si-2124-kuliah-PRT ke 15-trans & the environment - sipil … · Jabodetabek (SITRAMP, 2003) : Rp 5,4 trilliun/ th ; ... Concept 1 The Emerging Issue ... si-2124-kuliah-PRT ke 15-trans

SI – 2124PENGANTAR SISTEM

TRANSPORTASI

Harun al-Rasyid LUBIS

Prodi Teknik Sipil

FTSL - ITB

(KULIAH KE-15)

ONOx

HC

Mexico City: the “ideal factory” for ozone producti on

O3 x

2200 meters above sea level

Ambient Air Quality StandardsPollutant Duration of Jakarta National WHO* EPA

Measurement

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 1 hour 900 900 N/A N/A

24 hours 260 365 125 365

1 year 60 60 50 80

Carbon monoxide (CO) 1 hour 26,000 30,000 30,000 40,000

8 hour N/A N/A 10,000 10,000

24 hours 9,000 10,000 N/A N/A

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 1 hour 400 400 200 N/A

24 hours 92.5 150 N/A N/A

1 year 60 100 40 100

Oxidant (O3) 1 hour 200 235 N/A 235

8 hour N/A N/A 120 157

1 year 30 50 N/A N/A

Hydrocarbons 3 hours 160 160 N/A N/A

Particulates < 10 µm (PM10) 24 hours 150 150 N/A 150

1 year N/A N/A N/A 50

Total Suspended Particulates 24 hours 230 230 N/A N/A

(TSP) 1 year 90 90 N/A N/A

Lead (Pb) 1 year N/A 1 0.5 N/A

Note: Unit: in µg/m3. Values are based on the atmospheric conditions at 25oC and pressure 1 atm.

* WHO air quality guidelines

Objectives

• to review recent transport plan and traffic management schemes in DKI Jakarta

• to prepare sustainable transport and traffic management action planning for DKI Jakarta

Main Issues• The social cost of traffic

congestions• Land use plan and control• Road building agenda Vs • Road building agenda Vs

emissions• Public transport promotion and

problems• Resources & Capacity building

BIAYA SOSIAL KEMACETAN

– Kemacetan lalulintas jalan: • Menyebar ke semua waktu • Menyebar hampir ke

semua ruas jalan– Biaya kemacetan:– Biaya kemacetan:

• Pemborosan waktu ; • Pemborosan bok

Bandung (2002) : Rp 1,2 triliun / th ; Rp 1, 8 milyard / hr

Jakarta (2003) : Rp 17,2 triliun / th ; Rp 47 milyard / hr

Jabodetabek (SITRAMP, 2003) : Rp 5,4 trilliun/ th ; 14.8 milyard /hr

Air pollution sources

• Private cars satisfy only 21% of the total transport demand of transport total transport demand of transport but contribute with 35% of transport-related emissions

• Most emissions come from aged vehicles (1985-models and older = 70% pollution)

Emission contribution by vehicle model/year

70

80

90

100

% y

ear

/ mod

el 92 and older

total vehicle flleet

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

% y

ear

/ mod

el

% emisssions

79 and older

85 and older

Factory23%

Un-survey factory

Vehicle(re-suspend)

50%

320(ppb)

Factory55%

Un-survey factory

13%

Household6%

Vehicle(exhoust gas)

28%Factory

31%

Un-survey factory

8%

Household12%

Vehicle49%

Pencemaran Udara Jakarta (2003)

Komposisi Sumber SOx Komposisi Sumber NOx

Sektor transportasi menyumbang dominant emisi NOx sebanyak 49% dan TSP sebanyak 50%. Emisi SOx dominan disumbang oleh pabrik dan secondary kontributor adalah sektor

factory8%

Household8%

50%

Vehicle(exhoust gas)

11% 0(ppb)

90(ppb)

0(ppb)

122(ug/m 3)

2(ug/m3)

Komposisi Sumber TSP Sebaran Spasial SOx

Sebaran Spasial NOx Sebaran Spasial TSP

kontributor adalah sektor transportasi sebanyak 28%

Distribusi spasial pencemaran udara menunjukkan ada beberapa spot area di pusat kota memiliki tingkat polusi yang sangat tinggi

Tata Ruang: Alternatif Penyebaran / formasi kota

PENATAAN HORIZONTAL….

Emission Indicators

Penataan vertikal :The sky city 1000(Takenaka with Shizuo Harada of ESCO Co., Ltd)

STRATEGI & SKENARIO:

MANAJEMEN TRANSPORTASI KOTA

TDM Strategies Scenarios JMTS JORR

Toll Road Arterial Road

Bus- Way

Land Use

Traffic Management

Scenario 1: Do-nothing - - - - - - Scenario 1: Do-nothing - - - - - -

Scenario 2: Business as usual (BAU) - - � - - -

Scenario 3: Land use - - � - � -

Scenario 4: T D M - - � - � �

Scenario 5: Road development - � � - � -

Scenario 6: Mass rapid transit (MRT) � - � � � -

Scenario 7: All Scenarios � � � � � �

Annotation: (�) included (-) not included

SIMULATION RESULTS(1): Traffic Indicators

1200

1500

1800

2100

2400

2700

3000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

1,00

0,00

0 p

cu t

rip

/yea

rDo nothingBAU

Land UseTraffic ManagementRoad Development

MRTAll Scenarios

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

km/h

ou

r

Do nothingBAU


MRTAll Scenarios

TRAVELDEMAND

AVERAGESPEED

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

1,00

0,00

0 p

cu.k

m/y

ear

Do nothingBAU


MRTAll Scenarios

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

1,00

0,00

0 p

cu.h

ou

r/ye

ar

Do nothingBAU


MRTAll Scenarios

SYSTEM’STRAVELLENGTH

SYSTEM’STRAVEL TIME

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5000

5500

6000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

1,00

0,00

0 li

ters

/yea

r

Do nothingBAU

Land UseTraffic ManagementRoad Dev elopment

MRTAll Scenarios

4000000

6000000

8000000

10000000

12000000

14000000

16000000

ton

/yea

r

Do nothingBAU

Land UseTraffic ManagementRoad Dev elopment

MRTAll Scenarios

TOTAL FUELCONSUMPTION

TOTALEMISSION

SIMULATION RESULTS(2): Environment Indicators

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

800,000

900,000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

Ton

CO (Do-nothing)CO (BAU)CO (Land Use)CO (Traffic Management)CO (Road Development)CO (MRT)CO (All Scenarios)

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

100,000

110,000

120,000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

Ton

NOx (Do-nothing)NOx (BAU)NOx (Land Use)NOx (Traffic Management)NOx (Road Dev elopment)NOx (MRT)NOx (All Scenarios)

COEMISSION

NOxEMISSION

SIMULATION RESULTS(3): Environment Indicators

HCEMISSION

SOx

EMISSION

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

80,000

90,000

100,000

110,000

120,000

130,000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Ton

HC (Do-nothing)HC (BAU)HC (Land Use)HC (Traffic Management)HC (Road Dev elopment)HC (MRT)HC (All Scenarios)

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

Ton

SO2 (Do-nothing)SO2 (BAU)SO2 (Land Use)SO2 (Traffic Management)SO2 (Road Development)SO2 (MRT)SO2 (All Scenarios)

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Year

SPMEMISSION

CO2

EMISSION

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

Ton

SPM (Do-nothing)SPM (BAU)SPM (Land Use)SPM (Traffic Management)SPM (Road Development)SPM (MRT)SPM (All Scenarios)

5,000,000

6,000,000

7,000,000

8,000,000

9,000,000

10,000,000

11,000,000

12,000,000

13,000,000

14,000,000

15,000,000

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Year

Ton

CO2 (Do-nothing)CO2 (BAU)CO2 (Land Use)CO2 (Traffic Management)CO2 (Road Development)CO2 (MRT)CO2 (All Scenarios)

Tahun 2000 dari 6 juta ton/tahun total emisi, CO2 menyumbang 90,5% ;

sisanya 9.5% atau sekitar 560 ribu ton/tahun dari emisi lainnya.

Emission by type of vehicles

Gambar 1 Komposisi Sumbangan Emisi Kendaraan di Kota Jakarta

30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

100% Buatan Tahun 1995-1999 Buatan Tahun 1985-1994 Buatan Tahun 1984 ke bawah Sepeda motor

Gambar 2 Komposisi Sumbangan Emisi Kendaraan di Kota Bandung

30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

100% Buatan Tahun 1995-1999 Buatan Tahun 1985-1994 Buatan Tahun 1984 ke bawah Sepeda motor

0% 10% 20%

Jumlah kendaraan Sumbangan emisi 0%

10% 20%

Jumlah kendaraan Sumbangan emisi

• Mobil tua (buatan tahun 1984 ke bawah) bersama-sam a sepeda motor menyumbang emisi 72% di Jakarta dan 90% di Bandung.

• Di Jakarta dengan populasi sepeda motor 52,3%, sumb angan emisinya 57,3%. Bandung sedikit di bawahnya, berkisar 50%.

• Tingginya tingkat emisi sepeda motor diakibatkan po pulasi sepeda motor 2 tak saat ini masih cukup besar.

• Perbandingannya, sepeda motor 2 tak kira-kira memil iki tingkat emisi 3 kali lipat sepeda motor 4 tak.

Conclusions

• The simulation results for Jakarta shows that the MRT provision and land use control options give a higher performance on reducing the system’s travel time, travel distance, fuel consumption and emission

• Road based policy, such as road construction and management, apparently can not reduce the environmental effect of road operation in the both of study areas

• Above all it seems desirable to recommend that effort to reduce trip for road travel were the most effective solution for mitigating the environmental effect of urban road transport system operation. But this policy should be equitable in its implementation.

Proposed ActionIntervention Proposed Action

1. Re-enforce land use control to comply with the DKI Jakarta land use master plan

a. Evaluate the existing land use master plan and prepare a revised version for upto 2010

b. Conduct public hearings on draft regulations for revised

land use under the master plan, through seminars, printed material and electronic media

c. Develop and rationalise urban pricing (land and property tax or incentives) as part of macro economic policy to support and control more sustainable urban system

d. Control new development area so as to function as a self-contained sub center

e. Land improvement should function as mixed-use facilities.

Intervention Proposed Action

2. Prepare a sustainable transport infrastructure blue print

a. Evaluate road network hierarchy and establish a road network master plan

b. Evaluate public transport options, develop a transit oriented development and public transport network master plan consisting of route hierarchy and appropriate fleet size or route hierarchy and appropriate fleet size or capacity

c. Based on 2a & 2b above, prepare new draft regulations on transport infrastructure

d. Conduct public hearings on draft regulation through seminars and media


3. Encourage public transport options

a. Continue the promotion of bus rapid transit (bus way) extension plan as well as priority bus initiatives

b. Based on 2b, develop a more competitive licensing mechanism and subsidy mechanism as well as preparing public transport operation planning

c. Conduct public hearings on public transport operation planning

d. Based on 3b and 3c, eventually reform the existing public d. Based on 3b and 3c, eventually reform the existing public transport operation and route hierarchy as well as fleet or vehicle conversion, such angkot to buses

e. Conduct a study on public transport integrated ticketing system

f. Support the spinning-off of the Jabotabek Railway and link the management with the rest of public transport operators in DKI Jakarta

g. Conduct a study to extend the bus way coverage to reach the east and north DKI Jakarta

Intervention Proposed Action4. Develop a comprehensive Travel Demand Management (TDM) scheme

a. Rationalize parking policy so as to restrict car use and

access to central area.

b. Reinforce and expand the coverage of “three in one” policy.

c. Prepare a study on congestion charging, and use the revenues for public transport service improvement

d. Restrict heavy vehicles access to central area during the

day time - loading and unloading only allowed in the

evening or early morning.

e. Introduce car scrappage policy both for public and private vehicles


5. Improve pedestrian access and facilities

a. Improve elderly and disabled supported facilities and access

b. Increase the provision of safer and more assessable

pedestrian facilities.


6. Improve monitoring, education

a. Widen public involvement in service quality monitoring

and training through the establishment of a hotline or city traffic forum.

b. Upgrade and modernize the Area Traffic Control system.

c. Establish the Council for Jakarta Transport, as independent transport and traffic regulator accountable to the Governor of DKI Jakarta

d. Conduct a pilot project for “traffic discipline area” in some d. Conduct a pilot project for “traffic discipline area” in some main roads, monitored by independent traffic observers, consisting of Dishub, Traffic Police, City Court or Justice unit and civil society

e. Promote and conduct school kids traffic education

f. Develop modules and conduct transport and traffic training for transport administrators, operators as well as public transport drivers.

f. Conduct annual car free day campaign

Transport GeographyChapter 8 – Transportation and the

EnvironmentConcepts

Copyright © 1999-2004, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, 11549 [email protected]@hofstra.eduYou may use the figures within for educational purposes only. No modification or redistribution permitted.For more information: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans

Concept 1

The Emerging Issue of Transport and the Environment

The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs

Mobility CostsParadox

Growing demand

Motorization

Energy (petroleum)

Internal costs (users)

External costs (society)

Environmental impacts

The Environmental System

Atmosphere

Ecosphere

Biosphere

4. ECOSPHERE

4.1 AQUATIC ECOSPHERE

Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways.

Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant

ones.

Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification.

Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species.

Reproductive impediments.

4.2 LAND ECOSPHERE

Damages over the vegetation modifying:hydric cycles.

1. ATMOSPHERELarge scale diffusion of pollutants.

High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of pollutants because

of local conditions (e.g. smog).

Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over ozone,

sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.

Climatic changes (global warming).

Acid rain.

Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. smog and greenhouse

gases).

2. HYDROSPHEREDiffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state.

The Environmental Impacts of Transportation

hydric cycles.

the level of underground water resources.

soil erosion.

air purification capacity of the ecosphere.

food sources (agriculture).

entertainment and tourism.

Reduction of the vital space.

Reduction of the genetic potential of species.

Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain.

Consumption of resources.

4.3 HUMAN ECOSPHERE

Odors.

Noise.

Cardiovascular and respiratory problems.

Susceptibility to infection.

Drops in life expectancy.

Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death.

Damage to structures:loss of useful life. (amortization)

loss of property values.

corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.).

destruction of historical and cultural monuments.

Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state.

Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and underground

water.

Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are particularly

vulnerable).

Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification.

Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium,

magnesium and potassium by runoffs.

Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates.

3. LITHOSPHEREAcid depositions.

Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through

acidification.

Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium.

Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen.

Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient.

Inhibition of decomposition.

Loss of the soil flora and fauna.

Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination.

Removal and consumption of land.

Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy.

Estimated Automobile Costs

32%32%

23%

45% External cost

Internal fixed costs

Internal variable costs

World Automobile Production and Fleet, 1965-2001

400

450

500

550

600

Fle

et (m

illio

ns)

32

34

36

38

40

42

44

Pro

du

ctio

n (m

illio

ns)

100

150

200

250

300

350

196519

6719

6919

7119

7319

7519

7719

7919

8119

8319

8519

8719

8919

9119

9319

9519

9719

9920

01

Fle

et (m

illio

ns)

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

Pro

du

ctio

n (m

illio

ns)

Fleet

Production

Environmental Dimensions of Transportation

Land Use

Other

Infrastructureconstruction

and maintenance

Vehicle and partsmanufacture

Habitat changes

Emissions

Social orecological

effects

Economics

manufacture

Travel

Vehiclemaintenance and

support

Disposal ofvehicles and parts

Ambient levels

Exposure

Health,environmental

or welfareeffects

Causes Activities Outputs End Results

Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment

Infrastructure

Road

Activity Mode Traffic

Vehicle manufacture

Vehicle travel

Vehicle maintenance

Vehicle disposal

Road

Rail

Maritime

Air

Passengers

Freight

Transportation Systems and the Environment

Diffused networkCentralized network

Netw

ork

Localized emissionsEnergy efficient

Diffused emissionsHigh energy use

TrafficLevel of emissionsLevel of energy consumption

Mode

CarBusWalkingRail

Nature of emissionsNature of energy consumption

Netw

ork

TrafficM

od

e

Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects

CO2

Global

Space

Duration

Noise

Lead

Particulates

NOX

Local

Regional

Global

Atmosphere

Respiration and assimilation

Respiration and assimilation

Respiration

Respiration

Emission

The Carbon Cycle

Fossil fuels

Limestone

Animal activities

Decomposition

Human activities

Lithosphere

Ecosphere

Hydrosphere

Transportation

Vegetation

Total costs

The Concept of Externalities

C(E)

Level of intervention

Optimal cost

Intervention costs

Externalities

LL(O)0 L1

C(L1)

C(O)

E(L1)

∆E(L1)

∆C(L1)

Concept 2

Transportation and Energy

Sources of Energy

Chemical• Fossil fuels (Combustion)

Nuclear• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

Chemical• Fossil fuels (Combustion)

Nuclear• Uranium (Fission of atoms)

EnergyEnergy

Non-RenewableNon-Renewable

ChemicalChemicalEnergyEnergy

RenewableRenewable

Chemical• Muscular (Oxidization)

Nuclear• Geothermal (Conversion)• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)

Gravity• Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)

Indirect Solar• Biomass (Photosynthesis)• Wind (Pressure differences)

Direct Solar• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)

Chemical• Muscular (Oxidization)

Nuclear• Geothermal (Conversion)• Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen)

Gravity• Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic)

Indirect Solar• Biomass (Photosynthesis)• Wind (Pressure differences)

Direct Solar• Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)

Energy Content of some Combustibles (in MJ/kg)

Kerosene

Crude Oil

Coal

Wood

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Hydrogen

Gasoline

Natural Gas

Methane

Methanol

Ethanol

Power Generated by Steam Machines, Europe, 1840-1888

4000

5000

6000

7000

Thou

sand

s of ho

rse

pow

er

Rest of Europe

Russia

Austria

Germany

France

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888

Thou

sand

s of ho

rse

pow

er

France

Great Britain

Evolution of Energy Sources

Early 20th Century

Late 20th Century

Mid 21st Century

Animal

Biomass

Coal

Oil

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

15th Century

Mid 19th Century

Early 20th Century Oil

Natural Gas

Nuclear

Hydrogen

Global Energy Systems Transition, (% of market)

100

80

60

Solids Gases

WoodCoal

20001850 21502050 210019501900

60

40

20

0

Liquids

Oil

Natural Gas

Hydrogen

World Fossil Fuel Consumption per Source, 1950-1998 (in million of tons of equivalent oil)

6000

7000

8000

Natural Gas

Oil

Coal

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998

World Energy Consumption, 1990-2020

240

260

280

300

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Quadrillion Btu

Developed Countries

Developing Countries

Energy Consumption in the Transportation Sector, G7 Countries, 1995

70

80

90

100

Transportation Consumption

Other Energy Consumption

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Canada France Germany Italy Japan UK USA

Exa

jou

les

Energy Consumed by the Transportation Sector, United States, 1949-1999 (in billions of BTUs)

25.000.000

30.000.000

Petroleum Consumed by the Transporation Sector

Total Energy Consumed by the Transportation Sector

5.000.000

10.000.000

15.000.000

20.000.000

1949

1952

1955

1958

1961

1964

1967

1970

1973

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

Energy Flows, United States 1999

1

10

Truck

Cargo plane

Bic

ycle

Bus

Train

Car

Helicopter

Propellerplane

Jetplane

Supersonicplane

En

erg

y co

sts

Gaspipeline

Energy Efficiency by Transportation Mode

.1

.01

.00210 30 100 300 1000

Speed (m/sec)

Tanker

Oil

Pip

elin

eB

icyc

le

Train

Freight

Passengers

En

erg

y co

sts

Container ship

Energy Used by the Transportation System

5%

17%Vehicle operation

Vehicle maintenance

Vehicle manufacture

66%4%

1%

7%

Vehicle manufacture

Infrastructure provision

Raw materialmanufacture

Energy generation

Factors of Fuel Use by Transportation

TechnologyVehicle efficiency

Type of fuel

Infrastructureprovision and

Levels of service

EconomicsPrices and incomes

Urban FormDensity and distribution

Fuel Use

Typical Energy Use for a Car

12%

13%

6%

8%

Momentum

Exhaust

Cylinder cooling

32%

29%

Cylinder cooling

Engine friction

Transmission and axles

Braking

World Oil Energy Consumption by Sector, 1973-2000

20,1 57,7 5,9 16,32000Industry

26,2 42,2 6,4 25,2

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1973

Industry

Transport

Non-energy

Other sectors

Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States, 1960-2000 (in

Quadrillion BTUs)

25

30

35

40

0

5

10

15

20

25

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Transportation Industrial Residential and commercial Electric utilities

Energy Consumption by Transportation Mode in the United States, 1960-2000 (in Trillion BTUs)

20000

25000

30000

Pipeline

Water

Rail

Transit

Road

0

5000

10000

15000

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Road

Air

Energy Consumption by Road Transportation in the United States, 1970-2000 (in Trillion BTUs)

14.000

16.000

18.000

20.000

22.000

Bus

Combination Truck

0

2.000

4.000

6.000

8.000

10.000

12.000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Single-Unit 2-Axle 6-Tire orMore Truck

Other 2-Axle 4-Tire Vehicle

Passenger Car &Motorcycle

Energy Intensities of Passenger Modes, 1980-2000

5.000

6.000

Btu

per

pas

sen

ger

-mile

Automobiles

Transit buses

0

1.000

2.000

3.000

4.000

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Btu

per

pas

sen

ger

-mile

Transit buses

Intercity buses

Certified air carriers

Intercity Amtrak

Rail transit

Fuel Consumption and Travel by Certificated Air Carriers in the United States, 1960-2000

800

1200

Mile

s flo

wn

8.000

10.000

12.000

14.000

16.000

Mile

s p

er g

allo

n

0

400

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Mile

s flo

wn

0

2.000

4.000

6.000

8.000

Mile

s p

er g

allo

n

Average Miles Flown Per Aircraft (thousands) Miles per gallon for domestic operations

Miles per gallon for international operations

Average Miles per Gallon Traveled by Road Vehicle in the United States, 1980-2000

Heavy trucks

Average 2000

1990

1980

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Passenger cars

Buses

Light trucks

Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles, United States, 1972-2003 (in miles per gallon)

24

26

28

30

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

Cars

Light Trucks

Average

Light-Duty Vehicles Sales in the United States, 1975-2003 (in 1,000s)

12000

14000

16000

18000Trucks

Cars

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

Change in Average Vehicle Characteristics, 1981-2003 (in %)

Horsepower

Acceleration

0 20 40 60 80 100

Fuel Economy

Weight

Horsepower

Automobile Emission Factors

100

1000

Em

issi

on

s (g

ram

s)

10

15

20

% o

f V

ehic

le-k

m

HC

CO

NOx

1

10

5 10 20 30 35 45 55 60 70 80 85 95 100Speed (in km/hr)

Em

issi

on

s (g

ram

s)

0

5

10

% o

f V

ehic

le-k

m

Total Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption and Travel in the United States, 1960-2000

18

20

22

24

Ave

rag

e M

ilesT

rave

led

per

Gal

lon

650

700

750

800

Ave

rag

e F

uel

Co

nsu

med

per

Veh

icle

(G

allo

ns)

10

12

14

16

18

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Ave

rag

e M

ilesT

rave

led

per

Gal

lon

400

450

500

550

600

Ave

rag

e F

uel

Co

nsu

med

per

Veh

icle

(G

allo

ns)

Average Miles Traveled per Gallon

Average Fuel Consumed per Vehicle (liters)

Cost of Gasoline, United States, 1999

14% Crude Oil

37%

36%

13%Federal and State Taxes

Refining costs andprofits

Distribution, retail &marketing costs andprofits

Gasoline Prices, 1978-2002 Selected Countries (current dollars per gallon)

4

5

Japan

France

0

1

2

3

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

France

United Kingdom

Germany

Canada

United States

China

Gasoline Price and Use, Western Industrial Countries, 1994

1

1,2

1,4

Do

llar

s p

er l

iter

Portugal

R2 = 0,7704

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Liters per person

Do

llar

s p

er l

iter

United States

Canada

AustraliaJapan

Gas Consumption Tax in the United States, 1999 (in $ per mile per gallon per vehicle)

Between 16.5 and 15.5




Less than 12.5

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

More than 22.5







Concept 3

Transportation Pollutants and Environmental Externalities

Contribution of Transportation in the Emission of Major Air Pollutants in Selected Countries, 1980 (%)

Italy

Sweden

United Kingdom

HC

0 20 40 60 80 100

Canada

United States

Australia

France

Germany

ItalyHC

CO

NOx

Particulates

SOx

Emissions of Major Air Pollutants in the US by Transportation (in million short tons), 1970-1998

Particulates (PM-10)

Nitrogen oxides

Lead (in thousand metric tons)

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175

Carbon monoxide

Sulphur oxides

VOC

Particulates (PM-10)

1998

1990

1980

1970

Distance Driven and Carbon Emissions, U.S. Automobile Fleet,

1970-2000

250

300

350

Mill

ion

met

ric

ton

s

3

3,5

4

Carbon Emissions

Distance Driven

0

50

100

150

200

250

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

Mill

ion

met

ric

ton

s

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

Tri

llio

n K

M

120

100

80

90

110

Busy crossroads

Lorry, motorcycle, underground train

Pneumatic drill at 1 meter

Aircraft at take off

dB (A)

Noise Levels (in decibels)

0

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Desert10

Broadcasting studio

Quiet room

Busy street through closed windows

Busy street through open windows

Noise level near a motorway

Busy crossroads

Hazmat Accidents in the United States, 1975-2000

50.000

60.000

Total Accidents

Property Damage (1,000s of $)

0

10.000

20.000

30.000

40.000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Concept 4

Transportation, Land Use and the Environment

Land Area Consumed by the Car in Selected Countries

United Kingdom

SwedenTotal land used by the car per capita

% of total land area used by the car

0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08

United States

Canada

Mexico

Japan

France

Germany

Current and Potential Car Fleet in India and China

640China

8

13

513

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

India

China

Millions

Vehicle Fleet Size for Industrialized Vehicle Ownership Level

Current Size of Vehicle Fleet (1999)

For

m

Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction and the Environmental Impacts of Transportation

Pat

tern

Inte

ract

ions

Transportation Energy Use per Capita in Selected Cities, 1990 (in MJ)

80

60 Los Angeles

United States

Houston

PhoenixDetroitDenver

En

erg

y co

nsu

mp

tio

n p

er c

apit

a (1

,000

mill

ion

s o

f jo

ule

s)

Transport Energy Consumption and Density in Major Metropolitan Areas, 1990

40

20

20 60 30040 80 100

Sydney

LondonSingapore

Australia and Canada

EuropeAsia

Hong Kong

Chicago

AdelaideMelbourne

Toronto

New York

Vienna

ParisBerlin

Tokyo

En

erg

y co

nsu

mp

tio

n p

er c

apit

a (1

,000

mill

ion

s o

f jo

ule

s)

Population density (people per hectare)

Fuel Prices in Indonesia

2002(January)

2003(May)

Increase(January) (May)

In Indonesian Rupiah

In Indonesian Rupiah

Gasoline (Premium)

1550 1810 16.77%

Diesel 1150 1650 43.48%CNG 450 450 00.00%

Documents

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