Role of Biotechnology Compiled Nidhis Mam

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ROLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

IN TEXTILE AND PAPER & PULP INDUSTRIES

BIOTECHNOLOGY IN PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY

The pulp and paper industry is a large and growing portion of the worlds economy. Pulp and paper production has increased gl obally, as

has the rate of paper consumption. In general, the industry is very capital-intensive with small profit margins. This tends to limit

experimentation, development, and incorporation of new technologies into mills. However, the pulp and paper industry is facing increasing

pressure from environmental regulations. To keep up with the increasing demand for pulp and paper and to meet increasingly stringent

environmental regulations, the industry has been constantly looking towards technological improvements. Over the past 20 years, research

efforts in laboratories around the world have sought to apply biotechnology in industrial wood processing. This brief overview summarises

different biotechnological applications of microbes and their enzymes in the pulp and paper industry which have been commercialised or areunder development. It also offers a perspective on future developments.

BIOPULPING- Biopulping is defined as the treatment of lignocellulosic materials with lignin-degrading fungi prior to pulping. It is getting

closer to commercialisation. In the 1970s, Eriksson and co-workers at the Swedish pulp and paper research institute (STFI), Stockholm,

launched a fairly comprehensive investigation that demonstrated that fungal pre-treatment of lignocellulosic materials could result in energy

savings and strength improvements for mechanical pulping. Mechanical pulping involves th e use ofmechanical force to separate wood fibres.

Mechanical processes have high yield (up to 95 per cent) and produce paper with high bulk, good opacity and excellent printability. However,

they are energy intensive (electricity use) and produce paper with relatively low strength and high colour reversion rate (tendency to turnyellow with time). The pulps from several wood species have high pitch content and therefore require ameliorating steps. Although the STFI

research had limited success (it encountered difficulties in scale-up), it provided valuable insights. A more comprehensive evaluation of

biomechanical pulping was launched in 1987 at the US Departent of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service. The consortium has established the

economic feasibility of biopulping at pilot scale in connection with mechanical pulping. The two-week, environmentally friendly process

increases mill throughput by 30 per cent or reduces the electrical energy requirement by at least 30 per cent at unchanged throughput. It alsoimproves paper strength. Investigations at laboratory scale have sorted through the more than 30 variables associated with biopulping,

including species and strains or fungi, inoculums form and amount, species of wood, wood chip size, environmental factors, effect of added

nutrients, need to sterilise the chips, etc. Of several hundred species and strains of white-rot fungi examined to date, Ceriporiopsis

subvermispora was found to be the best for both hardwood and softwood species.

PITCH PROBLEMS-Pitch is the mixture of hydrophobic resinous materials found in many wood species and constitutes some 2-8 per cent

of to al wood weight, depending upon the species and the time of year. It causes a number of problems in pulp and paper manufacture,

including deposits on tile and metal surfaces, plugging of drains, discoloration of the felt, tears and other defects in paper, downtime for

cleaning, etc. Traditional methods of controlling pitch problems include natural seasoning of wood before pulping and/or adsorption and

dispersion of the pitch particles with chemicals in the pulping and papermaking processes, accompanied by adding fine talc, di spersants and

other kinds of chemicals. During the past ten years or so, two biotechnological methods have been developed independently and are now been

used industrially. In the late 1980s, scientists in Japan discovered that the treatment of mechanical (groundwood) pulps with lipases, which

catalyse the hydrolysis of triglycerides, reduces pitch problems significantly. In the ea rly 1990s, Sandoz Chemicals Corporation in the UnitedStates (now Clariant Corporation) introduced a new product for control of pitch in pulpwood chips, called Cartapip. Cartapip is a fungal

inoculum of the ascomycete Ophiostoma piliferum. A water slurry of the fungal spores is sprayed onto wood chips as they are piled prior to

pulping. The fungus invades the wood cells, degrading the pitch. Pitch, inc1uding toxic resin acids, is also metabolised quit e effectively by

lignin-degrading fungi in biopulping, thus offering an additional benefit.

FIBRE IMPROVEMENTS OR MODIFICATIONS- The structure and chemical composition of pulp fibre surfaces are of paramount

importance for paper strength and other properties. Due to the higher yields obtained with mechanical pulps as compared to chemical pulps,

they have attracted growing interest. Sometimes chemical pulps are added to mechanical pulps to impart strength or other properties. With

improvement of mechanical pulp fibre properties, the use of chemical pulps can be reduced or eliminated.Enzymes have been used to improve

physical properties of fibres and might have a commercial role in future. Cellulases can enhance pulp fibrillation and thereby improve paperstrength. They can reduce fibre coarseness and increase paper densi ty and smoothness. However, they reduce viscosity and must be used with

care. Xylanase preparations have also been reported to improve pulp fibrillation and fibre bonding. With recycled fibres, there is growing

concern about the rate of water drainage on the paper machine. The speed of paper machine operation depends in part on the drainage rateofwater out of the pulp mat. Drainage rates tend to be lower for recycled fibres than for virgin fibres so that there is a decrease in the paper

machine production rate as recycled fibre content increases. It has been discovered that cellulases and hemicellulases can improve the drainage

rates of recycled fibres. Pilot and mill-scale testing has led to the commercial use of these enzymes as drainage aids. In the future, other

enzyme-based processes could lead to cleaner and more efficient pulp and paper processing. Starch-modifying enzymes are sometimes used to

improve paper quality. Enzymatic modification of starches is a cleaner process than chemical (oxidative) modification, as less energy is used

and less waste is produced. Enzymetically modified starches at the wet end (size press) are applied in about 10 per cent of paper production.

DEINKING-Traditional deinking processes use NaOH, NaSO3, silicates and hydrogen peroxide for deinking oil-based printing materials

such as newspapers and magazines. However, with the growing use of coating and new types of inks containing synthetic polymers in laser

and xerographic printing, conventional deinking methods are inadequate for producing high-quality pulps. Recycling mills are therefore

increasingly dependent upon mechanical devices to break down the larger non- ink particles to allow for removal by floatation or washing.

Enzymatic techniques that allow for deinking of all kinds of recycled papers have recently been developed and commercialised.Cellulase acts

on cellulose of wood fibres and facilitates the loosening of ink from fibre thus reducing the need of chemicals .

BLEACHING OF KRAFT PULPS- The kraft process accounts for most of the worlds pulp production. Kraft pulping degrades and removes

most of the lignin, without severely damaging the cellulose. Kraft pulps have a characteristic brown colour, which must be removed by

bleaching before the manufacture of printing and writing or other products in which appearance is important. Kraft bleach plants use a variety

of chemicals and treatment sequences to convert brown kraft pulp to white pulp. Traditionally, chlorination has been used, but because of

consumer resistance and environmental regulations on chlorine bleaching, pulpmakers are turning to other bleaching chemicals (chlorine

dioxide, oxygen, ozone, and peroxide), to extended pulping times (thereby lowering the pulp lignin content and decreasing bleaching chemical


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requirements), and to other process modifications. However, disadvantages associated with some of these methods are higher cost and/or

greater danger of loss of pulp yield and strength as compared with chlorination. The essence of the process is a new enzyme better suited to

the temperatures and pH found in pulp processing. The cost of the process is said to be the same as the conventional chlorine-intensive

method. This is an example of the continuous improvement that characterises many biotechnological processes.

Studies conducted in Finland show that hemicellulases (mainly xylanases) enhance pulp bleaching. These enzymes are now being usedcommercially in Scandinavia, Canada, the United States, and Chile. The treatment of kraft pulps with xylanases leads to sig nificant reduction

in chemical consumption with almost no loss in pulp yield or quality. Biobleaching of acid bisulphite pulp with xylanases has also shown

promise, with chemical savings of up to 51 per cent. Research is now being directed towards the discovery or engineering of enzymes that are

more robust with respect to pH and temperature.

Ligninases such as manganese-dependent peroxidase and laccases have also shown potential in pulp bleaching, but have not been used

commercially. Both of these enzymes can achieve more substantial delignifying action than xylanase, but there are obstacles to be overcomebefore either enzyme can be used cost-effectively. There is currently no large-scale commercial source for either enzyme, so costs remain to

be established. Current efforts have been to produce these enzyme cheaply enough so that the technology can become economically attractive.Also, genetic engineering of a fungus to produce a desired mixture of enzymes and their cosubstrate in situ may become more cost-effective

than producing and applying the enzymes in separate steps.

REDUCTION OF ORGANOCHLORINE COMPOUNDS IN BLEACH PLANT EFFLUENTS-Organochlorines have been a matter of

concern in the pulp and paper industry for the last two decades. These compounds are produced mainly by the reactions between residual

lignin present in wood fibres and the chlorine and chlorine derivatives used for bleaching. Some of these compounds are toxic, mutagenic, and

persistent; bioaccumulation causes harm to biological systems. Earlier measures taken by the pulp and paper industry to solve the chlorine

problem focused on improving effluent treatment methods. Many physico-chemical methods have been used to treat bleach plant effluents,

including precipitation with lime, alum and metal ions, and synthetic polymeric coagulants; adsorption on activated carbon, natural clays andpolymeric adsorbents; membrane techniques; rapid filtration in soil; UV irradiation; and oxidation using oxygen, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen

peroxide and sodium hypochlorite. The problems underlying the physico-chemical treatments are those associated with cost and reliability.Today, R&D in this area has shifted towards improving the pulping process to decrease production of undesirable by-products.

Biotechnological methods have the potential to eliminate or reduce the problems associated with physico-chemical methods. Biological

treatments with bacteria or fungi are known to be effective in reducing the biological oxygen demand (BOD), the chemical oxygen demand

(COD), and the toxicity of kraft pulp mills. Some enzymes also seem to have the potential to remove colour and adsorbable organic halogens

from pulp and paper mill effluents. Peroxidase, laccase, etc., are the most important of these. Many factors have to b e considered in choosing

an effective and commercial bleaching/treatment process that meets all the environmental guidelines. These processes are not used

commercially. The most widely practised of the earlier biotechnologies are waste treatment processes. These are based in large part on the

degradative activities of mixtures of aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms, primarily bacteria. At present, cleaner production is largely

achieved by process-integrated water treatment using biologically treated process water from the same production plant. Some 10-20 per centof European paper producers reuse treated water in this way, so that there is zero discharge of wastewater. In the United States and Japan, a

much smaller number of paper manufacturers use treated wastewater.

REFINING OF THERMO MECHANICAL PULP (TMP) Refining is a mechanical process in which wood chips are separated to freefibres. The process used large amount of electricity . The enzyme cellulase acts on cellolose in wood fibres and softens wood chips to

minimize refining time and electricity required.

BIOFILM PROBLEMS-Biofilms (slimes) in pulp and paper mills are a serious problem. They clog wires, pipes, and drains and contaminate

the product itself, sometimes to the point of discoloration. They are controlled primarily through the use of biocides, some of which can be

toxic to humans and other life forms. A significant amount of research has gone into finding environmentally benign control methods. Because

the biofilms are comprised of bacteria and fungi embedded in a matrix of extracellular polysaccharides, enzymes that hydrolyse the polymershave been studied. There is at least one commercial enzyme product, ED -l, a levulanase used by paper mills in the United States,

Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, and Japan. Another promising method of controlling biofilms is the introduction of non -film-forming

microbes that outcompete the biofilm formers for substrates. It is likely that a combination of enzymes, friendly microbes, and dispersants will

ultimately be used to lower or eliminate the use of biocides in pulp and paper mills.


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Fig 1. Paper making

process in pulp and paper industryFig 2. Table showing main characteristics of enzymes applied in various processes

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN TEXTILE INDUSTRY

INTRODUCTION

Retting of flax was the first biotechnological application in textile processing. More than 2000 years ago, micro-organisms grown on flax

were used to achieve partial decortication in the extraction of linen fibres from flax stems. Amylases were the only enzymes applied in textile

processing until the 1980s. These enzymes are still used to remove starch-based sizes from fabrics after weaving.

Research on enzymatic applications in textile processing dates back to the beginning of the last century. During this period, the

potential of proteolytic enzymes was assessed for the removal of wool-fibre-scales resulting in improved anti-felting behaviour. Despite the

fact that investigations in this area are still on going, an industrial process has not yet been achieved. This is largely attributed to the

heterogeneous nature of textile fibres and the unacceptable fibre strength losses incurred. With the advent of biological detergents

in the 1960s, proteases made their way into detergent formulations specifically to remove organic protein-based stains (e.g. from egg, blood)

from textile garments. Later in the 1970s, cellulases were found to add detergency during fabric washing and to remove fibrillation in multiple

washes. Today, cellulases are included in many washing powders. Cellulases have also been employed to enzymatically remove fibrils andfuzz fibres and have also successfully been introduced to the cotton textile industry and later for lyocell processes. Further applications have

been found for these enzymes to produce the aged look of denim and other garments.

In May 2000, the First International Symposium on Biotechnology in the Textile Industry was held in Portugal and was attended by more than

150 participants from all over the world. The presentations given at this forum by scientists and delegates from industry reflected the

enormous potential of Biotechnology in the textile fiel . Advances in biotechnology have made it possible to tailor special enzyme mixtures

for specific applications. For example, amylases have been developed for desizing processes running at 100 C while cellulasemonocomponents were identified to be superior to the native enzymes in several textile applications. Besides hydrolytic enzymes such as

cellulases, amylases, pectinases (bioscouring) and proteases (wool finishing), other enzyme activities including oxidoreductases have been

realised as powerful tools in various textile-processing steps. Several studies dealing with cellulases are presented in this special issue. By

focusing on process development and the control of enzymatic fibre hydrolysis this research strives to find a balance between the beneficial

effects of enzyme treatments and the potential strength losses. A number of investigations have dedicated their efforts to the phenomenon

known as back staining, experienced during bio-stoning and bio-finishing of both cotton and linen fabrics. Other authors took the great

challenge to elucidate the degradation mechanism of the natural substrates of cellulases. The effect of endoglucanases and cellobiohydrolases

from different sources were used for these investigations together with components of these enzymes.The results of these contributions

combined with information about the molecular architecture and specificities on soluble substrate of cellulases from different families will

improve our understanding of the functioning of this interesting class of enzymes. Although fibres from cotton were the main target substrates

for enzymatic modifications introduced in the last few years, enzymes also seem to have a potential for the improvement of fibres/fabrics from

other sources such as flax and wool. Two interesting contributions show how enzymes can be used both in flax processing and analysis.Besides enzymes, the biopolymer chitosan can be used to improve the properties of wool.

Biotechnological processes for the treatment of textile effluents can be grouped into two areas, microbial systems and enzymes. In

microbial effluent treatment, a combination of anaerobic and aerobic steps seems to be beneficial in achieving sufficient detoxification. New

more efficient treatment processes and their integration into textile finishing are discussed in several of the following papers. Ligninolytic

enzymes such as laccases, lignin peroxidases and manganese peroxidases have been shown to decolourise textile dyes involving eitherpolymerisation or degradation of dyes. The mechanisms of decolorisation and detoxification have been described for several dyes, including

azo compounds. However, although some azo dyes were degraded with concomitan conversion of the azo group into molecular nitrogen


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(harmless), these enzymes did not attack some dyes at all. It appears that the redox potential rather than steric effects seem to determine the

degradation velocity. Another interesting application of enzymes for textile effluent treatment involves the use of catalases for the conversion

of hydrogen peroxide present in bleaching effluents to oxygen and water. Both this process and enzymatic treatment of dyeing effluents havebeen shown to enable recycling of the process waters, especially when immobilised enzymes had been used.

Industrial Processes in the Textile Industry-The textile industry is comprised of a diverse, fragmented group of establishments thatproduce andor process textile-related products (fiber, yarn, fabric) for further processing into apparel, home furnishings, and industrial goods.

Textile establishments receive and prepare fibers; transform fibers into yam, thread, or webbing; convert the yarn into fabric or relatedproducts; and dye and fmish these materials at various stages ofproduction. The process of converting raw fibers into fineshed the apparel and

nonapparel textile products is complex; thus, most textile mills specialize. Little overlap occurs between hitting and weaving, or among

production of manmade, cotton, and wool fabrics. The primary focus ofthis section is on weaving and knitting operations, with a brief

mention of processes used to make carpets. In its broadest sense, the textile industry includes the production of yam, fabric, and finish goods.

This section focuses on the following four production stages, with a brief discussion of the fabrication of non-apparel goods:

1.yarn formation 2. fabric formation 3. wet processing 4. .fabrication

Yarn Formation

Textile fibers are converted into yam by grouping and twisting operations used to bind them together. Although most textile fibers are

processed using spinning operations, the processes leading to spinning vary depending on whether the fibers are natural or manmade. Figure

shows the different steps used to form yarn. Note that some of these steps may be optional depending on the type of yarn and spinningequipment used. Natural fibers, known as staple when harvested, include animal and plant fibers, such as cotton and wool. These fibers must

go through a series of preparation steps before they can be spun into yarn, including opening, blending, carding, combing, and drafting.Manmade fibers may be processed into filament yarn or staple-length fibers (similar in length to natural fibers) so that they can be spun.

Filament yarn may be used directly or following further shaping and texturizing. The main steps used for processing natural and manmade

fibers into yam are below.

Flowchart of yarn formation process

Opening/Blending. Opening of bales sometimes occurs in conjunction with the blending of fibers. Suppliers deliver natural fibers to the

spinning mill in compressed bales. The fibers must be sorted based on grade, cleaned to remove particles of dirt, twigs, and leaves, andblended with fibers from different bales to improve the consistency of the fiber mix. Sorting and cleaning is performed in machines known as

openers. The opener consists of a rotating cylinder equipped with spiked teeth or a set of toothed bars. These teeth pull the unbaled fibers

apart, fluffing them while loosening impurities. Because the feed for the opener comes from multiple bales, the opener blends the fibers as it

cleans and opens them.

Carding. Tufts of fiber are conveyed by air stream to a carding machine, which transports the fibers over a belt equipped with wire needles. Aseries of rotating brushes rests on top of the belt. The different rotation speeds of the belt and the brushes cause the fibers to tease out and

align into thin, parallel sheets. Many shorter fibers, which would weaken the yarn, are separated out and removed. A further objective of

carding is to better align the fibers to prepare them for spinning. The sheet of carded fibers is removed through a funnel into a loose ropelike

strand called a sliver. Opening, blending, and carding are sometimes performed in integrated carders that accept raw fiber and output carded

sliver.


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.

Combing. Combing is similar to carding except that the brushes and needles are finer and more closely spaced. Several card slivers are fed to

the combing machine and removed as a finer, cleaner, and more aligned comb sliver. In the wool system, combed sliver is used to make

worsted yam, whereas carded sliver is used for woolen yam. In the cotton system, the term combed cotton applies to the yam made from

combed sliver. Worsted wool and combed cotton yarns are finer (smaller) than yam that has not been combed because of the higher degree of

fiber alignment and fiuther removal of short fibers.

Drawing. Several slivers are combined into a continuous, ropelike strand and fed to a machine known as a drawing frame (Wingate, 1979).

The drawing frame contains several sets of rollers that rotate at successively faster speeds. As the slivers pass through, they are further drawnout and lengthened, to the point where they may be five to six times as long as they were originally. During drawing, slivers from different

types of fibers (e.g., cotton and polyester) may be combined to form blends. Once a sliver has been drawn, it is termed a roving.

Drafring. Drafting is a process that uses a frame to stretch the yam further. This process imparts a slight twist as it removes the yam and

winds it onto a rotating spindle. The yarn, now termed a roving in ring spinning operations, is made up ofa loose assemblage of fibers drawninto a single strand and is about eight times the length and one-eighth the diameter of the sliver, or approximately as wide as a pencil

(Wingate, 1979). Following drafting, the rovings may be blended with other fibers before being processed into woven, knitted, or nonwoven

textiles.

Spinning. 'The fibers are now spun together into either spun yams orfilament yams. Filament yams are made from continuous the strands of

manmade fiber (e.g. not staple length fibers). Spun yarns are composed of overlapping staple length fibers that are bound together by twist.Methods used to produce spun yams, rather than filament yams, are discussed in this section. The rovings produced in the drafting step are

mounted onto the spinning frame, where they are set for spinning. The yarn is first fed through another set of drawing or delivery rollers,

which lengthen and stretch it still further. It is then fed onto a high-speed spindle by a yarn guide that travels up and down the spindle. The

difference in speed of travel between the guide and the spindle determines the amountof twist imparted to the yarn. .The yarn is collected on a

bobbin. Manmade fibers include 1) cellulosic fibers, such as rayon and acetate, which are created by reacting chemicals with woodpulp; and 2) synthetic fibers, such as polyester and nylon, which are synthesized from organic chemicals. Since manmade fibers are

synthesized From organic chemicals, yam formation of manmade fibers does not involve the extensive cleaning and combing procedures

associated with natural fibers. Manmade fibers, both synthetic and cellulosic, are manufactured using spinning processes that simulate or

resemble the manufacture of silk. Spinning, in terms of manmade fiber production, is the process of forming fibers by forcing a liquid through

a small opening beyond which the extruded liquid solidifies to form a continuous filament. Following spinning, the manmade fibers are

drawn, or stretched, to align the polymer molecules and strengthen the filament. Manmade filaments may then be texturized or otherwisetreated to simulate physical characteristics of spun natural fibers. Texturizing is often used to curl or crimp straight rod-like filament fibers to

simulate the appearance, structure, and feel of natural fibers.

Fabric Formation

The major methods for fabric manufacture are weaving and knitting. Figure shows fabric formation processes for flat fabrics, such as sheets

and apparel. Weaving, or interlacing yarns, is the most common process used to create fabrics. Weaving mills classified as broad woven millsconsume the largest portion of textile fiber and produce the raw textile material from which most textile products are made. Narrow wovens,

nonwovens, and rope are also produced primarily for use in industrial applications. Narrow wovens include fabrics less than 12 inches in

width, and nonwovens include fabrics bonded by mechanical, chemical, or other means. Knitting is the second most frequently used method

of fabric construction. The popularity of knitting has increased in use due to the increased versatility of techniques, the adaptability of

manmade fibers, and the growth in consumer demand for wrinkle-resistant, stretchable, snug-fitting fabrics.

Weaving

Weaving is performed on modern looms, which contain similar parts and perform similar operations to simple hand-operated looms. Fabricsare formed from weaving by interlacing one set of yarns with another set oriented crosswise. Satin, plain, and twill weaves are the most

commonly used weave patterns. In the weaving operation, the length-wise yarns that form the basic structure of the fabric are called the warp

and thecrosswise yarns are called the filling, also referred to as the weft. While the filling yarns undergo little strain in the weaving process,

warp yarns undergo much strain during weaving and must be processed to prepare them to withstand the strain Before weaving, warp yarns

are frst wound on large spools, or cones, which are placed on a rack called a creel. The warp yarns are then unwound and pass ed through a sue

solution (sizingklashing) before being wound onto a warp beam in a process known as beaming. The size solution forms a coating that

protects the yarn against snagging or abrasion during weaving.


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Knitting

Knitted fabrics may be constructed by using hooked needles to interlock one or more sets of yams through a set of loops. The loops may beeither loosely or closely constructed, depending on the purpose of the fabric. Knitted fabrics can be used for hosiery, underwear, sweaters,

slacks, suits, coats, rugs, and other home furnishings. Knitting is performed using either weft or warp processes. In weft (or filling) hitting,

one yam is carried back and forth and under needles to form a fabric. Yams run horizontally in the fabric, and connections between loops are

horizontal. In warp knitting, a warp beam is set into the knitting machine. Yarns are interlocked to form the fabric, and the yarns runvertically

while the connections are on the diagonal. Several'different types of machinery are used in both weft and warp knitting.

Weft kni tting. Weft knitting uses one continuous yam to form courses, or rows of loops, across a fabric. There are three fundamental stitches

in weft knitting: plain-knit, purl, and rib. On a machine, the individual yam is fed to one or more needles at a time. Weft knitting machines can

produce both flat and circular fabric. Circular machines produce mainly yardage but may also produce sweater bodies, pantyhose, and socks.Flatbed machines knit full garments and operate at much slower speeds. The simplest, most common filing knit fabric is single jersey. Doubleknits are made on machines with two sets of needles. All hosiery is produced as a filling knit process.

Warp Knitting. Warp knitting represents the fastest method of producing fabric from yarns. Warp knitting differs from weft knitting in that

each needle loops its own thread. The needles produce parallel rows of loops simultaneously that are interlocked in a zigzag pattern. Fabric is

produced in sheet or flat form using one or more sets ofwarp yams.

Wet processing- Woven and knit fabrics cannot be processed into apparel and other finished goods until the fabrics have passed through

several water-intensive wet processing stages. Wet processing enhances the appearance, durability, and serviceability of fabrics by converting

undyed and unfinished goods, known as gray or greige (pronounced gri[zh]) goods, into finished consumers goods. Also collectively known

as fmishing, wet processing has been broken down into four stages in this section for simplification: fabric preparation, dyeing, printing, and

finishing. These stages, shown in Figure involve treating gray goods with chemical baths and often require additional washing, rinsing, and

drying steps. Note that some of these steps may be optional depending on the style of fabric being manufactured.

Typical wet processing steps for fabric

Fabric Preparation- Most fabric that is dyed, printed, or finished must be prepared, with the exception of denim and certain knit styles.

Preparation, also known as pretreatment, consists of a series of various treatment and rinsing steps critical to obtaining good results in

subsequent textile finishing processes. . In preparation, the mill removes natural impurities or processing chemicals that interfere with dyeing,


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printing, and finishing. Typical preparation treatments include desizing, scouring, and bleaching. Preparation steps can also include processes,

such as singeing and mercerizing, designed to chemically or physically alter the fabric. For instance, the mercerizing stage chemically treats

the fabric to increase fiber strength and dye affinity, or ability to pick up dyes. This, in turn, increases the longevity of fabric finishes appliedduring finshing. Many ofthe pollutants from preparation result from the removal of previously applied processing chemicals and agricultural

residues. , These chemical residues can be passed on to subsequent stages with improper preparation.

Singeing. If a fabric is to have a smooth finish , singeing is essential. Singeing is a dry process used on woven goods that removes fibers

protruding from yarns or fabrics. These are burned off by passing the fibers over a flame or heated copperplates. Singeing improves the

surface appearance of woven goods and reduces pilling. It is especially useful for fabrics that are to be printed or where a smooth finish isdesired. Pollutant outputs associated with singeing include relatively small amounts of exhaust gases from the burners.

Desizing. Desizing is an important preparation step used to remove size materials applied prior to weaving. Manmade fibers are generally

sized with water-soluble sizes that are easily removed by a hot-water wash or in the scouring process. Natural fibers such as cotton are most

often sized with water-insoluble starches or mixtures of starch and other materials. Enzymes are used to break these starches into water-

soluble sugars, which are then removed by washing before the cloth is scoured. Removing starches before scouring is necessary because theycan react and cause color changes when exposed to sodium hydroxide in scouring.

Scouring. Scouring is a cleaning process that removes impurities from fibers, yarns, or cloth through washing. Alkaline solutions are typically

used for scouring; however, in some cases solvent solutions may also be used. Scouring uses alkali, typically sodium hydroxide, to break

down natural oils and surfactants and to emulsify and suspend remaining impurities in the scouring bath. The specific scouring procedures,chemicals, temperature, and time vary with the type of fiber, yarn, and cloth construction. Impurities may include lubricants, dirt and other

natural materials, water-soluble sizes, antistatic agents, and residual tints used for yarn identification. Typically, scouring wastes contribute a

large portion of biological oxygen demand (BOD) loads from preparation processes.

Bleaching. Bleaching is a chemical process that eliminates unwanted colored matter from fibers, yams, or cloth. Bleaching decolorizescolored impurities that are not removed by scouring and prepares the cloth for further finshing processes such as dyeing or printing. Several

different types of chemicals are used as bleaching agents, and selection depends on the type of fiber present in the yam, cloth, or finished

product and the subsequent finishing that the product will receive. The most common bleaching agents include hydrogen peroxide, sodium

hypochlorite, sodium chlorite, and sulfur dioxide gas. Hydrogen peroxide is by far the most commonly used bleaching agent for cotton and

cotton blends, accounting for over 90 percent of the bleach used in textile operations, and is typically used with caustic solutions.

The bleaching process involves several steps: 1)The cloth is saturated with the bleaching agent, activator, stabilizer,

and other necessary chemicals; 2) the temperature is raised to the recommended level for that particular fiber or blend and held for

the amount of time needed to complete the bleaching action; and 3) the cloth is thoroughly washed and dried.

Mercerizing. Mercerization is a continuous chemical process used for cotton and cotton polyester goods to increase dyeability, luster, and

appearance. This process, which is carried out at room temperature, causes the flat, twisted ribbon-like cotton fiber to swell into a round shape

and to contract in length. Thiscauses the fiber to become more lustrous than the original fiber, increase in strength by as much as 20 percent,

and increase its affinity for dyes.Dyeing

Dyeing operations are used at various stages of production to add color and intricacy to textiles and increase product value. Most dyeing is

performed either by the finshing division of vertically integrated textile companies, or by specialty dyehouses. Specialty dyehouses operate

either on a commission basis or purchase greige goods and finish them before selling them to apparel and other product manufacturers.

Textiles are dyed using a wide range of dyestuffs, techniques, and equipment. Dyes used by the textile industry are largely synthetic; typicallyderived from coal tar and petroleum-based intermediates. Dyes are sold as powders, granules, pastes, and liquid dispersions, with

concentrations of active ingredients ranging typically from 20 to 80 percent.

Printing

Fabrics are often printed with color and patterns using a variety of techniques and machine types. Of the numerous printing techniques, the

most common is rotary screen. However, other methods, such as direct, discharge, resist, flat screen (semicontinuous), and roller printing are

often used commercially. Pigments are used for about 75 to 85percent ofall printing operations, do not require washing steps, and generatelittle waste (Snowden-Swan, 1995). Compared to dyes, pigments are typically insoluble and have no affinity for the fibers. Resin binders are

typically used to attach pigments to substrates. Solvents are used as vehicles for transporting the pigment and resin mixture to the substrate.The solvents then evaporate leaving a hard opaque coating.

Finishing

Finishing encompasses chemical or mechanical treatments performed on fiber, yam, or fabric to improve appearance, texture, or performance.Mechanical finishes can involve brushing, ironing or other physical treatments used to increase the luster and feel of textiles. Application of

chemical finishes to textiles can impart a variety of properties ranging from decreasing static cling to increasing flame resistance. The most

common chemical finishes are those that ease fabric care, such as the permanent-press, soil-release, and stain resistant finishes. Chemical

finishes are usually followed by drying, curing, and cooling steps. Application of chemical finish are often done in conjunction with

mechanical finishing steps .Selected mechanical and chemical finishing techniques are described below.

Mechanical Treatments

Hearsetting. Heatsetting is a dry process used to stabilize and impart textural properties to synthetic fabrics and fabrics containing high

concentrations of synthetics. When manmade fibers are heatset, the cloth maintains its shape and size in subsequent finishing operations and is

- stabilized in the form in which it is held during heat setting (e.g., smooth, creased, uneven). Textural properties may include interesting anddurable surface effects such as pleating, creasing, puckering, and embossing. Heatsetting can also give cloth resistance to wrinkling during

wear and ease-of-care properties attributed to improvements in resiliency and in elasticity. Pollution outputs may include volatile componentsof spin finishes if heatsetting is performed before scouring and bleaching processes. These components are introduced to the fabrics during the

manufacture of synthetic fibers, when proprietary spin finish are applied to provide lubrication and impart special properties, such as

antistatic, to

the fiber.


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Brushing and napping.Brushing and napping decrease the luster of fabrics by roughening or raising the fiber surface and change the feel or

texture of the fabric (ATMI, 19971.). These processes involve the use of wires or brushes that pull individual fibers.

Softening.Calendering, or ironing, can be used to reduce surface friction between individual fibers, thereby softening the fabric structure and

increasing its sheen. In calendering, the fabric passes through two or more rolls. Typically, one roll is made of chilled steel, while the other is

made of a softer material like cotton fihers. The steel roll may also be heated using gas or steam. Once goods pass through the machine they

are wound up at the back of the machine.

Opticalfinishing.Luster can be added to yarns by flattening or smoothing the surfaces under pressure. This can be achieved by beating the

fabric surface or passing the fabric between calendering rolls. The luster can be further increased if the rolls are scribed with closely spaced

lines.

Shearing.Shearing is a process that removes surface fibers bypassing the fabric over a cutting blade.Compacting. Compacting, which includes the Sanforizing process, compresses the fabric structure to reduce stresses in the fabric. The

Sanforizing process reduces residual shrinkage of fabrics after repeated laundering (Wingate, 1979). The fabric and backing blanket are fedbetween a roller and a curved braking shoe, with the blanket under tension. The tension on the blanket is released after the fabric and blanket

pass the braking shoe. Compacting reduces the potential for excessive shrinkage during laundering.

Chemical Treatments

Opticalfinishes.Optical fmishes added to either brighten or deluster the textile.

Absorbent and soil release fini shes.These finishes that alter surface tension and other properties to increase water absorbency or improve soil

release.

Softeners and abrasion-resistant f in ishes. ofteners and abrasion-resistant finishes are added to improve feel or to increase the ability of the

textile to resist abrasion and tearing.

Application of biotechnology in textile industry Fibre Preparation in textiles

Linen is a cellulosic fibre obtained from the flax plant. These fibres are formed in the cortex between the lignified core and the outer layers of

the stem, they are separated from the stems by retting, in which matrix components, mainly pectin and lignin are removed and the fibres areseparated. Recently, considerable efforts have been put to use enzymes in the retting process to control the process to produce linen fibres of

consistent quality. Pre-treatment of the flax with sulphur dioxide gas brings about sufficient breakdown of the woody straw material to speed

up enzyme retting whilst preventing excessive bacterial or fungal deterioration of the fibre.

The carbonization process in which vegetable matter in wool is degraded by treatment with strong acid and then subjected to mechanical

crushing can, in principle, be replaced by selective enzyme degradation of the impurities.

Fabric PreparationDesizing using amylase enzymes has been well established for many years. However, there is still considerable scope for improving the speed,

economics and consistency of the process, including the development of more temperature stable enzymes as well as a better understanding of

how to characterize their activity and performance with respect to different fabrics, sizes, and processing conditions, e.g. for pad batch as

opposed to jigger desizing.The current application in the textile industry involves mainly hydrolases and now to some extent is Oxidoreductase. The Tables 1 and 2

exemplify such textile applications.

Table 1: Application of Hydrolase Enzyme in Fabric Preparation

S.No Enzyme

Name

Substrate Textile Application

1 Amylase Starch Starch desizing

2 Cellulase Cellulose 1. Stone wash-Bio-polishing

(Bio-singeing)

2. Bio finishing for handle

modification3. Carbonization of wool

3 Pectinase Pectin Bio scour replacing caustic

4 Catalase Peroxides In situ peroxide decomposition

without any rinse in bleach bath

5 Lipases Fats and oils Improve hydrophilicity of PET in

place of alkaline hydrolysis

Table 2: Application of Oxidoreductase in Fabric Preparation

S.No Enzyme Name Substrate Textile Application

1 Laccase Colour Chormophore and

pigments

1.Discoloration of

coloured

Chromophore effluent

2. Bio-bleaching of lignincontaining and pigments

fibres like kenaf and jute

3. Bio-bleaching ofindigo in

denim for various effects

2 Peroxidases Colour

Chromophore & pigment

Bio-bleaching of wood

pulp


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An already established application is the use of catalase enzymes to breakdown residual hydrogen peroxide after, for example, pre bleach of

cotton that is to be dyed a pale or medium shade. Reactive dyes are especially sensitive to peroxide and currently require extended rinsingand/or use of chemical scavengers. The enzyme catalase is added after oxidative

bleaching and allowed to react for 15 minutes at 30 C- 40 C. It degrades the residual peroxide in water and oxygen. The results obtained

were compared with the conventional

process and it was found that the outcome of the enzymatic process was excellent. The best suitable conditions are the temperature range of

20 C- 60 C, pH 5-10 and the application time is 10 min to 15 min.

Finishing

Bio-stoning and the closely related process of bio-polishing are perhaps attracting most current attention in the area of enzyme processing.

They are also an excellent illustration of how different industry structural and market considerations can affect the uptake of enzyme

technology.

Conventional stone washing uses abrasive pumice stones in a tumbling machine to abrade and remove particles of indigo dyestuff from the

surfaces of denim yarns and fabric. Cellulase enzymes can also cut through cotton fibres and achieve much the same effect without the

damaging abrasion of the stones on both garment and machine. Disadvantages can include degradation of the fabric and loss of strength aswell as 'back staining'. A slight reddening of the original indigo shade can also occur. Now processors are learning to play more sophisticated

tunes such as achieving a peach skin finish by use of a combination

of stones and natural cellulase. Bio-polishing employs basically the same cellulose action to remove fine surface fuzz and fibrils from cotton

and viscose fabrics. The polishing action thus achieved helps to eliminate pilling and provides better print definition, colour brightness,

surface texture, drapeability, and softness without any loss of absorbency.

Bio-polishing can be used to clean up the fabric surface after the primary fibrillation of a peach skin treatment and prior to a secondary

fibrillation process which imparts interesting fabric aesthetics. A weight loss in the base fabric of some 3-5% is typical but reduction

in fabric strength can be controlled to within 2-7% by terminating the treatment after about 30-40 min using a high temperature or low pH

'enzyme stop'. One area that still poses problems is that of tubular cotton finishing. Here, the fibre residues tend to be tr apped inside

the fabric rather than washed away.

Wool Processing ApplicationsThe international wool secretariat (IWS) together with, Novo, been developing the use of protease enzymes for a range of wool finishing

treatments aimed at increased comfort (reduced prickle, greater softness) as well as improved surface appearance and pilling performance. The

basic mechanisms are found closely parallel to those of bio-polishing.

The improved enzyme treatments will allow more selective removal of parts of the wool cuticle, there by modifying the luster, handle and

felting characteristics without degradation or weakening of the wool fibre as a whole and without the need for environmentally damaging pre-chlorination treatment.

Other Protease ApplicationsProtease enzymes similar to those being developed for wool processing are already being used for the degumming of silk and for producing

sand washed effects on silk garments. Treatment of Silk-Cellulosic blend is claimed to produce some unique effects. Proteases are also being

used to wash down printing screens after use in order to remove the proteinaceous gums, which are used for thickening of printing pastes.

Textile After-careEnzymes have been widely used in domestic laundering detergents since the 1960s. Some of the major classes of enzymes and their

effectiveness against common stains are summarized in Table 3

Table 3: Types Of Enzymes and Their Effectiveness Against Various Stains

Enzymes Effective For

Proteases

Lipases

Amylasescelluloses

Grass, Blood, Egg, Sweat stains

Lipstick, Butter, Salad oil, Sauces

Spaghetti, Custard, ChocolateColour brightening, Softening, Soil removal

Early problems of allergic reactions to some of these enzymes have now largely been overcome by the use of advanced granulation

technology. Modern enzyme systems have reduced the use of sodium perborate in detergents by 25% along with the release of harmful salts

into the environment.

However, enzymes still have to make a corresponding impact upon the commercial laundering market. One of the problems here has been thelevel of investment in 'continuous-batch' or tunnel washers. These typically afford a residence time of 6-12 min which is not long enough for

present enzyme systems to perform adequately. More efficient methods

of 'enzyme kill' are also required because of the extent of water recycling in modern washers.

Role In Waste TreatmentNatural and enhanced microbial process has been used to treat waste materials and effluent

streams from the textile industry. Conventional activated sludge and other systems are generally well able to meet BOD and related discharge

limits on most cases. The industry faces some specific problems like colour removal from dyestuff effluent and handling of toxic wastes

including PCPs and heavy metals. The synthetic dyes are designed in such a way that they become resistant to microbial degradation under the

aerobic conditions. Also,

the water solubility and the high molecular weight inhibit the permeation through biological cell membranes. Anaerobic processes convert the

organic contaminants principally into methane and carbon dioxide and usually occupy less space, treat wastes containing up to 30 000 mg/l of

COD, have lower running costs and produce less sludge.

Natural fibre sourcesSeveral possibilities exist for producing entirely new fibre materials, so called biopolymers, using biotechnological process routes, naturally

occurring polyester etc. PHB is produced by bacterial fermentation of a sugar feed stock and commercially available as 'Biopol'. The polymer

is stable under normal conditions but biodegrades completely in any microbial active environment. Other biopolymers with textile potential

include polylactates and

polycaprolactones, which are investigated for medical applications.

Bacterial Cellulose


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The specialty papers and nonwovens are produced based on bacterially grown cellulose fibres. These are extremely fine and resilient and are

used as specialized filters, odour absorbers and reinforcing blends with aramids.

Genetically Modified Micro-OrganismsAttempts have been made to transfer certain advantageous textile properties into microorganisms where they can be more readily reproduced

by bulk fermentation processes. The spider DNA is transferred into bacteria with the air of manufacturing proteins with the strength and

resilience of spider silk for use in bulletproof vests.

Dyestuffs And IntermediatesAttempts have been made to synthesize bacterial forms of indigo as well as fungal pigments for use in the textile industry. Certain micro fungi

are capable of yielding up to 30% of their biomass as pigment. Potential non-textile applications include food industry colourants.

Biotechnology For Tissue Engineering and Medical TextilesThe application of polymer materials in medicine for producing various implants such as vascular prosthesis, heart valves, sutures etc, is one

of the most significant achievements in contemporary surgery. Controlled revascularisation of the epidermal tissue is the key issues in tissueregeneration involving the use of porous and naturally occurring polymeric scaffolds on which cells are seeded. Textile struc tures gain

importance as scaffolds to grow biological tissues in in-vitro. Thus tissue engineering also forms the integral aspect of biotechnology.

Advantages of using enzymes in textiles1. Weight loss during processing of fabric is minimised by enzymes.2. Cotton processing by enzyme catalysis is possible.3. Production cost is reduced.(water and energy)4. Starting point for future research and development.

Limitations of using enzymes in textiles1. Although time required for processing is more the lost can be compensated by time required between processes.2. First trail of cotton processing are in semi continuous way.

INTRODUCTION: Bioprocess in leather industry.

The meat processing industry generates hides of dead animals which would have caused environmental problems in disposal, had it not been

for the leather industry. Fortunately the leather industry makes use of these hides to process it further and make leather. Although the leather

industry takes care of this environmental problem and generates employment, the processing of hide to leather itself generates a fair amount of

pollutants. That is because, the conventional processing of leather involves the use of chemicals and the maximum amount of solid wastes like

lime and chrome sludge and noxious gases( like hydrogen sulphide )are generated during the leather making processes. It is in these areas that

biotechnology through the use of enzymes has played a key role in refining the process of leather making.

Today several of the chemicals used in leather processing have been substituted with enzymes. This has made the entire process of tanning

hides to become more efficient and quicker. So today proteases, lipases and amylases are used in leather manufacturing.

Advantages

When enzymes are used in leather processing it conveys certain advantages such as: Water usage is high in conventional leather processing which is about 30 to 40 liters per kg of hide processed. The use of enzymes reduces

this requirement considerably.

The effluent discharges (both gaseous and aqueous) in leather processing using the conventional route (without using enzymes) contributes

to dissolved solids (chromium, lime, sulphides and sulphates etc) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand

(COD). However, using biotech processes helps in reducing COD by 80%, chromium by 85% and Total Dissolved Solids by 85%.

Different stages of leather processingThere are three distinct stages of leather processing, namely, preparation for tanning, tanning, and finishing. Each of these stages involves

several other steps. Some of these steps like soaking, liming, bating and degreasing involving a biotech perspective will be discussed in detail

in this article.

Curing the hideThis is the first step which entails treating the flayed hide with brine. If this is not done, then there is the chance of the flayed hide getting

putrefied. Conventionally, the hide was soaked in brine to remove unwanted parts of the hide and the skin.Now enzymes can do the job better as it can provide better soaking effect, because they can re-hydrate the hides better and quicken up the

entire process. One example of such an enzyme is Specialty Enzyme's SEBsoak product.

Biocides have also been found useful in curing the hides but this is not environment friendly. Despite all this, salt curing is still the

predominant way of curing and biotech hasn't made inroads for curing the hide process.

SoakingIn this stage, the hides are washed and soaked in surfactants and other compounds mostly anti-microbial. The intention is to help in the further

processing to leather. The conventional process of soaking uses sodium tetrasulphide plus a surfactant, in which case the soaking process will

take nine hours. But proteases and lipases used along with surfactants can reduce the time required for soaking to five hours.

Examples of proprietory enzymes used in soaking process are:

a) Palkosoak which is a mixture of protease and lipase suitable for alkaline conditions

b) Palkosoak ACP which is again mixture of protease and lipase that suits acidic conditions.

LimingAfter soaking, the next step is liming operation. It may be that soaking would not have made the skins swollen to the required degree, so

liming is done precisely to achieve desired swelling of skin. Conventionally this is done with milk of lime, resulting in swelling of the

collagen structure, so the fiber bundles can be opened up. The idea is to remove the keratinous matter and remove proteins like mucins and the

ultimate quality of leather depends on this process.

Although not many enzymes are used in the liming process as of now, there are some proprietory enzymes that can stabilize the hide by

removing all proteinous matter of non-leather origin from the hide. An example is SEBbate Acid that makes the hide smoother forfabrication and dyeing by ensuring smoother grain and pliability of the hide.


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De-hairingThis entails making the hides free of hairs and furs. The conventional method is to use sulphide to eliminate keratin but the problem is it

produces effluents with high COD. Instead, proteolytic enzymes of bacterial and fungal origin can now be used that will do the job by

attacking the protein matter at the hair base. This obviates the need for sodium sulfide, and the process does not produce toxic wastes.

Moreover, enzymatic process is far quicker. De-hairing can be done using extra cellular protease secreted by Bacillus isolate, by enzymes

secreted by Rhizopus oryzae or by using alkaline protease from Alcaligenes faecalis.

An example of a proprietory enzyme used in de-hairing process is Palkodehair which is a protease enzyme that works in alkaline

conditions. Another example is SEB lime, which is biodegradable and eco friendly. The swell regulating properties of this enzyme results in

better grain smoothness of leather.

BatingThe idea of bating is to make the leather soft and supple (to bring out the grain and give flexibility) suitable for tanning, normally achieved by

striking the leather with metal and wooden rods so that residues of proteins and epidermis are removed, or sometimes by using the manure ofpigeon or hen.

Bating increases the stretch of leather, removes swelling and produces silky grain. Now proteolytic bating enzymes of pancreatic or bacterial

origin are used for bating under alkaline conditions. It works by diffusion of the enzymes into the hides.

Trypsin and alkaline proteases are commonly used.An example of a proprietory enzyme suitable for bating is Palkobate that works best in alkaline conditions.

DegreasingIt is essential to remove the fatty substances that escape the liming and other processes. Else it will result in uneven dyeing and finishing as forexample cause waxy patches in leathers. The conventional method is acqueous emulsification, solvent extraction and pressure degreasing.

When enzymes of lipase type are used, they will rupture fat cell membranes and cause triglyceride splitting thereby facilitating degreasing

process.

TanningThis is the last stage in making leather which involves introducing a tanning agent in the hides. Enzymes are not directly involved in this

stage.Waste processingTrypsin and proteolytic enzymes are used in further processing chrome tanned waste from tanneries.

Conclusion

As you can see from this article, there is a paradigm shift in leather processing from chemical driven processes to enzyme driven processes.

The key to using enzymes in leather processing is that it shouldn't damage or dissolve the keratin in the hides, but it should have the ability to

hydrolyze casein, elastin, albumin and other non-structured proteins which are not required in the hide for leather making.Current biotech research in leather manufacturing has generated technologies for non-lime enzyme assisted de-hairing for cow hides,

enzymatic dehairing for goatskin and sheepskin and a unique bio-driven three step tanning technique.

Nutraceutical

Nutraceutical, a portmanteau of the words nutrition and pharmaceutical, is a food or food product that reportedly provides health and

medical benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. Health Canada defines the term as "a product isolated or purified fromfoods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food. Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary

supplements and specific diets to genetically engineered foods, herbal products, and processed foods such as cereals, soups, and beverages.

The term nutraceutical was originally defined by Dr. Stephen L. DeFelice, founder and chairman of the Foundation of Innovation Medicine

(FIM), Crawford, New Jersey. Examples are beta-carotene and lycopene.

Classification of nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals is a broad umbrella term used to describe any product derived from food sources that provides extra health benefits in addition

to the basic nutritional value found in foods.There are multiple different types of products that may fall under the category of nutraceuticals.

Dietary supplements-A dietary supplement is a product that contains nutrients derived from food products that are concentrated in liquid or

capsule form. The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 defined generally what constitutes a dietary supplement.

A dietary supplement is a product taken by mouth that contains a "dietary ingredient" intended to supplement the diet. The " dietaryingredients" in these products may include: vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, and substances such as enzymes, organ

tissues, glandulars, and metabolites. Dietary supplements can also be extracts or concentrates, and may be found in many forms such as

tablets, capsules, softgels, gelcaps, liquids, or powders.

Functional foods - Functional foodare designed to allow consumers to eat enriched foods close to their natural state, rather than by takingdietary supplements manufactured in liquid or capsule form. Functional foods have been either enriched or fortified, a process called

nutrification. This practice restores the nutrient content in a food back to similar levels from before the food was processed. Sometimes,

additional complementary nutrients are added, such as vitamin D to Milk. All functional foods must meet three established requirements:

foods should be (1) present in their naturally-occurring form, rather than a capsule, tablet, or powder; (2) consumed in the diet as often as

daily; and (3) should regulate a biological process in hopes of preventing or controlling disease

Medical Food- Medical foods arent available as an over-the-counter product to consumers.[14] The FDA considers medical foods to be

formulated to be consumed or administered internally under the supervision of a physician, and which is intended for the specific dietary

management of a disease or condition for which distinctive nutritional requirements, on the basis of recognized scientific principles, are

established by medical evaluation. Medical foods can be ingested through the mouth or through tube feeding. Medical foods are always

designed to meet certain nutritional requirements for people diagnosed with specific illnesses. Medical foods are regulated by the FDA and

will be prescribed/monitored by medical supervision.

FarmaceuticalsAccording to a report written for the United States Congress entitled "Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and

Laws", (Farmaceuticals) is a melding of the words farm and pharmaceuticals. It refers to medically valuable compounds produced from


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modified agricultural crops or animals (usually through biotechnology). Proponents believe that using crops and possibly even animals as

pharmaceutical factories could be much more cost effective than conventional methods (i.e., in enclosed manufacturing facilities) and also

provide agricultural producers with higher earnings

BIOPROCESSING OF NUTRACEUTICALS

1-Utilization of metabolites of plant origin for manipulation of gut flora in rumen in favour of CLA production as also on secretion of herbal

nutraceutical directly in milk by adding suitable herbs/herbal extracts in the feed.

2-Value addition to whey, a by product of dairy industry, by maximizing production of GOS from whey based on isolating and using highly

enhancedgalactosyltransferase activity of selected microbial strains for.

MODE OF ACTION OF NUTRACEUTICALS:

WHEY PROTIENS:

Whey is the natural by-product of the cheese-making process (it is the liquid part of milk that remains after the manufacture of cheese). It is a

complete protein, with all the essential amino acids and with the highest protein quality rating among all proteins. The biological components

of whey demonstrate immune-enhancing, antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-tumor, hypolipidemic, antiviral and antibacterial properties.

Whey Protein Isolate (like the ISM whey protein) is the most pure and concentrated form, and delivers more essential amino acids to the bodywhen compared to other proteins on a gram-to-gram basis. Dosage varies. Athletes, and those who use it as a protein supplement, may take up

to 10-25 grams or more a day.

Some recent experiments in rodents indicate that the antitumor activity of the dairy products is in the protein fraction and more specifically in

the whey protein component of milk. We and others have demonstrated that whey protein diets result in increased glutathione (GSH)

concentration in a number of tissues, and that some of the beneficial effects of whey protein intake are abrogated by inhibition of GSH

synthesis. Whey protein is particularly rich in substrates for GSH synthesis. We suggest that whey protein may be exerting its effect on

carcinogenesis by enhancing GSH concentration.

The glutathione (GSH) antioxidant system is the principal protective mechanism of the cell and is a crucial factor in the development of the

immune response by the immune cells. Experimental data demonstrate that a cysteine-rich whey protein concentrate represents an effectivecysteine delivery system for GSH replenishment during the immune response. Animal experiments showed that the concentrates of whey

protein also exhibit anticancer activity. They do this via the GSH pathway, the induction of p53 protein in transformed cells and inhibition of

neoangiogenesis

OMEGA 3AND 6 FATYACID:-

Fish oils: rich in EPA (Eicosapentaenoic Acid... Omega 3 Oil)

Flax oil: rich in ALA (Alpha-Linolenic Acid.... Omega 3 Oil)... body converts into EPA

Nuts: GLA (Gamma Linoleic Acid.... Omega 6 Oil)

Oral administration of a supplement rich in omega-3 fatty acids for 5 d before surgery may improve not only preoperativenutritional status but also preoperative and postoperative inflammatory and immune responses in patients who have cancer.

Anti-cachectic: EFAs prevent & reverse wasting syndrome.

EFAs induce apoptosis (suicide) in cells.

EFAs slow metastasis

EFAs impair tumour angiogenesis

CATEGORIES OF NUTRACEUTICALS- Nutraceuticals are non-specifi c biological therapies used to promote wellness, prevent

malignant processes and control symptoms. They are categorized as follows:

1.Based on chemical constituents

a) Nutrients - Substances with established nutritional functions, such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids and fatty acids. Common nutrients

and their associated health Benefits are Vitamin E used for treatment of Parkinsons disease. Vitamin D used for treatment of tuberculosis

Vitamin B used for Alzheimer disease.

(b) Herbals -Herbs or botanical products as concentrates and extracts. Common herbs are: Evening prime rose oil- for treatment of atopic

eczema.Garlic- having antibacterial and antifungal activity used for the treatment of weight loss.Ginger- having positive iontropic

activity.Ginkgo- used for the treatment of post thrombic syndrome.

(c) Dietary Supplement- The dietary supplement health and education act of 1994 defines the Dietary supplements as the products

administered through mouth that contain a dietary ingredient intended to add something to the foods you eat.


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Examples of dietary supplements are black cohosh-for menopausal symptoms,

ginkgo biloba- for memory loss, and glucosamine/chondroitin for arthritis.

They also serves specific functions such as sports nutrition, weight-loss supplements and meal replacements. Supplement ingredients maycontain vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, enzymes, organ tissues, gland extracts, or other dietary substances. They

are available in different dosage forms, including tablets, capsules, liquids, powders, extracts, and concentrates

2. Traditional and Non- Traditional neutraceutical

Wide variety of neutraceutical foods are available in the market which falls in the category of traditional foods and non traditional foods.

(a) Traditional Neutraceutical

Under the category of traditional Neutraceutical comes food in which no change to the food are made; It is simply natural, whole foods with

new information about their potential health qualities. There has been no change to the actual foods,

other than the way the consumer perceives them.Many fruits, vegetables, grains, fish, dairy and meat products contain several natural

components that deliver benefits beyond basic nutrition, such as lycopene in tomatoes, omega-3 fatty acids in salmon or saponins in soy. Even

tea and chocolate have been noted in some studies to contain health-benefiting attributes. Tomatoes and salmon are two types of food that

researchers have found to contain benefits beyond basic nutrition - in this case, lycopene and omega-3 fatty acids, respectively.

(b) Nontraditional NeutraceuticalThey are the outcome from agricultural breeding or added (nutrients and/or ingredients such as Orange juice fortified with calcium, cereals

with added vitamins or minerals and flour with added folic acid are nontraditional neutraceutical. Agricultural scientists successfully have

come up with the techniques to boost the nutritional content of certain crops. Research currently is being conducted to improve the nutritional

quality of many other crops.

TYPES OF DISEASES NUTRACEUTICALS USED

Cardiovascular diseases

1. Anti-oxidants, Dietary fibers, Omega-3 poly unsaturated fatty acids, Vitamins, minerals for prevention and treatment of CVD.2. Polyphenol (in grape) prevent and control arterial diseases3. Flavonoids (in onion, vegetables, grapes, red wine, apples, and cherries) block the ACE and strengthen the tiny capillaries thatcarry oxygen and essential nutrients to all cells.

Diabetes

1. Ethyl esters of n-3 fatty acids may be beneficial in diabetic patients.2. Docosahexaenoic acid modulates insulin resistance and is also vital for neurovisual development.3. Lipoic acid, an antioxidant, for treatment of diabetic neuropathy.4. Dietary fibers from psyllium have been used for glucose control in diabetic patients and to reduce lipid levels in hyperlipidemia.

Obesity

1. Herbal stimulants, such as ephedrine, caffeine, ma huang-guarana, chitosan and green tea help in body weight loss.2. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), capsaicin, Momordica Charantia (MC) possesses potential anti obese properties.

Cancer

1. Flavonoids which block the enzymes that produce estrogen reduce of estrogen-induced cancers.2. To prevent prostate/breast cancer a broad range of phyto-pharmaceuticals with a claimed hormonal activity, called phyto-estrogens

is recommended.

Allergy

Quercet (found in Onions, red wine and green tea) reduce the inflammation that results from hay fever, bursitis, gout, arthritis, and asthma.

Alzheimers disease-carotene, curcumin, lutein, lycopene, turmeric etc may exert positive effects on specific diseases by neutralizing the negative effects

oxidative stress mitochondrial dysfunction, and various forms of neural degeneration.

Parkinsons disease

Vitamin E in food may be protective against Parkinsons disease.

Creatine modifies Parkinsons disease features as measured by a decline in the clinical signs.

Bioprocessing of Functional Food.

FUNCTIONAL FOOD. -Functional foodis afoodwhere a new ingredient(s) (or more of an existing ingredient) has been added to a food

and the new product has an additionalfunction(often one related to health-promotion or disease prevention).[1]

The general category of functional foods includesprocessed foodor foods fortified with health-promoting additives, like "vitamin-enriched"

products. Products considered functional generally do not include products where fortification has been done to meet government regulations

and the change is not recorded on the label as a significant addition ("invisible fortification"). An example of this type of fortification would

be the historic addition of iodine to table salt, or Vitamin D to milk, done to resolve public health problems such asrickets.Fermented

foodswithlive culturesare considered functional foods withprobioticbenefits.

Functional foods are part of the continuum of products that individuals may consume to increase their health and/or contribute to reducing

their disease burden.

"Functional Food is a Natural or processed food that contains known biologically-active compounds which when in defined quantitative and

qualitative amounts provides a clinically proven and documented health benefit, and thus, an important source in the prevention, management

and treatment of chronic diseases of the modern age". It was debated at the 9th International Conference on "Functional Foods and Chronic

Diseases: Science and Practice" at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas on March 15-17, 2011.Functional Food Center has adopted a new

definition of functional food.

Functional foods are an emerging field infood sciencedue to their increasing popularity with health-conscious consumers and the ability ofmarketers to create new interest in existing products.
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CURRENT TRENDS

1. IODINE to TABLE SALTRecommended dietary allowance of iodine is 150mg/100ml.

Since 1983, Tata chemicals has been manufacturing Vacuum Evaporated Iodized Tata salt.

2. Vitamin D fortification- In US he milk is fortified with 100IU/cup. Other products such as yogurt, cheese, orange juice etc are alsofortified with milk. Amul calci plus is fortified with natural calcium and pregnant women from 150mg/day to 400-600mg/day.

FUNCTIONAL BEVERAGES

Energy drinks- An energy drinkis a type ofbeveragewhich is purported to boost mental or physical energy. There are variousbrandsandvarieties of energy drinks. They generally contain large amounts ofcaffeineand other stimulants. Many also containsugaror other

sweeteners,herbal extractsandamino acidsand may or may not becarbonated. In the UK,Lucozade Energywas originally introduced in

1929 as a hospital drink for "aiding the recovery;" in the early 1980s, it was promoted as an energy drink for "replenishing lost energy."

One of the first energy drinks introduced in America was Dr. Enuf. Its origins date back to 1949, when a Chicago businessman named

William Mark Swartz was urged by coworkers to formulate a soft drink fortified with vitamins as an alternative to sugar sodas full ofemptycalories.He developed an "energy booster" drink containing B vitamins, caffeine and cane sugar. After placing a notice in a trade magazine

seeking a bottler, he formed a partnership with Charles Gordon of Tri-Cities Beverage to produce and distribute the soda .[1]

Dr. Enuf is still

being manufactured inJohnson City, TNand sold sparsely throughout the nation.

Ingredients:-

Energy drinks generally containmethylxanthines(includingcaffeine),B vitamins,andherbs.Other commonly used ingredients arecarbonated

water,guarana,yerba mate,aa, andtaurine, plus various forms ofginseng,maltodextrin,inositol,carnitine,creatine,glucuronolactone,

andginkgo biloba.Some contain high levels ofsugar,and many brands offer artificially sweetened 'diet' versions. A common ingredient in

most energy drinks iscaffeine(often in the form ofguaranaoryerba mate). Caffeine is thestimulantthat is found incoffeeandtea.Energy

drinks contain about three times the amount of caffeine as cola.Twelve ounces of Coca-Cola Classic contains 35 mg of caffeine, whereas a

Monster Energy Drink contains 120 mg of caffeine.

Benefits of energy drinks:-

Caffine- Stimulant, significant improvements in mental and cognitive performances as well as increased subjective alertness.

B-vitamins- they maintain the metabolism, immune system enhancements and cell growth.

Herbs- They have medicinal properties for early recovery.

HEALTH SPPLEMENTS

Malt energy drinks- High protein drinks

Maltisgerminatedcerealgrains that have been dried in a process known as "malting". The grains are made to germinateby soaking in water,

and are then halted from germinating further by drying with hot air. Malting grains develops theenzymesrequired to modify the

grain'sstarchesinto sugars, includingmonosaccharidessuch asglucoseorfructose, anddisaccharides, such assucroseormaltose. It also

develops other enzymes, such asproteases,which break down the proteins in the grain into forms that can be used by yeast.

Bioprocess involved:-

Malting is the process of converting barley into malt, for use in brewing ordistilling, and takes place in a maltings, sometimes called a

malthouse, or a malting floor. The sprouted barley is kiln-dried by spreading it on a perforated wooden floor. Smoke, coming from

anoastingfireplace(via smoke channels) is then used to heat the wooden floor and the sprouted grains. The temperature is usually around 55

C (131 F). A typical floor maltings is a long, single-story building with a floor that slopes slightly from one end of the building to the other.

Floor maltings began to be phased out in the 1940s in favour of "pneumatic plants". Here, large industrial fans are used to blow air through the

germinating grain beds and to pass hot air through the malt being kilned. Like floor maltings, these pneumatic plants are batch processes, but

of considerably greater size, typically 100 ton batches compared with 20 ton batches for floor malting.

The malting process starts with drying the grains to a moisture content below 14%, and then storing for around six weeks to overcome seed

dormancy.When ready, the grain is immersed or "steeped" in water two or three times over two or three days to allow the grain to absorb

moisture and to start tosprout.When the grain has a moisture content of around 46%, it is transferred to the malting or germination floor,

where it is constantly turned over for around five days while it is air-dried. The grain at this point is called "green malt". The green malt is

thenkiln-dried to the desired colour and specification.[8]

Malts range in colour from very pale through crystal and amber to chocolate or black

malts.

PROBIOTICS.

Probiotic organismsare livemicroorganismsthat are thought to be beneficial to the host organism. According to the currently adopteddefinition byFAO/WHO,probiotics are: "Live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the

host".Lactic acid bacteria(LAB) andbifidobacteriaare the most common types ofmicrobesused as probiotics; but

certainyeastsandbacillimay also be used. Probiotics are commonly consumed as part offermentedfoods with specially added active live

cultures, such as inyogurt,soy yogurt, or asdietary supplements. Probiotics are also delivered infecal transplants, in which stool from ahealthy donor is delivered like a suppository to an infected patient.
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Documents

Role of Biotechnology Compiled Nidhis Mam