Presentasi kelompok C.ppt

5/19/2018 Presentasi kelompok C.ppt

1/46

Chapter 7

The Cost ofProduction

Ani Dwi RahmantiDilla Andyana SariLutfhia Ayu Saraswati

Mutia Aulia RizkiaNabilla AnanditaRaisa Putri NabilaShinta Prameshwari S


2/46

OUTLINE

7.1 Measuring Cost: Which Costs Matter?

7.2 Cost in the Short Run

7.3 Cost in the Long Run

7.4 Long-Run versus Short-Run Cost Curves

7.5 Production with Two OutputsEconomies of Scope

7.6 Dynamic Changes in CostsThe Learning Curve

7.7 Estimating and Predicting Cost


3/46

COST

Economic Cost

versus Accounting

Cost

Fixed Costs

and Variable

Costs

Fixed versus

Sunk Costs

Marginal

and Average

Cost

Sunk CostsOpportunity

Cost


4/46

7.1

Economic Cost versus Accounting Cost

accounting cost Actual expenses plus

depreciation charges for capital

equipment.

economic cost Cost to a firm of utilizingeconomic resources in production,

including opportunity cost.

Opportunity Cost

opportunity cost Cost associated with

opportunities that are forgone when a

firms resources are not put to their best

alternative use.


5/46

7.1

Sunk Costs

sunk cost Expenditure that has

been made and cannot be recovered.

Because a sunk cost cannot be recovered, it should notinfluence the firms decisions.

Because it has no alternative use, its opportunity cost is zero.


6/46

7.1

Fixed Costs and Variable Costs

total cost (TC or C) Total economic

cost of production, consisting of fixed

and variable costs.

fixed cost (FC) Cost that does notvary with the level of output and that

can be eliminated only by shutting

down.

variable cost (VC) Cost that varies asoutput varies.

The only way that a firm can eliminate its fixed costs is

by shutting down.


7/46

7.1

Fixed Costs and Variable Costs

Fixed or Variable?

Over a very short time horizonsay, a few months

most costs are fixed.

Over such a short period, a firm is usually obligated to

pay for contracted shipments of materials.

Over a very long time horizonsay, ten yearsnearly all

costs are variable.

Workers and managers can be laid off (or employment

can be reduced by attrition), and much of themachinery can be sold off or not replaced as it becomes

obsolete and is scrapped.


8/46

7.1

Fixed versus Sunk Costs

Sunk costs are costs that have been incurred and cannot

be recovered.

An example is the cost of R&D to a pharmaceuticalcompany to develop and test a new drug and then, if the

drug has been proven to be safe and effective, the cost of

marketing it.

Whether the drug is a success or a failure, these costs

cannot be recovered and thus are sunk.


9/46

7.1

Marginal and Average Cost

Marginal Cost (MC)

marginal cost (MC)

Increase in cost resulting

from the production of one

extra unit of output.

Because fixed cost does not change as the firms level of

output changes, marginal cost is equal to the increase in

variable cost or the increase in total cost that results from

an extra unit of output.

We can therefore write marginal cost as


10/46

7.1


Average Total Cost (ATC)

average total cost (ATC) Firms

total cost divided by its level of

output.

average fixed cost (AFC)

Fixed cost divided by the level

of output.

average variable cost (AVC)

Variable cost divided by the level

of output.


11/46

7.1


Marginal Cost (MC)

Rate of Fixed Variable Total Marginal Average Average Average

Output Cost Cost Cost Cost Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost

(Units (Dollars (Dollars (Dollars (Dollars (Dollars (Dollars (Dollars

per Year) per Year) per Year) per Year) per Unit) per Unit) per Unit) per Unit)

(FC) (VC) (TC) (MC) (AFC) (AVC) (ATC)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

0 50 0 50 -- -- -- --

1 50 50 100 50 50 50 100

2 50 78 128 28 25 39 64

3 50 98 148 20 16.7 32.7 49.3

4 50 112 162 14 12.5 28 40.5

5 50 130 180 18 10 26 36

6 50 150 200 20 8.3 25 33.3

7 50 175 225 25 7.1 25 32.1

8 50 204 254 29 6.3 25.5 31.8

9 50 242 292 38 5.6 26.9 32.4

10 50 300 350 58 5 30 3511 50 385 435 85 4.5 35 39.5

TABLE 7.1 A Firms Costs


12/46

7.2 Cost in the Short-Run


13/46

MC = wL/q

The Determinants of Short-Run Cost

MC = VC/qPerubahan biaya variabel pada

perubahan 1 unit output

VC = wLPerubahan pada biaya variabel

adalah biaya per unit tenaga kerja

dikali jumlah tenaga kerja tambahan


14/46

MPL= q/LProduksi marginal adalah perubahanoutput akibat perubahan 1 unit input

L/q = 1/MPLTenaga kerja yang dibutuhkan untuk

menambah 1 unit output

MC = w/MPL


15/46

Diminishing Marginal Returns and Marginal

Cost

Diminishing marginal returns = menurunnya marginal

product saat kuantitas tenaga kerja terus meningkat

As a result, when there are diminishing marginal returns,

marginal cost will increase as output increases.


16/46

The Shapes of the Cost Curves


17/46

Biaya Penggunaan modal

Biaya Penggunaan Tenaga

Kerja

7.3 BIAYA PRODUKSI JANGKA PANJANG


18/46

Modal yang dibeli

Penyusutan Ekonomi + (Bunga) (Harga Beli

Penyusutan)

Nilai per dolar modal

r= Tingkat Penyusutan + Bunga


19/46

Modal yang disewa

Tingkat Sewa =

Biaya Sewa Satu Unit Modal Per Tahun

Modal yang dibeli dapat diperlakukan

sebagai sewa pada tingkat sewa yang sama

dengan biaya penggunaan modal


20/46

MEMILIH INPUT

Biaya total

C = wL + rK

Persamaan Biaya Total

K = C/r (w/r)/L

Kemiringan garis

K/L= (w/r)


21/46

Memilih Input Ketika Harga Suatu

Input Berubah


22/46

Minimisasi Biaya dengan Berbagai Tingkat

Output


23/46


24/46

LONG RUNVS

SHORT RUN COST CURVES


25/46

When a firm operatesin the short run, its costof production may notbe minimized becauseof inflexibility in theuse of capital inputs.

Output is initially atlevel q1.

In the short run, outputq2 can be producedonly by increasinglabor from L1 to L3

because capital is fixedat K1.

In the long run, thesame output can beproduced more cheaplyby increasing laborfrom L

1 to L

2 and

capital from K1to K2.


26/46

Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)

Short-Run Average Cost (SAC)

Long-Run Marginal Cost (LMC)


27/46

Saat LAC menurun

LAC > LMC

Saat LAC meningkat

LAC < LMC

Saat LAC=LMC LAC minimum


28/46

Output increaseaverage cost of production decline

Jika perusahaan berskala besarpekerja lebih produktif

Flexible

Membeli input dengan harga rendah


29/46

Pada short run input berlebih membuatkurang efektif

Perusahaan lebih besar menjadi kurangefisien dan efektif

Keuntungan berbelanja dalam skalabesar hilang


30/46

ECONOMIC OF SCALE

Situation in which output can bedoubled for less than a doubling of cost.

DISECONOMIC OF SCALE

Situation in which a doubling of outputrequires more than a doubling of cost.


31/46

Increasing Returns to Scale

Output more than doubles when

the quantities of all inputs aredoubled.

Economies of Scale

A doubling of output requiresless than a doubling of cost.


32/46

Cost-output elasticity

the percentage change in the cost of productionresulting from a 1-percent increase in output

EC relates to traditional measures of cost


33/46

The long-runaverage cost curveLAC is the envelopeof the short-runaverage cost curvesSAC1, SAC2, andSAC3.

With economiesand diseconomiesof scale, theminimum points ofthe short-runaverage cost curvesdo not lie on thelong-run average

cost curve.


34/46

7.5 PRODUCTION WITH TWO OUTPUTS

ECONOMIES OF SCOPE

Product Transformation Curves

Economies and Diseconomies of Scope

The Degree of Economies of Scope


35/46

Product Transformation Curves

Various combinations of two different outputs(products) that can be produced with a given set of

inputs.


36/46

Joint output of a single firm is greater than outputthat could be achieved by two different firms when each

produces a single product.

Joint output of a single firm is lessthan could beachieved by separate firms when each produces a single

product.

Economies and Diseconomies of Scope

ECONOMIES OF SCOPE

DISECONOMIES OF SCOPE


37/46

PRODUCTION WITH TWO OUTPUTS

ECONOMIES OF SCOPEThe Degree of Economies of Scope

Given that :

C (q1) : biaya untuk memproduksi output q1

C (q2) : biaya untuk memproduksi output q2

C (q1, q2) : biaya gabungan untuk memproduksi kedua

output


38/46

PERUBAHAN DINAMIS PADA BIAYA-KURVA BELAJAR*7.6

Karena managemen dan tenaga kerja memperoleh lebih banyakpengalaman produksi, biaya marginal dan biaya rata-rata untuk

memproduksi suatu tingkat output tertentu jatuh karena 4 alasan :

1. Pekerja sering membutuhkan banyak waktu untuk

menyelesaikan tugas ketika baru mulai melakukannya. Apabila

lebih terampil, kecepatan juga meningkat.

1. Para manajer belajar menjadwalkan proses industri yang lebih

efektif, dari pe input material sampai organisasi pembuatannya.

2. Para insinyur, yang awalnya sangat hati-hati terhadap rancanganproduknya, mungkin memperoleh cukup banyak pengalaman

untuk dapat memberi peluang dalam perancangan peralatan

3. Para pemasok dapat belajar bagaimana cara yang lebih efektif

dala mengolah bahan yang dibutuhkan oleh perusahaan


39/46

Kurva Belajar

Figure 7.11

Kurva Belajar kurva yang menghubungkan jumlah

input yang dibutuhkan oleh sebuah perusahaan untuk

memprodusi setiap unit output untuk kumulatif

outputnya.


40/46

Membuat Grafik Learning Curve

Learning Curve berdasarkan hubungan:

(7.8)Learning Curve versus skala ekonomi

Economies of Scale versus

Learning

Biaya produksi rata-rata

perusahaan menurun

sepanjang waktu karena

pertumbuhan penjualan

ketika hasil yang semakinmeningkat terjadi ( A ke B

pada kurva AC1) atau

menurun karena terdapat

kurva belajar( AC ke C)

Gambar 7.12


41/46

Learning curve vs skala ekonomis

TABEL 7.3 Memperkirakan Kebutuhan Tenaga Kerja untuk

Produksi Output Tertentu

output kumulatif Kebutuhan Tenaga Kerja per Unit Total Labor

(N) untuk tiap 10 unit output (L)* dibutuhkan

10 1.00 10.0

20 .80 18.0(10.0 + 8.0)

30 .70 25.0(18.0 + 7.0)

40 .64 31.4(25.0 + 6.4)

50 .60 37.4(31.4 + 6.0)

60 .56 43.0(37.4 + 5.6)

70 .53 48.3(43.0 + 5.3)

80 .51 53.4(48.3 + 5.1)

*angka dari kolom ini dihitung dari persamaan log(L)= -0,322 log(N/10)

dimana L adalah masukan unit tenaga kerja dan N adalah output kumulatif.


42/46

Kurva belajar untuk Airbus

Industri

Kurva belajar

memperlihatkan

kebutuhan tenaga kerja

per pesawat terbang

untuk jumlah kumulatifpesawat terbang yang

diproduksi. Karena

produksi lebih

terorganisasi dengan

baikdan pekerja telahterbiasa dengan

pekerjaan mereka,

kebutuhan tenaga kerja

akan turun secara

dramatis.

Gambar 7.13


43/46

7.7 MEMPERKIRAKAN MEMPREDIKSI BIAYA

Cost Function/ Fungsi Biayasuatu fungsiyang menggambarkan hubungan antara

jumlah output dan variabel lain yang dapat

dikontrol oleh perusahaan

Fungsi tersebut dapat diperoleh dengan

menggunakan data perusahaan individual

dalam suatu industri


44/46



45/46

FUNGSI BIAYA DAN PENGUKURAN INDEKS SKALA EKONOM(SCALE ECONOMICS INDEX / SCI)



46/46

SC = Negatif

The Degree of Economies of Scope

SC = Positif

Documents

Presentasi kelompok C.ppt