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mHOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT

PROJECT IDENTIFICATION

PART I : IDENTIFICATION1. What is a project?

A project is a proposal prepared for yourself, for someone else, for a wholecommunity or even for a country. It involves making plans for the future anddescribing them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there isnothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or determination toundertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define this which has led us to make thevarious suggestions in this publication.Identifying a project involves recognizing a need in a certain place and for agiven group of people. A proper understanding of the target group is veryimportant.2. Checking out the contextProper research is the prime necessity for any project. If this is not takensufficiently seriously, the project proposed is often ill-adapted to the situation it isdesigned to. The result of this can be failure even though a large amount ofmoney may have been invested.Here we are going to concentrate on the initial steps necessary to identify andproperly understand the environment of the project in order to avoid these pitfalls.Thus the study of the context of a project is like laying the foundations of a house: the firmer they are, the more solid and durable the house.3. Researching the projectThe aim of this research is better to understand the field of operation of theproject and the people for whom the project is designed. The detailed planning ofthe project then needs to be done in an intelligent way, which means notdisrupting local traditions, customs and structures. In instances where the needhas been clearly identified by the local population. It is nevertheless necessary totry out the basic idea as a pilot scheme involving only a sample of the population.This will test the relevance of the ideas which need to be developed in theprocess of putting the project together.The length of time spent on research depends on the amount of time neededgetting to know the context of the project plus the time taken to do the necessarydetailed planning. Bearing in mind the fact that the context and the needs areconstantly changing, time must be allowed to ensure that the proposals are freeof misunderstandings and hasty judgments and that the project still correspondsto the real needs of the people and has not been drawn up in a way that causesthe people for whom it was conceived not to be interested in it.

The work done during this first phase should give precise information on localneeds, customs and traditions, and on the political, social, cultural and economiccontext. This information is essential and needs to be systematically studiedthroughout the period of identification and planning.NOTE : The initiators of the project should not forget that it may need also tointerest a funding organization. It is advisable therefore to try to relate as far aspossible the interests of the people with the criteria of the organizations fromwhich funding is sought.


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PART TWO :

PREPARATION AND WORKING OUT OF THE PROJECT DOCUMENTMain cr i ter ia used by Uni ted Nat ions agencies.

In Part One, we have seen that to identify a project is not enough simply to havea good idea. It is vital that the idea corresponds realistically to the needs of thelocal population. Once this is clear, it must be certain that the project fits into thesocial, economic, cultural and political context and has a good chance of beingcarried through (in terms of finance, organization, manpower and availability ofequipment and materials).When this task has been completed, the project organizer will than try to link theinformation obtained with the original idea of the project. This may meanreformulating his or her ideas before defining the project strategy. After thiscomes the process of preparing and working out the project document.The conception and preparation of a project document that will be submitted to a

national or international funding organization should follow certain guidelineswithout which it would have no hope of being considered. The initiator of theproject should realize that this document is his first real introduction to thepotential founders and forms the basis on which future agreements will be made.Care must be taken with the presentation and content of the document it mustrespond to whatever questions the funding organization might ask beforedeciding whether to accept the project or not. It is also particularly important thatthe document is drawn up in a precise fashion, presenting clearly and conciselyin a logical order the details of the project and its proposed development.Composition of the project document

A project document can be drawn up in the following sections:1. General Introd uctio n

a. Context and justificationb. Population targetedc. Institutional framework

2. Method s and strategies

a. Development objective / overall aimb. Immediate objective/sc. Proposed strategyd. Productse. Activities plannedf. Work plan

3. Avai lable resources; Aid requested; Bud get

a. Available resourcesb. Aid requestedc. Budget

4. Follow u p, Report; Evaluatio n

a. Follow upb. Reportc. Evaluation


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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECTComposition of the Title PageThe following should be featured clearly on this page :- the title of the project

- the project number (if you have submitted more than one project)- the field of activity- the location (city, region, country)- the tentative starting date and duration- the name(s) of organization(s) carrying out the project- the name(s) of the funding organization(s)- the name(s) of the organizations associated with the project- an estimate of the total budget- the total amount of funding sought (indicate the currency)- the name of the organization submitting the project (or the name and title of the

person authorized to do so)

- the date of submission.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION1. Context of the projectThis sub-section should explain in a few lines the project's context and theenvironment in which it will be carried out. The information given should explain :- the origin of the project (considering the social, economic, cultural, political,

historical and geographical conditions)- the problem which the project seeks to solve, or the main objective of the

project- the position of the organization proposing the project and of the local authorities

regarding this problem or situation- what previous steps have been taken and what has been their effect.

EXAMPLE : A context presented by a CCIVS member organization for a projectin Bangladesh.With a population of about one billion, south Asian Countries are mostlyeconomically underdeveloped. About 50% of these people live below the povertyline and the same percentage of them are illiterate. There is a wide gap betweenoverall development needs and available resources. There are many socialworkers and volunteers in these countries who are interested in local , nationaland international development. However, appropriate training is not availablesince there are no adequate training facilities in the region. Due to thesecircumstances, BWCA believes that such a huge population of illiterate andeconomically disadvantaged people should be provided with a training centre to

promote their education, cultural and socio-economic development.BWCA proposes to begin training program's in the area to fill these needs. Withfunding from UNESCO, trainers can be provided, volunteers will have the meansto participate, and training courses can be developed

- high quality work without the needing to make an immediate profit.


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Example 2: Starting a Pilot Agricultural Centre for youth in Zaire.A. Introduction :

The goal of this project is to help disadvantaged youth to participate insocial and economic activities, to fight against the drift from rural areas whichstrips the land of its vital forces.

In the region of Bas-Zaire where the land is fertile and which couldbecome the granary of Kinshasa, the present output is scarcely enough to feedits inhabitants.

To change this situation, young people need to be encouraged to stay inthe rural areas. The Regional Council for Social Protection and Family Planningwants to establish at Nkondo Malembe an experimental agricultural centre foryouth.

The activities of this centre would include orientation of young people as

well as agricultural production.

B. Description of the context of the project :Nkondo Malembe is a village which is a part of the Luima community in the

Songololo zone, the former training and production centre of JMPR (the youthmovement of the ruling party). It is a relatively hot region with clay soil. Rainfallvaries from 1200 to 1700 ml per year. It has two seasons: dry and rainy.

1.3 Target communityMost projects are for the benefit of a certain defined population. A project

planner should therefore try concisely to determine who would benefit from theproject. This means taking into account certain criteria such as the composition ofthe target community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their mainactivity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational level.

This sub-section should also indicate :- to what extent the targeted population supports the idea of the project; to what

extent they are mobilized; and which sections of the population are seen as apriority.

(In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the population targeted isthe peasants from the southern part of the country and the criteria used todetermine this were the geographical region and the main activity of thepopulation).


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HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT

The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth, drug abusecases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social vices among the youth

makes it imperative that actions are taken by NGO's and communities to curbthese unfortunate phenomena. These conditions tend negatively to affect thephysical and intellectual development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus avicious cycle of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not addressed.Example 2 :A target population in a CCIVS project in Bolivia.

Another major benefit of this project is women. In each community the vastmajority of teachers are women. With the supply of the double-school desks their

job in educating young children will be much easier. Easier by enabling thestudents more incentive to learn in comfortable but will boost the morale of thestudents, teachers and communities alike. Previously teachers employed in ruralBolivia were reluctant to finish their term. They cited poor equipment as major

factor. With VEA's cooperation, most are willing to stay and finish their terms.The desks built by VEA can also be used by the local mothers' club and theirdaughters.

1.4. The institutional frameworkThe sub-section should give a clear outline of how the project is expected

to evolve, without going into minor details.You should include the following :

- where the project is taking place- staffing (national or international personnel, volunteers, consultants etc.)

- the sources of the funds and materials for the project- the funding organizations- the organizations carrying out the project; other associated organizations- the co-ordination ties between these organizations- the body or person in charge of the project.

Example : The proposed seminar to train social workers to work in the X regionwill take place at X from April 1 May 30, 1993. It will be organized by thetraining staff of the Association for the Children of Region X with technical helpfrom a consultant from UNICEF. UNICEF and UNESCO will be providing thefares for the 120 social workers. The Association for the Children of Region X willpay for food, lodging and logistical aspects of the training programmed. TheMinistry of Youth and Sports will be presiding over this training seminar and hasgiven a grant to the national association.


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Procedure to follow when submitting a project(simplified version) :

1. Identification :

- idea for a project or identification of a need or a problem.2. Checking out the context :- analysis of the economic, social cultural and political environment- survey of the needs and the problems- consultation with the targeted population- collection of information from organizations or people involved in the same areaof work- consultation with the local or national authorities- choice of development objectives- immediate objectives.3. Feasibi l i ty Study :

- funding, equipment and materials, human and organizational resources.4. Project desig n :- analysis of the information obtained from research- definition of the proposed working methods- choice of the products and activities that need to be developed- study of the means necessary to carry out this project- planning the project- attention paid to the criteria for drawing up a project document.5. Subm ission o f the project :

- presentation of the project to international and regional organizations,development banks, NGO's, other associations, foundations and privatecompanies- project proposals should be sent directly to financing organization or submittedthrough a coordinating body such as CCIVS.


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PREPARATION OF A PROJECT

VOCABULARY

PROPOUSAL A document that tells vendors and service providers whattype of service or products a company is attempting topurchase.

UNDERTAKE To make oneself responsible for; take over as a charge

ATTEMP To make an effort to do, get, have, etc.; try; endeavor

RESEARCH Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in somefield of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish factsor principles

PRIME first in importance or value; principal; main

ENVIRONMENT all the conditions, circumstances, and influencessurrounding, and affecting the development of, an organismor group of organisms

FOUNDATIONS the base on which something rests; specif., the supportingpart of a wall, house, etc., usually of masonry, concrete, etc.,and at least partially underground

AIM to direct (one's efforts)

DISRUPT to disturb or interrupt the orderly course of (a social affair,meeting, etc.)

SCHEME an outline or diagram showing different parts or elements ofan object or system

POPULATION STATISTICSthe total set of items, persons, etc. from which asample is taken

PHASE any of the recurrent stages of variation in the illuminationand apparent shape of a moon or a planet

SUBMIT to present or refer to others for decision, consideration, etc.

GUIDELINES a standard or principle by which to make a judgment ordetermine a policy or course of action

POPULATION

TARGET

the total set of items, persons, etc. from which a sample istaken and to whom the investigation is directed.

FRAMEWORK the basic structure, arrangement, or system


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STRATEGY a plan or action based on this

BUDGET a plan or schedule adjusting expenses during a certainperiod to the estimated or fixed income for that period

the amount of money needed or allotted for a specific use

FOLLOW UP designating or of anything that follows something else as areview, addition, etc.

REPORT to give a formal statement or official account of; announceformally (the results of an investigation, etc.)

EVALUATIONthe process of evaluating something or an instance of this

FUNDING

SOUGHT

Initial investments in a start-up, provided by a venturecapitalist or private equity investor.

Refinancing debt before maturity, typically referred to asrefunding.

SUBMISSION the act of submitting something to another for decision,consideration, etc.

SURVEY a detailed study or inspection, as by gathering informationthrough observations, questionnaires, etc. and analyzing it

FEASIBILITY Possibility to carry on with the project

WORKSHEET

In groups according to your career, fill in the following format. Present a project.


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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION


In business, administration consists of the performance or management of

business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions.Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people andresources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals andobjectives.

Adm inist rat ive funct ions

Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions to meetthe organization's goals. These "functions" of the administrator were describedby Henri Fayol.

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, andwho should do it. It maps the path from where the organization is to whereit wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals andarranging them in logical order. Administrators engage in both short-rangeand long-range planning.

Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, groupingresponsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying organizationalrelationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort among all theelements in the organization. Organizing must take into accountdelegation of authority and responsibility and span of control withinsupervisory units.

Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. Itinvolves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting andscreening people to fill the positions.

Directing is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of theorganization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing aneffective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skillsand the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing isto find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs andemphasis on economic production.

Controlling is the function that evaluates quality in all areas and detectspotential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This ensures

high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining anorderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes informationmanagement, measurement of performance, and institution of correctiveactions.

Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of theadministrative functions, beginning with the implementation of a budgetplan through the application of budget controls.


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Management in business and human organization activity, in simple termsmeans the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals.Management comprises planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing,

and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) oreffort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses thedeployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources,technological resources, and natural resources.

To accomplish in a successful way the management function two kind of skillsmust be fulfilled:

1. Human skills2. Financial skills

In human skills can be mentioned: the ability to communicate, leadership, conflictmanagement, decision taking etc.

In Financial skills: the management tools, benchmarking, outsourcing, six sigmaand more.

EXERCISE

According to the managerial skills for a good administrator, write anideal manager profile.


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LEADERSHIP

The word leadershipcan refer to:

1. Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading.2. The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission.3. Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting or goal

achievement.

Types of leadership styles

The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and follows theprocedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no spaceto explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure

adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all thesteps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority.Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leaderin their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decreasecorruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustrationand anxiety.

The charismatic leader(Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy and eagernessinto their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to theorganization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is attributedto the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the

company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the companytime and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type ofleadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of acharismatic leader.

The autocratic leader(Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) is given the power to makedecisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good foremployees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creativeemployees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unableto enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction.

The democratic leader(Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) listens to the team's ideasand studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to thefinal decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling theirinput was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises,this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and morerapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to thedecision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming


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of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in ashort period of time or at the moment.

The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) gives nocontinuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highlyexperienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On theother hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all,failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs,bad service or failure to meet deadlines.

The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to complywith effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel,increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.

The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and concentrate onthe specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment.This leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership,showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision andcontrol to achieve expected results.

The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal accomplishment by givingits team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is aninstrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voicethat moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democraticleadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles,

although employee engagement is higher.

The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasksand reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity to themanager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplisha predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to theleader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up tothe desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

The transformation leader(Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective andefficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group inthe final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible anduses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus onthe big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details.The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach thecompanys vision.


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The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group ororganizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perceptionof an individuals place in that group or organization. An understanding and

application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to beeffective. The leader uses organizational culture to inspire individuals anddevelop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an educationmatrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of groupdynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology, andcomplementary language, to influence direction through the members of theinspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.

" Leadership is the energet ic process of gett ing people ful ly and wi l l ingly

committed to a new and sustainable course of act ion, to meet comm only

agreed object ives whi lst having commonly held values"

EXERCISE

At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify the level ofleadership they have.

http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer

After taking the test, ask them to:

1. Write an analysis of their result2. Identify their strengths and weaknesses3. Identify what aspects they should improve4. Identify what aspects
http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transferhttp://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transferhttp://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer


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COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a

receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information isunderstood by both sender and receiver. It is a process that allows organisms toexchange information by several methods. Communication requires that allparties understand a common language that is exchanged; there are auditorymeans, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal,physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch,eye contact, or the use of writing. Communication is defined as a process bywhich we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create sharedunderstanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonaland interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning,analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and

transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It isthrough communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communicationis the articulation of sending a message, through different media whether it beverbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea,gesture, action, etc.

Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in manydifferent ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if notall, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so whenspeaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspectsof communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range

widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as wellas human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beingswithin the parameters of human symbolic interaction.

Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few major dimensions:Content (what type of things are communicated), source, emisor, sender orencoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium),destination, receiver, target or decoder (to whom), and the purpose or pragmaticaspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge andexperiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts maytake many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form

depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communicationcontent and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The targetcan be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation orgroup of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governedby three levels of semiotic rules:


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1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),2. pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and

their users) and

3. semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and whatthey represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interactingagents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. Thiscommonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, includingintrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk.

In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) issent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to adestination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and areceiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of communication is called a


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speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmissionchannel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, andthus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this

encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding anddecoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something thatfunctions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least,similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by themodel, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates manyconceptual difficulties.

Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamiccontinuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Language

A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such as voice sounds,intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts orfeelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds,gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered as alanguage? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a languageto communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication canbe considered as a separated language.

Dialogue

A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. Theetymological origins of the word (in Greek (di,through) + (logos,word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily conveythe way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusionbetween the prefix -(di-,through) and the prefix - (di-, two) leading to theassumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties.

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending andreceiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated throughgesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, objectcommunication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols andinfographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known asparalanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well asprosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written textshave nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of


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words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (oremote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used toconvey emotional content in written or message form.

EXERCISE

At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify the level ofleadership they have.

http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer

After taking the test, ask them to:

5.Write an analysis of their result6. Identify their strengths and weaknesses7. Identify what aspects they should improve8. Identify what aspects
http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transferhttp://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transferhttp://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer


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.BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable

conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievancesstanding up for what they consider to be right and against what they considerto be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule,lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance.Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can besomewhat predicted and explained by the social structure or social geometryof the case.

Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict resolution.The latter refers to resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both parties,whereas the former concerns an ongoing process that may never have a

resolution. Neither is it considered the same as conflict transformation, whichseeks to reframe the positions of the conflict parties.

Types of Manager ial Act ions th at Cause Work place Conf l ic ts

1. Poor communicationsa. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of newdecisions, programs, etc.b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't involved indecision-making.c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than management.

2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is:a. Disagreement about "who does what".b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.

3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among managersand employees, for example:a. Strong personal natures don't match.b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.

4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or uninformedleadership (at any level in the organization), evidenced by:

a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on decisions.b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace.c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates


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Ways People Deal With Con fl ict

There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation.Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict.

1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it.a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approachtendsto worsen the conflict over time.

2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that youcompromise yourself.a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situationswhen you know that you will have another more useful approach in the verynear future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, andcauses conflicts within yourself.

3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing theissue. Competitors love accommodators.a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.

4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.

5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by usingmutual

resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.

EXERCISEAsk students to role play a conflict first following these steps, then not followingthem. Analyze the result.

Step1Decide whether you want to confront the person who is bothering you. It is usually better to airgrievances in the open than to let them fester.Step2Speak to the other person calmly, politely and rationally. Focus on the situation and facts,

avoiding gossip and personal attacks.Step3Be careful not to express hostility in your posture, facial expression or tone. Be assertive withoutbeing aggressive.Step4Listen to the other person carefully: What is she trying to say? Be sure you understand herposition.Step5


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Express interest in what the other person is saying. You can acknowledge her ideas withoutnecessarily agreeing or submitting. Saying, "I understand that you feel this way. Here's how Ifeel..." acknowledges both positions.Step6Communicate clearly what you want, offering positive suggestions and recommendations. Bewilling to be flexible.

Step7Speak to your supervisor if a problem with a difficult co-worker seriously threatens your work, butavoid whining.

Glossary of Term Business Administration

1. AcquisitionThe acquiring of supplies or services by the federal government withappropriated funds through purchase or lease.

2. AffiliatesBusiness concerns, organizations, or individuals that control each other orthat are controlled by a third party. Control may include sharedmanagement or ownership; common use of facilities, equipment, andemployees; or family interest.

3. Best and Final OfferFor negotiated procurements, a contractor's final offer following theconclusion of discussions.

4. Certificate of Competency

A certificate issued by the Small Business Administration (SBA) statingthat the holder is "responsible" (in terms of capability, competency,capacity, credit, integrity, perseverance, and tenacity) for the purpose ofreceiving and performing a specific government contract.

5. Certified 8(a) Firm

A firm owned and operated by socially and economically disadvantagedindividuals and eligible to receive federal contracts under the SmallBusiness Administrations 8(a) Business Development Program.

6. ContractA mutually binding legal relationship obligating the seller to furnishsupplies or services (including construction) and the buyer to pay for

them.

7. ContractingPurchasing, renting, leasing, or otherwise obtaining supplies or servicesfrom nonfederal sources. Contracting includes the description of suppliesand services required, the selection and solicitation of sources, thepreparation and award of contracts, and all phases of contractadministration. It does not include grants or cooperative agreements.


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8. Contractor Team Arrangement

An arrangement in which (a) two or more companies form a partnershipor joint venture to act as potential prime contractor; or (b) an agreement bya potential prime contractor with one or more other companies to havethem act as its subcontractors under a specified government contract or

acquisition program.9. Electronic Data Interchange

standardized electronic versions of common business documents.

10.Emerging Small Business

A small business concern whose size is no greater than 50 percent of thenumerical size standard applicable to the Standard Industrial Classificationcode assigned to a contracting opportunity.

11.EquityAn accounting term used to describe the net investment of owners orstockholders in a business. Under the accounting equation, equity alsorepresents the result of assets less liabilities.

12.Fair and Reasonable Price

A price that is fair to both parties, considering the agreed-upon conditions,promised quality, and timeliness of contract performance. "Fair andreasonable" price is subject to statutory and regulatory limitations.

13.Full and Open CompetitionWith respect to a contract action, "full and open" competition means that

all responsible sources are permitted to compete.14. Intermediary Organization

Organizations that play a fundamental role in encouraging, promoting,and facilitating business-to-business linkages and mentor-protgpartnerships. These can include both nonprofit and for-profit organizations:chambers of commerce; trade associations; local, civic, and communitygroups; state and local governments; academic institutions; and privatecorporations.

15.Joint VentureIn the SBA Mentor-Protg Program, an agreement between a certifiedfirm and a mentor firm to perform a specific federal contract.

16.MentorA business, usually large, or other organization that has created aspecialized program to advance strategic relationships with smallbusinesses.

17.NegotiationContracting through the use of either competitive or other-than


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competitive proposals and discussions. Any contract awarded withoutusing sealed bidding procedures is a negotiated contract.

18.One-Stop Capital Shops

OSCSs are the SBAs contribution to the Empowerment Zones/EnterpriseCommunities Program, an interagency initiative that provides resources to

economically distressed communities. The shops provide a full range ofSBA lending and technical assistance programs.

19.PartneringA mutually beneficial business-to-business relationship based on trustand commitment and that enhances the capabilities of both parties.

20.Prime ContractA contract awarded directly by the Federal government.

21.ProtgA firm in a developmental stage that aspires to increasing its capabilitiesthrough a mutually beneficial business-to-business relationship.

22.Request for Proposal (RFP)

A document outlining a government agencys requirements and thecriteria for the evaluation of offers.

23.Small BusinessA business smaller than a given size as measured by its employment,business receipts, or business assets.

24.Small Business Development Centers (SBDC)SBDCs offer a broad spectrum of business information and guidance aswell as assistance in preparing loan applications.

25.Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) CodeA code representing a category within the Standard IndustrialClassification System administered by the Statistical Policy Division of theU.S. Office of Management and Budget. The system was established toclassify all industries in the US economy. A two-digit code designates eachmajor industry group, which is coupled with a second two-digit coderepresenting subcategories.


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CTECHNICAL ENGLISH IV

UNIT TWOSTRATEGIC PLANNING

What is a Strategic Plan?

Entrepreneurs and business managers are often so preoccupied with immediateissues that they lose sight of their ultimate objectives. That's why a business review

or preparation of a strategic plan is a virtual necessity. This may not be a recipe forsuccess, but without it a business is much more likely to fail. A sound plan should:

1. Serve as a framework for decisions or for securing support/approval.2. Provide a basis for more detailed planning.3. Explain the business to others in order to inform, motivate & involve.4. Assist benchmarking & performance monitoring.5. Stimulate change and become building block for next plan.

A strategic plan should not be confused with a business plan. The former is likelyto be a (very) short document whereas a business plan is usually a much moresubstantial and detailed document. A strategic plan can provide the foundation andframe work for a business plan.

A strategic plan is not the same thing as an operational plan. The former should bevisionary, conceptual and directional in contrast to an operational plan which islikely to be shorter term, tactical, focused, implementable and measurable. As anexample, compare the process of planning a vacation (where, when, duration,budget, who goes, how travel are all strategic issues) with the final preparations(tasks, deadlines, funding, weather, packing, transport and so on are alloperational matters).

A satisfactory strategic plan must be realistic and attainable so as to allowmanagers and entrepreneurs to think strategically and act operationally.

Basic Approach to Strategic Planning

A critical review of past performance by the owners and management of abusiness and the preparation of a plan beyond normal budgetary horizons requirea certain attitude of mind and predisposition. Some essential points which shouldto be observed during the review and planning process include the following:

1. Relate to the medium term i.e. 2/4 years2. Be undertaken by owners/directors3. Focus on matters of strategic importance4. Be separated from day-to-day work5. Be realistic, detached and critical

6. Distinguish between cause and effect7. Be reviewed periodically8. Be written down.


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UNIT TWOTRATEGIC PLANNING MARKETING HSP

TECHNICAL ENGLISH IV

MARKETING STRATEGY

As the precursor to developing astrategic plan, it is desirable to clearly identify the current status, objectives andstrategies of an existing business or the latest thinking in respect of a new venture.

Correctly defined, these can be used as the basis for a critical examination toprobe existing or perceived Strengths, Weaknesses, Threatsand Opportunities.This then leads to strategy development covering the following issues discussed inmore detail below:

VisionMissionValuesObjectivesStrategiesGoalsPrograms

The preparation of a strategic plan is a multi-step process covering vision, mission,

objectives, values, strategies, goals and programs. These are discussed below.

The Vision

The first step is to develop a realistic Vision for the business. This should bepresented as a pen picture of the business in three or more years time in terms ofits likely physical appearance, size, activities etc. Answer the question: "if someonefrom Mars visited the business, what would they see (or sense)?" Consider itsfuture products, markets, customers, processes, location, staffing etc. Here is agreat example of a vision:I will come to America, which is the country for me. Once there, I will become thegreatest bodybuilder in history.......... I will go into movies as an actor, producer andeventually director. By the time I am 30 I will have starred in first movie and I will bea millionaire...... I will collect houses, art and automobiles. I will marry a glamorousand intelligent wife. By 32, I will have been invited to the White House.Attributed to

Arnold Schwarzenegger who was elected Governor of the State of California in2003.

The Mission

The nature of a business is often expressed in terms of its Missionwhich indicatesthe purposes of the business, for example, "to design, develop, manufacture andmarket specific product lines for sale on the basis of certain features to meet theidentified needs of specified customer groups via certain distribution channels inparticular geographic areas". A statement along these lines indicates what thebusiness is about and is infinitely clearer than saying, for instance, "we're inelectronics" or worse still, "we are in business to make money" (assuming that thebusiness is not a mint !). Also, some people confuse mission statements with valuestatements (see below) - the former should be very hard-nosed while the latter can


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deal with 'softer' issues surrounding the business. The following table contrastshardand softmission statements.

Hard Soft

What business is/does

Primary products/services

Key processes & technologies

Main customer groups

Primary markets/segments

Principal channels/outlets

Reason for existence

Competitive advantages

Unique/distinctive features

Important philosophical/social

issues

Image, quality, style,

standards

Stakeholder concerns

The Values

The next element is to address the Valuesgoverning the operation of the businessand its conduct or relationships with society at large, customers, suppliers,employees, local community and other stakeholders.

The Objectives

The third key element is to explicitly state the business's Objectivesin terms of theresults it needs/wants to achieve in the medium/long term. Aside from presumably

indicating a necessity to achieve regular profits (expressed as return onshareholders' funds), objectives should relate to the expectations and requirementsof all the major stakeholders, including employees, and should reflect theunderlying reasons for running the business. These objectives could cover growth,profitability, technology, offerings and markets.

The Strategies

Next are the Strategies- the rules and guidelines by which the mission, objectivesetc. may be achieved. They can cover the business as a whole including suchmatters as diversification, organic growth, or acquisition plans, or they can relate toprimary matters in key functional areas, for example:

The company's internal cash flow will fund all future growth.New products will progressively replace existing ones over the next 3 years.

All assembly work will be contracted out to lower the company's break-evenpoint.

Use SWOTs to help identify possible strategies by buildingon strengths,resolvingweaknesses, exploitingopportunities and avoidingthreats.


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MARKETING STRATEGY

SWOTs - Keys to Business Strategies

Having built up a picture of the company's past aims and achievements, the all-important SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis cancommence.

Strengths & Weaknesses

Strengths and weaknesses are essentially internal to the organization and relateto matters concerning resources, programs and organization in key areas. Theseinclude:

Sales - marketing - distribution - promotion - support;

Management - systems - expertise - resources;Operations - efficiency - capacity - processes;Products - services - quality - pricing - features - range - competitiveness;

Finances - resources - performance;

R&D - effort - direction - resources;Costs - productivity - purchasing;Systems - organization - structures.

If a startup is being planned, the strengths and weaknesses are related mainly tothe promoter(s) - their experience, expertise and management abilities - rather

than to the project.

Threats & Opportunities

The externalthreats and opportunities confronting a company, can exist ordevelop in the following areas:

The company's own industry where structural changes may be occurring (Size

and segmentation; growth patterns and maturity; established patterns and

relationships, emergence/contraction of niches; international dimensions;relative attractiveness of segments)

The marketplace which may be altering due to economic or social factors

(Customers; distribution channels; economic factors, social/demographicissues; political & environmental factors)

Competition which may be creating new threats or opportunities(Identities, performances, market shares, likely plans, aggressiveness,

strengths & weaknesses)New technologies which may be causing fundamental changes in products,

processes, etc.(Substitute products, alternative solutions, shifting channels, cost savings etc.)


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Against an uncertain and shifting background, the objective must be to identify and

prioritize the key SWOTs in a one-handedmanner (Don't say "on the one hand...........but on the other hand.........").

The Goals

Next come the Goals. These are specific interim or ultimate time-basedmeasurements to be achieved by implementing strategies in pursuit of thecompany's objectives, for example, to achieve sales of $3m in three years time.Goals should be quantifiable, consistent, realistic and achievable. They can relateto factors like market (sizes and shares), products, finances, profitability, utilization,efficiency.

The Programs

The final elements are the Programswhich set out the implementation plans forthe key strategies. These should cover resources, objectives, time-scales,deadlines, budgets and performance targets.

Developing a Mission Statement

1. At is most basic, the mission statement describes the overall purpose of the

organization.

2. If the organization elects to develop a vision statement before developing the missionstatement, ask Why does the image, the vision exist -- what is its purpose? This purpose

is often the same as the mission.

3. Developing a mission statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e., participants may use

methods ranging from highly analytical and rational to highly creative and divergent, e.g.,

focused discussions, divergent experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc.

Therefore, visit with the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their

organizational mission.

4. When wording the mission statement, consider the organization's products, services,

markets, values, and concern for public image, and maybe priorities of activities for

survival.

5. Consider any changes that may be needed in wording of the mission statement

because of any new suggested strategies during a recent strategic planning process.


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6. Ensure that wording of the mission is to the extent that management and employees

can infer some order of priorities in how products and services are delivered.

7. When refining the mission, a useful exercise is to add or delete a word from the mission

to realize the change in scope of the mission statement and assess how concise is its

wording.

8. Does the mission statement include sufficient description that the statement clearly

separates the mission of the organization from other organizations?

Developing a Vision Statement

1. The vision statement includes vivid description of the organization as it effectively

carries out its operations.

2. Developing a vision statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e., participants may

use methods ranging from highly analytical and rational to highly creative and

divergent, e.g., focused discussions, divergent experiences around daydreams,

sharing stories, etc. Therefore, visit with the participants how they might like to arrive at

description of their organizational vision.

3. Developing the vision can be the most enjoyable part of planning, but the part where

time easily gets away from you.

4. Note that originally, the vision was a compelling description of the state and function

of the organization once it had implemented the strategic plan, i.e., a very attractiveimage toward which the organization was attracted and guided by the strategic plan.

Recently, the vision has become more of a motivational tool, too often including highly

idealistic phrasing and activities which the organization cannot realistically aspire.

Developing a Values Statement

1. Values represent the core priorities in the organizations culture, including what drives

members priorities and how they truly act in the organization, etc. Values are increasingly

important in strategic planning. They often drive the intent and direction for organic

planners.

2. Developing a values statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e., participants may use

methods ranging from highly analytical and rational to highly creative and divergent, e.g.,

focused discussions, divergent experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc.

Therefore, visit with the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their

organizational values.


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3. Establish four to six core values from which the organization would like to operate.

Consider values of customers, shareholders, employees and the community.

4. Notice any differences between the organizations preferred values and its true values

(the values actually reflected by members behaviors in the organization). Record each

preferred value on a flash card, then have each member rank the values with 1,2, or 3 in

terms of the priority needed by the organization with 3 indicating the value is very

important to the organization and 1 is least important. Then go through the cards again to

rank how people think the values are actually being enacted in the organization with 3

indicating the values are fully enacted and 1 indicating the value is hardly reflected at all.

Then address discrepancies where a value is highly preferred (ranked with a 3), but hardly

enacted (ranked with a 1).

5. Incorporate into the strategic plan, actions to align actual behavior with preferredbehaviors.

Benefits of Strategic Planning

Strategic planning serves a variety of purposes in organization, including to:1. Clearly define the purpose of the organization and to establish realistic goalsand objectives consistent with that mission in a defined time frame within theorganizations capacity for implementation.2. Communicate those goals and objectives to the organizations constituents. 3. Develop a sense of ownership of the plan.

4. Ensure the most effective use is made of the organizations resources byfocusing the resources on the key priorities.5. Provide a base from which progress can be measured and establish amechanism for informed change when needed.6. Bring together of everyones best and most reasoned efforts have importantvalue in building a consensus about where an organization is going.Other reasons include that strategic planning:7. Provides clearer focus of organization, producing more efficiency andeffectiveness8. Bridges staff and board of directors (in the case of corporations)9. Builds strong teams in the board and the staff (in the case of corporations)

10. Provides the glue that keeps the board together (in the case of corporations)11.Produces great satisfaction among planners around a common vision12. Increases productivity from increased efficiency and effectiveness13. Solves major problems

Source:

http://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/str_plan/basics.htm
http://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/str_plan/basics.htmhttp://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/str_plan/basics.htmhttp://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/str_plan/basics.htm


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MARKETING STRATEGY

STRATEGIC PLANNING

VOCABULARY


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MARKETING

Marketing is a societal process which discerns consumers' wants, focusing on aproductorserviceto fulfill those wants, attempting to move the consumers towardthe products or services offered. Marketing is fundamental to any businessesgrowth. The marketing teams (marketers) are tasked to create consumerawareness of the products or services through marketing techniques. Unless itpays due attention to its products and services and consumers' demographics anddesires, a business will not usually prosper over time.Marketing tends to be seen as a creative industry, which includes advertising,distributionandselling.It is also concerned with anticipating the customers' futureneeds and wants, which are often discovered through market research.

Essentially, marketing is the process of creating or directing an organization to besuccessful in selling a product or service that people not only desire, but are willingto buy.Therefore good marketing must be able to create a "proposition" or set of benefitsfor the end customer that delivers value through products or services.

A marketing plan is a written document that details the necessary actions toachieve one or more marketing objectives. It can be for a product or service, abrand,or aproduct line.It can cover one year (referred to as an annual marketingplan), or cover up to 5 years.

A marketing plan may be part of an overallbusiness plan.Solidmarketing strategyis the foundation of a well-written marketing plan. While a marketing plan containsa list of actions, a marketing plan without a sound strategic foundation is of littleuse.In most organizations, "strategic planning" is an annual process, typically covering

just the year ahead. Occasionally, a few organizations may look at a practical planwhich stretches three or more years ahead.Marketing plans are vital to marketing success. They help to focus the mind of companies

and marketing teams on the process of marketing i.e. what is going to be achieved and

how we intend to do it. There are many approaches to marketing plans. Marketing

Teacher has focussed upon the key stages of the plan. It is contained under the popular

acronym AOSTC.

ANALYSIS.

OBJECTIVES.

STRATEGIES.

TACTICS.

CONTROLS.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_%28economics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product


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MARKETING STRATEGY

Stage One - Situation Analysis (andMarketing Audit).

Marketing environment. Laws and regulations. Politics. The current state of technology. Economic conditions. Sociocultural aspects. Demand trends. Media availability. Stakeholder interests. Marketing plans and campaigns of competitors. Internal factors such as your own experience and resource availability.

Also see tools for internal/external audit:

SWOT. PEST. Porter's Five Forces. Marketing Environment.

Stage Two - Set marketing objectives.

SMART objective.

Specific- Be precise about what you are going to achieve. Measurable- Quantify you objectives. Achievable- Are you attempting too much? Realistic- Do you have the resource to make the objective happen (men,

money, machines, materials, minutes)? Timed- State when you will achieve the objective (within a month? By

February 2010?).

If you don't make your objective SMART, it will be too vague and

will not be realized. Remember that the rest of the plan hinges on

the objective. If it is not correct, the plan may fail.
http://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_audit.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_environment.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_swot.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_PEST.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_fivefoces.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_environment.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_objectives.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_objectives.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_objectives.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_objectives.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_environment.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_fivefoces.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_PEST.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_swot.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_environment.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_audit.htm


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Stage Three - Describe yourtarget market

Whichsegment? How will wetarget the segment? How should wepositionwithin the segment?

Why this segment and not a different one? (This will focus the mind). Define the segment in terms of demographics and lifestyle. Show how you

intend to 'position' your product or service within that segment. Use othertools to assist in strategic marketing decisions such asBoston Matrix ,

Ansoff's Matrix ,Bowmans Strategy Clock,Porter's Competitive Strategies,etc.

Stage Four -Marketing Tactics.

Convert the strategy into themarketing mix (also known as the

4Ps).These are your marketing tactics.

PriceWill you cost plus, skim, match the competition or penetrate themarket?

PlaceWill you market direct, use agents or distributors, etc? ProductSold individually, as part of a bundle, in bulk, etc? PromotionWhich media will you use? e.g sponsorship, radio advertising,

sales force, point-of-sale, etc? Think of the mix elements as the ingredients ofa 'cake mix'. You have eggs, milk, butter, and flour. However, if you alter the

amount of each ingredient, you will influence the type of cake that you finishwith.

Stage Five -Marketing Controls.

Remember that there is no planning without control. Control is vital.

Start-up costs. Monthly budgets. Sales figure. Market share data. Consider the cycle of control.

Finally, write a short summary (or synopsis) which is placed at the

front of the plan. This will help others to get acquainted with the plan

without having to spend time reading it all. Place all supporting

information into an appendix at the back of the plan.
http://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_targeting.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_segmentation.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_targeting.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_positioning.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/exercise_boston%20matrix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/exercise_ansoff.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_bowman.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_generic_strategies.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_mix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_mix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_mix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_pricing.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_pricing.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_place.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_place.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_plc.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_plc.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_promotion.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_promotion.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_control.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_control.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_promotion.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_plc.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_place.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_pricing.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_mix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_mix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_marketing_mix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_generic_strategies.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_bowman.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/exercise_ansoff.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/exercise_boston%20matrix.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_positioning.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_targeting.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_segmentation.htmhttp://www.marketingteacher.com/Lessons/lesson_targeting.htm


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MARKETING STRATEGY

Marketing audit

The first formal step in the marketing planning process is that of conducting themarketing audit. Ideally, at the time of producing the marketing plan, this shouldonly involve bringing together the source material which has already been collectedthroughout the year - as part of the normal work of the marketing department.The emphasis at this stage is on obtaining a complete and accurate picture. In asingle organization, however, it is likely that only a few aspects will be sufficientlyimportant to have any significant impact on the marketing plan; but all may need tobe reviewed to determine just which 'are' the few.In this context some factors related to the customer, which should be included inthe material collected for the audit, may be:

Who are the customers?

What are their key characteristics?

What differentiates them from other members of the population?

What are their needs and wants?

What do they expect the `product' to do?

What are their special requirements and perceptions?

What do they think of the organization and its products or services?

What are their attitudes?

What are their buying intentions?


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Content of the marketing plan

Small business

A marketing plan for a small U.S. business typically includes:

1. Demographics of customers2. Description of competitors, including the level of demand for the product or

service and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors3. Description of the product or service, including special features4. Marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan5. Description of the business location, including advantages and

disadvantages for marketing6. Pricing strategy7. Market Segmentation

Medium-sized and large organizations

The main contents of a marketing plan are:

1. Executive Summary2. Situational Analysis3. Opportunities / Issue Analysis -SWOT Analysis

4. Objectives5. Strategy6. Action Programme (the operational marketing plan itself for the

period under review)7. Financial Forecast8. Controls
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MARKETING STRATEGY

In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:

1. Title page2. Executive Summary3. Current Situation - Macroenvironment

o economyo legalo governmento technologyo ecologicalo socioculturalo supply chain

4. Current Situation - Market Analysiso market definitiono market sizeo market segmentationo industry structure and strategic groupingso Porter 5 forces analysiso competition and market shareo competitors' strengths and weaknesseso market trends

5. Current Situation - Consumer Analysiso nature of the buying decisiono participantso demographicso psychographicso buyer motivation and expectationso loyalty segments

6. Current Situation - Internalo company resources

financial people time skills

o objectives mission statement and vision statement corporate objectives

financial objective marketing objectives long term objectives description of the basic business philosophy

o corporate culture7. Summary of Situation Analysis

o external threatso external opportunitieso internal strengths


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o internal weaknesseso Critical success factors in the industryo oursustainable competitive advantage

8. Marketing researcho information requirementso research methodologyo research results

9. Marketing Strategy - Producto product mixo product strengths and weaknesses

perceptual mappingo product life cycle management and new product developmento Brand name, brand image, and brand equityo the augmented producto productportfolio analysis

B.C.G. Analysis contribution margin analysis G.E. Multi Factoral analysis Quality Function Deployment

10. Marketing Strategy - segmented marketing actions and market share objectiveso by product,o by customer segment,o by geographical market,o by distribution channel.

11. Marketing Strategy - Priceo pricing objectiveso pricing method (eg.: cost plus, demand based, or competitor indexing)o pricing strategy (eg.: skimming, or penetration)o discounts and allowanceso price elasticity and customer sensitivityo price zoningo break even analysis at various prices

12. Marketing Strategy - promotiono promotional goalso promotional mixo advertising reach, frequency, flights, theme, and mediao sales force requirements, techniques, and managemento sales promotiono publicity and public relationso electronic promotion (eg.:Web,or telephone)o word of mouth marketing (buzz)o viral marketing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_competitive_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Life_Cycle_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_portfoliohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.C.G._Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contribution_margin_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.E._Multi_Factoral_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Function_Deploymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-marketinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_of_mouth_marketinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_of_mouth_marketinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-marketinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Function_Deploymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.E._Multi_Factoral_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contribution_margin_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.C.G._Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_portfoliohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_Life_Cycle_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_competitive_advantage


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13. Marketing Strategy - Distributiono geographical coverageo distribution channelso physical distribution and logisticso electronic distribution

14. Implementationo personnel requirements

assign responsibilities giveincentives training on selling methods

o financial requirementso management information systems requirementso month-by-month agenda

PERT orcritical path analysiso monitoring results and benchmarkso adjustment mechanismo contingencies (What if's)

15. Financial Summaryo assumptionso pro-forma monthly income statemento contribution margin analysiso breakeven analysiso Monte Carlo methodo ISI: Internet Strategic Intelligence

16. Scenarioso Prediction of Future Scenarioso Plan of Action for each Scenario

17. Appendixo pictures and specifications of the new producto results from research already completed
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contribution_margin_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contribution_margin_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentives


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MARKETING

VOCABULARY

aggregation

A concept of market segmentation that assumes that most consumers are alike.

brand

A name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one seller's good

or service as distinct from those of other sellers. The legal term for brand is

trademark. A brand may identify one item, a family of items, or all items of that

seller. If used for the firm as a whole, the preferred term is trade name. Librarycould be considered a trade name.

budget

The detailed financial component of the strategic plan that guides the allocation of

resources and provides a mechanism for identifying deviations of actual from

desired performance so corrective action can be taken. A budget assigns a dollar

figure to each revenue and expense related activity. A budget is usually prepared

for a period of one year by each component of an organization. A budget provides

both a guide for action and a means of assessing performance. A budget is a

library's post control system.

census

A complete canvass of a population.

chain store system

A groups of retail stores of essentially the same type, centrally owned and with

some degree of centralized control of operation.

channel of distribution

An organized network of agencies and institutions which in combination perform all

the functions required to link producers with end customers to accomplish the

marketing task. For a library this would include vendors, publishers as well as

library facilities.


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circulation

The number of copies of a print advertising medium that are distributed. For the

library field, this is numbers of items checked out by users.

clustering

A statistical method of forming natural groupings in which a number of important

characteristics of a large diverse group are identified in order to define target

markets. For a library such a cluster might include higher education levels, and

income. (Wood and Koontz)

competition

The rivalry among sellers trying to achieve such goals as increasing profits, market

share and sales volume by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price,

product, distribution and promotion. The agency changes to better meet consumer

wants and needs. For a library competition may be bookstores, community events,

video stores or even other libraries.

consumer

The ultimate user of goods, ideas or services. Also the buyer or decision maker, for

example, the parent selecting children's books is the consumer.

consumer behavior

The behavior of the consumer or decision maker in the market place of products

and services. Library user behavior is often captured in library literature under use

studies.

consumer characteristics

The demographic, lifestyle and personality characteristics of the consumer. For a

library this would be the user.

consumer satisfaction

The degree to which a consumer's expectations are fulfilled or surpassed by a

product. User satisfaction with library services and materials is often difficult to

determine because: 1) there is no clear ring of the cash register at the end of the

day; 2) privacy issues concerning use of library materials and services usually

deter marketing-type exit interviews; 3) and little research is conducted in this area

due to lack of expertise.


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MARKETING STRATEGY

core product

The central benefit or purpose for which a consumer buys a product or service. The

core product varies from purchaser to purchaser. For a library user the core benefit

of checking out a book, may be for one user that there is no charge, and to another

the availability of a work which can no longer be purchased.

demand

The number of units of a product sold in a market over a period of time. For

example, six thousand library books were circulated in Branch X's market area last

year.

demarketing

The process of reducing the demand for a product--or decreasing consumption.

demographics

Objective characteristics of consumers such as age, income, education, sex or

occupation (Assael.)

direct marketing

Marketing efforts, in total directed toward a specific targeted group--direct selling,

direct mail, catalog or cable--for soliciting a response from customer. A library may

mail a library registration card to every new mother in the hospital.

distribution

The marketing and carrying of products to customers (bookmobiles, facilities,

library loan.)

diversification (Wood)

Extends skills or experience from current product or market activities rather than

covering totally unfamiliar territory. Customized online searches by reference

librarians would extend their current research in print skills.


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MARKETING STRATEGY

elasticity

The degree that an economic variable changes in response to a change in another

economic variable. For example how much library use changes according to how

far an individual must travel for library services.

erratic demand

A pattern of demand for a product that is varied and unpredictable, e.g., some best

sellers, or specific online databases randomly assigned in curriculum by teachers.

feature

The use of advertising, displays, or other activity, generally by a retailer, to callspecial attention to a product, generally for a limited period of time.

focus group

A method of gathering quantitative data on the preferences and beliefs of

consumers through group interaction and discussion usually focused on a specific

topic or product.

geodemography

The availability of demographic consumer behavior and life style data by arbitrary

geographic boundaries that are typically quite small. For example, a library-

designated service area of two census tracts (US).

goals

A concrete point of measurement that the business unit/library intends to meet to

achieve objectives. For example, the library's goal is to improve reference services,

its objectives include increasing fill rate by 20% in two months.

halo effect

A problem that arises in data collection when there is carry over from onejudgement to another.


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MARKETING STRATEGY

macroenvironment

The conditions facing a company/library including demographic economic, natural,

technological, political, and cultural forces.

market

The set of actual of potential users/customers. (Kotler)

market area

A geographical area containing the customers/users of a particular firm/library for

specific goods or services. (The library's legal service area.)

market demand

The total volume of a product or service bought/used by a specific groups of

customers/users in a specified market area during a specified period.

market positioning

Positioning refers to the user's perceptions of the place a product or brand

occupies in a market segment. Or how the company/library's offering is

differentiated from the competition's.

market profile

A breakdown of a facility's market area according to income, demography, and life

style (often.)

market research

The systematic gathering, recording and analyzing of data with respect to a

particular market, where market refers to a specific user group in a specific

geographic area.

market segmentation

The process of subdividing a market into distinct subsets of users that behave in

the same way or have similar needs. Segments for the library could be

demographic (Asian); geographic (branch-level); psychographics (leisure-oriented);

customer size (largest user group area); benefits (have children in the home

learning to read.)


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MARKETING STRATEGY

market share

A proportion of the total sales/use in a market obtained by a given facility or chain.

marketing

The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and

distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual

and organizational goals.

marketing mix

The mix of controllable variables that the firm/library uses to reach

Documents

Technical English 4