Jun, August) flushing disturbs and often dislodges
the standing crop of plankton. When using obiotic measures alone, a pulse after
a storm for instance, may not be detected. This is because storm pulse is
relatively quick a phenomenon and an observer may not be present to witness the
disturbance occurring. However, this same disturbance would be directly
reflected in the biotic community and therefore detectable at a later date through
use of an appropriate biomonitoring programme. When studying the ebb and flow
of life of life in lakes, it is natural to know what kinds of organism are present, how
the importance of each organism fluctuate in relation to that of others and how
much living matter is produced in a given time, while other pertinent questions
which follow regarding abundance of some organism and not others ‘ what
controls the succession of dominant species ‘ what determines the fertility of lakes.
Some of the more recent observational studies centered round the sequence of
events leading up to bloom, formation, and there has been much speculation on
the factors promoting the growth of bloom forming populations.
It is impossible to understand the ecology of microbes in a lake without the
knowledge of physico – chemical properties of water. A comprehensive
biomonitoring process involves both physicochemical and biological approach and
gives the exact status of the aquatic ecosystem. Lund (1967) established the fact
that year round seasonal studies of water body is an important parameter for
understanding any lake. The best way to understand life in water is to consider
the forms that occur in them studies separately and such a consideration will give
a better picture of plankton distribution and periodicity of biosystem and
organisms. Planktonic microbes requirement is different from order to order and
these groups tend to have different ecological preferences.
Aquatic ecology of Microbes
Major factors that influence the aquatic life could be light, temperature, and
chemical composition of water. Planktons growth of microbes in lake may
additionally be subjected to the direct effect of water movement, chemical
inhabitant, anthoropogenic activity and many myriad factors. Plankton provides a
relevant and a convenient point of focus for research into the mechanism of
eutrophication and for development of measure of control its adverse impacts on
ecosystem.
The term “Plankton” refers to those minute aquatic forms which are non
motile or insufficiently motile to overcome the transport by currents and living
suspended in open or pelagic water. The planktonic plants are called
Phytoplankton and planktonic animals are called Zooplankton. (APHA -1985)
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL FACTORS
Reservoir, lakes and ponds are aquatic ecosystem, their biotope reveals
that they have certain characteristic feature of its own Chemical characteristic of
the water of a reservoir vary with its age, Jhingran (1977) and lakes distributed
even with in a small geographic area remain limnologically different, Gulati (1976) ;
Barica (1978). Different lakes show several pattern and shift in eutrophic levels
siltation in mansoon months from anthropogenic sources also is important for
degradation of logic system in India. As a result a considerable part of standing
crop of biotic communities at upper trophic level gets disturbed. Physico-chemical
factors like lights depth, O2, C2, PH, alkalinity and mineral concentration are
important major parameters of study which influence, the life in water, Micheal and
Sharma (1988).
Basin also play an important role in determining the chemical water quality
through soil – water interface. In reservoirs, nutrient input from allochthonous
sources often determine the water quality, nutrient regime and basic production
potential.
Most of the Indian reservoirs are characterized by low levels of Phosphate
and Nitrates. Phosphates usually range from 0.1 mg/L in reservoirs. 4 to 13 mg/l
phosphate was found in Manasarovar in Madhya Pradesh Low Nitrate Nitrogen in
Indian lake do not usually control productivity. In Kankaria and Naroda lakes in
Ahmedabad, phosphate was present either very low or absent, though both the
lakes recorded eutrophic conditions, Uttarwar (1980).
Rapid turn over of nutrients and quick recycling of various nutrients in water
lakes place. Hedge and Philips (1958) showed that 90 % of the phosphorous was
taken up by phytoplankton within 20 minutes. Abbot (1967) reported rapid turn
over of nutrients in lakes. Phosphates and Nitrates form the part of total dissolved
solid and reflects chemical condition of the reservoirs Khan and Zutschi (1978)
Suggested that temperature governs productivity in water. Konopka and Brock
(1978); Philipose (1960), recorded blue green algal dominance with the rise of
water temperature. There is a clear cut evidence from literature of interaction
existed between temperature and low light intensity from photosynthesis of natural
population and occurrence of effective photosynthesis in lake water. This
represents true adaptation to changing irradiance and was reported by Roger
(1978). Physico Chemical data of more than 100 reservoirs in the country
concluded that morphometric, edaphic and water quality parameters can not be
used as benchmark to predict organic productivity in the lake. However, each
reservoir ecology is determined by a variety of factors and may define the tropical
status of the lake. Bacterial decomposition of organic matter may reflect rate and
consumption of oxygen. Increased in DO content defines high rate of
photosynthesis through out the water column. Almost all productive reservoirs of
the country irrespective of their geographic location depict a klinograde Oxygen
curve.
In lake there is a system of vertical stratification of oxygen along with other
chemical substances and PH. Parameters like pH, CO2, alkalinity and specific
conductivity react to this situation. In upper photolytic zones constant
photosynthesis takes place as a result free CO2 is released.
Free CO2 react with carbonate and produce bicarbonates. These
bicarbonates get deposited on to the bottom and increase Hydrogen Ion
concentrations and in this processes pH drops towards acidic scale. These
reactions together with specific conductivity and CO2 decrease pH values in the
bottom layers and act as useful indicator of productivity.
Higher rainfall in monsoon brings about heavy discharges of water in the
reservoirs and retard macrophyte community growth. In the lack of suitable
available substratum grown of periphyton is discouraged. On the other hand,
planktons because of their drifting habit and short life span proliferate to such an
extent that every suitable environment niche is utilized this Indian reservoirs and
lakes maintain a succession of plankton community. The parameters like bright
sunshine, isothermal water column, klinograde oxygen, curve, extensive
catchments drain enrich earth metals like Ca, mg from forest and cultivated land
thus a complex phenomenon occur in rained catchments reservoirs and lakes.
Any loss of organic matter from healthy organism before they are
consumed is a loss from food chain. It seems unlikely that the organization of the
each of any organism can be such as to prevent entirely the escape of organism
substances formed within them into the surrounding medium. The terms
“extracellular release” or “excretion” are used to describe the loss of soluble
organic compounds by healthy cells of microorganisms. The definition attempts
to separate “true” extracellular substances from organic compounds released by
moribund organisms or liberated during cell lysis Nalewajko, 1977.
Extracellular release appears to be a widespread phenomenon in
microorganisms. The production of great variety of extracellular substances by
various organism is now well established. It is also clear that such substance
often play important roles in growth and physiology of organisms, as well as
aquatic food chains and ecosystems in general.
There is little disagreement that dead micro-organism and their residue
form further contribution along the food chain and contribute appreciable amount
to the non-living organic pool in water. Through degradation organic matter from
these sources probably eventually becomes part of the “dissolved” organic matter,
(Sharp 1975), which are readily utilized by bacteria, Wright, (1970). The release
of extracellular substance often referred as liberation, or excretion.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Any possible permutation or combination of nutrient factors may be involved
in eliciting algal growth in waters depending upon other environmental influences
and eutrophic water have one of the most important problems in progressive
enrichment of water with nutrient concomitant with mass production of algae,
increased water productivity and other undesirable biotic changes. Such a
progressive deterioration of water is regarded as eutrophication (Cairns and Lanza
1972). When for fiscal or logistic reasons, excess nutrients can not be eliminated
from freshwater lakes, certain species of phytoplankton grow to excess. The term
“Water bloom” is widely understood to refer to the accumulation of planktonic
algae at the surface of lakes and reservoirs. Although the constituent algae are
themselves microscopic in size, the intensity of scums and rapidity with which they
develop are such as to impress the most causal observer. Blooms can form and
disperse again within a matter of hours (Reynolds and Walsby 1975).
Algae are plentifully expensive nuisance in water supplies where algae
present problems of filtration and many species taint the water with unpleasant
taste and odours. Blooms also spoil fishing and water sports in recreational
lakes.
When studying the ebb and flow of life in lakes, it is natural to know what
kinds of organisms are present, how the importance of each organism fluctuates in
relation to that of others and how much living matter is produced in a given time,
while other pertinent questions which follows regarding abundance of some
organisms and not others, what controls the succession of dominant species ;
what determines the fertility of lakes. Some of the more recent observational
studies centered round the sequence of events leading upto bloom formation and
there has been much speculation on the factors promoting the growth of bloom
forming populations. The sequence of algae in aquatic environment is well
documented ; the general spring bloom of diatoms, the early summer growth of
green algae and blue green algal blooms in lake summer (Hutchison, 1967). Some
attempts in literature have also been made to give more general comments on
ecology of individual genera and species. While some species remain planktonic
thought out the winter others, may be largely or entirely restricted to the bottom of
a lake.
The various genera may differ also in their behaviors and the time of
maximum population density near the surface of a lake. Most important of
freshwater plankton are probably the members of Bacillariophyceae or diatoms,
and most significant diatom being centric diatom. Among many features of
planktonic algae requiring investigation, a few may be stressed. It is clear that a
variety of changes in the environment may tend to favour the growth of planktonic
forms.
Fresh water resources are the integral parts of mans’ life. These resources
have received mans’ attraction and attention for various activities like fisheries,
irrigation, navigation, transportation, recreation and daily consumption. In past
years organization like IBP, IUCN, UNESCO have devoted their attention on
various aspects of these fresh water resources and their ecology.
F.A. Forel (1841-1912) of Switzerland is considered as father of limnology
for his work on Swiss lake and published three volumes entitled. “Le Lemnase”,
on Lake Geneva. During 1888-1909 he studied physic chemical, biological
characteristics of lake. In 1901 his first book on limnology was published under
the heading of “Handbunch der seankund allagenmiene”. British researchers
extensively worked on fresh water fauna, Hamilton (1822); Day (1973) and Braun
(1849) algal flora
In Asia sewage ponds have been known from centuries but data on their
performance is available for last fifty years now. In rural areas waste stabilization
ponds are made first of its kinds was a pond for Madras University Campus,
Tamilnadu built in 1957 Jhingaran (1982). In the beginning of nineteenth century,
Uturney, Prasad, Bhutia, Arora, Bond, Anderson et al. Brehm, Tewell, Hauer,
Kiefer and Donner described the fresh water species in the Indian Sub Continent
(cf.Michael 1980). Prasad studied the seasonal variation of pond organisms and
therefore was perhaps the first limnologival work in India, Nasar et al., (1982) ;
Patil (1476) Ganpati and Sreenivasan (1968, 1976) worked on almost all
reservoirs in South India for fishery and waste water treatment. Ganpati (1959)
has published a review on ecology of tropical water. Sreenivasan carried out
immense limnological investigation in South India in 1972, 1976, 1977 covered
and various aspects of limnology and biological productivity on man made and
natural lakes in South India.
Hydrobiological study in relation to various aspects of Rajasthan was
carried out by Jakhar et al., (1990) and Hazarika (1994) studied water bodies of
Assam. Michal (1969) has worked on various aspects of limnology of a natural fish
pond in Barrackpore. Ganpati (1955) carried out systematic observation on
ecology of tropical water. Uttarwar (1980) surveyed two lakes Kankaria and
Naroda lakes in Ahmedabad to define of the trophic status of the lakes. Important
contribution of India freshwater was made by Zafar (1967, 1968 a.b) ; Verma
(1967, 1969); Vashisht (1968) ; Vashisht and Dhir (1970) ; Kaul (1977) ; Vass
(1970) ; Munawar (1970) ; Sreenivasan (1970, 1976) ; Unni (1983, 1985) ; Adoni
(1985 ) ; Seenaya and Zafar (1979) ; Awtramani (1980) ; Sehgal (1983) ; Jayadevi
(1985) ; Rao et al., (1995) ; Chandrashekhar and Kodarkar (1994) ; Kodarkar
(1994) ; Jayachandra et al., (1995) ; Choubey (1997). Many researchers have
carried out studies on physico chemical and biological characteristics of river and
dam. Trivedi and Goel (1986) ; Saxena (1990); Patil and Sanbag (1993) ; Shaikh
and Yeragi (2004) ; Kodarkar (1994) ; Kulkarni and Rao et al., (2002) ; Jakher and
Rawat (2003) ; Jain and Seethapati (1996) ; Reddy et al.,(1994) are few to
mention in the literature.
Notable contribution in limnology and algal ecology was made by following
authors Das and Srivastva (1956, 1959); Chakraborthy and Singh (1959) ; George
(1966) ; Gulati (1964) ; Khan and Siddiqui (1966, 1971); Kant and Kachroo
(1971) ; Tandon and Singh (1972) ; Bayade and Verma (1985); Singh and
Mahajan (1987) ; Malik and Bose (1987) ; Gosh and George (1989). Notable work
on eutrophication of lakes was reported by Hasler (1947) ; Valbentyne (1957) ;
Vollenweider (1968) ; Palmer (1969) ; Morgan (1972) ; Zutshi et al., (1973) ; Kaul
(1977) ; Madhusudan et all., (1984) ; Goel et al., (1985) ; Davis (1986) ; Trivedi
(1988) ; Parshbey (2003) ; Sharma et al ., (2009); Kumawat and Javale (2003) ;
Kumar Hegde (2005) ; Yeole and Patil (2005) ; Chavhan et al., (2006).
Various hydrobiological aspects of water bodies was carried out by Munwar
(1970); Chandrashekhar and Kondarkar (1994) ; Roy and Singh Rajni (1999) ;
Singh (2002); Lande (2004) ; and Malik et al., (2004); Zafar (1964) ; Aboo and
Mancel (1967) ; Kunt and Kachroo (1975) ; Shashikant and Kachroo (1977) ;
Himagauri et al., (1987) ; Zafar (1991) ; Pandey et al., (1992) ; Kadam (2000) ;
Rao and Shrivastava (2002) ; Jakher and Rawat (2003) ; Patil and Talmale
(2004) ; Pande and Varma (2004) Lal (1996) carried out studies on effect of mass
bathing on water quality in Pushkar lake. Jana and Sarkar (1982) ; and Islam
(1990) reported effect of high alkalinity and greater productivity in lakes, they also
reported effect of high alkalinity and greater productivity in lakes, they reported
higher hardness in correlation with bicarbonate in aquatic systems.
Roger (1979) suggested occurrence of increased algal sporulation as
responsible for higher pH counts. Planktonic abundance and coexistence of
species depend upon individual cell size and was reported by Tsimul Skaya and
Galazachve (1978). Sreenivasan (1969) reported presence of high nitrogen and
organic carbon content in Amaravathy as significant with context to its productivity.
Wood and Gibson (1973) concluded Lough Neagh as world’s most eutrophic basin
where P remained as critical nutrient. Parr and Smith (1976) on Lough Neagh
recognized both P and N being important for prolonged algal growth. Bishwas
and Cadler (1955) recognized importance of bottom zone as vital for inhibiting
active decomposers.
In Gujarat, Ganpati and Pathak (1972) reported results on Sayaji Sarovar
and Ajwa reservoir, Baroda;Pandey and Kaul (1976) on Lalpari lake, Rajkot;
Gandhi (1964) surveyed diatoms of Ahmedabad and Gupte (1961) studied
seasonal variation in Chandola and Malkhani Talav in Ahmedabad and North
Gujrat. Uttarwar 1980 worked on Kankaria and Naroda Lakes in afremdalaxd.
Low pH and low concentration of DO usually favour growth of Myxophyceae
Rao (1953), reported higher DO record lower growth of blue green algae in
summer months. With high temperature in summer months blue green are
favored, Zafar (1967). Singh (1960) attributed CO2 in water as responsible for
production of blue greens. They reported favoring blue greens with higher O2 and
CO2 values. Microcystis aeruginosa usually form permanent blooms in polluted
water when temperature, sunshine, CO2, Phosphate, albuminoid ammonia was on
higher scale in domestically polluted water. Ganpati (1943) recorded still higher
number of Spirelina nordstedtii along with presence of few Phormidium fragile.
Flagellates
Various investigators have reported existence of a close relationship
between organism and water bodies. Lakes in general have lower CO2 and large
lakes recorded higher values of flagellates and CO2 during summer months. DO
effect presence or absence of warm water. Seenaya (1971) reported existence
higher O2 and higher blooms. Zafar (1958) reported the importance of Carbon and
flagllates in water than availability of nitrogen. Water temperature is another
factor which effect the presence of flagellates.
Myxophyceae
This is a ubiquitous group found in water with various specific factors like
pH temperature, O2, CO2, Nitrate, Phosphate, Organic matter control the growth
of mycrophycads in tropical water. Sreenivasan (1970) stated that organic matter
plays a deciding role in the formation of blooms. When nitrates and phosphate
are low Mycrophyceae algae increase, Munwar (1970). Munwar considered
calcium as important factor for the growth of algae. However, there are other
reports of presence of higher calcium and lower Myxophycean algae. Blue green
are observed more in number in small ponds alongwith presence of Spirulina and
Phormidium.
There is generally a slight liberation of such substances from healthy cell of
various species of chlorophyceae, whereas, in growing cultures of species of
Myxophyceae a considerable proportion of the total organic matter synthesized
regularly appears in a soluble form in the medium (Fogg and Wastlake, 1952).
Even extracellular products form only a small part of the total material synthesized
by an alga it is nevertheless possible that the substance concerned may be
biological active at low concentrations in their microenvironments. Oligotrophic
waters are characterized by higher percent of extracellular release (PER)
(Nalewajko, 1974). It is important to note, however, that the amounts of carbon
excreted and the rates of excretion are far more useful parameters. A significant
fraction of the carbon and nitrogen fixed by blue – green algae is subsequently
excreted into the environment. Saunders (1972) showed that phytophankton
generally release higher molecular weight organic substances rather than simple
sugars, amino acids, and other simple substances. Growth hormones and vitamins
have been reported as constituents of cell exudated of many algae, but the reports
are limited. Bentley 1958, reported auxin like substances in Oscillatoria and other
algae. He also detected water soluble ether insoluble auxins or auxin precursors.
Zutshi and Vass (1978) reported Dal lake water as alkaline, slightly buffered
and remained at a higher trophic status. Such marked alkalinity is brought about
by planktonic algae is also documented by Talling (1976) and alkalinity and high
planktons count was reported by Russo (1978) Selected aspects of hydrobiology
of Pulicat lake was studied by Chako et al., 1953) and Chilka lake was studied by
Ramananthan et al., (1964). Sreenivasana (1977/78) reviewed preliminary
studies of two narrow deep reservoirs which hold poor nutrient conditions.
Results of Suraj Kund, U.P. was reported by Sarkar and Rai (1964) and that of
Govindsagar reservoir, Himachal Pradesh was reported by Sarkar et al (1977).
Bohr (1975) showed presence of a close relationship between temperature, pH
and dissolved oxygen in two Jodhpur (Rajasthan) reservoirs. Bhargawa and Alum
(1979) reported existence of seasonal succession of diatoms in relation to salinity
and alkalinity in Sambhar lake (Rajasthan). Sreenivasan (1969) found nitrate and
phosphorus lacking or occurring only in traces in South India reservoirs.
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton taxa was observed during sometime of the year or the other.
Oscillatoria Microcystis, Chlorococus, Merimosopedia, Nostoc, were observed in
lake water. Desmids like Scenedesmus, Tetraedron, Crucigenia, Cosmarium
were seen in the lake water. List of species found in during study period is given in
separate table. However the present work was not centered on algae studies,
therefore a small list in enclosed. Summer blue green algae dominance was noted
in this lake water, during winter desmids were recorded. A probable list of algae
was recorded in the table.
Sr. No. Name of phytoplanktons
1. Anabaena
2. Chorella
3. Closterium
4. Diatoms
5. Euglena
6. Hydrodictyon
7. Microcystis
8. Merismopedia
9. Spirogyra
10. Scendesmus
11. Volvox
12. Vaucheria
13. Zygnema
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Map and Chart
DESCRIPATION OF LOCATION AND STUDY SITE
Geographically this place is located 22 km of Pandharkawada Yavatmal
towards South (Maharashtra). This place is located on 79.1 latitude 945
longitude. This area witnesses as nearly as 52 rainy days with nearly 100 mm
rainfall. This place is nearly 35 M.S.L. and climate is dry and hot. The lake is
spread on 10 areas of land with 25 to 30 feet deep. This is a perennial lake.
Population of village is around 5500. Every year temple organized fain in the
month of November of Kartik Shudha full moon also this temple is visited by
pilgrims on every full moon day. Nearly 1,50,000 people visit the site and
celebrate the fair for 5 days. On every full moon days thousand of people visit
the lake village. This lake has no attested history. There is no inlet and out let
end water in mainly from rainy source. People wash their cloths regularly on the
banks of lake and animal always wade through water. Thus there is a big load of
pollution as pollutants reach the water. There are aquatic weeds present in the
water. This water always gives poltray coloured appearance. Regular sampling
station were decided from four corner of the lake. Study is restricted to following
method described in APHA (1998).
Selection of sampling of the site was decided based on preliminary studies
of Khateshwar lake. To understand pollutional status of the lake study a few
sports were fixed and sample were drawn at 4 week interval from fixed stations
from June 2007 to December 2007. A year was chosen as a basic unit for study.
Different study spots were fixed on preliminary studies. After investigation and
after intensive study few sampling station study sport were dropped as it was
found less important. Methods described below was strictly followed from
examination of water and waste water (APHA, 1998).
All Chemical and reagents and glasses used during this piece of
work was of high of purity grade.
TABLE No. 3.1
Methods adopted for water analysis
Sr.
No.
Parameters Methods Tolerance Limit
1. Turbidity
(Water
Transparency
)
Turbidity Tube Method 10
2. Water
temperature
Temperature Sensitive
Probe
400
3. pH Electrometric Method 5.5 to 9.0
4. Free CO2 Titrimetric Method
5. DO Winkler’s iodometric Method 6.0
6. Salinity Titrimetric Method 250-1000 (Inland
water)
7. Total Alkalinity Titrimetric Method 200
8. Total
Hardness
Titrimetric Method 300
9. Nitrates Spectrophotometric Method 45-100
(Inland Water)
All values are expressed in mg.l -1 except for Turbidity, Temperature and pH.
Temperature:
Temperature effect chemical, biological reactions of organism present in
water. Rise in water temperature speed up chemical reaction in water and reduce
the solubility of gases and impart unpleasant odour to water. Water temperature
range from 7 to 11 0 C gives a pleasant and refreshing taste to water. At higher
temperature with less dissolved gases water becomes tasteless and do not
quench the trust, Trivedi and Goel (1986).
With higher water temperature organisms metabolic activities increase and
they require more and more Oxygen, however, with rise in temperature Oxygen
solubility decreases. Organisms remain sensitive to higher temperature, Day
(1994) reported that the disease resistance decrease in fishes with rise in
temperature.
Ambient water temperature was measured by using good grade mercury
weir thermometer. Usually subsurface samples were reported by drawing water
samples with the help of Ruttners water sampler. Temperature was recorded
immediately on the spot.
Transparency:
For noting transperancy in the lake Secchi disc was used. With the help of
shaded disc and graduated rope secchi disc values were recorded at the lake on
the spot usually in the morning hours and are expressed in centimeters.
Turbidity of water body is caused by various particles including planktonic
organisms. Particle size more than 10 micro meter caused turbidity and it is an
expression of optical density in which the light is scattered by the particles.
Present in water, NEERI (1987). The light is essential for carrying out
photosynthesis and is called as photic zone. Turbidity gives a measurement of
active photosynthetic zone.
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids):
TDS reflects presence of dissolved solids mainly composed of various ions
like carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, phosphate, sodium, potassium, magnesium,
iron, like substances. In potable water dissolved solids should not cross 100
mg/lit. TDS hold an indirect effect on organisms. 100 ml of water is evaporated
on petridish on water bath at usually 60-700 c temperature. The salts were
collected on pre-evaporated dish and dishes were cooled in dessicators.
Diference in weight of evaporating dishes was noted as TDS and is expressed in
mg/L.-1
TDS = __(A-B) _ x 100
V
Where A = Final weight of dish and evaporated salt. (g)
B = Initial weight of the disc.
V = Volume of sample taken (ml)
pH :
pH is –ve logarithm of Hydrogen ion concentration. It ranges from 0-14
scale where 7 remains neutral. This value usually depend on the concentration
of CO2, carbonate and bicarbonate equilibrium. In biological system pH
equilibrium remain changed. Effect of pH on various chemical, biological
activities in water remains always crucial, NEERI (1987) the statue of water
bodies. DO test form the basis for noting biological oxygen Demand (BOD) and
BOD remains a benchmark for defining pollution and measuring biological waste
present in water.
In the present analysis water analysis kit was used to note concentration of
Dissolved Oxygen in water and results expressed in mg/lit. APHA (1989)
Total Alkalinity:
Alkalinity of water is defined as its acid neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity is a
measure of amount of strong acid needed to lower the pH of sample to 8.3, which
gives free alkalinity (Phenolphthalein alkalinity) and at pH 4.5 gives total alkalinity.
Total alkalinity is the sum of hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates. Alkalinity
was measured by titration method following Adoni (1985) ; APHA (1998).
Requirements:
Sulphuric acid (0.02 N) Phenolphthalein indicator, methyl orange indictor,
titration assembly.
Proceedure:
1) Take 50 ml of sample in Erylenmere Flask and add two drops of
phenolphthalein indicator.
2) Slight pink colour appears, titrate the sample with sulphuric acid to the
colorless end point and note the reading as ‘P (ml of titrant used for
phenolphthalein alkalinity)
3) Add two drops of methyl orange in the same flask and continue to titrate
further till the colour changes from yellow to orange Note this reading as
‘t’ (total ml of the titrant used for both titrations)
Calculations:
ml of titrant ‘P’ x 100
Phenolphthalein alkalinity (mg/l) =
ml of sample
ml of titrant ‘t’ x 100
Total alkalinity (mg/l) =
ml of sample
Hardness:
Ca, Mg, cations impart hardness to water. Total hardness of water show
the sum total of alkaline metal cations present in it. Hardness caused by
carbonates, bicarbonate is temporary while sulphate, chloride, calcium,
magnesium, impart permanent hardness to water. Geological strata of
catchment area generally record hardness to water where as water hardness play
an important role in distribution of aquatic biota. Hardness of drinking water can
be classified as follows.
Soft - 0 to 60 ml/L
Medium - 60 to 120 mg/L
Hard - 120 to 180 mg/L
Very Hard - more than 180 mg/L
To determine hardness EDTA is used as titrant and Eriochrome Black T as
indicator at pH about 12-0, Mg ++ precipitate and Ca ++ ions remain in the solution.
Requirements:
Standard EDTA titrant (0.01m), Eriochrome Black T indicator, Ammonia
buffer solution, titration assembly, inhibitor solution (Sol. Hydroxyl amine
Hydrochloride)
Procedure:
(a) Total hardness :
1. Take 50 ml of the sample in a flask, add 1 ml of Ammonia buffer and a
pinch of inhibitor.
2. Add 5 drops of Eriochrome Black T indicator. The colour of the sample
turns wine red.
3. Titrate the sample against EDTA solution until a clear blue colour
appears.
4. Note the readings and calculate the total hardness.
Calculation:
ml of titrant used (EDTA) x 100
Total hardness (mg/l) as CaCO3 =
ml of sample
Salinity:
In natural water chloride is invariably present Chlorides are mixed in aquatic
ecosystem by dissolution of deposits, discharges, drainage, sewage, and domestic
sewage sources. High chlorides can damage agricultural crop. Domestic
excretes record high quantities of sodium chlorides and they serve as indicator of
pollution.
Chloride level as high as 250 mg/l is safe for human consumption, a level
above this imparts a salty taste to the portable water.
Requirements:
Silver nitrate titrant (0.02N), (AgNO3), Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) as
indicator, titration assembly.
Procedure:
1. Take 50 ml sample in a flask and add 5 drops of potassium chromate
indicator. This imparts yellow colour to the sample.
2. Titrate with standard silver nitrate solution until brick red end point is
obtained.
3. Note the reading.
Calculations:
ml of titrant used x N x 35-45 x 1000
Salinity (mg/l) =
Vol. of the sample in ml
N = Normality of titrant : (0.02 N)
Nitrate (NO3-N) :
In water bodies, nitrogen is present in various forms and in highly oxidisible,
interconvertible compound, it is found as nitrate, nitrite, ammonia and organic
nitrogen. Significant sources of Nitrogen are fertilizers, vegetables, domestic and
industrial effluents. High amount of nitrate is indicative of pollution. Nitrates
exceeding 40 mg/L cause methonoglobemia or blue body syndrome APHA (1985)
and cattle mortality. Nitrites are present as intermediate for during nitrification
and denitrification reaction and is converted in to nitrate or ammonia. Presence
of nitrate in water indicates organic pollution.
Requirements
Spectrophotometers, phenoldisulphonic acid, potassium hydroxide solution,
flask, hot air oven.
Producer:
1. Evaporate 25 ml. sample overnight in a hot air oven at 500 C.
2. Dissolve the residue in 0.5 ml of phenol disulphonic acid.
3. Add 5 ml of distilled water and 1.5 ml of KOH solution. Stirr it, till yellow
colour develops.
4. Read the absorbance a 410 nm on a spectrophotometer using distilled
water bank.
5. Find out the value of Nitrates with the help of standard curve.
Nitrite (NO2-N):
Under acid i.e condition (pH 2 to 2.5) nitrite ions (NO2-N) as nitrous acid
react with sulphonilic acid forming diazonium salt that combines with
naphthylamine hydrochloride to form pinkish red azodye. The resultant optical
density (OD) is directly proportional to the concentration of nitrite present in the
sample.
Requirements:
Spectrophotometer, EDTA. Sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine
hydrochloride.
Procedure:
1. In 50 ml of filtered sample add 1 ml each of EDTA. Sulphanilic acid and
naphthylamine hydrochloride solution.
2. Appearance of wine red colour indicates presence of nitrites. Measure
the absorbance at 520 nm on spectrophotometer.
3. Read the concentration of NO2 from the standard graph.
Biological Oxygen Demand:
BOD is an amount of oxygen utilized by microorganism in stabilizing the
organic matter. Amount of organic matter degraded aerobically is an average
which provides a basis which is proportionate to demand for oxygen. BOD
generally forms a qualitative quickly degradable organic substance index.
BOD is measured by incubating samples at 200 C for 5 days by using
aerated water and dilute sewage, APHA (1998) and is expressed in mgl -1
Biological Study:
Plants and animals usually swimming or suspended non motile or motile or
brought by transport of currents are defined as phytoplanktons or zooplankton.
They are microscopic or small in size when found in water bodies. Phytoplankton
is microscopic unicellular, colonial or filamentous form mostly are autotrophic.
Phytoplanktons are grazed by zooplanktons usually reflect various seasonal,
successional pattern and serve as indicator to assess quality of water. Planktons
support heterotrophic community and are usually the members of chlorophyceae,
cyanophyceae, bacillariophyceae and freshwater forms. They fix inorganic
carbon and build up organic matter to serve as primary producers in aquatic
ecosystem.
Usually a unit of sample is sedimented to analyze photoplankton quality and
quantity. Plankton nets are usually used in algal research. However for
nanoplanktons study sedimentation process is used. For zooplanktons bigger
amount of sample is sedimented. Samples thus concentrated are then subjected
to qualitative analysis of algal forms by using monographs and keys.
Preservation of these planktons is usually carried out by using lugol for
phytoplanktons.
A liter of water sample was collected every month separately for is the
analysis. Phytoplanktons were counted in 1 ml. sample by Sedgewick-Rafter cell
method and identified following Fritsch (1975); Desikacharya (1975).
CHAHPTER IV
OBSERVATION AND RESULTS
Data was collected following procedure described in earlier chapter. Data
was collected from four corners of lake.
Physico-chemical parameter were studied at the same time phytoplanktons
data was also obtained. Result illustrated and represented and described in this
chapter.
Physical appearance
Turbidity Temperature
Odour
pH
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Dissolved oxygen
Chlorides/Salinity
Nitrate –N
Nitrate – N
Transparency
BOD
Temperature:
Temperature was ranging between 21 to 30 C during July to September
temperature do not vary. Temperature decreased in December to 190 C and
from February it recorded higher values.
Physical appearance
Turbidity:
Water remains turbid to slightly turbid throughout the year during study period.
Odour:
Lake recorded dirty smell and in summer it imported dirty to highly dirty smell.
pH:
pH of the lake was between 8 to 9 in December it was on lower side where
summer recorded 9 as highest value, however monsoon pH values declined.
Alkalinity:
Total alkalinity both CO3, HCO3 resulted in higher concentrating during
summer.
Dissolved Oxygen:
Dissolved Oxygen recorded higher values in summer and in September DO
values were less DO was noted higher in March. Summer recorded well
oxygenated situation in epilemnetic zones; DO was lower in Oct.
Salinity:
These values fluctuated. In winter months chlorides showed higher values
also during the month of May / June chlorides recorded higher values.
Nitrate – N:
This was towards higher side during winter. However, lower nitrate values
recorded in summer.
Water Transparency:
Transparency results recorded that water remained clear with more photic
zone during summer, however water transparency was lower than in summer are
during rest of the years.
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD):
BOD values recorded the existence of higher biological degradation in the
lake throughout the year. BOD scale was towards lower side during early
months of summer, however no specific seasonal trend was noted for this
parameter.
Total Hardness
The water was hard during winter and lake hardness values were erratic
during rest of the moth.
Nitrate – N was lower during winter and recorded higher values in summer.
Phytoplankton
Oscillatoria among blue green algae diatom sand Chlorococcales, flagellate
were observed. Microcystis recorded its absence in July and August. It showed it
stability by forming blooms from December. In the lack of Microcystis Oscillatoria
was seen in July and also recorded in summer Chrococcas showed its presence.
Blue green algae Merismopedia, Nostoc was also recorded few in number.
Flagellate This group was present during on monsoon, Diatoms recorded in
monsoon and after.
Desmids was recorded by several species of Scenedesmus other Dersmids
like Tetraedron Crucigania Cosmarium were recorded in water.
List of species found during study period is given. Various tax recorded
some time or the other during study period is represented in the table. Efforts are
made to identify these taxa to it’s taxonomic status, however the study was not
pertained to taxonomy of algae, therefore generic data is presented.
Periodic data of Khateshware lake(Physio-chemical parameters of water).
Expressed in mg/L.
TABLE NO. 4.1
↓ →Temp
.Transparenc
y pH DOHCO
3 CO3
Salinity
BOD
Total Hardne
ssNitrite
s NitratesJUN-05 30 6.1 9 8.5 374 89 610 24.1 153 0.478 0.021JULY-
05 29 8.5 9 7.8 149 121 600 19.1 162 0.34 0.023AUG-
05 29 14 8.8 6.5 234 34 480 21.2 167 0.121 0.022SEPT-
05 29 15.1 8.7 6.3 174 21 490 18.3 180 0.426 0.02OCT-05 28 12.5 8.6 4.2 265 31 487 21.9 183 0.521 0.034NOV-
05 26 11.3 8.6 7.9 245 30 360 20.7 181 0.302 0.042DEC-
05 19 11.2 8.5 9.5 306 45 387 22.3 120 0.162 0.034JAN-06 20 11 8.5 5.4 428 70 430 20.1 117 0.064 0.031FEB-06 21 11.2 8.6 9.8 445 40 511 18.7 121 0.079 0.029MAR-
06 24 10 8.9 11 307 50 470 21.3 122 0.102 0.027APR-06 27 8.1 8.9 7.8 336 43 530 16.7 37 0.097 0.025MAY-
06 31 6.2 9 8.2 532U.N.
D 521 21.3 48 0.764 0.022
Periodic data of Khateshware lake(Physio-chemical parameters of water).
Expressed in mg/L from Jun-2005-May-2006.
PHYTOPLANKTON
Phytoplankton is chlorophyll bearing suspended microscopic organisms
consisting of algae with representative from all major taxonomic kinds. The
majority of members belong to Chlorophyceae. Cyanophyceae and
Bacillariophyceae hold unique ability to fix inorganic carbon to build organic matter
through primary production makes these study a subject of prime importance.
The quality and quantity of phytoplankton and their seasonal successional patterns
have been successfully utilized to assess the quality of water and its capacity to
sustain heterotropic communities.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Among the several methods known for the collection of plankton the use of
plankton net is most common even for algal work which however should be
abandoned because many minute (e.g. nonoplankton mainly diatoms) pass
through the pores of the net resulting in under estimations of the population
density. Therefore, the direct concentration of the phytoplankton of the water
sample by sedimentation (and occasionally by centrifugation) is a prerequisite for
accurate qualitative analysis.
Chemical Alkalinity:
Alkalinity measurements were carried out at the lake sites following pheno
phthelein for carbonates and methyl orange indicator and result expressed as CO3
or HCO3 in mg 1 –1.
Physical appearance :
Odour:
Odour is noted at the lake site and odour and colour noted.
TDS total dissolved soil :
Total dissolved solid were calculated by evaporating fixed amount of water
in crucibles on hot water bath at 1000C and difference in weight is calculated.
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SAMPLE
From the predetermined stations along the lakes the samples were
collected every month for analysis of different parameters in the following
manners. The sampling was always done during early hours of morning at all
stations. Samples collected were accompanied by sampling data remainder and
a tag (appendix) for sampling data and station. All sample were collected in
triplicate and a survey was carried for 12 months. Always subsurface sample
were collected.
For general parameters :
(Alkalinity Hardness, Salinity)
5 liter of sample wasllected in wide mouth transparent polythene containers
previously treated by Rodine as described by Schwoerbel (1970). No chemical
preservative was added and was immediately stored at 40 C.
For Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
The samples were collected in 300 ml bottles using APHA type. DO
samples assembly. DO was fixed on the spot, adding alkali-azide iodide with
manganese sulphate solution.
For phytoplankton analysis
One liter of sample was collected for phytoplankton analysis and it was
preserved at the lake site with Lugols Solution following 1958, but Lugols with
acetic acid (Habro and Willen, 1977).
Method for determination of different parameter.
After bringing the fixed sample the sample were allowed to sediment for 5
to 6 days and the sediments are resuspended in 10ml (Ragothaman, 1975) of
buffered formoline (UNESCO1s, 1974, Harbro and Willen, 1977).
The relative number of genera in the Cyanophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and
Chlorophyceae were determined for each sample.
In present investigation work on natural lake in Khateshwar village is
selected for assessment. The village has population of 5500 residents, but
certain at regular intervals the lake is under stress when pilgrims visit to site and
camp at several days at several time beside this, the visitor wash cloths and cattle
feed on lake sides addition of domestic waste and visitor activity is an common
phenomenon for addition of nutrients in Khateshwar lake. Lake required full
assessment. Study of plankton of lake and study of forest flora from surrounding
environment can define status of lake. The research was carried out in following
lines.
1. The study is novel to its kind because this lake is not attempted by any
researcher earlier.
2. Seasonal study of plankton was carried out.
3. Chemical study was carried out.
4. Data collected is presented and assessed, will the help of available with
scientific literature.
Table No. 3.1
Detail of physico-chemical analysis adopted for this work
Test Method and Reference
Temperature
Transparency
Ambient water temperature noted on
spot transparency by sechhi Disc.
Mercury weir
thermometer
pH Ambient water pH and in Laboratory pH meter
Alkalinity Standard sulphuric acid phenolpthlein
and methyl orange APHA 1998
Titration
Chlorides Argentometric method APHA, 1998 Titration
Total Na EDTA titration APHA, 1998 Titration
Hardness
Dissolved
Oxygen; BOD
Wrinker Azide titration APHA 1998 Titration
Nitrite – N
Nitrote – N
Following APHA 1998 Spectro colour
meter at 520 nm
DISCUSSION
General discussion on water hydromicrobialogy of Khateshwar lake.
Aquatic ecosystems are prone to innumerable social economic problems,
these freshwater systems are over utilized in rural India, as against water
conservation carried out in advanced countries. India fall in tropical area where
excesses nutrient addition is uncontrolled, through there are huge number of
legislations, but these are never taken care of for creating balanced ecosystem
water is scares and human activity is growing. Much of work related to
ecophysiology of aquatic bodies is carried out with respect to bloom formation is
reported. In India major algal forms which grow to excesses are Microcystis,
Merismopedia, Nostoc, Chroococcus, Rivulatria. Bloom- formation in eutrophic
fresh water is an overt expression of multiple interacting factors and bloom formed
like Microcystic is momentarily favored by effects of these factors. In a particular
period of the year, the whole gamut of factors so harmoniously synchronise their
optima that lake water are blasted with overgrowth of Microcystis.
Environmental parameters which trigger the bloom formation can roughly
be divided into two classes ; course adjusters and fine adjusters, light intensity and
macronutrients are those among course adjusters and temperature and release of
certain micronutrients from bottom mud and bacterial activities, oxygen status of
the water are those among fine adjusters which trigger the bloom formation.
Some workers like Keating (1977) has included extra cellular matabolites also
amongst the fine adjusters.
Under this discussion results obtained from physico-chemical analysis of
environmental parameter of the lake will be discussed along with biological
species, then the results obtained from the vitro studies of the lake microbes will
be discussed. These discussion may lead to some concluding remarks for
biocontrol of the bloom forming species.
This method is novel of its kind to correlate environmental and laboratory
outcomes. Ecological perception with respect to study of hydrobiology and
control of native tolerant species with the help of microorganisms is totally novel of
its kind for this area. Present attempt will serve a useful tool for the researches to
come. In the present discussion interpolation of these result is carefully done
and fruitful attempt are made in the following lines.
LIGHT PENETRATION
Solar radiation directly effects growth of micro-organisms in water.
Berlinsko and Mann (1978); besides heterotrophic and photoheterotrophic mode of
nutrition for microorganisms is common in natural water. Photoauto trophy
remains in active mode for blue green algae and various forms of life.
Transparency factor depends upon the turbidity and organic compounds present in
water. In the present study summer recorded higher euphoric zone and it was
almost double than it was in winter. High wind induced turbidity or inflow usually
govern like penetration in water. A combination of factors like light intensity and
day length in summer, water temperature, reduced circulation may cause plankton
succession (Hickman, 1974). It is known that smaller algae reproduce themselves
at a quicker rate (Golterman, 1975). Similarly, spelling and Blum (1974), reported
unicellular algae being favored over filamentous ones during winter and low light
intensity.
Summer usually record high crowding of microorganisms in euphotic zone
in this lake
TEMPERATURE
Temperature of water generally govern productinity of the lake ;
temperature hold great effect on water microbiology. With temperature gases
dissolve and metabolic processes also increase. Zutsi and Khan (1978) ;
Konokpa and Brooke (1978) reported a direct bearing of water and production of
plankton oxidation of organic matter goes higher during summer. In the presnt
survey of Khateshwar lake water temperature followed air temperature and
recorded winter minima and summer maxima. Biological system usually hold a
good tolerance for temperature range. Reynolds (1971) reported higher water
blooms only at onset of summer, during winter algal range of the water recorded
various forms of algae, particularly green algae was found during winter. Thus it
is noted from the results that the lake supported typical tropical summer flora and
the growth of the biota remained increasing. With the temperature rise number of
species decreased during summer therefore this lake is defined eutrophic. In the
present instance higher crop of phytoplankton was recorded. Besides
combination of factors that allows one species of algae to hold dominance over
others, light could be one among them. Plants need light for their photosynthetic
requirements. Physiological adaptation of low light intensity is recognized in
many algae. Similar results were reported by Round, 1964; sreenivasan 1964;
and also by Reynolds and Walsby 1975.
IONIC COMPOSiTION AND pH
In soft water Lake Hutchinson (1967); algae and microorganism remained
higher in number, besides calcium, bicarbonate, ions and pH buffering availability
of free CO2 is important Reynolds and Walsby (1975), In the present study pH
remained higher and lake water was within a well buffered situation. Thus the
results obtained for this parameter were well within the range for Indian lake water.
Bicarbonate and carbonate result are usually governed by soil composition. In
higher temperature carbonate may be precipitated out in the form of bicarbonates
Hutchinson (1957);
Presence of higher carbonate during rainy season and also during winter,
may be due to result of higher run off and higher biological activity in lakes. King
(1970) reported that low alkalinity and high pH microorganisms remain carbon
limited.
Lee et al., (1978), in contrast to Kuentzel (1969) suggested that except
under atypical highly fertile condition carbon rarely limits total algal biomass. It
would appear that carbon limitation of algal growth remains distance possibility in
a productive lake Lange (1973) unless there are adequate reserves provided by
the bicarbonate buffering system. Lakes which are well buffered by high
concentration of bicarbonate low pH value should be favorable to the growth of
blue-green algae) (Reynolds and walshy (1975). Results obtained during present
study can be correlatedpositively with there results.
In a natural water body, carbonate bicarbonates parameters define
biological activities and enzymatic activities balance, however this parameter
never remain limiting to trigger the over growth of biota and this parameter remain
soil dependent.
Under different pH, alkalinity conditions few species may be favored and
few may be eliminated, however then there is surplus growth and eutrophication.
The parameter understudy remained insignificant. In lake Khateshwar summer
flora recorded eutrophophic conditions.
Salinity
Besides soil water and related characters there are two other factors which
are known to effect ionic composition of natural waters in semi arid and arid
regions. Some effect of net water loss from lakes due to evaporation, climatic
factors including air temperature and wind velocity precipitation and role of surface
run off effect the relative water loss, which results in gain of total dissolved solids.
It was expected that small lakes would be more saline and more eutrophic
than large ones as is the case in larger areas which provide homogeneous
characters Rawson (1955), however, in contrast, Barica (1978) showed that
neither salinity nor chlorophyll depend upon morphometric characteristics of the
lakes. It is relevant to quote here Jhingran (1977) and Gulati (1976) who believed
that chemical characteristic of the water of a reservoir change with its age. chloride
values for this lake was erratic with higher records for may and June. Jhingran
(1977) reported that chemical characteristics of water of a reservoir vary with its
age and lakes distributed with in a small geographical area remain limnologically
different.
Rhode (1949) Barica (1978) considered most of the inland waters to be
bicarbonate type ; they characterized other types as regional or “local pecularities”
influenced by geochemical and climatic conditions tending to counteract and
cancel the normal tendency of fresh water to develop into a bicarbonate – Ca type.
However, no such peculiarity was seen in the lakes under study. In the present
investigation the range of salinity obtained was in confirmity with chloride value
reported for Jaipur lakes Sharma (1978) Higher values of chlorides are due in no
small measure to the nature of soil in this part. This lake supported various
seasonal phytoplankton.
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.)
In the presennt instance higher summer DO values recorded well
oxygenated situation in the lake, which directly reflects photosynthetic activity
carried out by the phytoplankton. In lake subsurface winter DO was slightly
lower. This record metabolically active situation in the lake. pH and minerals
and nutrients remained quite available in the lake in dissolved form and
phytoplankton was represented and by various species. Oxygen contents do not
dissolve in water to a great concentration in the lake higher DO result maximum in
January is in a conformity with several Indian authors like Banarkar et. at., (2005)
on Chandrawati tank. Khatawakar et. al., (2002). Sakhare and Joshi (2003),
availability of O2 in dissolved form in natural water usually support zooplanktons
growth.
BOD
BOD represents biological activity, available DO, bacteria and organic
matter composition. BOD usually follow two cycles, where carbonaceous phase
decompose to produce CO2 and H2O and nitrification phase which follow nitrate
nitrate path way the action of nitrozo-monas and nitro-bactar. A steady phase
unchangel phase of BOD was recorded from the study from Khateshwar lake
water explain constant decomposition and supply throughout the season during
study period
Nitrogen Nitrate
The forms of nitrogen that are generally available for aquatic plant growth
are nitrate and ammonia. Normally algae require ten times as much nitrogen for
growth as phosphorus, natural water contain at least this relative quantity of
available nitrogen over phosphorus Lee et al, (1978). Blue greens frequently
become dominant in lakes at about the same time that concentration of the
nutrients reach their seasonal minima Lund (1965) Hutchinson, (1967). Nicholls
(1976) has observed abundant growth of blue green in water where inorganic
nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were less than detectable levels.
The present lake recorded higher nitrates during winter and lower nitrites
during the same period of time. This represents that nitrite to nitrate was active
during winter and nitrate degradation was seen in summer. Nitrate reflect
eutrophi condition of water with a domestic source of pollution organic matter
decomposition is defined during onset of hot season in the present lake, which is
also reflected from BOD values.
PHYTOPLANKTON
The problem of the relationship between bacteria and algae is especially
relevant with the emphasis of aquatic ecology today. As to nature of this
relationship there is no simple formula. Some bacteria may benefit from algae
and vice versa. They may also adversely affect one another by secretions of
substance with antibiotic activity.
Ecology of phytoplankton in polluted water bodies and the usefulness of
different phytoplankton species and groups serve as indicators of pollution Status
of water have been studied in depth by a number of workers since the emergence
of the concept of “Biological indicators pollution”. In the present instance the lake
was represented by several groups. of algae Microsystic recorded higher during
July and August ; when Microsystis was absent Chrococcus, Merimopedia,
Oscillatoria were recorded. The lake was also represented by desmids and
diatoms.
The lake understudy was represented with presence of pollutional grade
species like, Anebena, Microcystis, Merismopedia and Scendesmus.
Discussion – Phytoplankton Counts.
Thus it is clearly seen that association between blue-green algae and
bacteria appear ubiquitous in aquatic ecosystems and are often more pronaunced
during over growth of algae.
Changes in temperature, salinity conditions can cause fluctuations in
bacteria and algal members, which may have nothing to do with bacteria algae
relationship itself (Hieper, 1975).
Several authors on the relationship between algae and bacteria tend to
support that healthy algae were not subject to degradation by bacteria or fungi –
organic compound assimilated by bacteria. “May be one of the factors leading to
algal bloom in lakes and ponds especially when growth is not limited by the supply
of phosphorus or other inorganic elements”. This intimate relationship must have
been a reason among others that Microcystic which grows in lake understudy. The
description of Microzones induced by bacteria associated with bluegreen algae
indicaters how the algae might benefit, but may of the mechanics of nutrients and
gaseous exchange remain uncleared.
PART – II
INTRODUCTION
Accelerated eutrophication of natural water bodies is at present, a very
important problem calling for possibly a speedy solution. The possibility of
slowing down eutrophication process or of its control, closely depend on obtaining
a knowledge on dynamics of algal growth and its nutritional requirements. An
individual can survive, grow and reproduce in a changing environment. So long as
the changes are not beyond limits, Genetically determined potentiality for the
morphological and physiological adaptation, algae may respond differently to
different substances added to it for this reson it is desirable to carry out
experiments in the laboratory For the biocontrol of it. In the present experiment
fungi was isolated from lake Khateshwar and biological control with the help of
using bacterial strain was adopted for biocontral applications.
Genus Bacillus is well known for antibiotic producer, antifugal activity of
Bacillus was observed against plant pathogenic fungal including Penicillium sp.,
Rizopus sp ; Candida sp., Fusarium sp., on the potato dextrose agar by Agar Well
Diffusion Method. The author was benefited to work in Department of
Biotechnology , Swami Ramanand Tirth University, Nanded (MS) and strains were
isolated from Lake Khateshwar under study.
Fungal diseases can have major constraints on crop production and in
conventional agriculture and environmental studies ; chemical fungicides are
routinely used to provide disease control. However, as these chemicals are often
toxic and potentially harmful to man and the environment, alternative methods for
control are needed. Biological control is potential alternative approach to
chemical treatment and there are number of fungal biocontrol products
commercially available, including some that are registered as biopesticides.
These are likely to increase in coming years.
The search for new safe, broad spectrum antifungal antibodies with greater
potency has been progressing slowly Gupic et al., (2002). One reasion for the
slow progress compared to antibacterial is that, like mammalian cells, fungi are
eukaryotes and therefore agents that inhibit protein. RNA or DNA biosynthesis in
fungi have greater potential for toxicity to the host as well (Georgo – Papadacou
and Ticazz, (1994). The other reason is that until recently, the incidence of life
threatening fungal infections was perceived as being too low to warrant aggressive
research by the pharmaceutical companies (Georgo Papaddicou and Ticazz,
1996).
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A compound produced by Bacillus pumilus (MSH) that inhibits Mucoraceae
and Aspergillus species is described. Fungicidal activity was demonstrated by
lawn spotting and by diffusion through 0.45 um millipore membranes placed on 5
% sheep blood agar, nutrient agar, trypticase soy agar and muller- Hington agar,
followed by spore incubation correlated with the zone of haemolysis produced by
B. pumius (MSH). The active compound inhibited mucor and Aspergillus spore
germination and aborted elongating hyphae, presumably by inducing a cell wall
lesion. Antifungal activity was stable in agar for a minimum of 8 days, resistant to
pronase degradation, and partially inactivated by chloroform exposure and at pH
5.6. its molecular mass was determined by diffusion through dialysis membrane to
500 – 3000 da. Attempts at further isolation of the compound have proven
unsuccessful to date. Alternaria disease are among the most common diseases of
many plant in the world Rocoa (2001). They affect primarily the leaves, stems,
flowers and fruits of annual plants especially vegetables Basim (1997).
The over use of chemical pesticides has caused soil pollution and harmful
effects of human beings. Accordingly biological control of soil borne disease has
been attracting attention. Many reports or reviews in this area have already
appeared Bernal (2001). Biological controlled agent are potential alternatives for
the chemical fungicides presently used in the agriculture to fight plant diseases.
Bacillus spp., strains are an example of a promising safe fungal biological control
agents. This work, describes that IB. subtilis B2, B. licheniformis B40, B. subtilis
mB2.9, B.subtils + B2.2, B. licheniformis MB40, B. licheniformis + B40.2, which
showed in vitro antibiotic activity against Cornea et al., (2003) were subjected to
pot test to investigated their ability to protect plant against fungal disease.
A Bacillus strain, denoted as Py-1, was isolated from vascular bundle of
cotton. Biochemical, physiological and loss DNA sequence analysis proved that
it should belong to Bacillus subtilis. The Py-1 strain showed strong ability against
many common plant fungal pathogens in vitro. The antibiotics produced by this
strain were stable in neutral and basic conditions, and not sensitive to high
temperature from the culture broth of Py-1 strain. Five antifungal compounds
were isolated by acidic precipitation, methanol extraction, gel filtration and reverse
phase HPLC. Advanced identification was performed by mass spectrometry and
nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. These five antifungal compounds
were proved to be the isomers of iturin A : A2, A3, A4, A6 and A7. In fast atom
bombardment mass spectrometry / mass spectrometry collision induced
dissociation spectra, fragmentation ion from two prior linear acylium ions were
observed, and the prior ion, Try-Asn-Gin-Pro-Asn-Scr-BAA-Asn-Co, was first
reported.
Fusarium wilt causes huge economical losses in a wide variety of crops
(Inouel et al., (2002). The pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum, infects plants through
the roots by direct penetration or wounds, colonized the vascular tissue and
causes plant death Simons et al., (1998). Chemical soil fumigation is the main
treatment of Fusarium wilt. Broad spectrum biocides / particularly methyl
bromide, can be used to fumigate the soil, but they cause serious environmental
damage Fravel et al., (2003).
Recently, scientists have paid attention to biological methods of defense
against plant diseases. Control of pathogens by antagonistic microorganisms or
their antibiotic products is not considered a viable diseases control technology
(Han et al., 2005). A Bacillus strain with ineffective ability against the Fusarium
wilt pathogen was isolated from the vascular tissue of a cotton Fusarium wilt
resistant strain and named Py-1.
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of samples
Soil from deferent region of Khateshwar lake was collected for isolation.
Water sample were also collected from the sites.
Enrichment
The isolates obtained from starch agar plates were enriched in pure form
into starch broth tubes and the tubes were subjected to growth at 400 C for 24-48
hrs. Serial subcultures and transfers were made to maintain the cultures of
Bacillus species thus obtained.
Isolation
Mix 1 g of soil samples collected from lake in 10 ml of sterile distilled water
tube. Inoculate 0.1 ml from mixture in to the sterile starch agar plate and sterile
starch broth tube at pH 8, 10 and 12.
Preparation of starch agar
Starch agar medium was prepared as follows starch 20g, Peptone 5 g, Beef
extract 3 g, Agar agar 15 g, Distilled water 1000 ml. Medium was autoclaved at
1210 C for 15-20 min. pH of the medium was adjusted with 0.1 N Na OH or 0.1 N
HCl.
Preparation of starch broth
Starch broth content was as follows starch 20g, Peptone 5 g, Beef extract 3
g Distilled water 1000 ml.
Medium was autoclaved at 1210 C for 15-20 min. pH of the medium was
adjusted with 0.1 N Na OH or 0.1 N HCl.
Inoculated plates and tubes of starch agar and starch broth respectively
were incubated at 400 C for 24-48 hours. After incubation period different species
of Bacillus were obtained and their activity was checked on starch agar plates.
Identification
Morphological and cultural characters were observed by performing certain
biochemical tests. These isolates were labeled as LB1, LB2, LB3.
Isolation of fungi
The four species of fungi were also isolated as Penicillium sp., Rhizopus
sp., Candida spand Fusarium sp.
Extraction
Starch agar broth of LB1 pH 8, LB2 pH 10 and LB 3 pH 12 were configured
by taking the appropriate amount of the sample in each sterile Eppendorf tube of
the centrifuge. These tube were centrifuged for 10000 rpm of 20 min.
The supernatant was collected into three sterile screw cap tube. This
supernatant were used for determining antifungal activity against plant pathogenic
fungi by agar diffusion assay method.
Bacterial culture
Starch broth of pH 8, pH 10 and pH 12 were inoculated by loopful of LB1,
LB2 and LB3, respectively, which was also used for determining antifungal activity
against isolated fungi using agar well diffusion method.
Assay using extracts and whole bacterial cultures.
The sterile potato dextrose agar (PDA) was distributed in sterile petriplates.
The fungal suspension of Penicillium, Rizopus, Candida and Fusarium was
prepared separately in sterile saline tube. These suspensions were eventually
spread with the help of spreader on medium then petridish was kept at room
temperature for 30 min after that a well was prepared with the help of borer. The
wells were separately filled with either bacterial cultures or cell extracts as
mentioned. Plates were incubates at room temperature for 2-3 days and
observed zone of inhibition. The results were recorded and expressed in terms of
zone of inhibition of pathogen i.e. fungi in millimeter.
Percent Relative Activity.
For percent relative activity of the isolated fungi considered standard zones
of inhibition against Gresiofulvin zone with A. Solani as a test organism was
considered standard.
Gresiofulvin antifungal was discovered to be produced by P. Gresiofulvin
and now a days by several species of Penicillium. It is highly toxic to powdery
mildew of beans and downy mildew of cucumbers. It is also used to control
Alternaria sanlani in tomato, Scerotinia fructigena in apple and Botrylies cinerea
in lettuce.
Per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2, and LB3 were calculated by
compairing with standard zones of inhibition with Gresiofulvin against A. Solani
on PDA. The standard solution was prepared by dissolving 100 mg of antifungal
compound in 1 ml of ethanol. This solution (0.1 ml) was added in the agar wells
and the zones of inhibition obtained were considered as standard.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 4.1 shows colony characteristic of LB1, LB2, LB3 after 24 hr
incubation on starch agar.
Table 4.1 Morphological and colony characteristics of LB1, LB2 and LB3.
Colonies/Colony
Character
LB1 LB2 LB3
Size 1 mm 1 mm 1mm
Shape Circular Circular Circular
Colour White Dirty White Pale Yellow
Elevation Convex Convex Convex
Margin Entire Entire Entire
Opacity Opaque Opaque Opaque
Consistency Sticky Sticky Sticky
Surface Smooth Smooth Smooth
Gram’s nature Gram Positive Gram Positive Gram Positive
Morphology Short rods Short rods Short rods
Strain LB1, LB2, LB3 exhibited amylase test positive.
Table 4.2 antifungal activity of gresiofivom against A. solani of PDA.
Antifungal pH (8.0) pH (10) pH (12)
Gresiofulvin 16 mm 12mm 08mm
The date in Table 4.2 shows that antifungal activity of resiofulvin against I
A. solani of PDA. It is consider as a standard table for calculating percentage
relative activity.
Data in the Table revealed that different species of Bacillus show the
antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi at its respective pH. It was seen
that as indicated in the Table 4.3 crude extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed
significant result of zone of inhibitant against Candida sp. And Rhizopus species
as compared to the other fungal species.
Table 4.3 Antifungal activity of Bacillusi sp. Against different target fungi at
pH 8.
Bacterial sp Inhibition zone diameter (mm) *
Penicilium
sp
Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 7 8.5 8.5 7
LB2 5.5 7 8 6
LB3 7 7 5.5 5.5
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
Percentage relative activity
When compared with per cent relative activity of standard resiofulvin
against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. given in table 4.4.
and Fig. 4.5. it reveals that per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2 and LB3 was
maximum of significant against the Candida and Rhizopus species at pH 8.
Table 4.4. per cent relative activity of centrifuged extract of the isolated at pH
8.
Bacterial sp Per cent relative activity at pH 8*
Penicilium
sp
Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 36.66 42.44 42.44 36.38
LB2 32.22 336.38 42.44 32.33
LB3 36.44 36.44 32.22 32.22
(* Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 8 calculated by using the standard
Gresiofulvin against A. solani on potato dextrose agar.
Per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. against pathogenic Fungi
From the Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 and Fig. 4.5 it is revealed that the crude
extract of LB1, LB2, and LB 3 show the moderate antifungal activity at pH 8 as
compared to other fungal strains.
While under the similar pH i.e. 9 pH conditions but centrifuged extract of
LB1, LB2, and LB3 showed in Table 4.4 that strain LB1, LB2 and LB3 shows
higher than crude extract the antifungal activity against Penicillium sp. and
Rhizopus sp. but all the LB1, LB2 and LB 3 shows moderate antifungal activity
against the Candida sp. and Fusarium sp. at pH 8.
Effect of Bacillus sp. against pathogenic fungi at pH 8.
Bacterial sp Inhibition zone diameter (mm)*
Penicilium
sp
Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 5 4 5 4
LB2 4 5 5 3
LB3 3 5 3 4
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
Percent Relative Activity
When compared with per cent relative activity of standard. Gresiofulvin
against Alternaria Solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. it is calculated as
shown in the Tables showed that per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2 and LB3 is
maximum/moderate against the Candida sp. and Rhizopus sp.
Per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. at pH 8.
Bacterial sp Per cent relative activity at pH 8
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 31.11 26.66 31.11 26.25
LB2 25.66 32.44 32.66 22.22
LB3 21.22 31.33 15.88 21.22
(*Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 8 (centrifuged extract) calculated
by using the standard Gresiofulvin against A. Solani on potato dextrose agar. )
Per
cent relative activity of Bacillum sp. against pathogenic fungal at pH 8
Table 4.9 crude extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed significant result
against the plant pathogenic fungi but it is more effective against candida sp. and
Rhisopus sp. at pH 10.
Table 4.9 effect of Bacillus sp. against plant pathogenic fungi
(centrifuged extract) at pH 10.
Bacterial sp Inhibition zone diameters (mm)*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 5 6 5 5
LB2 7 5 4 7
LB3 5 6 5 7
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
Per cent Relative Activity
When compared with per cent relative activity of standard Gresiofulvin
against Alternaria Soloni per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. it is was shown
in Tables and reveled that per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2 and LB3 is
moderate against or significant against the Rhizopus sp and then Fusarium sp.
Per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. (centrifuged extract)
at pH 10.
Bacterial sp Per cent relative activity at pH 8*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 45.15 52.84 45.15 44.15
LB2 52.33 45.55 36.66 52.88
LB3 45.55 45.88 36.66 54.44
(*Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 10 (Bacterial culture) calculated by
using the standard Gresiofulvin against A. Solani on potato dextrose agar.
Per cent relative activity of Bacillum sp. against pathogenic fungel
(centrifuged extract) at pH 10
From Table it was seen that the LB2 and LB3 was showing maximum zone
of inhibition and maximum per cent relative activity, it shows that LB2 and LB3
show to produce antifungal activity against Rhizopus and Fusarium sp.
Results show that the centrifuged extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3 show
increased level of antifungal activity than that crude extract at pH 10 it reveals that
the LB1, LB2 and LB3 show the increased level of antifungal activity against the
Rhizopus sp. and than the Fusarium sp.
Effect of Bacillus sp. against pathogenic fungi at pH 10.
Bacterial sp Inhavition zone diameters (mm)*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 4 5 5 4
LB2 5 6 4 5
LB3 4 5 4 5
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
Per cent Relative Activity
When compared with per cent relative activity of standard Gresiofulvin
against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. is calculated as
shows in Table 4. 13
Per cent relative activity of Bacillus at pH 10.
Bacterial sp Per cent relative activity at pH 8*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 30.76 38.46 38.46 30.76
LB2 38.46 38.46 30.76 38.46
LB3 30.76 38.46 30.76 38.46
(*Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 10 (Bacterial culture) calculated by
using the standard Gresiofulvin against A. Solani on potato dextrose agar.)
Per cent relative activity of Bacillum sp. against pathogenic fungo at pH 10
From above table per cent relative activity of bacteria against given fungal
species can be calculated, it showed that the per cent relative activity and zone of
inhibition increased with the Rhizopus sp. and than Fusarium sp. at pH 10 as
compared with the other species of fungi.
It was observed that as indicated in the Tables that is crude extract of the
LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed significant zone of inhibition against all the plant
pathogenic fungi but the antifungal activity against the Candida and Fusarium
sp.revorded significant zone of inhibition at pH 12.
Effect of Bacillus sp. against pathogenic fungi
(centrifuged extract) at pH 12.
Bacterial sp Inhavition zone diameters (mm)*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 3 2 3 3
LB2 Nil 3 2 Nil
LB3 2 3 3 2
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
Per cent Relative Activity
When compared with per cent relative activity of standard Gresiofulvin
against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. is calculated and
recorded in Table 4. 16
Per cent Relative Activity of Bacillus centrifuged extract) at pH 12.
Bacterial sp Per cent relative activity at pH 8*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 28 20 28 28
LB2 Nil 28 20 Nil
LB3 20 28 28 20
(*Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 12 (Bacterial culture) calculated by
using the standard. Gresiofulvin against A. Solani on potato dextrose agar.)
From above it revealed that the inhibition zone in per cent relative activity, it
showed that Candida sp. and Fusarium sp. shows maximum inhibition zone and
Rhizopus sp. did not show any significant activity.
Per cent relative activity of Bacillum sp. against pathogenic fungel at pH 12
Above results showed that the centrifuged extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3
show the antifungal activity at pH 12 revealed that the LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed
increased antifungal activity against the Rhzopus sp.
Effect of Bacillus sp. against pathogenic fungi at pH 12.
Bacterial sp Inhibition zone diameters (mm)*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 2 2 2 2
LB2 Nil 1 1 1
LB3 1 1 Nil 2
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
AT pH 8 and pH 9 these results show crude extract of LB1, LB2, LB3
antifungal activity. But the activity is less as compared with other pH activities.
Per cent Relative Activity
The per cent relative activity compared with per cent relative activity of
standard Gresiofulvin against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of
Bacillus sp. is calculated. It revealed that it showed antifungal activity against
Rhizopus sp.
Table 4.19 Per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. at pH 12.
Bacterial sp Per cent relative activity at pH 8*
Penicilium sp Rhizopus sp Candida sp. Fusarium sp.
LB1 20 20 20 20
LB2 Nil 10 10 10
LB3 10 10 Nil 20
(*Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 12 (Bacterial culture) calculated by
using the standard. Gresiofulvin against A. Solani on potato dextrose agar.)
Per cent relative activity of Bacillum sp. against pathogenic fungal
(centrifuged extract) at pH 12
Above results show antifungal activity of LB1, LB2, and LB3. Activity is
very less as compare to pH8 and pH10.
5 CONCLUSON
From the persent study, it is concluded that Organisins isolated from
Khateshwar lake at different pH i.e. pH8, pH 10 and pH 12 was capable of
producing antifungal compounds against pathogenic fungi.
On the basis of results obtained in the present investigation, it is concluded
that strains LB1, LB2, LB3 showed maximum antifungal activity against Penicillium
sp. Rhizopus sp., Candida sp. and Fusarium sp. at pH 10. Accordingly, results
of strains LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed less activity against Penicillium sp.,
Rhizopus sp., Candida sp. and Fusarium sp. at pH 12.
Fungal disease can have major constrains on the crop production and in
conventional agriculture and in environmental studies chemical fungicides are
routinely applied to provide disease control. However, these chemicals are often
toxic and potentially harmful to man and the environment. Thus the use of
microorganisms for biological process has become an effective alternative to
control pathogen.
SUMMARY OF EUTROPHICATION AT KHATESHWAR LAKE AND
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
Communities seldom appear as discrete units. In many cases
interspecefic and intraspecfic communities integrade one another both in time and
space and often exhibit no distinct boundaries between them. This is specially
true of aquatic systems and in instances of algal bloom formation and symbiotic
relations between algae and bacteria.
The present remarks concern largely with those aspects of planktonic blue-
green algae where generalizations are possible in the light of present findings.
Caution is always necessary in drawing conclusions based on one few lake
studies. In the following lines however, an attempt is made to draw general
remarks, summary and conclusion of the work under investigation.
In the present study on Khateshwar lake an investigation was carried out on
at four week interval and data was collected from Jun- 2005 to May 2006.
The investigation was carried out to record physicochemical and biological
changes occurring in lake Khateshwar. It concludes following remarks that, the
small bodies of water can have intense intermix can provide more or less similar
biota. Pollutional algae may exist even at, temperature at 190 c to 300 C, higher
temperature recorded high crowding of microorganism in euphotic zone. This
lake accordingly is define as eutrophic.
Algal crowding can cut light to a depth of 6 cm photic zone.
Pollutional algal forms can thrive in the water well at higher buffering action
and biological activity may bring about pH increase to as alkaline as 9 pH.
The present water study recorded well buffered situation because of higher
run off or higher biological activities and supported pollutional forms. Carbonates
and bicarbonates never remained limiting to control overgrowth of biota in natural
water may be soil dependent on local peculiarities.
The lake flora under study showed the dominance of eutrophic algae.
Higher chloride values of the lake in summer are in conformity with other
and with other Indian lakes literates.
This study DO reflects the photosynthetic activity carried out by
phytoplankton.
B.O.D. value of the lakes explains constant decomposition and supply of
nutrients throughout the season during study period.
Higher nitrates of lake during winter and lower nitrite during same period of
time reflect on the nitrite to nitrate during winter and nitrate degradation during
summer as recorded in the lake.
In the present instance the lake was represented by several groups of algae
Microsystic recorded higher during July and August; when Microsystis was absent
Chroococcus, Merismopedia, Oscillatria, were recorded. The lake was also
represented by desmids and diatoms.
The lake understudy was represented by the presence of pollutinal grade
species like, Anabaena, Microcystic, Merismopedia and Scenedesmus.
Strain isolated from Khateshwar lake at different pH. is capable of
producing antifungal compounds against pathogenic fungei and showed maximum
antifungal activity against Penicillium sp., Rhizopus sp., Candiada sp., and
Fusarium sp. at pH 10.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abbort, F.F. (1967) : Cited from website Fisheries of India entitled “Reservoir
Fisheries of India, com.”
Aboo, K.M. and Mencel, A.C. (1967) : Preliminary observation of upper lake
water at Bhopal J.Env. hlth. 9(1) : 22-23.
Adoni, A.D. (1985 b) : Eutrophication and production studies of some lentic
ecosystem around Sagar (M.P.) Ann. Rept. M and A Proj. : 100-108.
Adoni, A.D. (1983) : Work Book in Limnology. Pratibha Publishers, C-10 Gour
Nagar, Sagar (M.P.)
APHA (1998) : Standard Methods for the examination of Water and Waste Water
20th ed., APHA, AWWA and WEF, N.Y. Washington D.C.
APHA (1985) : Standard Methods for the examination of Water and Waste Water
16th edition.
APHA (1989) : Standard Methods for the examination of Water and Waste Water
17th edition.
Awatramani, G.M. (1980) : Limnological studies of Sagar Lakes, Ph. D. Thesis,
Univ. of Sagar, M.P.
Berdy, J. (1974). Recent developments of antibiotic research and classification of
antibiotics according to chemical structure.
Adv. Appl. Microbiol., 18:309-406
Beven, P., Ryder, H. and Shaw, I. (1995). Identifying small molecule lead
compounds. The screening apporoach to drug discovery. Trends
Biotechnol., 113:115-121.
Buechi, G., Snader, K.M., White, J.D., Gougoutas, J.Z. and Singh, S. (1970).
Structures of rubratoxins A and B.J. Am. Chem. Soc., 92:6638-6641.
Barica, J. (1975) : Collapse of algal blooms in Prairie othole lakes. Their
mechanism and ecological impact. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol.
19:606-615.
Barica, J. (1978) : Collapse of Aphanizomenon flos aque blooms resulting in
massive fish kills in eutrophic lakes effects of weather. Verh. Internat
Verein Limnol. (20) : 208-213.
Barica, J. (1978) : Variability in ionic composition and phytoplankton biomass of
saline eutrophic Prairie lakes within a small geographic area. Arch,
Hydrobiol. 81(3) : 3044 – 326.
Bentley, J.A. (1985) : Role of plant hormones in algal metabolism and
ecology. Nature (London). 181 : 1499 - 1502.
Bhargava, S.C. and Alam, M. (1979) : Seasonal succession of diatoms in
relation to certain physico chemical factors at Sambhar salt lake and
its reservoir, Geobios. 6(5) : 207 – 211.
Biswas, K. and Cadler, C.C. (1955): Handbook of common water and marsh
plants of India and Burma, 1936. Health Bult, 24, Malaria Bureau No.
11. Government of India Press. Calcutta : 216.
Bohra, B.P. (1975) : Observation on certain hydrological factors of freshwater
reservoir, Padmasagar and Ranisagar Jodhpur, Rajasthan, Geobios.
(Jodhpur). 2 (2/3) : 92.
Boyd, C.E., Prather, E.E., Parks, R.W. (1975) : Sudden Mortality of a massive
phytoplankton bloom. Weed Science. 23 (1) : 61-67.
Braun, A. (1849) : Characeae Indian Orientalis etinsularum maris Pacifici.
H.J.B.K.G., Misc. (1) : 292-301.
Cairus J. Jr. and Lanza G.R. (1972) :
Population controlled changes in algal and protozoan community water
pollution Microbiology. Ralph Mitchell (eds.). Wiley Inter Science John
wiley and sons. Inc. New York, London Sydney, Toronto P. 245-272.
Cordovilla, P., Valdivia, E., Gonzalez, Segura, A., Galvez, A., Martinez Bueno, M.
And Maqueda, M. (1993). Antagonistic action of the bacterium Bacillus
licheniformis M-4 towards the amoeba Naegleria fowleri. J. Eukaryot
Microbiol., 40:323-328.
Crane, R.I., Hedden, P., MacMillan, J. and Turner, W.B. (1973). Fungal products
Part IV. The structure of heveadride, a new nonadride from
Helminthosporium heveae. J. Chem. Sco., Perkin Trans, 194-200.
Cairns, J. Jr. and Lanza, G.H. (1972) : Pollution controller changes in algal and
protozoan community : Water pollution Microbiology. Ralph Mitchel
(eds) Wiley – interscience John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York,
London, Sydney, Toronto : 245-272.
Chacko, P.I. and Ganpati, S.V. (1949) : A Case of large scale mortality of fishes,
Sci. and Culture. 15 (6) : 238-40.
Chacko, P.I., Abraham, J.G. and Andal, R. (1953) : Report on a survey of flora,
fauna, fisheries of Pulicat lake, Madras State, India. (1951-52). Cent.
Fish. Res. Biol. Stn. Madras. 8 : 20
Chandrashekhar, T. and Kodarkar, M.S. (1994) : Biodiversity of zooplankton in
Saroornagar lake, Hyderabad. J. Aqua. Biol. 9 (1 and 2) : 30 – 33.
Chavhan, R.P.S. et al (2006) : Study of physco-chemical characteristics of
municipal drinking water supply Sidhi district. Current world
environment Vol. I (1) : 73-75.
Choubey, U. (1997) : Observation on community analysis of zooplankton from
Gandhisagar reservoir, Mandsaur (M.P.), India Recent advances in
freshwater Biol 2 : 21-48.
Das. S.M. and Srivastava, V.K. (1959) : Studies on fresh water plankton III.
Qualitative composition and seasonal fluctuations in plankton
compositions. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India., 29:174-189.
Davis F. Sing (1986) : Primary productivity and Env. Paramele of Dravid et.al.,
(1995) tropical lakes A statastion analysis Poll. Res. 5(384) : 103-109.
Day, F. (1973) : The fauna of British India; including Cyclone and Burma fishes,
London, 1 PP. 1 – XVII; 1 548; 164.
Dugan, P.R. (1974) : In : Biochemical ecology of water pollution Plenum Press,
New York, London.
Escoula,, L. and Henry, G. (1975). Toxinoogenic molds in silage II. In view
kinetics of patulin and byssochlamic acid biosynthesis by Byssoclamys
nivea westling in liquid medium. Ann. Rech. Vet., 6:155-163.
Ehrling, V.I.S. (1960) : Cites from website fisheries of India entitled, “Reservoir
Fisheries of India. Com”.
Fravel, D.R., Olivain, C. and Alabouvette, C. (2003). Fusarium oxysporum and its
biocontrol. New Phytologist, 157:493-502.
Fogg, G.E. and Westlake, D.F. (1953) : The importance of extracellular products
of algae in fresh water. Verh. Int. Verein. Theon. Angew. Limnol.
12 : 216-232
Fritsch, F.E. (1975) : The structure and reproduction of algae. Cambridge
university press, Euston Road, London, N.W.
Ganapati, S.V. (1943) : An ecological study of a garden pond containing abundant
zooplankton. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 17 : 41 – 59
Georgopapadakou, N.H. and Walsh, T.J. (1996). Antifungal agents:
chemotherapeutic targets and immunologic strategies. J. Antimicrob.
Agents Chemother. 40:279-291.
Ganapati, S.V. (1955a) : Diurnal variations in dissolved gases, hydrogen ion
concentration and some of the important dissolved substances of
biological significance in three temporary rock parts in stream bed at
Mettur Dam. Hydrobiol. 7 :285-303.
Ganapati, S.V. (1959) : Ecology of tropical waters. In symp. on algology.
I.C.A.R. New Delhi. : 204-218.
Ganapati, S.V. and Pathak, C.H. (1972) : Photosynthetic productivity in the Ajawa
reservoir at Baroda, West India. P. : 725-731, In : Kajak, Z. and
Illkowaka, H. (Eds.) Productivity problems of freshwater. PNW,
Warsaw.
Gandhi, H.P. (1964) : The diatom flora of Chondola and Kankaria lakes. Nova
Hedwigia. VIII (3/4) : 347-402.
George, M.G. (1966) : Comparative plankton ecology of five tanks in Delhi, India.
Hydrobiol, 27:81-108.
Geol, P.K., Trivedi, R.K. and Bhave, S.V. (1985) : Limnology of freshwater
bodies in South Western Maharashtra Ind. J. Env. Prot. 5(1) : 19-25.
Gorham, P.R. (1964) : Toxic algae. In : Jackson, D.F. (ed.) Algae and Man (434)
: 307-336 Plenum Press, N.Y., U.S.A.
Gulati, A.E. (1976) : Some limnological observations in the lakes of “Ostelijke
Vechtplassengebied”, Hydrobiological bulletin (Amesterdam) 10 (1) :
3-9
Gulati, R.C. (1964) : Limnological studies on some North Indian lakes and
reservoirs Ph. D. Thesis, Delhi University, Delhi.
Gupte, S.Y. (1961) : Studies on the algal ecology of two fresh water lakes of
Ahmedabad – North Gujarat. M.Sc. Thesis : 227. Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad.
Hutchinson, G.E. 1967. A treatise on limnology Vol. 2 : Introduction to lake
Biology and Linroplankton, New York. Wiley.
Hamilton, B. (1822) : An account of fishes found in the river the Ganges and its
branches, A Constable and Co. Edinburgh. 405.
Hasler, A.D. (1947) : Eutrophication of lakes by domestic drainage. Ecology 28 :
383-395.
Himagauri, K., Vasant Rao, Kodarkar, M.S. and Muley, E.V. (1987) : Microbial
characteristics of lake Hussainsagar prior and after summer storm. J.
Aqua, Biol. Vol. 5 (1 and 2) : 9-12
Hutchinson, G.E. (1967) : A treatise on Limnology Vol. 2 : Introduction to lake
Biology and Limno plankton, New York. Wiley.
Inoue, I., Namiki, F., Tsuge, T. (2002). Plant colonization by the vascular with
fungus Fusarium oxysporum requires (FOW 1, a gene encoding a
mitochondrial protein. Plant Cell., 14:1869-1883.
Islam, M.S. (1990) : Studies on limnological dimensions on the dynamics of lentic
hydrosphere with reference to Ravindra Sarover (Gaya). Doctoral
thesis, magath Uni. Budhgaya. India.
Jakher, G.R., S.C. Bhargava and R.K. Sinha (1990) : Comparative Limnology of
Sambhar and Didwana lakes (Rajasthan, NW India). Geobios (17) :
55-58.
Jakher, G.R. and Rawat, M. 2003 : Studies on physico-chemical parameters of a
tropical lake, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India. J. Aqua. Biol. Vol. 18, (2) :
79-83.
Jana, B.B. and Sarkar, H.L. (1982) : Special distribution of the biotic community
in the thermal gradient of the two hot springs. Acta. Hydrobiol.
19 :101 – 108.
Jaya Devi, M. (1985) : Ecological studies of the limnoplankton of three freshwater
bodies of Hyderabad. Ph. D. Thesis, Osmania University, Hyderabad.
Jayachandra, Samuvel M.D. J., Ahmed, A.N. and Mushtha, M (1995) :
Seasonal variation in physico-chemical parameters and plankton
analysis of Periakulum pond, Environ and Ecol. 13 (3) : 542-544.
Jhingran, V.C. (1982) : Fish and fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing
corporation, Delhi, India.
Jhingran, V.G. (1977) : Fish and Fisheries of India, Hindustan Publishing
Corporation (India), New Delhi, : 954
Klich, M.A., Arthur, K.S., Lax, A.R., Bland, J.M., Iturin, A. (1994). A potential new
fungicide for stored grains. Mycopathologia, 127: 123-127.
Komal, S., Hosoe, t., Nozawa, K., Okada, K., De, G.M., Campos Takaki,
Fukushima, K., Miyaji, M., Horie, Y. And Kawai, K. (2003). Antifungal
activity of pyranone and furanone derivatives, isolated from Aspergillus
sp. IFM 51759, against Aspergillus fumigatus. Mycotoxins, 53:11-18.
Kadam, D.D. (2000) : Hydrobiology studies of Bhategaon pond. Distt. Parabhani
(M.S.) India Thesis S.R.T.M. University of Nanded (M.S. India)
Kalinadi (India) In : R.K. Trivedi (Editor). Ecology and Pollution of
Indian River. Asian Publishing House, New Delhi. : 87-114.
Kaul, V. (1977) : Limnological survey of Kashmir lakes with reference to trophic
status and conservation. Int. J. Ecol. Environ. Sci., 3 : 29-44.
Khan, M.A. and Zutshi, D.P. (1978) : 14C planktonic primary production
measurements of Lower Siwalik lakes. Geobios. 6 : 23-25.
Kodarkar, M.S.(1994) : Conservation of Saroornagar Lake. Hyderabad Bachoa.
3 (9).
Konopka, and Brock, T.D. (1978) : Effects of temperature on blue-green algae
(cyanobacteria) in Lake Mendota, App. Environ, Microbiol. 36(4) : 572
– 576.
Kumar Hegde (2005) : Studies on limnological characteristics of Guruvaynkere
pond near Belthangody of Karnataka Indian Journal of Environmental
and eco-planning 10(1) : 165 – 168.
Kumavat, D.A. and Jawale, A.K., (2003) : Phytoplankton ecology of a fish pond
at Anjale, Distt. Jalgaon (M.S.), J. Aqua. Biol, Vol. 18 (1). 2003 : 9 –
13.
Lal, A.K. (1996) : Effect of mass bathing on water quality of Pushkar Sarover. J.
Indian Jr. of Envi. Proct. 16 (11) : 831 – 836.
Lund, J.W.Ec. (1967) :
The ecology of fresh water phytoplankton Bio Rev. 40(2) ; 232-293.
Lund, J.W.G. (1967) : Planktonic algae and the ecology of lakes. Sci. Prog. Oxf.
55 : 401-419.
Madnusudan, L.L., Sharma and Durve, S.S. (1984) : Entrophication of lakes
Picchola in Uadaipur (India). Poll, Res. 3 (2) : 39 – 44
Michael, R.G. (1980) : A Historical resume of Indian Limnology, 72 : 15-20.
Michael, R.G. and Sharma, B.K. (1988) : Indian Cladocera (Crustacea :
Branchiopoda : Cladocera) Pub., The technical and general press by
Director, ZSI, Calcutta : 262.
Morgan, N.C. (1972) : Productivity studies at Loch Leven (a shallow nutrients rich
lake) productivity problems of fresh water Zkazald. H.H. Liko WSKA
(ed.) FWNAWRSAW : 207-226.
Munawar, M. (1970 a) : Limnological studies on fresh water ponds of
Hyderabad. India. I. The Biotop., Hydrobiol., 35 : 127-162.
Munawar, M. (1970 b) : Limnological studies on fresh water ponds of
Hyderabad. India. II Distribution of unicellular and colonial
phytoplankton in polluted and unpolluted environments. Hydrobiol.,
36 : 105 – 128.
Munnawar, M. (1970) : Limnological studies in fresh water ponds of Hyderabad,
India II. The Biotope. Hydrobiologia 35 : 127 – 62.
Nasar, S.A.K. and Kaur S. (1982) : Observation on the abiotic factors and
planktonic periodicity in a shallow pond of the highlands of shillong
(India) Acta. Hydrochim Hydroboiol. 10 : 167-175.
Nichols, K.H. 1976. Nutrient phytoplankton relationship in the Holland Marsh,
Ontario, Ecol. Monogr, H6, 177-199.
NEERI (1987) : Laboratory manual on water analysis.
Palmer, C.M. (1969) : Composite rating of algae tolerating organic Pollution,
British phyco Bull : 578-592
Pande, J. Verma, A. (2004) : The influence of catchments of chemical and
biological characteristics of two freshwater tropical lakes of southern
Rajasthan. J. Envir. Biol. 25(1) : 81-87
Pandey, B.N. Das, P.K.L. and Jha, A.K. (1992) : Physico-chemical analysis of
drinking water of Purnea district. Bihar, Acta Ecological. 14 (2) : 108-
114.
Pandey, S.C. and Kaul, S. (1976) : Analysis of a freshwater ecosystem in relation
to aquatic vegetation : 157-161, In : Varshney, C.K. and Rzoska
(Eds.). Aquatic Weeds in S.E. Asia. Dr. W. Junk. The Heague.
Parr, M.P. and Smith, R.V. (1976) : The identification of phosphorous as a growth
– limiting nutrient in Lough Neagh using bioassays water research.
10 :1151-1154.
Parshley, J.V. and Bowell, R.G. (2003) : The limnology of summer camp Pit
lake; A case study, Mine water and the environment, Vol. 22 (4) : 170-
186.
Patil (1976) : Plankton Ecology of few water Bodies From Nagpur. Ph. D.
Thesis. Nagpur University, Nagpur.
Patil, S. and Saby, B.K. (1993) : Biomonitoring of water pollution in Rengali
reservoir, Orrisa, Environment and ecology 11 (4) : 982 – 984.
Patil, S.G. and Talmale, S.S. (2004) : Prelominary Limnological survey of a
freshwater tank, Lendi Talav, Near Lonar creter Lake (M.S.) Bionotes
6 (4) : 114 – 117.
Pirie, (1969) : cf. Reynolds and Walsby, 1975.
Prowse, (1964) : cf Reynolds and Walsby (1975).
Ramanathan, R., Reddy, M.R., Murthy, AVB. (1964) : Limnology of the Chilka
lake. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. Indian VI (2) : 183-201.
Rao, C.B. (1953) : On the distribution of algae in a group of six small ponds J.
Ecol. 41 : 62 – 71.
Reynolds, C.S. and Walsby, A.D. (1975) : Water blooms, Biol. Rev. 50 : 437-
481.
Roger, J.I. (1978) : Adaptation to fluctuating irradiance by natural phytoplankton
communities limnol. Oceanogr. 23 (5) : 920-926.
Roger, J.I. (1979) : Notes on the growth and sporulation of a natural population of
Aphanizomenon flos- aquae, Hydrobiologia., 62 (1) : 55-58.
Roy, D.C. and Singh Ragini (1999) : Effect of variation of abiotic parameters on
the growth and periodicity of autotrophic micro flora of two eutrophic
ponds Proc. Acad, Envir, Bio. 8(1) : 37-46.
Raistrick, H. and Smith, G. (1933). Studies in the biochemistry of
microorganisms. XXXV. The metabolic products of Byssoclamys
fulva Olliver and Smith. Biochem. J., 27:1814-1819.
Reynolds C.S. and Walsby A.E. (1975) : Water blooms. Biol Rev 50, 437-481.
Hutchinson Ex. E. (1967) : A treatise on limnology Vol 2 :
Introduction to lake biology and Limnoplankton, New York Wiley 22.
Russo, (1978) : Some ecological observation on permanent pond in South
England : Primary production and seasonal succession Hydrobiologia.
60 (1) : 33-98
Saxena, (1990) : Environmental analysis, water, soil and air. Agro Botonical
publishes (India).
Seenaya, G. (1971) : Ecological studies in the phytoplankton of certain Fresh
water pond of Hyderabad. India – II. The Phytoplankton.
Hydrobiologia. 37 : 55-58.
Seenaya, G. and Zafar, A.R. (1979) : An ecological study of the Mir Alam lake.
Hyderabad, India. Ind. J. Bot. 2 : 214-220.
Sehgal, K.L. (1983) : Planktonic copepods of freshwater ecosystem, Environ. Sci.
Series interprint New Delhi 1 169.
Shaikh, Nisar and Yeragi, S.G. (2004) : Some physicochemical aspects of Tansa
river of Thane District, Maharashtra, J. Aqua, Biol. Vol. 19 (1) P. : 99 –
102.
Sharma, K.P Goel, P.K. and Gopal, B. (1978) : Limnological studies of polluted
freshwaters I. Physico chemical characteristics. Int. J. Ecol. Environ.
Sci. 4 : 89-105.
Shashikant and Kachroo (1977) : Limnoligical studies in Kashmir lake Dept. of
Bio Sciences Uni. Of Jammu, Jammu 18001, Phykos Vol. 16 No. 1-2 :
77 –97
Singh, A.K. (2002) : Quality assessment and surface and subsurface water of
Damodar River Basin. Indian J. Env. Health Vol. 44 No. 1 : 41 – 49.
Singh, Y. (1960) : Phytoplankton ecology of the Inland waters of U.P. Proc. Symp.
Algae, ICAR. New Delhi, : 243-271.
Sreenivasan, A. (1969) : Limnology of tropical impoundments : a comparative
study of the major reservoirs in Madras State (India). In Seminar.
Sreenivasan, A. (1970) : Limonology of tropical impoundment : A comparative
study of the major reservoir in Madras State (India). Hydrobiol. 36 :
443 – 469.
Sreenivasan, A. (1976) : Limnological studies and primary production in a temple
pond ecosystem. Hydrobiol. 48 : 117 – 123
Shadomy, s. (1987). Preclinical evaluation of antifungal agents; in Recent trends
in the discovery, development and evaluation of antifungal agents (New
Jersey : Prous Sci.), pp 8-14.
Sofowara, A. (1984). Medicine plants and traditional medicine in Africa. John
iley and Chichester.
Sakhre, V.B. & Joshi, P.K. (2003) : Physicochemical Limnology of : A minor
wetland in Tuljapr town, Maharashtra, J. Aqua. Biol. Vol 18(2) : 93-95.
Sreenivasan, A. (1977/78) : Oxygen depletion and thermal stratification in two
newly formed impoundments J. Fish. Res. Sco., India. 9 : 67-71
Tandon, K.K. and Singh H. (1972) : Effect of certain physicochemical factors on
the plankton of the lake Nangal. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 76 : 6-25
Topacheevskii, (1968) : cf. Reynolds and Walsby (1975).
Trivedi, R.K. (1980) : Studies on primary production in shallow freshwaters around
Jaipur with reference to the effect of pollution from domestic sewage.
Ph. D. Thesis, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.
Trivedi, R.K. (1988) : Limnology of three water bodies around Manglore, M.F.Sc.
Thesis Univ. Aquric. Sci. Banglore India Thymann.
Trivedi, R.K. and Goel P.L. (1986) : Chemical and Biological methods for water
pollution studies, Environmental publications, Karad. (MS).
Tsimul Sakya, Z.I. and Glazacheva, V.I. (1978) : Relationship between pond
plankton algae and certain environmental factors. Byull Mosk-o-va
Ispyl Prior OTD Biol. 83 (2) : 142-147.
Unni., K.S. (1983): Comparative water chemistry of a plankton dominated a
macrophyte dominated lakes in Chindwara, M.P. Proc. N Acad. Sci.
India 53 (B) : 81-88
Uttarwar, L.B. and Vaidya, B.S. (1980): Eco physiological aspects of bloom
forming algae. Ph. D. Thesis, South Gujarat University,
Ahemadabad.
Valletyne (1957) : The Molecular nature A Organic mater in lakes and oceans
with Lesser references, to sewage and terrestrial solids J. Fish Res.
Bd. Canada 14 : 33-82.
Vashisht, H.S. (1968) : Limnological studies of Sukhana lake, Chandigarh (India),
Proc. Symp. Recent. Adv. Trop. Ecol. : 316-325
Vashisht, H.S. and Dhir, S.C. (1970) : Seasonal distribution of freshwater
zooplankton of four tanks. Chandigarh (India). Ichthyologica, 10 :
Venkataraman, R.V., Chari, S.T. and Sreenivasan, A. (1957) : A hydrological
investigation of large scale Fish mortality in temple tank Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. XLIV (B) : 85-90
Verma, M. (1967) : Diurnal variation in a fresh pond in Seoni, India Hydrobiologia,
30 : 129 – 137.
Whipple, (1899) : cf. Reynolds and Walslby (1975)
Wood, R.B. and Gibson, C.E. (1973) : Eutrophication and Lough Neagh ; Water
res., : 173-187.
Yeole, S.M. Patil, G.P. (2005) : Physicochemical status of Yedshi lake in relation
to water pollution. Journal of aquatic biology., 20(1) : 41 – 44
Zafar, A.R. (1968 a) : Certain aspects of distribution pattern of phytoplankton in
lakes of Hyderabad Proc. Symp. Rec. Adv. Trop. Ecol., : 368 – 375
Zafar, A.R. (1991) : Energy flow through aquatic ecosystem water pollution and
management Wiley western Limited. : 18-20
Zutshi, D.P. and K.K. Vyass (1973) : Variation in the water quality of Kashmir lake
Trop. Ecol. 14 : 182-196.