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ST. AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA
Faculty of Education
The Effectiveness of Vocational Training in Creating Youths Self-
Employment Opportunities in Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality.
By
Raphael Kibirigi
(SAA/MEM/53894)
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Education Management of St, Augustine University of Tanzania.
©November, 2017
ii
DECLARATION
This dissertation is my own original work and has not been presented for an award of a degree or
Diploma in any other university or Institution.
SIGNATURE: ………………
DATE: ...............................
NAME: Raphael Kibirigi
REG. No.: SAA/MEM/53894
iii
CERTIFICATION
This dissertation has been submitted for examination with my approval as University
Supervisors.
NAME: Dr. Omondi Kennedy Otieno (PhD)
NAME OF UNIVERSITY: St. Augustine University of Tanzania Arusha Centre
SIGNATURE: ……………….
DATE: .......................................
iv
© COPYRIGHT
This dissertation is a copyright material and should not be reproduced by any means whatsoever
in whole or in part without prior permission of the author or St. Augustine University of
Tanzania.
© COPYRIGHT 2017
Raphael Kibirigi
All Rights Reserved
v
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my wife Rachel Joseph, my son Rodrick Kibirigi and his sister Debora
William, my parents Mr. and Mrs. Kibirigi, Youths and my fellow students from SAUT-Arusha
Centre.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following people for their
assistance in making this dissertation possible: My supervisors, Dr. Omondi Kennedy Otieno
(PhD), Dr. Solomon Omer (PhD) and Sr. Dr. Demitria Mkulu for their patience, positive attitude
and guidance. All vocational training centers, principal and teachers as well as graduates from
vocational training centers who participated in this study.
I extend my heartfelt thanks to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Kibirigi, brothers and Sisters, Dedu’s
,Chamangali’s, Bahemana’s, Swai’s, Sempa’s Families, my friends Emmanuel Kapesa, Innocent
Mulokozi, Kudra J. Ntahondi, Kassim Hassan, Faraja Mwingira, Athanas January, Thomas
Chubwa, Frank Samwel, AlieSijbersma and Scott Euser for their efforts and support throughout
the study. My fellow students of MEM-SAUT Arusha Center including Debora Assega, Kawishe
Deogratius, Kavishe Fulgence, Florence Lowassa, Fatuma Shanjiko, Baraka Hyera and Dainess
Paul, all Staff from Kasanda and Misezero Secondary Schools. Kakonko District Secondary
Education Office.Thank you very much for what you have done for me.
I would like to express my sincere and heartfelt thanks to my beloved wife, Rachel Joseph, my
Son Rodrick Kibirigi and my daughter Debora William. They all prayed earnestly and
unceasingly all the time of my absence pursuing my studies.
Since it is not possible to mention everyone, I wish to express my sincere thanks to all my
friends who helped me in one way or another at the different stages of my study. Their assistance
and contribution is highly acknowledged.
Above all, I would like to appreciate God Almighty for giving me the courage and strength to
start and complete this dissertation.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
CERTIFICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii
COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................................................. iv
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... xiii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. xiv
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the Study ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Main Objective ..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Scope of the Study .................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 6
1.8 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 8
1.9 Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 12
2.1 Theoretical Review ................................................................................................................. 12
viii
2.1.1 Scientific Management Theory ............................................................................................ 12
2.1.2 Fishbein’s Attitude ............................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Empirical Review.................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Vocational Training Programs ............................................................................................. 15
2.2.2 Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training ....................................................................... 19
2.2.3 The Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Creation ....................................................... 22
2.2.4 The Intervention Measures for Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Creation............. 27
2.3 Summary and Knowledge Gap ............................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER THREE : RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 32
3.1 Research Design...................................................................................................................... 32
3.2 The Study Area ....................................................................................................................... 33
3.3 Target Population .................................................................................................................... 33
3.4 Sampling Procedures and Sample Size ................................................................................... 33
3.4.1 Sampling of Vocational Training Center’s Principals ......................................................... 34
3.4.2 Sampling of Vocational Training Teachers ......................................................................... 34
3.4.3 Sampling of Graduates from Vocational Training............................................................... 34
3.5 Research Instruments .............................................................................................................. 35
3.5.1 In-depth Interview Guide ..................................................................................................... 35
3.5.2 Questionnaires...................................................................................................................... 35
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Instruments................................................................................... 36
3.6.1 Content Validity ................................................................................................................... 36
3.6.2 Reliability of Instruments .................................................................................................... 37
3.7 Data Collection Procedure ...................................................................................................... 37
3.8 Data Analysis Procedure ......................................................................................................... 38
ix
3.9 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................ 38
CHAPTER FOUR : DATA PRESENTATION
4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 39
4.1 The Questionnaire Return Rate ............................................................................................... 39
4.2 Demographic Information of Respondents ............................................................................. 39
4.3 Vocational Training Programs ................................................................................................ 42
4.4 Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training. ......................................................................... 46
4.5 Challenges Hindering to Creation of Self-Employment ......................................................... 47
4. 6 The Intervention Measures for Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Creation............... 48
4.6.1 Results from Qualitative Data .............................................................................................. 48
Source (Field Data, 2017) ............................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER FIVE : DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 50
5.1 Discussion of the Findings ...................................................................................................... 50
5.1.1 Vocational Training Programs ............................................................................................. 50
5.1.2 Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training ....................................................................... 57
5.1.3 Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-Employment .......................................................... 61
5.4 Intervention Measures for the Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-Employment............. 65
5.2 Summary of the Findings ........................................................................................................ 70
5.2.1 Summary of the findings on Vocational Training Program ................................................. 70
5.2.2 Summary of the Findings on the Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training .................. 70
5.2.3 Summary on the Findings on the Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Opportunities . 71
5.2.4 Summary of the Findings on the Intervention Measures for the Challenges ....................... 71
5.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 72
x
5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 73
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research ........................................................................................... 74
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 75
APPENDECIES ............................................................................................................................ 84
Appendix I .................................................................................................................................... 84
Interview Guide for Principal ..................................................................................................................... 84
Appendix II ................................................................................................................................... 85
Questionnaire for Teachers of Vocational Training Centres ........................................................ 85
Appendix III .................................................................................................................................. 89
Questionnaire for Graduates from Vocational Training ............................................................... 89
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Distribution of Respondents as per their Gender .......................................................... 40
Table 4.2 Respondents Distribution by Age ................................................................................. 40
Table 4.3 Distribution of Respondents by their Level Education ................................................. 41
Table 4.4 Distribution Respondents by their Working Experience .............................................. 42
Table 4.5 Vocational Training Programs ...................................................................................... 43
Table 4.6 Additional Courses Offered by Vocational Training Centers ..................................... ..44
Table 4.7 Courses that Students Prefers as Reported by Teachers ............................................... 45
Table 4.8 Methods used by Vocational Training ......................................................................... 46
Table 4.9 Perceptions of Youths’ towards Vocational Training................................................... 47
Table 4.10 Challenges Hindering Graduates from Vocational Training ...................................... 48
Table 4.11 Thematic Analysis Coding.......................................................................................... 49
xii
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………… 9
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CSO- Civil Society Organization
FDI- Foreign Direct Investments
ILO- International Labour Organization
NACTE-National Accredited Council for Technical Education
SPSS-Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TVET-Technical and Vocational Education and Training
URT-United Republic of Tanzania
VET-Vocational Education and Training
VTCs-Vocational Training Centres
xiv
ABSTRACT
The study sought to investigate the effectiveness of vocational training in creating youth’s self-
employment opportunities. The objectives for the study were: to identify vocational training
programs that leads to creation of Self-Employment opportunities, to highlight youths’
perceptions on Vocational training as the means to create self-employment opportunities, to find
out challenges hindering creation of self-employment opportunities after attaining vocational
training and to determine the intervention measures for the challenges hindering creation of self-
employment opportunities after vocational training. The study was conducted at Kigoma-Ujiji
Municipality-Tanzania. The study used cross-sectional research design and mixed methods
approach. The study involves graduates (30), teachers (30) and principal from Vocational
Training. Data was collected through questionnaires and interviews. The validity and reliability
of the instrument were observed, content validity was measure by expertise from Saint Augustine
University of Tanzania and reliability was tested through test retest method. Quantitative data
were scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale and qualitative data from structured questions were
systematically examined, analyzed in form of verbatim, coded and integrated into the main data.
Simple descriptive statistics in the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 20.0
computer program was used to analyze quantitative data. The data was presented in frequency,
percentages and table. The results showed that, availability of resources, entrepreneur course and
practical are programs, if well conducted will enable graduates to create self-employment
opportunities. Similar the study established that respondents had positive attitude towards
vocational training. Poverty and lack of vision and proper planning are the factors which hinder
graduates from creating self-employment opportunities after graduation and these challenges can
be overcome through investment in vocational training and all stakeholders to participate in all
planning concerning vocational training. The study recommended that; The Ministry of
education, science and technology should ensure that vocational training should start at primary
educational level so as to make sure that, those who joined the vocational training centers had
knowledge concerning the training they need to attend. Government should make sure graduates
from Vocational Training Centre are given financial assistance that would enable them establish
self-employment. For further research, a study should be conducted on the role of vocational
training in economic development, the effectiveness of government on supporting vocational
training graduates, community perceptions towards vocational training graduates and how
vocational training graduate can overcome challenges in labour market.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the background of the study, statement of the problem, research objectives
(main objective and specific objectives), research questions, and significance of the study, scope
and delimitation of the study, theoretical framework, conceptual framework and definition of the
key terms.
1.1 Background to the Study
Vocational Training is defined as any form of education whose primary purpose is to prepare
persons for employment in recognized occupations, acquisition of practical skills and knowledge
relating to occupation in various sectors of economic and social life, the acquisition of skills and
attitudes for gainful employment in a specific occupation or professional area including self-
employment. Youth unemployment after training is a worldwide problem. It is estimated that
more than 74.5 million youths are unemployed globally (ILO, 2014) and nearly 39 million young
people were found to be Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET) (Turbot, 2015).
Many countries around the globe are now working on bridging the gap between education and
work by upgrading the vocational education and training institutions at various levels and
encouraging them to form closer relationship with industries and embracing apprenticeship.
There are indicators that this intensification has not generated sufficient employment
opportunities for the youth (UNECA, 2012), as a result, unemployment and vulnerable
employment are widespread amongst African youths.
Heintz and Valodia (2008), study in sub-Saharan Africa revealed that self-employment accounts
for approximately 66% of total employment in Kenya, 83% in Mali and 85% in Madagascar and
2
Ghana respectively. The observation stipulated out South Africa as the outlier and the least
among other countries as it accounts for only 19% of the self-employment phenomenon.
Additionally, the situation is portrayed as catastrophic and relatively high across the continent
since the degree of underemployment and working poverty is even greater to the extent of
resulting an inadequate job opportunities for youths (ILO, 2010).
The Tanzanian economy has recently been growing at about 7% annually, mainly in capital
intensive sectors including mining, telecommunication, financial services and transport system as
well as in various dominated sectors, Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs). This therefore implies
that youth have not benefitted meaningfully from the economic growth point of view (ILO,
2010).
According to United Republic of Tanzania (URT) (2013), most youths aged between 15-24 years
(24.0%) were employed in manufacturing industry, followed by wholesale and retail trade
(17.6%) of total youths in the formal sector. Education employs about 15.2% of all youths in
upcountry while mining and quarrying, electricity and gas industries employ the smallest shares.
Nuru (2007, as cited in Okafor, 2011), realized that changes in a country’s economic sector
require a very high and serious attention to prepare young people for the jobs of the future.
Technical and vocational education trainings however have vital roles to play in this process. In
Tanzania, vocational training programs have been highly considered as a means for economic
empowerment in urban and rural transformation at the individual level. That is, the trainings
have been given great chance by parents and young people who consider the vocational training
centers as the most prestigious for their wages labor oriented.
3
Thus, these trainings have been considered by several individuals as the core factors that
determine the successful opportunity through work transition. Whilst the expansion of general
education in recent years has seen a substantial increase in overall level of educational
attainment, the integration of the youths into the labor market is still considered as major hurdle
in many countries, including Tanzania, specifically in Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
According to URT (2008), one of the objectives of the Youth Development Policy is the creation
of human resource development opportunities for the acquisition of demand driven skills and
competencies for wage and self-employment. This has been envisaged to be achieved through
preparation of youths for work; by ensuring quality basic education for all young women and
men, and developing a demand driven vocational and technical education system.
Basic Education Statistics in Tanzania (BEST, 2013), indicates that provision of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is currently undertaken at 1068 public and private
registered Technical and Vocational Education and Training institutions owned by government
and Private. National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) has by 2013 registered 324
public and private Technical Institutions with a total enrolment of 113,080 learners and while
VETA has registered 744 public and private Vocational Education and Training and Folk
Development Centers with enrollment of 145,511 learners.
Despite increased efforts in establishing and investing in vocational training centre which aims at
empowering the graduates to create their own jobs, this type of education seems not to be
helping the grandaunts to use the available potential resources in their environment as seen in
increasing level of unemployment rate that has resulted into increase in crime rate among the
4
youths in the region. It is in this regard that the researcher was interested to investigate the
effectiveness of vocational training in creating youth’s self-employment opportunities in
Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality.
1.3 Research Objectives
1.3.1 Main Objective
The main objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of vocational training in
creating youth’s self-employment opportunities in Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality in Tanzania.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
This study was guided by the following specific objectives:
i. To identify vocational training programs that are effective in creation of self-
Employment opportunities.
ii. To highlight youths’ perceptions on vocational training as the means to create self-
employment opportunities.
iii. To find out challenges hindering creation of self-employment opportunities after attaining
vocational training.
iv. To determine the intervention measures for the challenges hindering creation of self-
employment opportunities after vocational training.
1.4 Research Questions
The study was guided by the following research questions
i. What are vocational training programs that are effective in creation of Self-Employment
opportunities?
5
ii. What are the youths’ perceptions on Vocational training as the means to create self-
employment opportunities?
iii. What are the challenges hindering creation of self-employment opportunities after
attaining vocational training?
iv. What are the intervention measures for the challenges hindering creation of self-
employment opportunities after vocational training?
1.5 Significance of the Study
Ministry of Work as well as Ministry of information, youth, culture and Sports in policy making
especially policies concerning youths and employment. The study will guide the policy makers
on areas to setup the curriculum for Vocational Training. The findings of this study will enable
the Government of Tanzania and other policy makers in the region to be more effective in
designing youth skilled training and employment programs in order to promote economic
development.
The findings enable the Ministry responsible for Vocational Training, Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology and youth’s employment in finding strategies and means for graduates
from Vocational Training (VT) to create their own employment. The findings of this study are
resourceful in provision of knowledge about vocational education and training to the community
and to wake stakeholders to focus on VT for youth’s job creation. The study will add literature in
the understudied area of vocational training for other researchers.
By writing this study the researcher gained more knowledge in Vocational Training and its
effectiveness on youth self-employment. The learner in all Vocational Training will be guided on
how to create self-employ than waiting for the government.
6
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study dealt with the strategies of vocational training and its effectiveness of vocational
training in creating youth’s self-employment opportunities. The study was conducted in Kigoma-
Ujiji Municipality. It involved all teaching staff and graduates from Vocational Training Centers
(VTCs).
1.7 Theoretical Framework
The research anchor the study on Human Capital Theory which was propounded by Schultz 1961
and developed by the Nobel prize-winning economist Gary S. Becker in his seminal work on the
economics of employer-provided training 1952, 1964. Human capital theory advocates that
education or training imparts useful knowledge and skills to workers which in turn increase their
productivity and incomes (Becker, 1964).
The human capital theory discussed on how the human as capital to the application of education,
training and employment. Theory has been used in different studies such Kjelland (2008), in the
study of Economic returns to higher education: Signaling V. Human capital theory an analysis of
competing theories.
The human capital theory divided in variously category on perspective of academic field.
Human capital guides the student in acquiring skill and knowledge. The theory can be linked to
knowledge, skills, education, and abilities. However, through human capital theory
unemployment will be reduced by providing Vocational Training which is very crucial to youth
so as to be self-employed in their areas (Cedefop, 2011).
7
Mincer and Becker, cited in Cedefop (2011), applied this theory on the role of vocational
training in increasing employment opportunities in Western Austria. In relation to learning in
technology and learning a vocational, the concept of theory and practices, the theory describe
information on how the theory is related to the field or to the labor market. Human capital theory
is the labor productivity in all levels of today’s technology, economic growth and development.
A study conducted by The Department for International Development (2007), on the role of
Vocational Training in reducing poverty recommended that youths should be given proper
knowledge and skills which enabled them to be self-employed. Human capital theory proposed
that, investment in education pays more at national, social and individual levels because the
essence of human capital theory is investment in human resources so as to improve their
productivity as well as their earnings.
The theory in general explained the value of education and its applications whereby through the
theory we find out that, less educated produce and paid less, while high educated produce high
and paid high as well. Then the kind of skills obtained can also determine the kind or types of
labor market, hence the investment in human means the presence of high return rates on both
private, social and national at large.
However this theory has some limitation such as, the main characteristics of economic is profit
maximization, the use of available resources to have the greatest benefits. People make choice on
which would have the highest returns and the kind of education varies from different countries
and different areas of specialization, hence it is not easy to use the common educational
qualification as the human capital indicators. Labor is not a commodity but rather an active agent
whose efforts on behalf of its own objectives must be used to generate profits.
8
This theory was very relevant to the study that is why the researcher opted to use it because it
guides the graduates how to create their own employment than waiting the government. It gives
the graduates ways to return the cost used in their studies, to earn more money and to increase
their wealth.
1.8 Conceptual Framework
Conceptual framework shows the variables under this study and how independent variable,
intervening variable and dependent variable relate as well as the feedback. The independent
variable in this study is vocational education and training while dependent variable is youth self-
employment
9
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Intervening Variable
Feedback
Fig1.1 Diagrammatic representation of conceptual framework
(Source: -Stufflebeams, 1996)
Vocational Training Programs
• Good curriculum
• Good methodology
• Qualified instructors
• Adequate Teaching and
learning materials
• Entrepreneur course
Youths’ Perceptions
• VT reducing unemployment
• Skills that needed by
employers
• Contribute positive to the
economy
• No need to invest
Challenges
• Poverty
• Social acceptability
• Lack of vision and proper
planning
• White collar job
Intervention Measures
• Effective and efficient
pedagogy
• Government financial
support
• Stakeholders support
• Donors support
• Relevance courses
• Appropriate training policy
Self-Employment
• Skilled Graduates
• Graduates with
vocational skills
• Graduates with
entrepreneur skills
• Positive attitudes
• Graduates employ
themselves
• Employment policy
• Employment
Creation
Opportunities
• Self-employment
• Proper vision and
planning
Students
• Qualified trainers
• Qualified students
• Conducive learning
environment
• Investment and
Entrepreneurs skills
• Teaching and
Learning materials
• Capital
• Fund support from
the
Government/NGOs/
Parents
10
A conceptual framework is a narrative outline presentation of variables to be studied and
relationships between variables. The variables shown in the conceptual framework in Figure 1
which is Vocational Training when associated with; Good curriculum, Good methodology,
Qualified instructors, Adequate Teaching and learning materials, Appropriate training policy,
Effective and efficient pedagogy, Government financial support, Stakeholders support, Donors
support and relevance courses can have greater impact in creating self-employment
opportunities among the graduates when intervening with; Qualified trainers, Qualified students,
Conducive learning environment, Investment and Entrepreneurs skills, Teaching and Learning
materials, Capital and Fund support from the Government/NGOs/Parents.
Youths’ have different perceptions concerning vocational training like; reducing unemployment,
Skills that needed by employers and contribute positive to the economy. Challenges, Poverty,
Social acceptability, Lack of vision, proper planning and white collar job are the challenges in
which if well solved can help to solve the problem of unemployment to the graduates from
vocational training. These two variable if applied effectives can leads to; Skilled Graduates,
Graduates with vocational skills, Graduates with entrepreneur skills, Positive attitudes,
Graduates employ themselves, Employment policy and Employment Creation Opportunities. All
these can are effective in create self-employment opportunities.
Again, through those dependent variable, can bring feedback to the independent variable
through providing or improving curriculum, methodology, to create appropriate training policy,
can help to ways for effective and efficient pedagogy, stakeholder support, government support
and relevance courses for self-employment opportunities. Therefore, the aim of the conceptual
framework is to show how the variables influence each other in the process of creating self-
employment opportunities among the graduates from vocational training.
11
1.9 Definitions of Key Terms
Employment - remunerated work which complies with statutory requirements in regard to
employment protection legislation or pay related social insurance.
Unemployment - the share of the labour force that is without work but available for and
Seeking employment
Self-employment - A situation in which an individual work for himself or herself instead of
Working for an employer that pays a salary or a wage
Trade test - final integrated summative assessment for an artisan qualification for a listed trade
that is conducted at accredited vocational training centres by an assessor
registered with NACTE
Vocational Training - Training that emphasizes skills and knowledge required for a particular
job Function such as typing or data entry or a trade such as carpentry or welding.
Vocational Education Training - a sector within the education system poses and builds
analytical skills, knowledge and critical thinking, while develops craftsmanship,
practical experience and practical problem-solving.
Youth - a people aged between 15 to 35 years.
12
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter present theoretical reviews and literature review or related literature, thus, various
authors discussing the Vocational Training Centres (VTCs), youth unemployment and the impact
of youth unemployment reviewed and research gape. The chapter focused on the analysis of
dissertation, books, articles and journals.
2.1 Theoretical Review
2.1.1 Scientific Management Theory by Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1911)
The scientific management theory was first introduced by Fredrick Winslow Taylor, during the
industrial revolution of the 19th century which brought socio-economic changes that led to
inefficiency in industry. He argued passionately for the use of incentive wage system as a way of
getting more output from the workers.
This Theory identified that; workers would produce more if they are paid some financial
incentives based on the number of units of work they are able to produce. The theory revealed
that, standards could be developed and efficiency improved, and so conducted series of studies
on operations and operators. In the research on the movement of iron casting from one place to
another, Taylor viewed the operator as an extension of the machine, and suggested that lower
cost could be achieved by giving the operator an incentive for increasing his output. He also
suggested that lower cost could be achieved by improving the way work was done.
The theory had shown the needs of incentives to be provided to learners in vocational education
training as a means of motivating them in the programme. Such provisions will greatly empower
13
them economically and also make them have the pride of their vocation because when
economically empowered, they could produce more efficiently.
The Scientific Management Theory by Fredrick Winslow Taylor, has been used by different
studies such as Journal of business and management Vol. 17 No. 1, which discussed about the
Frederick Winslow Taylor: Reflections on the Relevance of the Principals of Scientific
Management, published by Western Decision Science Institute (Giannantonio and Hurley, 2011).
The weakness of the theory are such as; the approach can create organizational forms that have
greater difficulty in adapting to changing circumstances, the theory taken worker like a
biological machines, a producing tool that can be adjusted to produce as required. Workers often
spend many hours a day on work they neither value nor enjoy, while they also lose the creative
and intelligent contribution that most employees are capable of making given the right
opportunities.
However the theory is relevant to the current study due to the fact that, the scientific
management theory emphasis on science to replace the old rule of thumb, training and develop
the worker and the study looks on the strategies of vocational training and its influence on youth
self-employment which also emphasis on science and training so as to have the needed skills and
knowledge so as to be able to create their own employment.
2.1.2 Fishbein’s Attitude Theory 1974
The Fishbein’s attitude theory gives a basis to understand attitude and behavior of an individual.
The study used this theory because; the possibility of an individual or student to join for
vocational training depends much on their attitude concerning vocational training. Attitude
14
regarded as a dependent variable which influenced by students attitude and perception towards
vocational training (Msemo, 2012).
Students’ home background curriculum, educational level and occupation of parents and their
respective attitude may have great influence on the attitude of students towards valuing and
joining vocational training. The theory discusses attitude as behavior that is favorable or
unfavorable.
Biavaschi, Eichhorst, Giulietti, Kendzia, Muravyev, Pieters, Rodriguez-planas, Schmidl and
Zimmermann (2013), argue that, Vocational Training is a crucial element as it can link young
people’s competences with employers’ needs. Bringing Vocational Training closer to the needs
of dynamically changing and evolving labor markets and economic can help young people move
into more productive and sustainable jobs.
Vocational pedagogy theory (Lucas, Spencer and Claxton 2012), advocate that the evidence is
clear that vocational education needs to be taught in the context of practical problem-solving.
The best vocational learning is broadly hands-on, practical, experiential, real-world as well as,
and often at the same time as, something which involves feedback, questioning, application and
reflection and, when required, theoretical models and explanations.
Individual learn about the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors by observing models and
the consequences of modeled behaviors and they act in accordance with their beliefs concerning
the expected outcomes of actions. Thus, taking the perspective of young people a good job is the
one that initiates a long term investment in and attachment to the labor market.
The attitude theory used by other scholars in different studies, for example in recent studies,
Ngogo (2014), in his study of Assessment of attitudes of secondary school students towards
15
Vocational Education and Training in Tanzania while Zhang use the theory on the study of The
Role of Attitudes in Initial and Continued ICT use: a Longitudinal Study.
Despite the importance of the theory to the study, there are some weaknesses of the theory such
as, the theory based on cognitive processing, the theory failed to state that, attitudes are formed
consciously or that evaluation of beliefs for example is not influenced by emotion. The theory
says nothing about where beliefs and their evaluations come from. Many behavior and attitude
may be largely influenced by emotion, because emotions can influence beliefs and other
constructs in these models.
2.2 Empirical Review
2.2.1 Vocational Training Programs that are Effective in Creation ofSelf-employment
Opportunities
Vocational education is the kind of education aimed at preparing the students for work in a
commercial or technical field; the course content is mainly practical and enables graduates to
enter the labour force.
McCrone, O’Beirne, Sims and Taylor (2015), in the study A Review of Technical Education.
Findings shows that, the three most frequent forms of preferred strategies for supporting learning
were Working and sharing with another person on the job, direct teaching by a workplace expert,
and Group activities in a classroom, guided by a trainer or facilitator. The study recommended
that, there is a need to develop a more detailed understanding of technical education teaching and
learning building on the work of the Commission on Adult Vocational teaching and Learning
and reflecting current commentary on professional and technical education. However the study
didn’t show the method used to collect data, participant and study area, therefore the current
16
study will employ questionnaires and documentary analysis as the tools of data collection and the
study will be conducted at Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal.
Faraday, Overton, and Cooper (2011), in the study Effective teaching and learning in vocational
education. The study used literature review, primary research analysis and synthesis of data as a
research design and four key phases of activity as research approach. Finding of the study shows
that, Teachers used their skills to choose from a very wide range of strategies. These included
strategies for: differentiation, presentation and demonstration, using technology, group and
individual learning, reinforcing learning and assessing learning as well as the use of multiple
strategies within a session. The study concluded that Teaching models are not yet established in
vocational learning but the whole concept of teaching models could provide a powerful new
element in vocational teachers’ repertoires. Again the study didn’t show the number of
participants and the study area, therefore the current study will use 63 respondents and will be
conducted at Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal.
The purpose of Ahmed’s (2010), quantitative dissertation was to examine the importance of
empowering technical, vocational education and training teachers and trainers in Khartoum
(Sudan) with the technical skills and knowledge (capabilities and competencies) to give the
students the employability skills they need to find employment or become self-employed after
graduation. The problem was the teachers and trainers in technical and vocational education
institutions in Khartoum (Sudan) lacked the technical skills to function effectively as technical
and vocational education educators.
Usman and Pascal (2010), in the study of the role of Technical and Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) in Human Resources Development: The case of Tumba College of Technology
17
(TCT)-Rwanda. The finding of the study show that, by making individuals employable and
informed citizens, human resources development through TVET activities contribute to
economic development and to achieving full employment and promoting social inclusion, also
help individuals to gain access to decent work and good jobs, and escape poverty and
marginalization and the economy becomes more productive, innovative and competitive through
the existence of more skilled human potential. The study recommended that, the task of human
resources development is multi-dimensional task and must be undertaken in close partnership
with government, non-government organizations and international agencies. However the study
didn’t show the research design, approach and methods used to collect data as well as number of
participant, hence the current study will use convergent research design, mixed approach and the
study will involve 63 respondents in data collection.
Yonemura (2011), in the report, the role of teacher training in technical and vocational education
and training (TVET) in Africa. The finding of the articles suggested that, TVET education in
Africa should link between vocational and general education, support capacity building link to
the labour market traditional skills business management and entrepreneurial training. The
articles report suggested that, the renewed policy trends are to include more emphasis on
competencies development which includes knowledge, skills, and attitude of the youth and
adults. However, the report is more that means include the whole African continent; the current
study will be conducted at Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal, Kigoma region in Tanzania so as to be more
specific.
In their study, Usman and Tafida (2011), found that technical and vocational educational and
training (TVET) can empower the youth with employability skills and soft skills such as human
relation (social capital) to secure paid employment and become entrepreneurs instead of job-
18
seekers. According the study, all these factors can are effective in development of infrastructure,
development of investor-friendly economic conditions, and improvement of a nation’s rapidly
deteriorating quality of education.
Mutarubukwa (2007), argues that in Tanzania VETA training on skills competence involves a
planned and organized activity specifically meant to transfer knowledge, skills and attitudes to
vocational training institutions graduates in order to be able to solve job related problems.
Tanzania has established many vocational training centres where students learn different trades
like, handcraft, hotel, mechanical, masonry and electrical (Mallya, 2008).
Kyarizi (2012), in the study, improving my Practice as a facilitator of Learning while using
learner-centred Approach as teaching and learning. The project thesis used participatory action
research approach and qualitative descriptive research design. Documentary analysis, interviews,
group discussion and observation used as a tool for data collection, transcription of data from the
field, validation, coding, categorizing, presentation and interpretation used to analyzed data.
Finding of the study shows training in skills should be given priority so that students can easily
create their own jobs. The study recommended that, the government of Uganda through NCDC
should rethink and always update the curriculum in collaboration with all stakeholders in the
VET system. The study was conducted in Uganda and the current study will be conducted at
Tanzania, Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal.
ILO (2012), in the report of the youth employment crisis: time for action finding of the report
show that, innovation, technology and market developments have turned the world of work into a
fast-changing environment. There is a need to equip a growing young workforce with skills
required for the jobs of the future, not to mention re-equipping the current workforce with the
19
skills required to keep up with a changing world. Young people are not a homogeneous group;
therefore, targeting specific groups and specific disadvantages in the labor market is more
effective. This requires adequate resourcing and administrative capacities to deliver such
complex targeted programmes. However the report was more general, participants didn’t shown
in the report and the major objective was not identified, therefore, the current study will be
conducted at Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal with 63 respondents and the main objective will be to
assess the influence of vocational training on youth self-employment.
Data from VETA (2011), showed that in the Eastern Zone male trainees were much concentrated
in automotive sector in which males were 20.6% and females were 2.3%. However, the situation
was different in clothing and textile sector where males were 2.0% and females were 21.3% of
the total trainees enrolled in 2010. Other sectors that were dominated by female trainees include
business administration (males 0.5% and females 7.6%), hospitality and tourism (males 2.5%
and females 12.8%) and ICT (males 1.6% and females 5.4%). Male trainees were mostly
concentrated in mechanical (males 3.6% and females 0.7%), electrical (males 13.1% and females
4.3%) and construction (males 14.4% and females 3.6%) trades (VETA, 2011).
2.2.2 Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training
Barría & Klasen (2014), in their study of The Impact of SENAI's Vocational Training
Programme on Employment, Wages, and Mobility in Brazil: What Lessons for Sub Saharan
Africa? The study investigate that vocational training episodes influences current labor market
outcomes and show that most of individuals have never been enrolled in any vocational training
and are consequently considered as a control group, finally the results reflect the differences in
impact by cohort, geography, gender and individual’s household position. However, the study
didn’t show the methods used to obtain that information as well as the design of the study, they
20
population used to collected those data also was not known. Hence the current study will use the
mixed method approach design during collection of data so as to obtain the information on how
vocational training influence self-employment.
Tanvi, Murtaza and Sadia (2013), in their study Vocational Education and Training in
Bangladesh: Why it is not working? The study used focus group discussion, previous literature
and annual report in collecting data. Both qualitative and quantitative data analyzed in the study.
Findings show that, when students do not find efficient instructor in their institutions, then they
lose interest in VET. The study recommended that, training programs should be conducted to
improve the quality of the current teachers of vocational trades. However the study didn’t show
the number of participant and research design, the current study will use 63 respondents and
exploratory research design in reaching the conclusion of the study.
In most African countries, the students have to, at some point, make the choice as to whether
they want to continue onto higher education, or vocational training, which usually leads to
immediate entrance into the labour market. In contrast to VET, University education usually
requires more studying time before gaining the qualifications necessary to access employment.
VET also includes several providers and methods of finance, and informal activities of training
are common. Non-formalized apprenticeships and workshops are paths of education and often
family ties connect to learn a profession. Unfortunately in many countries vocational training is
seen as the last choice for those who have not scored high enough in final exams. VET is not
considered as a desired career alternative in the eyes of young people (Oketch, 2007).
Metto (2012), in the study of Educational Communication and Technology School training, the
study found that there was an urgent need for the students to change their perceptions towards
21
Youths Polytechnic students. Pedagogy is the heart of teaching; if instructors are armed with all
the necessary skills then students may develop positive perceptions. Youths Polytechnic students
should be equipped with modern instructional resources and infrastructure. Instructors for all
courses within Youths Polytechnic students’ curriculum should be availed.
Bello (2007), Based on the findings of the study, the following Conclusions were made: Majority
of the youths in the metropolis want to pursue careers in Computer Maintenance and Operation
Works, About half of the vocations considered were preferred by males only, of the vocations
were preferred by females only, and youths face many problems with their vocational training
needs. The major ones were Lack of Career Guidance, Lack of Moral Support and Abuse by
Adults.
In addition, the results of CEDEFOP (2013), research indicate that Vocational Education
Training is able to speed up the transition from education to work. Relative to medium-level
general education graduates, Vocational Education Training graduates enjoy a faster transition to
work, are more likely to have a permanent first job, and are less likely to find a first job with a
qualification mismatch. In interpreting these results, it should be remembered that general
education programmes tend to orient their graduates towards further education. They are more
likely to continue studying, with lower participation in the labour market, particularly in the
younger age groups. In contrast, Vocational Education Training graduates are more likely to
participate in the labour market. The report also shows that, in terms of labour market outcomes,
there are substantial cross-country differences in the returns to Vocational Education Training.
According to Achieng (2012), factors affecting acquisition of vocational skills among youth
learners in Maranda Division Siaya, trainees who join technical or vocational centers for training
22
already have formed opinions, some of which are culturally biased. They are found in some
cultural beliefs and practices among Kenyan communities towards technically industry related
work. Some communities view YPs as places of low status. Masonry, tailoring, carpentry,
driving, dressmaking and metal work are despised. The community in Maranda Division said
these jobs were for other people not their children.
Students may develop perceptions over the nature of courses, teaching methodologies, instructor
competencies, staff and administration and continued to argue, those hired are also not paid
attractive salaries (Nyerere, 2009).
2.2.3 The Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Creation after Vocational Training
Premand, Brodmann, Almeida, Grun, and Mahdi (2012), in the study of Entrepreneurship
Training and Self-Employment among University highlighted the following as the challenges;
rapid changes in labour market needs, Vocational Education Training (VET) often does not
adequately prepare young people for work or for the fast changing nature of modern economies.
A lack of information, networks and connections among youth, especially youth from families
lacks significant social capital. Many young people lack knowledge of what the world of work is
actually like, and have not given careful thought to their own potential career choices. They have
not used their time in school to prepare appropriately for realistic career paths. The study didn’t
show the approach used in the study, research design, methods used to collect data, a sample size
and how the study was analyzed whereby the current study will employ questionnaire, interview
guide and documentary review analysis which will give more credibility than using a single
method.
23
In relation to this, Kemevor and Kassah (2015), in their study on Challenges of Technical and
Vocational Education, Training and Educational Stakeholders in the Volta Region of Ghana. The
study used descriptive survey design, which helped to examine the nature and scope of the
Technical and Vocational education in Ghana. The data obtained presented and analyzed with
the help of frequency tables. The findings revealed that technical and vocational institutions in
Ghana are inadequate considering the number of Junior High School graduates in the system,
also the large class sizes do not match with the supply and provision of training resources, the
infrastructure and training facilities of the institutions are in deplorable state resulting in outdated
training content.
The study recommended that Ministry of Education and other stakeholders in charge of
Technical and Vocational Education and Training to formulate policies that would make
Technical and Vocational Education and Training Technical meet international standard so that
graduates of Technical and Vocational Education and Training also meet the demands of
international labour market. However the study didn’t indicate what was the sample used theory
and instruments used to collect data, therefore, the current study will involve 63 sample size.
World Youth Report, ILO (2012), on their report of youth unemployment challenge and
solutions. The report argued that, youths lack informal networks and connections that are
traditionally the major source of information about job opportunities; they do not know how to
navigate the labor market to identify and pursue available jobs or to find and use the most
relevant training resources. Report observed a lack of skills relevant to the work place; those who
have pursued a course of study with a specific career in mind often find themselves with general
or theoretical knowledge that does little to prepare them for the actual tasks they will encounter
on the job. However the report didn’t revealed how those information obtained in terms of
24
methods of data collection, design of the study, sample size and method used to analyze those
information. Hence the current study will employ questionnaire and documentary analysis
through exploratory design so as to have relevancy data of the study.
For Sang, Muthaa and Mbugua (2012), conducted the study concerning Challenges Facing
Technical Training in Kenya; the study was conducted using descriptive survey research design.
Snowball sampling technique was used to identify T.T.I graduates and their employers became
automatic respondents. The study found out that training facilities used by T.T.Is are inferior to
facilities used in industries and business organizations, irrelevant skills in relation to skill needs
in industries and business organizations. The study recommends an urgent overhaul of the
training curriculum to enhance adequacy of skill training to skill needs in industries and business
organizations. The study didn’t show the number of respondents, tools used to collect data and
how data was analyzed, therefore the current study will employ questionnaires and documentary
review as the tools of collecting data and the information will be analyzed through editing,
entering, coding, classification and summarizing the collected data.
However Manpower Group (2012), in their report of Youth Unemployment, Challenge and
Solutions. What Business can do Now. Report show that, a lack of information, networks and
connections among youth, especially youth from families lacking significant social capital, a lack
of skills relevant to the workplace and lack of available jobs suited to entry-level skills are
factors for youth to be unemployed. The study recommended that, there must Support
Information Projects to Provide Career and Labor Market Information for Young Job Seekers,
Participate in Career Guidance Programs for Youth Still in School and investments to improve
information resources for youth. The report didn’t show the method used to collect those
information and number of participant who used as a sample in data collection, hence the current
25
study will employ questionnaire and documentary review as the tools for data collection and 63
respondents will be used as a sample.
Oresanya, Omodewu, Kolade and Fashedeme (2014), in their study of Vocational Education and
Employability: The Nigerian Situation published by Journal of Poverty, Investment and
Development. The study recommended that, vocational education graduates do not fulfill the
basic needs and requirements of employers because the vocational education curriculum is
designed only to prepare graduates with basic knowledge and specific practical skill acquisition,
but this knowledge is not necessarily relevant in the industry. The study don’t show the
approach, research design, method of data collection, ways on how data was analyzed and
sample size, hence the current study will employ questionnaire and documentary review as the
methods of data collection and the study will be analyzed through editing, entering, coding,
classification and summarizing the collected data.
Ngogo (2014), in the study of assessment of attitudes of secondary school students towards
vocational education and training in Tanzania, case study of Mpwapwa District, the study guided
by Fishbein's attitude theories. A cross-section research design was used to collect data and data
was analysed through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The survey results showed
that students valued the socially prestigious and white-collar professions over technical related
occupations and their willingness to join vocational education and training after completion of
O-level education revealed to be relatively low. The study recommends that the government of
Tanzania through the ministry education and vocational studies, particularly the Institute of
Curriculum Development should review and incorporate vocational subjects in the Ordinary
level secondary school curriculum, teach it theoretically as well as practically. However the
26
study didn’t show the approach used, therefore the current study will use mixed method
approach to reach in the conclusion.
The International Year of Youth (2011), in dialogue and mutual understanding, Regional over
view: Youth in Africa recommended that, youth faced barriers to the creation and development
of business opportunities, particularly in gaining access to financial, physical and social capital.
The most relevant long term development objective consists of revitalizing and raising the level
of productivity in the leading productive sectors like agriculture, manufacturing, mining and
construction trade restructuring the export sector and realizing the potential of tourism and
human resources development. The report also didn’t show the methods used to obtain those
data, design of the study, approach, participants as well as ways of analyzing the data while
current study will use mixed method approach, exploratory research design, questionnaire and
documentary review in collecting data and data will be analyzed by editing, entering, coding,
classification and summarizing the collected data.
Meanwhile, Jacob (2011), has conducted a study on causes of unemployment among the youth in
Uganda. The findings noted that there is lack of an enabling environment for paid employment
creation in the formal private sectors. Employability in the formal private sectors require not just
appropriate skills and training, but also public policies which are effective in new employment
opportunities where these skills can be used. The study recommended that youth unemployment
challenges are common and continue to spread through the East African countries, therefore
needed to promote integrated economy and employment growth in order to reduce youth
unemployment and under-employment in the rural as well as in urban areas to ultimately
eradicate poverty. The study didn’t show the methods used to collect data, and then the current
study will employ questionnaire and documentary review in data collection.
27
URT (2012), conducted situational analysis on Technical and Vocational Education and Training
Development Programme (TVETDP). The results of the study revealed that quality assurance
structures for TVET are well established at the level of regulatory agencies, namely VETA and
NACTE but they are not well linked for assuring effective oversight and quality assurance as a
sub sector. Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Tanzania is either not
contributing, or marginally playing its expected role towards the socio-economic development of
the country. The report didn’t show the tools used to collect information and how the data
analyzed, hence the current study will employ documentary analysis and questionnaire during
data collection while exploratory will be used as research design.
2.2.4 The Intervention Measures for Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Creation
Anaele, Adelakun, Olumoko and Kanu (2014), examined and determined the strategies that can
be employed to empower individuals for self-employment through Technical, Vocational
Education and Training in Nigeria. The study adopted a survey research design. The study used
127 respondents from technical colleges and skill acquisition centers in the zones covered by the
study. The findings agreed upon as empowerment strategies as well as the training facilities and
challenges of Technical and Vocational Education and Training in empowering individuals for
self-employment. The study recommended that public/private partnership should be encouraged
in the funding and management of Technical and Vocational Education and Training to empower
individuals for self-employment. Hence the current study will be conducted at Tanzania
particular in Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal.
For Dike (2013), in the study Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET):
Understanding the Nigerian Experience, study adopted a mixed-methods descriptive design
Findings show that the Nigerian government’s poor investment in human-capital development
28
and, in particular, its limited level of support for TVET and science-based technology education
have contributed to the shortage of highly skilled technical manpower in Nigeria. The study
recommended that, primarily to assist the Nigerian government, as well as the administrators of
the local TVET institutions and colleges of technology, in better policy formulation and
implementation. However, study didn’t show the number of participant, and then the current
study will use 63 participants in data collection.
According to Finn, Baxter and Onur (2014), in their study Making Vocational Training Work. A
study of Vocational Training in DDR, Rwanda, and the study used document and literature
review, Mixed-Method Survey of Ex-Combatants and semi-structured interviews with key
stakeholder. The study recommended that, building capacity of local institutions, VTCs and
workforce development agencies provide critical social, educational and vocational infrastructure
for long-term national growth and development. However the study didn’t show the research
design used, then the current study will employ mixed method design, interview and
documentary review in data collection.
Biavaschi et al. (2013), conducted the study on Youth Unemployment and Vocational Training.
This study provided an overview of the situation of young people in major world regions with a
particular emphasis on the role of training systems and complementary active labor market
policies. The study recommended that, the Sub Saharan Africa should promote general
education, stimulate the creation of formal and sustainable jobs, upgrade vocational training in
the informal sector, and extend career and educational guidance services for youth. However
Juma (2013), in the study of assessment of performance of vocational training centers on youth
unemployment reduction in Zanzibar. The study used Unemployment in the Classical Economic
Theory, Imperfect Labour Markets Market Structure and Unemployment theories, whereby
29
exploratory research design was used and 140 respondents involved in assessing performance.
Data processing was done by editing, entering, coding, classification and summarizing the
collected data for further analysis. The findings indicated that, only 28 percent of trainees had
employment while 72 percent had no employment, and the main employer was hotel industries
which employed 55 percent of trainees while 45 percent were self- employed. The study
recommended that, the Government should collaborate with the private sector, ensure
accessibility of VTCs in tourism areas and review of VTCs’ curriculum to suit with the current
situation of labor market. The study didn’t show the approaches used, hence the current study
will use mixed approach.
Ntallima (2014), conducted research concerning the contribution of vocational education to
youth employment a case study of VETA and Non VETA graduates in Morogoro region. The
study used a cross-sectional research design which a questionnaire was used to collect primary
data and respondents were drawn through snowball sampling techniques. Data was analyzed
through SPSS 16.0 version in which descriptive statistics were determined. The findings revealed
that, the average income of VETA graduates was relatively lower than that of non VETA
graduates however this was not statistically significant VE contributes to youth employment.
The study recommended that, the government should create conducive environment for the
graduates to get capital will help or loans from financial institution which will help the youth to
get more chance of being employed in public and private sectors and expand more chances for
self-employment. However, the study didn’t indicate the theories used in the study, again the
study used only one kind of data which are primary data, which means the study didn’t reviews
in different document in data collection. The study again didn’t show the approach and design of
30
the study; therefore, the current study used mixed method approach and exploratory design in
order to find the needed data of the study.
In Tanzania, Association of Tanzania Employers (2011), carried out a study on National skills
development assessment to highlight the overall skills gaps within Tanzania and provide
recommendations for improvement 19 to the existing skills provision system. The findings of the
study indicated that there is no perceived educational progression between vocational education
and continuing education, thus limiting the job possibilities of graduates in Vocational Training
Centres. The study recommended that, The Ministry of Finance will be an important partner in
these recommended reforms by ensuring that going forward; the skills development levy is
transparently distributed to the appropriate public institutions responsible for skills development
in the country. However, the study didn’t show the tools used in data collection, the current study
will employ questionnaires and documentary review in data collection.
2.3 Summary and Knowledge Gap
Most of reviewed literature indicated that, most of study conducted out of Tanzania for example,
ILO (2010), in the study Teachers and trainers for the future Technical and vocational education
and training in a changing world Report for discussion at the Global Dialogue Forum on
Vocational Education and Training (29–30 September 2010), Oresanya, et al (2014),Vocational
Education and Employability: The Nigerian Situation. The role of Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) in Human Resources Development: The case of Tumba College
of Technology (TCT)-Rwanda by Engineer Ayuba Anza Usman.
Few studies which conducted in Tanzania, was done three years for example, Ntallima (2014) in
the study of the contribution of vocational education to youth employment: a case study of
VETA and Non-VETA graduates in Morogoro region and Ngogo (2014), in an assessment of
31
attitudes of secondary school students towards vocational education and training in Tanzania:
case study of Mpwapwa District. The literature review shows that, those studied Ngogo (2014),
used secondary students on as the population of the study and Ntallima (2014) used only VETA
and NON-VETA graduates as the targeted population. Most of the studies didn’t show the
methods and design used in collecting and analyzing their information.
Therefore, most of reviewed literature showed that the problem of unemployment and human
resource development among the graduates from vocational training still persist. Hence the
current study through cross-sectional survey research design and mixed method approach dealt
with the effectiveness of vocational training in creating youths’ self-employment opportunities in
Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality so as to identify how the graduates from vocational training could
create self-employment.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This section presents research designs, the study area, target population, sample size and
sampling procedures, the research instruments, validity and reliability of the instruments, data
collection procedure, data analysis and ethical considerations employed in this research.
3.1 Research Design
The study design for this study was cross-sectional survey design. According to Creswell (2012),
cross-sectional survey design allows the researcher to collect data in time. This design has the
advantage of measuring current attitudes or practices. It also provides information in a short
amount of time, such as the time required for administering the survey and collecting the
information.
The study adapted mixed methods approach which is Convergent parallel approach design, the
purpose of a convergent mixed methods design is to simultaneously collect both quantitative and
qualitative data, merge the data, and use the results to understand a research problem. A basic
rationale for this design is that one data collection from supplies strengths to offset the weakness
of the other form, and that a more complete understanding of a research problem results from
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data. The core assumption of this form of inquiry is
that the combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches provides a more complete
understanding of a research problem than using a single approach (Creswell, 2014). The
combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques allowed the researcher to examine more
closely on the effectiveness of vocational training in creating youth’s self-employment
opportunities.
33
3.2 The Study Area
The study was conducted at Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality; the Municipal covers an area of 128
square km of which 127.85 km cover the land area and 0.15 km cover the Lake Tanganyika area.
The Municipal has two divisions namely, Kigoma North and Kigoma South which are
subdivided further into 19 wards. The Municipal has a total population of 215,458 among them
104,185 are Males and 111,273 are Females (URT, 2012). The researcher purposefully selected
Kigoma-Ujiji Municipal because of increasing level of unemployment rate that has resulted into
increasing in crime amongst the youths in the region.
3.3 Target Population
Omary (2011), define population as the totality of a group of units which have common
characteristics that is of interest to the researcher. The study focused on the Effectiveness of
Vocational Training in creating Youth’s Self-Employment in Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality. The
study involved Principals from all 3 Vocational Training Centres, 40 teachers and graduates
from Vocational Training Centres in which sampling procedure was conducted so as to have the
representative who were the respondents of the study. Through this population, the study
obtained the relevant information concerning the objectives of the study.
3.4 Sampling Procedures and Sample Size
Both probability and no-probability sampling was employed in order for the researcher to avoid
bias. Probability sampling is a sample that has been selected using a random selection so that
each unit in the population has a known chance of being selected. It was used so as to keep
sampling error to a minimum (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). In probability sampling, simple
random sampling was used to select teachers from Vocational Training Centres.
34
Kothari (2004), defined Non-probability sampling as sampling procedure which does not afford
any basic for estimating the probability that each item in the population has been included in the
sample. Non-probability which is snowball sampling especially linear snowball sampling was
employed to obtain graduates from Vocational training.
3.4.1 Sampling of Vocational Training Center’s Principals
Principals were automatically involved in the study, which means purposive sampling was used
to select Vocational Training Centres Principals. The researcher was interested to use all
principals because they give more contribution and information concerning the needed
information for the study.
3.4.2 Sampling of Vocational Training Teachers
Simple random sampling was used to select teachers who participated in the study, whereby the
researcher distributed questionnaires to those who were present. A total of 30 out of 40 teachers
were selected to be a sample size. The study used 30 teachers because they were able to provide
the needed information to the study.
3.4.3 Sampling of Graduates from Vocational Training
The study used snowball sampling to get graduates from Vocational Training Centres who have
already completed their training. Linear snowball sampling was employed to get graduates from
vocational training who participated in the study. Through linear, formation of a sample group
start with only one subject and the subject provides only one referral. The referral was recruited
into the sample group and also provided only one new referral. This pattern was continued until
the sample group of thirty (30) graduates was fully formed.
35
3.5 Research Instruments
The study employed two types of data collection techniques which were interview and
questionnaire.
3.5.1 In-depth Interview Guide
According to Kothari (2004), the interview method of collecting data involves presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. An in-depth interview was
conducted to Principals from vocational training centers. An interview in this sense was taken to
mean the conversation between two people; the interviewer and the interviewee, based on a
guiding set of questions aiming at obtaining specific information. The in-depth interviews were
used to get information about vocational training programs that are effective in creation of self-
employment opportunities, youths’ perceptions on vocational training as the means to create self-
employment opportunities, challenges hindering creation of self-employment opportunities after
attaining vocational training and the intervention measures for the challenges hindering creation
of self-employment opportunities after vocational training. This made it possible to capture what
the principal knows, conceptions, attitudes and beliefs about VT. The researcher used structured
interview questions whereby all respondents were asked the same questions in the same order.
3.5.2 Questionnaires
Achary (2010), explains questionnaire as a document that contains questions and types of items
designed to solicit information from the respondents. He added that, Questionnaires are normally
used to gather views from the larger group in order to save time. A self-administered
questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions was given to the respondents who
participated in the study. The self-administered questionnaire was employed so as to reduce the
problem of low return rate and to minimize on the time needed before collection. Questionnaires
36
were used to collect information from teachers and graduates from Vocational Training Centres.
Questionnaires were divided into five parts. Part A; investigated demographic information, Part
B; investigated information about vocational training programs that are effective in creation of
self-employment opportunities, Part C; identified youths’ perceptions on vocational training as
the means to create self-employment opportunities, Part D; investigated challenges hindering
creation of self-employment opportunities after attaining vocational training and Part E;
investigated the intervention measures for the challenges hindering creation of self-employment
opportunities after vocational training.
3.6 Validity and Reliability of Instruments
Validity is defined as the extent to which the instrument measures what it support to be measured
for example a test that is used to screen applicants for a job is valid if its scores are directly
related to the future job performance while Reliability is defined as the extent to which a
questionnaire, test, observation or any measurement produces the same results on repeated trials.
In short, it is the stability or consistency of scores over time (Miller, 2004). The study tested the
validity and reliability of questionnaires and interview guide.
3.6.1 Content Validity
Kothari (2004), noted that content validity should ensure that all the respondents understand the
items in the research instruments. Option provided to some questions to ensure that answers met
the expectation of the research questions. To validate the research instruments, the researcher
sought guidance from the lecturers of Saint Augustine University of Tanzania, Arusha Center to
see the relevance and accuracy of the items in the instruments, whether it meet the objectives of
the study. Their suggestions and recommendations were considered to improve on the content
validity of the instruments.
37
3.6.2 Reliability of Instruments
In this study, the reliability was checked through test-retest approach in a pilot study. The
researcher visited one Vocational Training Centre at Kigoma Rural and drew a sample of eight
participants out of the respondents who were not involved in the study, four teachers and four
graduates were included. This process enabled the researcher to identify items in the
questionnaires that was not clear to the respondents, also helped to identify the effectiveness of
research design methods, objectives as well as research questions.
The researcher administered questionnaires and interview to teachers and graduates. After two
weeks, the same research questions were given to the same individuals and their responses were
tested to check if there was correlation. According to Orodho (2003), if the result is 0.68 and
above the instruments will be deemed to be capable to be admitted to the field.
3.7 Data Collection Procedure
The researcher obtained an introductory letter from directorate of the post graduate studies St.
Augustine University of Tanzania Arusha Centre which was taken to Kigoma Regional
Administrative Secretary (RAS). The research clearance letter held from to Kigoma District
Administrative Secretary (DAS), the DAS wrote a letter to Municipal Director who wrote a
permit for conducting research in Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality. The researcher visited the sample
selected VTCs, for prior arrangement for interview and data collection. The researcher explained
the purpose of the study and showing the permission letter for conducting such study to the
concerning area. The questionnaires were self-administered and the interview was done and
administered by a researcher. The respondents were asked to fill questionnaire in adequate time
before collecting them during third visit. The researcher availed himself physically for interview
schedules to collect data and gave clarification were necessary.
38
3.8 Data Analysis Procedure
Data analysis is defined as critical examination of the assembled and grouped data for studying
the characteristics of the object under study and for determining the patterns and relationship
among the relating variable (Krishnaswani, 2003). The study employed simple descriptive
statistics to analyze quantitative data in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
version 20 in form of frequency distribution tables and percentages. Qualitative data which was
obtained from open-ended questions and in-depth interviews were coded according to the themes
relevant to the study; the analysis involved identifying major themes and the association between
them. In interpreting results, the frequency with which an idea appears was interpreted as a
measure of importance, attention, or emphasis. Other responses were reported verbatim. The
results obtained were descriptive but also indicate trends or issues of interest concerning the
Effectiveness of Vocational Training into Creation Youth’s self-employment Opportunities.
3.9 Ethical Considerations
Ethics as code of conduct was considered under this study. The researcher submitted permission
to conduct a research to the authority. The study ensured privacy and confidentiality by asking
the respondents not to identify themselves or their institutions. Similarly, the researcher carried
out interviews in isolated places basically to avoid disturbance and observe privacy. Throughout
the study, the researcher observed punctuality and all interviews were done within 30-40 minutes
in order to ensure the respondents did not get bored. Audio recording of interviews was done
only with the consent from the respondents. Consequently, the analyzed data was availed to the
institutions involved only on request.
39
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents: Questionnaire return rate, Demographic information, Vocational training
program that are effective in creation of self-employment opportunities, Youths’ perceptions on
vocational training as the means to create self-employment opportunities, Challenges hindering
creation of self-employment opportunities after attaining vocational training and the intervention
measures for the challenges hindering creation of self-employment opportunities after training.
Data presented in two categories, started with quantitative for all objectives followed by
qualitative data.
4.1 The Questionnaire Return Rate
Questionnaire return rate is the proportion of the questionnaires returned after they have been
issued to the respondents. In this study, questionnaires were administered to 30 teachers and 30
graduates from vocational training centers. All 100% respondents return their dully filled
questionnaires. This indicated the seriousness the respondents attached to the study. Two
principals from vocational training centre were interviewed.
4.2 Demographic Information of Respondents
This section described the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The main
demographic characteristics of the respondents addressed in this section include: gender, age,
education levels, teacher’s experiences and qualification. Table 4.1 below presents the summary
of distribution of the participants as per their gender.
40
Table 4.1 the Summary of Distribution of Respondents as per their Gender (n=60)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.1 above shows 25(83.3%) of respondents were vocational training teachers and
25(83.3%) were graduates from vocational training centers, while 5(16.7%) of vocational
teachers were males and 5(16.7%) of vocational center graduates’ respondents were females.
This implies that, most teachers and graduates from Vocational Training Centers are males. The
table 4.2 below presents the summary of the distribution of the respondents by their age.
Table 4.2 Respondents Distribution by Age (n=30)
Teachers Age f(%) Graduates Age f(%)
25-30 2(6.7%) 15-20 3(10%)
31-35 4(13.3%) 21-25 8(26.7%)
36-40 9(30%) 26-30 10(33.3)
41 and Above 15(50%) 31-35 9(30%)
TOTAL 30(100%) TOTAL 30(100%)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.2 above shows that, majority of vocational training teachers 15(50%) were of the age of
41 years and above, 9(30%) of respondents ranging at the age of 36-40 years, 4(13.3%) of
teachers had at the range of 31-35, and only 2(6.7%) of teacher found at the range of 25-30.
Furthermore, findings shows that majorities of graduates 10(33.3%) are at the age range between
26-30 years, followed by the range of 31-35 years 19(30%). Few respondents, 3(10%) are in the
Gender Teachers
f(%)
Graduates
f(%)
Male 25(83.3%) 25(83.3%)
Female 5(16.7%) 5(16.7%)
Total 30(100%) 30(100%)
41
age ranging from 15 – 20 years. This implies that, most graduates completed vocational training.
Table 4.3 present the summary of participants as per their level of education.
Table 4.3 Distribution of Respondents by their Level Education (n=30)
Teachers Education f(%) Graduates Education f(%)
Trade Test Grade I 10(33.3%) VET Level I 4(13.3%)
FTC 6(20%) Basic Vocational Certificate Level II 20(66.7%)
Diploma 10(33.3%) Vocational Certificate Level III 6(20%)
Advanced Diploma 1(3.3%) Basic Technician Certificate Level
IV and Above
0(0%)
Bachelor Degree and Above 3(10%)
TOTAL 30(100%) TOTAL 30(100%)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.3 above shows that, majority of vocational training teachers 10(33.3% attained Diploma
degrees and those who held trade test grade 1 were 10(33.3%). Other vocational training teachers
6(20%) attained Full Technician Certificate, while the bachelor degree holders and above were
3(10%0). This is an indication that, vocational training had qualified teachers, hence were
expected to have enough knowledge concerning vocational training and self-employment
opportunities.
On the other hand, the vocational training graduates who had basic vocational level II 20(66.7%)
formed the majority who participated in this study. The graduates who had Vocational Certificate
level III 6(20%) followed. The least participants represented graduates who were had Vocational
Education Training level I 4(13.3%). This implies that, there were no graduates who had Basic
Technician Certificate Level IV and above. Thus, majority of graduates from vocational
education would join the labor market after completing Basic Vocational Certificate Level II.
Table 4.4 below presents distribution respondents by their working experience.
42
Table 4.4 Distribution Respondents by their Working Experience (n=30)
Years f(%) Year f(%)
Below 1 years 0(0%) 1-4 5(16.7%)
1-5years 10(33.3%) 5-9 18(60%)
6-10 years 8(26.7%) 10 and Above 7(23.3%)
11 and Above 12(40%)
TOTAL 30(100%) TOTAL 30(100%)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.4 above shows, most of teachers 12(40%) had experience of more than 11 years,
10(33.3%) of teachers had experience of 1-5 years and 8(26.7%) of teachers had experience of
6-10 years. This implies that, teachers had enough experience concerning vocational training,
hence can provide important data concerning the study. Majority of graduates 18(60%)
completed their courses between 5-9 years ago, 7(23.3%) of graduates completed their courses
more than 10 years ago and 5(16.7%) of graduates completed their courses more between 1-4
years ago. This implies that, graduates were able to provide enough data and current for the
study because they had enough experience.
4.3 Vocational Training Programs that are effective in Creation of Self-Employment
Opportunities
The first objective of the study was to identify different programs offered to graduate which are
practiced by different Vocational Training Centers in order to create Self-employment
opportunities. The participants were asked to indicate by ticking the most favored variable of
the courses that led to creation of self-employment opportunities.
Table 4.5 presents the results from graduates responses on the programs practiced on vocational
training center that can are effective in create self-employment opportunities.
Table 4.5 Vocational Training Programs Practiced that Leads to Self-Employment
Opportunities (n=30)
43
The vocational training programs that are effective in self-
employment
f (%)
Presence of learning resources 28(93.3)
Entrepreneur Course 26(86.6)
Conducting field on quality industries 25(83.3)
Based on practical than theory 23(76.7)
Welcome self-employed models in class sessions 15(50)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.5 above shows that, majority of graduates 28(93.3%) agreed that presence of learning
resources is among the vocational training program that can are effective in create self-
employment opportunities. 26(86.7%) of graduates agreed on entrepreneur course program in
vocational training can to leads create self-employment opportunities. The graduates also
indicated that conducting field on the quality industry program in vocational training can are
effective in create self-employment opportunities 25(83.3%). On the sub item of vocational
training programs that are provided by practical than theory can are effective in create self-
employment opportunities scored 23(76.7%) while the sub item on the invitation of self-
employed alumni to facilitate the trainees as role models in class session on subjects that can are
effective in create self-employment opportunities scored15(50%). Students were asked to
identify Other Training Program(s) which were offered in addition to the Ones mentioned in
table 4.5 above for the Preparation of Graduates’ Creation Self- Employment Opportunities.
Table 4.6 presents the summary of distribution of the respondents’ views on Other Additional
Courses Offered by Vocational Training Center.
44
Table 4.6 Other Additional Courses Offered by Vocational Training Centers (n=60)
Other courses Teachers Responses Graduates Responses
Entrepreneur Course 30(100%) 28(93.3%)
Computer Knowledge 28(93.3%) 30(100%)
Life Skills 22(73.3%) 10(33.3%)
Trade Calculation (Mathematics) 18(60%) 15(50%)
Book Keeping 15(50%) 2(6.7%)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.6 above shows that, all teachers 30(100%) and 28(93.3%) graduates said that,
entrepreneur course is provided as additional course to support graduates in creation self-
employment after graduation. Majority 28(73.3%) of teachers and all graduates mentioned
computer knowledge, most 22(73.3%) of teacher and few 10(33.3%) of graduates mentioned life
skills course. 18(60%) of teachers and 15(50%) of graduates mentioned trade calculation
(mathematics) and 15(50%) of teachers and 2(6.7%) of graduates mentioned Book keeping
course provided as additional program to support graduates from vocational in creation self-
employment after graduation. Table 4.7 below presents the summary distribution of courses that
students prefers as reported by teachers.
45
Table 4.7 Courses that Students Prefers as Reported by Teachers (n=30)
Courses f(%)
Motor Vehicle Mechanics 30(100%)
Information and Communication Technology 30(100%)
Design and Cloth Technology 30(100%)
Food Production 23(76.7%)
Electrical Installation 21(70%)
Fish farming 15(50%)
Carpentry and Joinery 14(46.7%)
Auto Body Repair 13(43%)
Masonry and Bricklaying 12((40%)
Secretarial and Computer 11(36.7%)
Auto Electric 10(33.3%)
Plumbing and Pipe Fitting 10(33.3%)
Welding and Fabrication 9(30%)
Electronics and Telecommunications Technology 8(26.7%)
Painting and Sign writing 6(20%)
Refrigeration and Air Conditions 6(20%)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.7 shows that, most of the students 30(100%) prefer; Motor Vehicle Mechanics,
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Design and Cloth Technology,
23(76.7%) preferred Food Production, 21(70%) preferred Electrical Installation and Fish
Farming preferred by 15(50%). In other hand, other course seems to be not preferred by students
since most of them have below 50% as indicated to the table 4.7 above. The table 4.8 below
indicates the summary distribution on the methods used by vocational training centre to pass the
skills to students.
46
Table 4.8 Methods used by Vocational Training Centre to Pass the Skills to Students (n=60)
Methods Teachers Response
f(%)
Graduates Responses
f(%)
Practical 30(100%) 30(100%)
Lecture 30(100%) 26(86.7%)
Field Training Attachment 26(86.7%) 25(83.3%)
Group Discussion 11(36.3%) 13(43.3%)
Question and Answer 10(33.3%) 9(30%)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.8 above shows that, respondents identified the methods used to pass the skills by
mentioning the following; all teachers 30(100%) and all graduates 30(100%) said vocational
training centre used practical methods to pass skills to students. All teachers 30(100%) and
majority of graduates 26(86.7%) said vocational training used lecture to pass the skills to
students. Majority of teachers 26(86.7%) and graduates 25(83.3%) identified field attachment
used method used to pass skills to students. Few teachers 11(36.3%) and graduates 13(43.3%)
said vocational training centre used group discussion to pass skills to students. Again in sub item
questions and answer method, few teachers 10(33.3%) and students 9(30%), said questions and
answer used in vocational training centre to pass skills to students.
4.4 Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training as the means to Create Self-employment
Opportunities.
The objective was set to investigate graduates perception on vocational training as a means of
creating self-employment opportunities. Table 4.9 below present responses of the graduates’
perceptions of students on the vocational training as the means to create self-employment
opportunities.
47
Table 4.9 Shows the Perceptions of Youths’ towards Vocational Training (n=30)
Youth’s Perceptions on Vocational Training as a means of creating
Self-Employment Opportunities
f(%)
Contribute to the economy 30(100)
Prepare students to set up their own employment 29(96.7)
Reducing unemployment 27(90)
Students learn skills needed by employers 27(90)
No need to invest in Vocational Training 3(10)
Source: Field Data 2017
The results from table 4.9 above shows that all 30(100%) respondents agreed that, Vocational
Training contribute positively to the economy of the country. On sub-item vocational training
prepare graduates to set their own employment, findings show that, majority 29(96.7%) of
graduates agreed on the perception that, vocational training prepare graduates to set up their own
employment. On sub item reducing unemployment and on sub-item students learn skills that are
needed by employers, majority 27(90%) of respondent agreed that, vocational training plays a
big role in reducing unemployment through creating self-employment opportunities and students
learn skills that are needed by employers. On sub-item no needs to invest in vocational training,
only 2(6.7% of respondents agreed, that means most of the respondents need more investment in
vocational training for the youth so as to be able to create their own employment rather than
waiting to be employed with other sectors.
4.5 Challenges Hindering to Creation of Self-Employment Opportunities after Attaining
Vocational Training
The study was set up to identify challenges facing graduates after attending training in creating
self-employment opportunities. Table 4.10 below shows challenges hindering to creation of self-
employment opportunities after training.
48
Table 4.10 Presents Graduates Responses on the Challenges Hindering Graduates from
Vocational Training to Create Self-Employment Opportunities (n=30)
Challenges Graduates Face after Vocational Training in Creating
Self-employment Opportunities
f(%)
Poverty 28(93.3)
lack of vision and proper planning 26(86.7)
Low social acceptability 23(76.7)
Inadequate entrepreneurial skills. 22(73.3)
The graduates prefer white collar jobs 20(70)
Source: Field Data 2017
Table 4.10 above shows, majority 28(93.3%) of the respondents agreed that, poverty is a
challenge facing graduates after graduation in creating self-employment opportunities,
26(86.7%) of the respondents agreed that, graduates lack of vision and proper planning is a
challenge facing graduates in creating self-employment opportunities, most of graduates
23(76.7%) agreed that, low social acceptability for graduates is the challenge facing graduates in
creating self-employment opportunities, 22(73.3%) agreed that, inadequate of entrepreneurial
skills among youth is a challenge facing graduates in creating self-employment opportunities,
and 20(70%) of respondents agreed that, youth prefers white collar jobs is a challenge facing
graduates in creating self-employment.
4. 6 The Intervention Measures for Challenges Hindering Self-Employment Creation
4.6.1 Results from Qualitative Data
The data obtained from interview and open-ended questions were coded according to theme and
quotes as presented on table 4.11 below.
49
Table 4.11 Thematic Analysis Coding
VERBATIM THEME CODE
Youth should undergo some culture/attitude/perception
change from job seeking orientation to job creating
orientation (P2)
Job creation attitude JCA
Government should design Training Programs to help
youth themselves become much better users of labor
market information, better decision-makers about short-
and long-term skills acquisition, and more socially
competent navigators of the job search (T 4, T10, T14, and
T20).
Training program for
labour market
TPLM
Government should establish link between Vocational
Training sector and other sectors and strengthen public and
private partnership (P1)
Public-Private
Partnership
PPP
Source (Field Data, 2017)
50
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter presents discussions of the findings, summary of the findings, conclusion and
recommendations based on the objective of the study and suggestions for further study.
5.1 Discussion of the Findings
This section discusses the findings of the analysis of the data as per the study objectives. The
questionnaires were given out to the respondents and the quantitative data was analyzed by the
use of SPSS Version 20.0. The qualitative data were coded thematically and discussed as per
study objectives.
5.1.1 Vocational Training Programs that are effective in Creation of Self-Employment
Opportunities
Findings from table 4.5 above shows, majority of graduates 23(76.7%) from vocational training
centers agreed that, vocational training programs that are provided by practical than theory can
are effective in create self-employment opportunities. Those who indicated otherwise opinion of
disagreement scored 7(23.3%). In view of these scores, the training received from the vocational
training centers seems to be of insignificance to the youth of this country and thus, vocational
training program that based on practical than theory can are effective in create self-employment
opportunities. In relation to the conceptual framework which identified good methodology if
well applied it by qualified teachers or instructors can leads to create self-employment
opportunities among the graduates. This finding is supported by the Government report on
51
Technical and Vocational Training (TVET) URT (2012), which recommended that TVET
institutions should enhance practical training to promote the practical skills and wider attributes
of students and increase the level of understanding and competence, increasing flexibility of the
training programs in order to accommodate candidates who are already employed.
On sub item of the presence of learning resource 28(93.3%) participants agreed that these
resources can are effective in creation of self-employment opportunities, while 1(3.3%)
disagreed that, presence of learning resource in vocational training program alone cannot are
effective in create self-employment opportunities. This implies that availability of training
materials and equipment enhances well delivery of practical lessons and thus, enables students to
have comprehensive understanding of the courses and subjects they are taught. That, when
training materials and tools are adequate and students make use of them, they will attain
optimum level of understanding, become more competent and confident thus, increasing their
chance of creating self-employment opportunities. This view was supported by Makombe
(2010), in the study of Improving successful completion and progression from secondary
education into further study and working life. The study argued that, with better equipment and
learning materials, we could enable the students to do better in their learning.
On sub item of presence of entrepreneur course, the findings shows that, 26(86.7%) of graduates
agreed that, entrepreneur course program in vocational training can to leads create self-
employment opportunities, 2(6.7%) of graduates disagreed that, entrepreneur course program in
vocational training can leads to create self-employment opportunities. The findings indicated
that, entrepreneur course program in vocational training can leads to creation of self-employment
opportunities among the graduates from vocational training. The study shows that,
entrepreneurial course when invested to the qualified students in vocational training or invested
52
entrepreneurial skills to students this can leads to create self-employment opportunities after
graduation.
According to Nkirina (2009), in Tanzania, over 100,000 graduates from over 800 Vocational
Education Training System Centers countrywide enter into the labor market yearly. This
accounts for approximately 14 percent of the new entrants into the Tanzania labor market every
year. This work force cannot be entirely absorbed into the formal wage employment. Such a
situation necessitates the importance of entrepreneurial education to prepare the young
generation to join self-employment.
In relation to this, entrepreneurship education should not be confused with general business or
economic studies, as its goal is to promote creativity, innovation and self-employment (European
Commission, 2009). The European Commission agreed that for a program to qualify as
education for entrepreneurship it should have various elements that include developing those
personal attributes and generally applicable (horizontal) skills that form the basis of an
entrepreneurial mindset and behavior, raising students’ awareness of self-employment and
entrepreneurship as possible career options. The other elements are to work on practical
enterprise projects and activities. For instance, based on specific business skills, graduates should
be able to operate mini company in order to enhance their knowledge on how to start and
successfully run companies.
On sub item on field attachment in quality industries, majority 25(83.3%) of graduates agreed
that, conducting field attachment in quality industry program in vocational training can are
effective in creation of self-employment opportunities, while 5(16.7%) of graduates disagreed.
This finding indicated that conducting field attachment on the quality industry as a program in
53
vocational training can are effective in creation of self-employment opportunities among youths
from Vocational Training Center after their graduation.
The finding is in agreement to UNESCO (2012), and World Bank (2012), report that suggested a
need to enhance collaboration with industry in the provision of in‐house training at work places
with a view to upgrading the skills of graduates and other employees in line with technological
advancements as well as the new ways of conducting business. This may however require
Vocational Training Center instructors to possess adequate skills and the expert knowledge on
what is to be covered and to be included in such training in the qualification framework for
recognition.
On sub items of self-employed models, majority (90%) of the graduate agreed that, self-
employed model program in vocational training can are effective in creation of self-employment
opportunities. According to the findings, self-employed model program in vocational training
can are effective in creation of self-employment opportunities after vocational training since
more than 50% of respondent agreed. This finding reflects the position of Fishbein’s Attitude
Theory as cited in Association of Tanzania Employers (2011) which propounded that, individual
learn about the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors by observing models and the
consequences of modeled behaviors. Therefore, they act in accordance with their beliefs
concerning the expected outcomes of actions. Thus, according to young people (youth), a good
job initiates a long-term investment and attachment to the labor market.
Respondents were further asked to mention other additional courses offered by Vocational
Training Centres in preparing graduates to create self-employment opportunities,findings
showsthat, all teachers 30(100%) and graduates 30(100%) responded that, there are other
programs or courses which are offered in addition to the ones mention for the preparation of
54
graduates’ creation of self-employment opportunities as the way of preparing them for self-
employment.
The findings from table 4.6 above shows responses on additional courses provided at vocational
training centers to support graduates in creation of self-employment after graduation, all teachers
30(100%) and majority 28(93.3%) of students mention entrepreneur course. All (100%)
graduates and majority 28(73.3%) of teachers mentioned computer knowledge, Life skills course
mentioned by 22(73.3%) of teacher and 10(33.3%) of graduates, trade calculation (mathematics)
mentioned by 18(60%) of teachers and 15(50%) of graduates and Book keeping course also
mention by 15(50%) of teachers and 2(6.7%) of graduates.
Findings supported by the UNESCO report of the seminar on Promoting entrepreneurship
education in secondary schools held in Bangkok, Thailand from 11th to 15th February 2008,
presenters came out with various definitions of entrepreneurship education as follows;
Entrepreneurship education is made up of all kinds of experiences that give students the ability
and vision of how to access and transform opportunities of different kinds. It goes beyond
business creation. It is about increasing students’ ability to anticipate and respond to societal
changes, and Entrepreneurship education is education and training which allows students to
develop and use their creativity, and to take initiatives, responsibility and risks.
The work of Colton (as cited by Solomon, 2010), suggests that the major objectives of enterprise
education are to develop enterprising people and inculcate an attitude of self-reliance using
appropriate learning processes. Entrepreneurship education and training programs are aimed at
stimulating entrepreneurship which may be defined as independent small business ownership or
the development of opportunity-seeking managers within companies.
55
On respondents courses offered by Vocational Training Centre;The finding identify a total of 16
courses which offered by different vocational training, these courses are: Auto Body Repair,
Auto Electric, Carpentry and Joinery, Design and Cloth Technology, Electrical Installation,
Electronics and Telecommunications Technology, Food Production, Information and
Communication Technology, Masonry and Bricklaying, Motor Vehicle Mechanics, Plumbing
and Pipe Fitting, Refrigeration and Air Conditions, Secretarial and Computer, Welding and
Fabrication, Painting and Sign Writing, and Fish Farming. This implies that, Vocational training
centres provide different courses which can makes graduates to create self-employment
opportunities after graduation.
In responding to the questions of identifying Courses Students Prefer, findings come out with
the following results.The findings as indicated in table 4.8 above show that, all (100%) teachers
identify; Motor Vehicle Mechanics, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Design
and Cloth Technology as preferred courses. Majority 23(76.7%) of teachers mention Food
Production and 21(70%) of teachers mentioned Electrical Installation. In the same line and
15(50%) of teachers mentioned Fish Farming. In other hand, findings identify other course are
not preferred since most of them have below 50% as indicated to the table 4.8 above. This
implies that, although there are many courses provided in vocational training centre, there other
courses which preferred most by the students, and this can be due to the need of labour market.
This view is supported by one principal who said, labour market has larger impact on the
influence of selection of courses to those who need to join vocational training.
The study further needed to understand factors that made graduates to choose the courses at the
vocational training centers and the findings were, majority of the graduates choose the course by
expecting to get employment after graduation, while other they choose the course they attended
56
so as to have knowledge of creating their own employment opportunities. Other graduates join
to vocational training by asked and advised by parents and guardians, while others had attended
those courses so as to be entrepreneur. This reveled that, each graduate has different reasons for
choosing a course and joining Vocational Training. In similar to this, Biavaschi (2013), argued
that, the provisions of some pre-vocational courses which would include practical activities like
in agriculture, wood-works, electronics, mechanics, carpentry, masonry, technical drawing, local
crafts, home economics, business studies usually help to change the student’s attitude towards
vocational education and training. This means the influence of choosing the vocational trade for
training depends on the choice of the course and its marketability.
The respondents were asked to identify Methods Used to Pass the Skills to Students and the
findings from table 4.8 indicated that, all 30(100%) teachers and 30(100%) graduates said
vocational training centre used practical methods to pass skills to students. All 30(100%)
teachers and majority 26(86.7%) of graduates mentioned lecture method. Majority 26(86.7%) of
teachers and 25(83.3%) of graduates identified field attachment method, few 11(36.3%) of
teachers and 13(43.3%) of graduates said they use group discussion and few 10(33.3%) teachers
and 9(30%) graduates, identify questions and answer as the methods of passing skills to students.
This implies that, practical methods, lecture and field attachment are the most preferred methods
used to pass skills to students at vocational training centers. This can be due to the fact that, in
order for students to acquire more skills and to be qualified practical methods should be
practiced.
In addition, vocational training centres used field attachment as the method to pass skills to
student so as to be able to create self-employment opportunities after graduation. The findings
indicate that, the use of group discussion in vocational training centre is not preferred in
57
vocational training. These findings are supported by Vocational pedagogy Theory cited by Lucas
(2012), which argues that, vocational education needs to be taught in the context of practical
problem-solving. The best vocational learning is broadly hands-on, practical, and experimental
and should involve feedback, questioning, application and reflection and when required,
theoretical models and explanations are cooperated.
Therefore, it can be concluded that, vocational Programs to equip graduates with needed skills
for creating self-employment opportunity must provide a combination of classroom lecture,
practical and field attachment as a workplace training which will help to provide skills such as
communication, problem solving and entrepreneurship awareness.
5.1.2 Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training as the means to create Self-employment
Opportunities
Majority of teachers admitted that, most of graduates especially those who willingly joined
vocational training, have positive perception and majority of them completed their course and
find places for starting their business but for those who joined through the pressure from their
parents or guardian and those who joined because there have no alternative have negative
perception towards Vocational Training. The findings shows that, youth have positive perception
concerning vocational training as the means of creating self-employment opportunities. These
perception was drawn from different factors including, home background, teachers, policy
concerning vocational training and employment as well as students themselves.
This finding is in agreement with Musemo (2012), who argued that; attitude is regarded as a
dependent variable which is influenced by student’s perception towards vocational education and
training. Teachers have a major role to play and act as a role model to form student’s attitudes, as
58
Bakshi (2005), argued that, teacher can play a vital and key role in building the attitude, if
teacher who in the form of a negative influence, can deteriorate the student as the student can
follow the wrong steps by the path shown by the teachers.
Metto (2012), said there was an urgent need for the students to change their perceptions towards
Youths Polytechnic students. Pedagogy is the heart of teaching; if instructors are armed with all
the necessary skills then students may develop positive perceptions. Youths Polytechnic students
should be equipped with modern instructional resources and infrastructure. Instructors for all
courses within Youths Polytechnic students’ curriculum should be availed.
Result from table 4.9 above shows that, all 30(100%) respondents agreed that, Vocational
Training contribute positively to the economy of the country. This implies that, vocational
training plays a big role on the economy of the country since it can are effective in creation of
self-employment among the graduates. Similarly, the kind of skills obtained can also determine
the kind or types of labor market demand. Usman and Tafida (2011) agreed that, employability
skills and soft skills can are effective in development of infrastructure, development of investor-
friendly economic conditions, and improvement of a nation’s rapidly deteriorating quality of
education. The training provided is closely matched with specific job requirements so as to foster
immediate production performance by the trainees. Trainees can become wage earners, thereby
becoming more useful and productive citizens who will be assets to the society and pay taxes to
the government.
On preparing students to set up their own employment, majority 29(96.7%) of graduates agreed
that, vocational training prepare people to set up their own employment while only 1(3.3%) of
graduates disagreed. This shows that, graduate have positive perception and believe that,
59
vocational training prepares people to set up their own employment opportunities. Consequently,
Maclean and Wilsons (2009) noted that technical and vocational education and training programs
play an important role in helping youth in the acquisition of job skills and knowledge, enabling
them to secure paid employment or be self-employed for a sustainable livelihood.
On sub item reducing unemployment, majority 27(90%) of respondent agreed that, vocational
training plays a big role in reducing unemployment through creating self-employment
opportunities. The result indicates that government should make sure most of the youths engage
in Vocational Training so as to be able to create their own employment and to be able to compete
in labour market. The finding is supported by Yusoof (2013) in the Designing Vocational
Education (Vocational Skill) Program who identified general objectives of vocational course
which are; to fulfill the national goals of development and the removal of unemployment and
institution, to impart education relevant to productivity, economic development and individual
prosperity, to prepare students for self-reliance, gainful employability and self-employment and
to reduce mismatch between demand and supply of skilled manpower. One of the principal
argued that; the relevance of vocational training is measured by the productive employment that
graduates find after training including creation of self-employment opportunities. Vocational
training reduce unemployment problem by offering courses and skills which enable graduates to
create their own employment or to be employed with different institutions. Therefore, the skills
graduates acquired from vocational training centres must match with those required by
community and labour market so as to be applicable hence graduates should be able to create
self-employment opportunities.
On sub item students learning skills that are needed by employers, majority 27(90%) of
respondents agreed and few 1(3.3%) of respondents had disagreed on perception that vocational
60
student learns skills that are needed by employers. Therefore, this can be concluded that,
vocational training students learn skills that are needed by employers. In their study, Usman and
Tafida (2011) found that, technical and vocational educational and training can empower the
youth with employability skills and soft skills such as human relations (social capital) to secure
paid employment and become entrepreneurs instead of job-seekers.
In the same view Yonemura (2011) suggested that, Technical and Vocational Education and
Training education in Africa should link between vocational and general education, support
capacity building link to the labour market traditional skills business management and
entrepreneurial training.
Furthermore, on need to invest in vocational training, only 3(10%) of respondents agreed and the
majority 25(83.3%) of the respondents disagreed that there is no need to invest in vocational
training for the youth because there no jobs. The findings indicates that, most of the youth need
more investment in vocational training for the youth so as to be able to create their own
employment rather than waiting to be employed with other sectors.
On the other side, the study assessed several elements to reveal whether the courses offered to
students in Vocational Training Centres were relevant or not by associating the training with
creation of self-employment opportunities so as to relate with the identified skills. The study
identified types of courses offered, availability of training materials, facilities and qualified
teachers. The study findings revealed that all courses offered aimed at preparing the graduate to
create self-employment but most of them need a graduate to have capital or fund so as to be able
to create self-employment opportunities. Generally, the findings show that, youths and graduates
have positive attitude towards vocational Training as the means of creating self-employment
61
opportunities. This attitude can be generated from different areas including within the family
(home), school or at working place.
Okocha (2009) propounded that, factors such as students’ home background, class/grade of
student, curriculum, education level and occupation of parents or guardian and their respectively
attitude may have greater influence on the perception of students towards valuing and eventually
joining vocational education and training. Some parents are aware of the employment value in
vocational education but they are still prepared to accept the superiority of socially prestigious
professions like law, Medicine and Accountancy over technical oriented job.
5.1.3 Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-Employment Opportunities after Attaining
Vocational Training
Findings from table 4.10 above shows that, 28(93.3%) of the respondents agreed that, poverty is
a challenge facing graduates after graduation in creating self-employment opportunities and
1(3.3%) of graduates were in disagreement. According to the above findings, it seems that,
poverty is a challenge facing graduates in creating self-employment opportunities after attaining
vocational training. Others responded that; much equipment for example for carpenter and
mechanics as well as food preparation needs high capital. Not only that, but also poverty leads to
other students failed to complete their courses due to the failure of paying school fees. Teachers
said Most of courses require graduates to establish workshop so as to have self-employment
unless otherwise they employed in established workshop. This is similar to the report from
UNICEF which reported that, indicator and poverty alleviation policy, 149,000 families live
below the official level of poverty (UNICEF, 2000). These families that are presently involved in
social assistance schemes have insufficient income.
62
On sub item lack of vision and proper planning, findings shows that, majority 26(86.7%) of the
respondents agreed and few 4(13.3%) of respondents disagreed that, graduates lack vision and
proper planning in creating self-employment opportunities after graduation. That means in order
for graduates from vocational training to create self-employment opportunities should be aware
of the concepts; quality, productivity, efficiency, standards, value for money as applied to the
business sectors but also can makes graduates to have proper vision and planning for their future.
This supported by Premand, Brodmann, Almeida, Grun, and Mahdi (2012) whose said
Vocational Education Training often does not adequately prepare young people for work or for
the fast changing nature of modern economies. A lack of information, networks and connections
among youth, especially youth from families lacks significant social capital. Many young people
lack knowledge on what the world of work is actually like, and have not given careful thought to
their own potential career choices; they have not used their time in school to prepare
appropriately for realistic career paths.
Most of graduates 23(76.7%) agreed that, low social acceptability for graduates is the challenge
facing graduates in creating self-employment opportunities while few 7(23.3%) of graduates
disagreed. This implies the existence of such problem and this finding is similar to Ipaye as cited
by Budria and Pedro (2008) which recommended that, for many years, technical and vocational
education in Africa has been considered as a career path for the less academically endowed. This
perception has been fuelled by the low academic requirements for admission into technical
vocational education training programmes and the limited prospects for further education and
professional development. Worse, the impression is sometimes created by governments that the
primary objective of the vocational education track is to keep dropouts (students who are unable
to move up the educational ladder, not because of poor grades but because of lack of places at
63
the higher level) from the basic and secondary school system off the streets, rather than project
this type of training as an effective strategy to train skilled workers for the employment market
and for sustainable livelihoods.
On sub item inadequate entrepreneurial skills among the graduate; majority of the respondents
22(73.3%) agreed and few 4(13.3%) of respondent disagreed that inadequate of entrepreneurial
skills among youth is a challenge facing graduates in creating self-employment opportunities
after graduation. This findings show the presence of such problem. Due to the existence of this
challenge Katebaliwe (2014) suggested Technical and Vocational Education and Training
Programs should makes youth with the hard skills for the world of work also should provide a
combination of classroom education with workplace training, and impart soft skills such as
communication, problem solving and entrepreneurship awareness.
On the same thinking Amiri and Moradi (2009), argued that entrepreneurship is essential to
prepare graduates but preparation should not be after graduating; it should be made during the
study. Entrepreneurship and self-employment restrictions should be identified and resolved
during the study. The study supported by Audu (2013), Vocational education has been known to
prepare undergraduates for gainful employment in a specific professional area. But there is a
need for the incorporation of employability skills in the curriculum because these skills can
accelerate employment. Without these skills these young graduates can be considered to be
handicap in competing for employment.
On preferences of white collar job by graduates as in table 4.10 above indicate, many 20(70%)
respondents agreed youth prefers white collar jobs and few 10(33.3%) of respondents disagreed
that, youth prefers white collar jobs is a challenge facing graduates in creating self-employment
64
opportunities. The fact that most unemployed youths preferred formal employment could in it be
a cause of their unemployment. In the same view, Bhebhe (2016), recommended that, the current
situation requires an individual who realizes that the industrial base economy is unable to employ
because it is operating at low capacity. Such a situation requires job seekers who are game
changers who can create self-employment as opposed to seeking for jobs. According to Ngogo
(2014), students valued the socially prestigious and white-collar professions over technical
related occupations and their willingness to join vocational education and training after
completion of O-level education revealed to be relatively low. The previous view is supported by
Hamalainen and Tuomala (2007), as they reporting that, young people entering the labour market in the
Arab World not only lack marketable skills; they also lack relevant experience and knowledge of the
working world.
Graduates were asked to explain other challenges apart from those of likert scale, and majority of
the respondents mentioned lack of capital as challenge. Teachers responded that, graduates lack
capital for establishing workshop especially for those who study courses which need workshops
like, auto body repair, auto electrical and carpentry and joinery, motor vehicle mechanics as well
as welding and fabrication.
Lack of government support in different areas for example, to have institution which provides
loans for graduates and conducive environment for conducting their work, technological
changes, market for their product and negative attitudes of the community concerning the
product produced by graduates from Vocational Training Centres and activities done by
Vocational Training Centres graduates which community takes it as produced at low quality
mentioned by graduates from vocational training centers. According to Ramlee (2002),
vocational education graduates usually master their technical skills but their employers normally
65
feel dissatisfied of their employees when it comes to employability skills because they lack
motivational skills, communication skills, interpersonal skills, critical thinking, problem solving
and entrepreneurial skills.
5.4 Intervention Measures for the Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-Employment
Opportunities after Vocational Training
The study investigated the different measures that should be adopted by graduates so as to be
able to create self-employment opportunities. During the interview, one principal suggested that;
“…Youth unemployment will only be effectively addressed if the youth themselves
also undergo through some culture/attitude/perception change from job seeking
orientation to job creating orientation” (P 2).
In this regard, some graduates suggested that training Centres and Government should hire high
qualified teachers with professional experience to instruct and assist students in their practical
skills as well as assisting graduates in labour market especially for creating self-employment
opportunities. Vocational Training Centres should educate students, parents and community in
general on the advantages of vocational training.
Vocational training should prepare young people to meet the community needs, development of
an attitude of taking pride in and responsibility for one’s own work should be strongly
encouraged in the vocational training. Graduates suggested that;Curriculum should be according
to the needs of market that means society or community. Close collaboration between vocational
training institutions and the local labour market is important in order to align the curricula with
skills needs of the labour market.
66
Respondents argued that, the curriculum should have thinks like life skills subject, self-
motivation and good characteristics which will help them in conducting their business instead of
depending on entrepreneurship alone and Training Centre should have modern learning materials
especially for practical. Vocational training centres should establish entrepreneurship courses as
a core course for every academic program that they offered in each level. This will enable
graduates to be competent when engage themselves in creating self-employment rather than to
keep on searching for paid jobs. This supported by government report, URT (2008) which
indicate that, one of the objectives of the youth’s development policy is the preparation of youths
for work by ensuring quality basic education for all young women and men and developing a
demand driven vocational and technical education system.
Furthermore, respondents suggested that, Vocational Training programs must be update often to
reflect rapid changes in technology and work place practices, program planners should be aware
of the government’s strategies and priorities for socio-economic development so that vocational
training programs can reflect government policy. Proper supervision of the students during
practical and field attachment so as to acquire job skills and knowledge, graduates can be able to
learn skills for crating self-employment opportunities. Graduates can be able to learn skills for
creating of self-employment opportunities through field attachment.
Government should not only stop to establish and promote Vocational Training, but should make
sure graduates from Vocational Training Centres have something to do by helping them in
different stage especially capital for establishing their own job and tracing them. During the
interview one of the principal suggested that;
“……. Government should not only facilitate and promoting youth education and
training but also should trace them to know what they are doing after training and
67
supporting them especially by preparing conducive environment for their work”
(P1).
Government and Training Centres should have a skills audit and database of all unemployed
graduates showing their qualifications and contact details. This will help to trace them and find
or sent them into the correct economic zones if the opportunity arises.
Implementation of the existence policy which support youths in different areas, the employment
policy (URT, 2008) insisted that enabling environment should be put in place whereby important
inputs to enhance youth employment, such as infrastructure, skills training, vocational guidance
and counseling, capacity building, business development and financial services for business
start-up and improvement, would be made available by the Government, Private sector, civil
society organizations (CSOs) and other employment stakeholders. Teachers provided their views
by proposing that;
“……. Government should design Training Programs to help youth themselves
become much better users of real-time labor market information, more
knowledgeable about career paths, better decision-makers about short- and long-
term skills acquisition, and more socially competent navigators of the job search
and hiring process” (T 4, T10, T14, T20).
According to Kapfunde (2002), and Stiftung (2010), recommended that, employability in the
formal private sectors require not just appropriate skills and training, but also public policies
which are effective in new employment opportunities where these skills can be used while
Biavaschi(2013) suggested that, countries should strengthen the vocational part of their
educational schooling system and bring existing vocational education and training systems closer
to the current needs of the labour market. The move is help young people experience a smoother
transition to jobs. In particular, vocational education provided in the framework of secondary
schooling (vocational schools or vocational tracks) should be modernized and complemented
with phases of practical work experience, for example, via internships or passing the final year
68
with an employer. In the view, Kyeampong (2002), comment that, the system of education that
has the potential of making the country achieves middle income status is vocational and technical
education.
Government should establish link between Vocational Training sector and other sectors which
deals with youths and job creation, for example link with Small Industrial Development
Organization (SIDO) which deals most with people who creating small industrial business but
giving them education and loans for creating and starting their own businesses.
Teachers suggested that, graduates after training should create groups and ask for loans from
different institution with low interests. Strengthen public and private partnership so as to have
substantial investment in Vocational Training in ensuring the relevance, competitiveness and
affordability of its institutions in order to develop the Vocational Training sub sector.
Respondents emphasized on the Public and Private Sectors should recognize that Technical and
Vocational Education and Training are an investment, not a cost, with significant returns,
including the well-being of workers, enhanced productivity and international competitiveness.
Therefore funding for Technical and Vocational Education and Training should be shared to the
maximum extent possible between government, industry, the community and the learner, with
government providing appropriate financial incentives. Furthermore Katebalirwe (2014),
suggested the Government of Tanzania to seek bilateral and multilateral capacity-building
cooperation in Technical and Vocational Education and Training.
69
Anaele, Adelakun, Olumoko & Kanu (2014), examined and determined the strategies that can be
employed to empower individuals for self-employment through Technical, Vocational Education
and Training in Nigeria. The study recommended that public/private partnership should be
encouraged in the funding and management of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
to empower individuals for self-employment.
The selection of candidates for training courses also seems in most cases to be rather mechanical,
only standard criteria such as the ability to read and write being applied. Thus a partial
explanation for low scores on employment resulting from the training could be linked to the
nature of the selection of candidates. Level of education to join Vocational Training should be at
least form four leavers. The World Bank report as cited by Ikatu (2010) reported that without
entry into the formal education system at the primary or secondary level employment options for
disadvantaged youth are generally limited to low skilled and low wage jobs. Due to the nature of
employment in Tanzania government, the form four certificates are very important in
employment. Failure to have a form four certificate means failure to get employment in
government.
Graduates suggested the provision of financial support to the graduates; Ntallima (2014),
recommended that, the government should create conducive environment for the graduates to get
capital or loans from financial institution which will help the youth to get more chance for
creation of self-employment opportunities. In Tanzania, Association of Tanzania Employers
(2011), recommended that, The Ministry of Finance will be an important partner in these by
ensuring that going forward; the skills development, transparently distributed to the appropriate
public institutions responsible for skills development in the country.
70
5.2 Summary of the Findings
This section discusses the summary of the findings as per the study objectives.
5.2.1 Summary of the findings on Vocational Training Program that are Effective in
Creation of Self-employment Opportunities
The objective of the study was to identify vocational training programs that are effective in
creation of self-employment opportunities. The findings identified programs that involve
practical than theory, presence of learning resources, Entrepreneurial course program and field
attachment if well practiced during the training can leads to creation of self-employment
opportunities among the youths.
The study identified additional programs which provided by Vocational Training Centres as
supportive course to the core programs has greater importance to prepare youth in creation of
self-employment opportunities after training. These identified courses are; entrepreneur courses,
computer knowledge, life skills, trade calculation (mathematics) and book keeping.
5.2.2 Summary of the Findings on the Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training as the
Means of Creating Self-Employment Opportunities
The study revealed that, the students to aspire for vocational training depends much on their
perceptions and attitudes towards vocational training, also the study identified most of graduates
have good perception on vocational training. Factors such as students’ home background,
class/grade of student, curriculum, education level and occupation of parents or guardian
mentioned to have greater impact to the youths’ perceptions towards Vocational Training.
Findings shows that most of graduates believe in vocational training since vocation training can
plays a big role in reducing unemployment, Vocational Training prepare people to set up their
71
own employment, Vocational Students learn skills that are needed by employers and Vocational
Training contribute positively to the economy of the country. Again, graduate needs more
investment on vocational training.
5.2.3 Summary on the Findings on the Challenges Hindering Self-Employment
Opportunities Creation after Attaining Vocational Training
Findings shows that, graduates facing different challenges after training hence failed to establish
their own employment, challenges such as, Lack of government support, lack of vision and
proper planning by the youth, Poverty which lead failure of establishing workshop, Inadequate
entrepreneurial skills among the youths and change of technology are the most problems facing
graduates when needs to create self-employment opportunities.
5.2.4 Summary of the Findings on the Intervention Measures for the Challenges Hindering
Graduates in Creation of Self-Employment Opportunities after attaining Vocational
Training
The study implies that, due to the nature of employment in Tanzania government, the form four
certificates are very important in employment, hence students should complete form four before
joining Vocational Training. The government should not only facilitate and promoting youth
education and training but also should trace them to know what they are doing after training and
supporting them especially by preparing conducive environment for their work.
Vocational Training Centres should have current learning materials especially for practical, and
practical and field attachment should have more time than theory period. Teachers suggested
that, to strengthen public and private partnership so as to have substantial investment in
72
Vocational Training in ensuring the relevance, competitiveness and affordability of its
institutions in order to develop the Vocational Training sub sector.
5.3 Conclusion
The research study investigated the programs that are effective in creation of self-employment
opportunity for the youth. The findings of the study revealed that Vocational Training can
prepare youths to create their own employment if the program provided at the vocational training
centers are practical oriented. If the practical learning of life skills and entrepreneurial courses
can be integrated with theoretical learning, it will make the graduates from the training institutes
to perceive the vocational training positively.
The finding of the study implies that, graduates have positive perception towards vocational
training. The research study shows that, technical and vocational education plays a vital role in
marketing and human resource development of the country by creating skilled manpower which
enhances industrial productivity and improves the quality of life.
The research study found out that, challenges hindering creation of self-employment
opportunities after attaining vocational training are; shortage of funds, poor entrepreneurial
skills, lack of government and community support, technology and lack of proper planning and
vision.
Therefore, the study concludes that, there is need for financial support from the government
towards vocational training. Coupled with this was the need for revolving fund, clear policy and
supportive environment for the graduates to gain their own employment. Similarly, there was
need for sensitizing the youth on the need to embrace self-employment as opposed to white color
73
jobs. All these can be the intervention measures for the challenges hindering creation of self-
employment opportunities after vocational training.
5.4 Recommendations
i. The Ministry of education, science and technology should ensure that vocational training
starts with graduates from primary education. The study also recommended that the
ministry should insist on at least form four certificates for students so as to be able to
compete in labour market.
ii. Government should create revolving fund to graduates from vocational training. This
should be directed towards research and development, acquisition of appropriate and up-
to-date equipments, tools and general maintenance and management of vocational
training centres.
iii. Vocational training centres should develop and adopt continuous review and validation of
vocational training curricula and programs, so that they are modularized, flexible and
adaptable to the fast changes in technology and relevant to the community and individual
needs.
iv. Public Private Partnership should be emphasized so that they create opportunities for
graduates from vocational training to get their areas of trade within rural and urban setup
for example with Small Industrial Development Organization (SIDO).
v. Graduates should organize themselves and form different groups after completing their
courses so as to be able to get funds and loans from different financial institution because
most of financial institution provide funds to groups and individuals.
74
5.5 Suggestions for Further Research
From the findings, the following Suggestions for future research were made;
i. The role of vocational training in economic development
ii. The effectiveness of government on supporting vocational training graduates
iii. Community perceptions towards vocational training graduates
iv. How vocational training graduate can overcome challenges in labour market
75
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APPENDECIES
Appendix 1
Interview Guide for Principal
1. Which courses does your Training Centre offer?
2. Does your training centre provide additional courses to Vocational Training for the
preparation of graduate create self-employment opportunities?
3. Are the courses offered to students relevant in creating self-employment opportunities? If
yes, explain.
4. What challenges do the graduates face to create self-employment opportunities?
5. What should be done by the government, stakeholders and graduates to overcome those
challenges?
85
Appendix II
Questionnaire for Teachers of Vocational Training Centres
Dear Teachers,
I am Raphael Kibirigi, a student at Saint Augustine University of Tanzania, Arusha Centre
pursing Master of Arts in Education Management. Currently I am conducting a research study on
The Effectiveness of Vocational Training in creating Youths Self-Employment Opportunities
Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality.
I kindly request your participation in this study by giving the current information to the best of
your knowledge to enable the fulfillment of the study. All the information provided will be
confidential and will be strictly for this study and not for any other purpose.
Part “A” Demographic Information
1. Gender
(a) Male ( )
(b) Female ( )
2. Age
(a) 25-30 ( )
(b) 31-35 ( )
(c) 36-40 ( )
(d) 41 and Above
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3. Education Qualification
(a) Trade Test Grade One ( )
(b) Full Technical Certificate ( )
(c) Diploma ( )
(d) Advanced Diploma ( )
(e) Bachelor Degree and above ( )
4. How long have you been in Vocational Training?
(a) Below 1 year
(b) 1-5 years
(c) 6-10 years
(d) 11 years and above
Part B: Vocational Training Programs are Effective in Creation of Self-Employment
Opportunities
5. Are courses offered relevant for graduate’s self-employment opportunities?
(a) Yes ( )
(b) No ( )
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6. Which courses do students prefer? Put (√) to your choices
Courses √
Auto Body Repair
Auto Electric
Carpentry and Joinery
Design and Cloth Technology
Electrical Installation
Electronics and Telecommunications Technology
Fish farming
Food Production
Information and Communication Technology
Masonry and Bricklaying
Motor Vehicle Mechanics
Painting and Sign writing
Plumbing and Pipe Fitting
Refrigeration and Air Conditions
Secretarial and Computer
Welding and Fabrication
7. Which methods are used to pass the skills to students?
(a) Lecture ( )
(b) Group Discussion ( )
(c) Questions and Answer ( )
(d) Practical (Demonstration) Session ( )
(e) Field Training Attachment ( )
8. Which program practiced in your Training Centre can are effective in create self-
employment opportunities to youths after completing their courses? ………………
……………...................................................................................................
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9. Are there any other training program(s) which are offered for the preparation of youths’
self-employment?
(a) Yes ( )
(b) No ( )
If Yes mention them ………………………… …………………………..………..
Part C: Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training as the means to Create Self-
employment Opportunities.
10. What are the perceptions of graduate toward the VT as a means of creating self-
employment?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Part D: Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-Employment Opportunities after Attaining
Vocational Training
11. What challenges do graduates from Vocational Training faces in their effort to create
self-employment opportunities? ……………………………………………………………
Part E: The Intervention Measures for the Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-
Employment Opportunities after Vocational Training.
12. Briefly explain how graduates can overcome the challenges identified above?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. What should be done by the government and stakeholders to ensure that graduates from
Vocational Training creates self-employment opportunities? ……………………………..
Thanks for Your Participation
89
Appendix III
Questionnaire for Graduates from Vocational Training
I am Raphael Kibirigi, a student at Saint Augustine University of Tanzania, Arusha Centre
pursing Master of Arts in Education Management. Currently I am conducting a research study on
Effectiveness of Vocational Training in creating Youths Self-Employment opportunities
Kigoma-Ujiji Municipality.
I kindly request your participation in this study by giving the current information to the best of
your knowledge to enable me carry out my study. It would be very grateful if you could provide
me with addresses of other graduates from Vocational training who could also participate in this
study. All the information that given will be confidential and will be stickly for this study and not
for any other purpose.
PART “A” Demographic Information
1. Gender
(a) Male ( )
(b) Female ( )
2. Age
(a) 15-20 ( )
(b) 21-25 ( )
(c) 26-30 ( )
(d) 31-35 ( )
3. Education level
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(a) Vocational Education Training Level I ( )
(b) Basic Vocational Certificate Level II ( )
(c) Vocational Certificate Level III ( )
(d) Basic Technician Certificate Level IV and Above ( )
4. What was the year of your graduation? ...............................................................................
Part B: Vocational Training Programs that are Effective in Creation of Self-Employment
Opportunities
5. What factors guided your choose of the course at vocational training centre?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………….……………………………………..
6. Which methods were used to teach the identified course?
(a) Lecture ( )
(b) Group Discussion ( )
(c) Questions and Answer ( )
(d) Practical (Demonstration) Session ( )
(e) Field Training Attachment ( )
7. Which programs practiced by Vocational Training centre are effective in creation of self-
employment?
91
Using a scale of 1-5 and put a tick (√) in the box provided, whereby; from the key; 1-strong
disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-undecided, 4-Agree, and 5-strongly agree
The vocational training programs that are Effective in creation of self-
employment opportunity
1 2 3 4 5
Based on practical than theory
Presence of learning resources
Entrepreneur Course
Conducting field on quality industries
Welcome self-employed models in class sessions
8. Are there any other training program(s) which were offered in addition to the ones mentioned
above for the preparation of graduates’ creation of self-employment opportunities?
(c) Yes ( )
(d) No ( )
If Yes mention them ……………………………………………………………………
Part C: Youths’ Perceptions on Vocational Training as the means to Create Self-
employment Opportunities.
9. What is your perception concerning vocational training as the means to creating self-
employment?
Youth’s Perceptions on Vocational Training as a means of creating
Self-employment opportunities
1 2 3 4 5
Vocational training plays a big role in reducing unemployment
There is no need to invest in Vocational Training for Youth because
there are no jobs
Vocational Training prepare graduates to set up their own employment
Vocational Students learn skills that are needed by employers
Vocational Training contribute positively to the economy of the country
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Part D: Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-Employment Opportunities after Attaining
Vocational Training
10. What challenges do graduates from Vocational Training face in creating self-employment?
Challenges Youth’s face after Vocational Training in creating self-
employment
1 2 3 4 5
Inadequate entrepreneurial skills among the graduates.
Poverty
Low social acceptability for graduates
Lack of vision and proper planning by the graduates
The graduates prefer white collar jobs
If there are other challenges, please identify them ………………………………………………
Part E: The Intervention Measures for the Challenges Hindering Creation of Self-
Employment Opportunities after Vocational Training.
11. What can be done by Vocational Training Centres to help graduates to create self-
employment after training? ………………………...………………………………………….
12. What could be done by the government and stakeholders as the way forward for the
challenges the graduates face in creating self-employment after attaining
training………………………………………………………………………………………….
Thanks for Your Participation
93
APPENDIX IV
PERMISSION LETTERS
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