Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology Chapter 4 Copyright © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction

Theoretical and Theoretical and Measurement Measurement Issues in Trait Issues in Trait

PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Copyright © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.


Theoretical IssuesTheoretical Issues

Meaningful Differences Between Meaningful Differences Between Individuals Individuals

Consistency Over TimeConsistency Over Time Consistency Across SituationsConsistency Across Situations Person-Situation InteractionPerson-Situation Interaction AggregationAggregation


Meaningful Differences Meaningful Differences Between IndividualsBetween Individuals

There are meaningful differences There are meaningful differences between individuals (traits psychology between individuals (traits psychology is also called differential psychology)is also called differential psychology) People differ in amounts of traits, and People differ in amounts of traits, and

differences can be accurately measureddifferences can be accurately measured According to trait psychologists, every According to trait psychologists, every

personality is the product of a personality is the product of a combination of a few basic, primary combination of a few basic, primary traitstraits


Consistency Over TimeConsistency Over Time

Research indicates consistency over Research indicates consistency over time for broad traitstime for broad traits

Although consistent over time, how a Although consistent over time, how a trait is manifested in behavior might trait is manifested in behavior might change over timechange over time

How can there be consistency in a How can there be consistency in a trait if it is known to change with age trait if it is known to change with age (e.g., impulsivity)? Focus on the rank (e.g., impulsivity)? Focus on the rank order differences between people order differences between people


Consistency Across Consistency Across SituationsSituations

Trait psychologists traditionally Trait psychologists traditionally assumed cross-situation consistencyassumed cross-situation consistency

If situations mainly control how If situations mainly control how people behave, then the existence or people behave, then the existence or relevance of traits questionablerelevance of traits questionable

Hartshorne and May (1928): Low Hartshorne and May (1928): Low cross-situation consistency is in cross-situation consistency is in honesty, helpfulness, self-controlhonesty, helpfulness, self-control



Mischel (1968): Personality Mischel (1968): Personality psychologists should abandon their psychologists should abandon their efforts to explain behavior with efforts to explain behavior with traits, focusing instead on situationstraits, focusing instead on situations

Situationism: If behavior varies Situationism: If behavior varies across situations, then situational across situations, then situational differences and not personality traits differences and not personality traits determine behaviordetermine behavior



Mischel’s (1968) critique encouraged Mischel’s (1968) critique encouraged debate in personality psychology about debate in personality psychology about the importance of traits compared to the importance of traits compared to situations in causing behaviorsituations in causing behavior

Both sides tempered views: Trait Both sides tempered views: Trait psychologists acknowledged the psychologists acknowledged the importance of situation, and importance of situation, and situationists acknowledged the situationists acknowledged the importance of traitsimportance of traits



Debate led to two lasting changes: Debate led to two lasting changes: Focus on Focus on Person-Situation Person-Situation InteractionInteraction and and Practice of Practice of AggregationAggregation


Person-Situation Person-Situation InteractionInteraction

Two possible explanations for Two possible explanations for behavior:behavior: Behavior is a function of Behavior is a function of

personality traitspersonality traits Behavior is a function of situationBehavior is a function of situation



Integration: Personality and situation Integration: Personality and situation interact to produce behaviorinteract to produce behavior

Differences between people make a Differences between people make a difference only under certain difference only under certain circumstancescircumstances

Situational specificity: Certain Situational specificity: Certain situations can provoke behavior that situations can provoke behavior that is out of character for an individualis out of character for an individual



Integration: Personality and situation Integration: Personality and situation interact to produce behaviorinteract to produce behavior

Strong situation: Situations in which Strong situation: Situations in which most people react in a similar way (e.g., most people react in a similar way (e.g., grief following loss of loved one)grief following loss of loved one)

When situations are weak or ambiguous, When situations are weak or ambiguous, personality has its strongest influencepersonality has its strongest influence



Three additional ways in which Three additional ways in which personality and situation personality and situation interact to produce behaviorinteract to produce behavior SelectionSelection EvocationEvocation ManipulationManipulation



SelectionSelection: Tendency to choose or select : Tendency to choose or select situations in which one finds oneself, as a situations in which one finds oneself, as a function of personalityfunction of personality

EvocationEvocation: Certain personality traits may : Certain personality traits may evoke specific responses from othersevoke specific responses from others

ManipulationManipulation: Various means by which : Various means by which people influence the behavior of others; people influence the behavior of others; tactics of manipulation vary with tactics of manipulation vary with personalitypersonality


AggregationAggregation

Longer tests are more reliable than Longer tests are more reliable than shorter ones and are better shorter ones and are better measures of traitsmeasures of traits

Single behavior or occasion may be Single behavior or occasion may be influenced by extenuating influenced by extenuating circumstances unrelated to circumstances unrelated to personalitypersonality


AggregationAggregation

Aggregation implies that traits are Aggregation implies that traits are only one influence on behavioronly one influence on behavior

Aggregation also implies that traits Aggregation also implies that traits refer to the person’s average levelrefer to the person’s average level

Thus, personality psychologists will Thus, personality psychologists will never be good at predicting single never be good at predicting single acts or single occasionsacts or single occasions


Measurement IssuesMeasurement Issues

Trait approach relies on self-report Trait approach relies on self-report surveys to measure personalitysurveys to measure personality

Personality psychologists assume Personality psychologists assume that people differ in the amounts of that people differ in the amounts of various traits, and so a key various traits, and so a key measurement issue is determining measurement issue is determining how much of trait person hashow much of trait person has



Traits are often represented as Traits are often represented as dimensions along which people dimensions along which people differdiffer

Trait psychologists are aware of and Trait psychologists are aware of and address circumstances that affect address circumstances that affect accuracy, reliability, validity, and accuracy, reliability, validity, and utility of self-report trait measuresutility of self-report trait measures



CarelessnessCarelessness Faking On QuestionnairesFaking On Questionnaires Response SetsResponse Sets Integrity TestingIntegrity Testing



CarelessnessCarelessness Method for detecting such Method for detecting such

problems is an infrequency scale problems is an infrequency scale embedded in testembedded in test

Infrequency scale contains items Infrequency scale contains items that most people answer in a that most people answer in a particular wayparticular way



CarelessnessCarelessness If a participant answers differently If a participant answers differently

than most, this suggests carelessnessthan most, this suggests carelessness Another method for detecting Another method for detecting

carelessness is to include duplicate carelessness is to include duplicate items spaced far apart in the survey—items spaced far apart in the survey—if the person answers the same item if the person answers the same item differently, this suggests carelessnessdifferently, this suggests carelessness



Faking On QuestionnairesFaking On Questionnaires ““Fake good”: Attempt to appear Fake good”: Attempt to appear

better off or better adjusted than one better off or better adjusted than one isis

““Fake bad”: Attempt to appear worse Fake bad”: Attempt to appear worse off or less adjusted than one isoff or less adjusted than one is

Method to detect is to a devise scale Method to detect is to a devise scale that, if answered in particular way, that, if answered in particular way, suggests fakingsuggests faking



Response SetsResponse Sets Acquiescence: Tendency to agree with Acquiescence: Tendency to agree with

items, regardless of content; items, regardless of content; psychologists counteract by reverse-psychologists counteract by reverse-keying some itemskeying some items

Extreme responding: Tendency to give Extreme responding: Tendency to give endpoint responsesendpoint responses

Social desirability: Tendency to answer Social desirability: Tendency to answer items in such a way so that one comes items in such a way so that one comes across as socially attractive or likableacross as socially attractive or likable



Two Views On Social DesirabilityTwo Views On Social Desirability Represents distortion and should Represents distortion and should

be eliminated or reducedbe eliminated or reduced Valid part of other desirable Valid part of other desirable

personality traits, such as personality traits, such as agreeableness, and should be agreeableness, and should be studiedstudied



Integrity Testing: A Closer LookIntegrity Testing: A Closer Look Integrity tests are surveys designed Integrity tests are surveys designed

to assess whether a person is to assess whether a person is generally honest or dishonest; generally honest or dishonest; replaced polygraphreplaced polygraph

When assessed against the “big five” When assessed against the “big five” personality traits, integrity is the personality traits, integrity is the combination of high combination of high conscientiousness, high conscientiousness, high agreeableness, and low neuroticismagreeableness, and low neuroticism


Personality and Personality and PredictionPrediction

Whether someone does well in an Whether someone does well in an employment setting may be determined, employment setting may be determined, in part, by whether a person’s in part, by whether a person’s personality traits mesh with job personality traits mesh with job requirementsrequirements

Personality traits may predict who is Personality traits may predict who is likely to do well in particular job, so it likely to do well in particular job, so it makes sense to select people for makes sense to select people for employment based on measures of traitsemployment based on measures of traits



But using tests to select employees But using tests to select employees has limitations and potential has limitations and potential liabilitiesliabilities

Lawsuits have challenged the use of Lawsuits have challenged the use of tests on the grounds ranging from tests on the grounds ranging from discrimination, to invasion of discrimination, to invasion of privacy, to freedom of religionprivacy, to freedom of religion



Most employers receive overall test Most employers receive overall test scores, however, not the applicant’s scores, however, not the applicant’s answers to specific questionsanswers to specific questions

In 1978, the EEOC standardized In 1978, the EEOC standardized federal guidelines for the use of federal guidelines for the use of tests in employment selectiontests in employment selection



Two main concerns that the employer Two main concerns that the employer must satisfy to use for employment must satisfy to use for employment selectionselection Test must predict performance on a Test must predict performance on a

specific job or jobs like the one people specific job or jobs like the one people are being selected forare being selected for

Test must not be biased or have “undue Test must not be biased or have “undue impact” on persons from protected impact” on persons from protected groups, such as women and minoritiesgroups, such as women and minorities


Personnel Selection: Personnel Selection: Choosing the Right Person Choosing the Right Person

for Job as Police Officerfor Job as Police Officer

Personality tests frequently used to Personality tests frequently used to screen out “wrong” individuals from screen out “wrong” individuals from a pool of applicants for police a pool of applicants for police officersofficers

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)Inventory (MMPI)


Personnel Selection: Personnel Selection: Choosing the Right Person Choosing the Right Person

for Job as Police Officerfor Job as Police Officer

California Personality Inventory California Personality Inventory (CPI)(CPI)

16 Personality Factor (16PF) 16 Personality Factor (16PF) QuestionnaireQuestionnaire


Beware of Barnum Beware of Barnum Statements in Personality Statements in Personality

Test InterpretationsTest Interpretations

Barnum statement: generality Barnum statement: generality that could apply to anyonethat could apply to anyone


Educational Selection: The Educational Selection: The Graduate Record Graduate Record

Examination (GRE) and Examination (GRE) and Success in Graduate SchoolSuccess in Graduate School Most graduate schools require Most graduate schools require

applicants to take the GRE, and most applicants to take the GRE, and most schools use GRE scores to some schools use GRE scores to some degree in deciding whom to accept degree in deciding whom to accept into programinto program

GRE is an aptitude test, thought to GRE is an aptitude test, thought to reflect intelligence or the capacity to reflect intelligence or the capacity to learnlearn


Educational Selection: The Educational Selection: The Graduate Record Graduate Record

Examination (GRE) and Examination (GRE) and Success in Graduate SchoolSuccess in Graduate School Many studies have been conducted Many studies have been conducted

to assess the degree to which GRE to assess the degree to which GRE scores predict success in psychology scores predict success in psychology graduate schoolgraduate school

Meta-analyses reveal that GRE Meta-analyses reveal that GRE scores do predict success in scores do predict success in graduate school, but correlations are graduate school, but correlations are only modest (.15 to .40)only modest (.15 to .40)


Four arguments for why GRE Four arguments for why GRE scores can be useful, even scores can be useful, even though they only modestly though they only modestly predict success in graduate predict success in graduate

schoolschool

Even small increments in Even small increments in predictability above chance can be predictability above chance can be usefuluseful

Costs of failing to select the right Costs of failing to select the right people into graduate school can be people into graduate school can be highhigh


Four arguments for why GRE Four arguments for why GRE scores can be useful, even scores can be useful, even though they only modestly though they only modestly predict success in graduate predict success in graduate

schoolschool GRE scores can be useful if used with GRE scores can be useful if used with

appropriate criterion (i.e., what want to appropriate criterion (i.e., what want to predict)predict)

Research indicates that, without range Research indicates that, without range restriction, correlations between GRE restriction, correlations between GRE scores and success in graduate school scores and success in graduate school are high, ranging from .30 to .70are high, ranging from .30 to .70


Range Restriction Affects Range Restriction Affects Correlation: A Closer LookCorrelation: A Closer Look

When two variables are correlated When two variables are correlated with each other, the size of correlation with each other, the size of correlation depends, in part, on whether each depends, in part, on whether each variable spans full range in the samplevariable spans full range in the sample

Violation occurs when participants are Violation occurs when participants are selected on the basis of one score, and selected on the basis of one score, and then that score is correlated with then that score is correlated with another variable on which participants another variable on which participants have been measuredhave been measured


Range Restriction Affects Range Restriction Affects Correlation: A Closer LookCorrelation: A Closer Look

Correlation between two variables Correlation between two variables will shrink as the range of scores on will shrink as the range of scores on one (or both) variables is restrictedone (or both) variables is restricted


Selection in Business Selection in Business Settings: The Myers-Briggs Settings: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Type Indicator (MBTI) and

Choice of LeadersChoice of Leaders MBTI is most widely used personality MBTI is most widely used personality

assessment device in business settingsassessment device in business settings Assesses eight fundamental Assesses eight fundamental

preferences, which reduce to four preferences, which reduce to four scores:scores: Extraverted versus introvertedExtraverted versus introverted Sensing or intuitiveSensing or intuitive Thinking or feelingsThinking or feelings Judging or perceivingJudging or perceiving


Selection in Business Selection in Business Settings: The Myers-Briggs Settings: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and Type Indicator (MBTI) and

Choice of LeadersChoice of Leaders Four scores combined to yield 16 Four scores combined to yield 16

typestypes MBTI used widely to select MBTI used widely to select

applicants for leadership positionsapplicants for leadership positions But criticism, especially regarding But criticism, especially regarding

reliability and predictive validityreliability and predictive validity


Summary and EvaluationSummary and Evaluation

Hallmark of trait perspective is the Hallmark of trait perspective is the emphasis on the differences between emphasis on the differences between peoplepeople

Traits psychologists assume that Traits psychologists assume that people will be relatively constant people will be relatively constant over time and across situations in over time and across situations in behaviors, because of their behaviors, because of their differences in various traitsdifferences in various traits


Summary and EvaluationSummary and Evaluation(continued)(continued)

Traits are more likely to influence a Traits are more likely to influence a person’s behavior when the situation person’s behavior when the situation is weak and ambiguous and doesn’t is weak and ambiguous and doesn’t push for conformity from all peoplepush for conformity from all people

Personality traits refer to the Personality traits refer to the average tendencies in behavioraverage tendencies in behavior


Summary and EvaluationSummary and Evaluation(continued)(continued)

Trait psychologists are interested in Trait psychologists are interested in the accuracy of measurementthe accuracy of measurement

Interest in measurement and Interest in measurement and prediction has led trait psychologists prediction has led trait psychologists to apply these skills to the selection to apply these skills to the selection or screening of job applicants and or screening of job applicants and other situations where personality other situations where personality might make a differencemight make a difference

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Theoretical and Measurement Issues in Trait Psychology Chapter 4 Copyright © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction