THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONTHE ENLIGHTENMENT

Chapter 18 Notes

CAUSESASTRONOMY

ANATOMYSCIENCE (AND MATH)

EFFECTS

The Scientific Revolution

What were the CAUSES?

The Renaissance promoted a new way of thinking

Exploration and expansion of tradeThe Reformation led to a questioning of

religious beliefs and the important of GodContinuing study of ancient authorities

Greece Rome India China

ARISTOTLENICOLAUS COPERNICUS

GALILEOKEPLER (AND BRAHE)

The Scientific Revolution Astronomy

Aristotle’s Theory

The Greek Philosopher Aristotle believed in the “Geocentric” theory That we lived in a finite,

spherical universe with the Earth at the center

Earth was stationary in the middle and the Moon and the Sun orbited Earth.

He justified the Earth being stationary because he believed that the stars were static and did not move.

Ideas upheld by church and was accepted authority for European intellectuals

Copernicus’ Theory

Created his own “Heliocentric” theory The Earth revolves around the

Sun, which is really the center of the solar system

Found Geocentric theory inaccurate, but did not want to be ridiculed for weaknesses Copernicus was concerned

that the publication of “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies” would create trouble for him

It was not published until 1543, when he was near death

Copernicus’ Universe

Comparison of Beliefs

The Geocentric TheoryThe Heliocentric

Theory

Galileo Galilei

An Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution.

His achievements include: Improvements to the telescope Building the first telescope used for astronomy Scanning the heavens beginning in 1609

In 1610, Galileo published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter, using this observation to argue in favor of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe.

Galileo and the Catholic Church

In 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican astronomy

In October of 1632, Galileo was ordered to appear before the Holy Office in Rome.

Following a papal trial he was found suspect of heresy. Galileo was forced to take back his support of Copernicus

to save his life Galileo was placed under house arrest and his movements

restricted by the Pope. From 1634 onward he was under house arrest at his

country house at outside of Florence.

Johannes Kepler

A mathematics teacher who continued the work of Copernicus on Planetary Motion

Was assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe

Achievements: fundamental work in the field of optics invented an improved version of the

refracting telescope helped to legitimize the telescopic

discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler's three laws of planetary motion The orbit of every planet is an ellipse

with the Sun at a focus. A line joining a planet and the Sun

sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.

The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

ANDREAS VESALIUSWILLIAM HARVEY

The Scientific Revolution Anatomy

Andreas Vesalius

An anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body).

The founder of modern human anatomyAccomplishments:

carried out dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself while his students clustered around the table.

believed the skeletal system to be the framework of the human body

Vesalius’ most impressive contribution to the study of the muscular system may be the incredible illustrations in his text

Vesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and motion. He believed that nerves do not originate from the heart, as was the Aristotelian belief, but that nerves stemmed from the brain.

William Harvey

English physician who was the first to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart.

He argued for the idea that blood was pumped around the body by the heart before returning to the heart and being re-circulated in a closed system.

ISAAC NEWTONFRANCIS BACON

RENE DESCARTESANTONY VAN LEEOWENHOEK

ROBERT HOOKE

The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)

Isaac Newton

English natural philosopher, physicist, mathematician, and astronomer.

Generally regarded as the most original and influential theorist in the history of science.

Considered by many to be the most important figure in human history.

Newton’s Achievements

Newton’s Laws of Motion Became the founding principle of mechanics and

enlightened the masses about the relationships between force and motion.

His observation led him to the discovery of the gravitational force. It was Newton who showed that the gravitational force extends across the Earth.

Newton worked in the field of optics. His work led to the discovery that a prism can decompose

white light into a spectrum of colors. Newton invented the generalized binomial theorem

and started working on the development of a mathematical theory, which went on to become Calculus.

Francis Bacon

An English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, and author.

Influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate of the scientific revolution

His works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method.

Bacon’s Scientific Method

Technique for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be

based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

The Scientific Method Identify problem Form hypothesis Perform experiments to test hypothesis Record results Analyze results, form conclusion

Rene Descartes

“I never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such". Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting

everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions.

He is key in the use of empiricism (experimentation to answer questions).

Descartes' influence in mathematics is also apparent The Cartesian coordinate system allowing

geometric shapes to be expressed in algebraic equations.

He is also known as the father of analytical geometry.

Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Dutch scientist, 1600sUsed interest in developing

magnifying lens to invent microscope

First to describe appearance of bacteria, red blood cells, yeast, other microorganisms

Robert Hooke

•English physician, inventor

•Used early microscope to describe appearance of plants at microscopic level

•Credited with creating the term cell

What was the SIGNIFICANCE?

The science of the late Renaissance was significant in establishing a base for modern science. “The renaissance enabled a scientific revolution which let

scholars look at the world in a different light. Religion, superstition, and fear were replaced by reason

and knowledge”. This period saw a fundamental

transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and biology, and in the more widely held picture of the universe. Brilliant minds started to question all manners of things

and it was this questioning that led to the scientific revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of all modern sciences.

What were the EFFECTS?

It led to an increased use of reason an observation to explain nature

It created greater sense of need for instruments such as microscopes

It emphasized the scientific methodIt promoted the expansion of knowledge by

not accepting things on face value or faithIt increased the belief in progress and the

power of reasonIt led to a new view of the universe as a well-

ordered system

WHAT EXCITING CONCLUSION DID PHILOSOPHERS REACH?

REASON COULD BE USED TO SOLVE ALL HUMAN PROBLEMS.

The Enlightenment

Thomas Hobbes

All humans were naturally selfish and wicked, therefore governments must keep order.

People should hand over their rights to a strong ruler. This was what Hobbes called a social contract.

Strong ruler should have total power (an absolute monarchy).

This powerful government with awesome power is what he calleda leviathan (sea monster),therefore he titled his book Leviathan (1651).

John Locke

People were reasonable (though still selfish) and had the natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Purpose of government is to protect these natural rights.

Government power comes from the consent of the people (foundation for democracy).

Baron de Montesquieu

Proposed the “separation of powers” Executive, legislative, and judicial

branches of government Kept individuals or groups from

abusing powerProposed “checks and balances”

Allowed each branch to check against the power of the other two

Published The Spirit of the Laws Published 1748 Showed admiration of Great Britain’s

government (thought it was the best!)

Voltaire

Real name was Francois-Marie Arouet.Wrote more than 70 books of political essays,

philosophy, and drama.Used satire against his enemies,

especially the clergy.Imprisoned twice for his beliefs,

which were: Tolerance Reason Freedom of religious belief Freedom of speech “I do not agree with a word you say

but will defend to the death your right to say it.”

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Passionately committed to individual freedom.

Believed man was born free and good but easily corrupted.

Believed the only good government was the “general will” or direct democracy. Government should work for

common good, not just the wealthy few

Despised inequality in society

• Views inspired revolutionaries in years to come

Mary Wollstonecraft

Demanded equal rights for women and pushed against traditional views about women Women and men should be

educated equally Women should enter professions

traditionally dominated by men like medicine and politics

Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which advocated equal education for women

Adam Smith

Scottish economist, used reason to analyze economic systems

The Wealth of Nations advanced free market enterprise

Strong believer in laissez-faire economics, no government regulation

Believed economy would be stronger if market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work freely

Enlightened Monarchs

The new political ideas affected the leadership of some 18th century European monarchs.

The ideals of tolerance, justice, and the improvement of people’s lifestyle became guidelines for these rulers Joseph II of Austria Frederick II of Prussia (We discussed in Chapter 15!)

They still ruled absolutely, but they internalized the Enlightenment philosophy and made attempts to tolerate diversity, increased opportunity for serfs, and take on the responsibilities that required their rule.

BAROQUE MUSICCLASSICAL MUSIC

The Enlightenment Spreads

Baroque Musicians

Antonio Vivaldi Most famous work Le quattro stagioni (The Four

Seasons) Wrote operas, sonatas, and chamber music

Johann Sebastian Bach Most famous work: Jesu Joy of Man’s Desiring Wrote cantatas, chorales, organ works, lute and

chamber musicGeorge Frederick Handel

Most famous work: Messiah oratorio, traditionally performed during the Christmas season, include “Hallelujah Chorus”

Wrote operas, oratorios, cantatas, numerous arias, and chamber music

Classical Musicians

Joseph Haydn Known as “Father of the Symphony” and “Father of the

String Quartet” Wrote symphonies, numerous concertos for

various instruments, and operasWolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Most famous works: Toy Symphony and Flute concerto No. 2 in D Major, K 314

Wrote operas, symphonies, concertos, piano music, chamber music, and music for masses

Ludwig von Beethoven Most famous works: his 5th and 9th symphonies Wrote symphonies, operas, piano and choral music