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A Teacher’s Guide withTopic Overview and

Lesson Plans

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ContentsTopic Overview .....................................................................................................................................3

Glossary ..................................................................................................................................................6

Timeline of Events ................................................................................................................................8

In the Midst of the Battle ..................................................................................................................11

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................11

Objectives .......................................................................................................................................11

Standards of Learning ...................................................................................................................11

Materials .........................................................................................................................................11

Strategy ..........................................................................................................................................11

Evaluation ......................................................................................................................................12

Extension ........................................................................................................................................12

Adaptations for Struggling Learners ............................................................................................12

Adaptations for Advanced Learners ............................................................................................13

Technology Adaptations ................................................................................................................13

Guiding Questions ..........................................................................................................................14

Maps of the Battle of Hampton Roads ..........................................................................................15

Primary Sources 1–10.....................................................................................................................16

Images (for Extension or Adaptation) ...........................................................................................28

Cover and banner image: [James River, Va. Sailors on deck of U.S.S. Monitor; cookstove at left], James F. Gibson, July 9, 1862. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-cwpb-00306].

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Topic Overview

The American Civil War was not the first time the world had ever seen ironclad vessels, but it was the first time purpose-built, machine-engine-powered ironclad ships capable of independent

action battled wooden ships and each other. The development of this ship type, as exemplified by the Union’s Monitor and Confederacy’s Virginia, revolutionized modern navies and warfare. This revolution was made possible by Union industrial might and pushed the resources and industry of the Confederacy to the limit. The American Civil War was an incubator for tactics and technology that continue to be used in modern warfare. The enormous metal ships of modern navies, as well as vehicles on land, sea, or air that have rotating turrets or angled casemates, trace their development to Civil War ironclads.

OriginsNeither the USS Monitor nor the CSS Virginia was the first ironclad war vessel afloat. Their

predecessors were ‘ironclad batteries,’ basically barges or floating hulls, often improvised, with cannon mounted on a deck and protected by walls of iron or of wood reinforced with iron. Extremely heavy and powered by sail, oars, or small steam engines, or towed by other vessels, they were not especially mobile and were used to attack or defend fixed positions. Examples include the armored batteries of Korean “kohbukson” or “turtle ships” used in 1592 against an invading Japanese fleet, those used in 1782 by the Spanish against the British during the Great Siege of Gibraltar, and those of 1855 used by the French against Russian forts in the Crimean War. It was the success of these French vessels that led both the French and British to develop ocean-going iron armored warships during the final years of the 1850s—but it was not until naval combat in the American Civil War in the 1860s that the world saw such ships completely freed from sail power and proved in action.

Development Of The Monitor And The VirginiaBefore the war, Swedish-American engineer John Ericsson invented a steam condenser (which

allowed a steam ship to produce fresh water for its boilers while at sea), a collapsible funnel, and an efficient screw propeller. He brought all of these elements together along with a rotating gun turret (enabling guns to be aimed without turning the whole ship) for the Union’s ship Monitor—a new and unique ship, built in just over 100 days. The majority of the ship lay underwater, with just the flat deck and the revolving turret visible above the waves.

Unlike the Monitor with its single designer, the Confederate ship Virginia was the result of a team of thinkers: Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory, who envisioned a fleet of steam-powered ironclads; Lt. John Mercer Brooke, who designed its armor; Chief Engineer William P. Williamson; and naval constructor John L. Porter, who built it on the hull of a former United States ship, the Merrimack (after it became the Virginia, many in the Union still called it the Merrimack in their writings). The Virginia had sloping sides to deflect incoming shots. The outer iron layer of its armor helped arrest the energy of incoming shots, and the inner layer of pine and oak helped disperse that energy. The Virginia’s broadside guns came out of fixed points, so it had to be turned to fire effectively, but fore and aft it had pivot guns, which could be turned to fire in several directions. It also had a battering ram on its front end.

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Industry And Resources: What It Took To Build An IroncladTo produce one ironclad, let alone a fleet, required great effort. Factories able to turn out large

quantities of iron armor were needed; such factories existed in large numbers in many northern states, while in the southern states there were only three mills that made iron plate for armor. These factories also needed raw materials such as iron and coal. The Union had ample domestic supplies and access to world markets, while the Confederacy had more limited domestic supplies and was denied meaningful access to world markets by the Union blockade of its ports. This blockade also made it difficult for the Confederacy to move the resources it did have, a problem compounded by an inadequate railroad system.

Effect On The Civil WarConfederate ironclads, even in the relatively small numbers produced, required the Union to divert

significant troops and resources to defend against or attack them. Meanwhile, Union ironclads kept Confederate ironclads from breaking the Union blockade of southern ports, leading to such clashes as the Battle of Hampton Roads. This Union control of the waterways physically divided the Confederacy, hindering communication and the movement of resources and troops.

LegacyBoth the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia had specific impacts that lasted after the war. The Monitor

was the genesis for an entire class of warship for a generation, culminating in 1906 in the innovative British HMS Dreadnought, a new class of ship, and the world’s first true oceangoing battleship. The Virginia’s angled casemate and composite armor foreshadowed the land equivalent of a warship, the tank: see the notably angled hull and turret of the Russian T-34 of World War II and the United States’ modern Abrams tank. The Virginia’s angled and composite construction, used to deflect cannon fire, also was a harbinger of the “stealth” technology used to deflect radar and radio waves that is found on ships and aircraft today.

The Human EffectSteam engine-propelled ironclad warships fundamentally changed the daily life of sailors in navies

the world over, not just in the navies of the American Civil War. Large numbers of men were no longer required to work sails at dangerous heights and in dangerous weather, resulting in a more efficient use of men to operate guns and engines. The risk of shrapnel—bits of the ship being blasted apart and into crewmen—did not change, though now the shrapnel was made of metal instead of wood. One new risk was that of engine explosions, either by accident or from cannon fire. Conditions aboard the early ironclads were often sweltering and ventilation was poor. Perhaps the biggest change was psychological. Some men serving in ironclads lamented that there was no “sailorizing” to be done anymore—that they were mere cogs in a machine and, as one Confederate officer put it, “the poetry of the profession is gone.”1 Herman Melville summed it up in a poem: “War yet shall be, but the warriors / Are now but operatives; War’s made / Less grand than Peace…”

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SummaryIn what was perhaps the first modern, industrial war, success depended upon which side would

be able to produce and keep operational modern, technologically-advanced forces. Ironclads were an example of such technological advancement. While the land battles in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania seemed to go back and forth for most of the war, the tremendous industrial capacity of the Union allowed it to produce the advanced, far-reaching ironclad fleet that penetrated the Mississippi, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers and slowly but surely took control of the Confederacy’s ports—accomplishments which ultimately doomed a Confederacy unable, despite much ingenuity, to match such efforts.

1. William McBlair, quoted in Maurice Melton, The Best Station of Them All: The Savannah Squadron, 1861-1865 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 161.

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Glossarybattery—a group of artillery (large weapons); in this case, mounted on ships

Battle of Hampton Roads—March 8–9, 1862 battle that took place in Hampton Roads, the area of water where the James River, Elizabeth River, and the Chesapeake Bay meet. Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia sinks two wooden Union ships and runs others aground on March 8, 1862, then duels with the USS Monitor to a draw on March 9.

blockade—to form a line of ships in order to deny access to a port

casemate—a fortified enclosure; in this case, the interior of a fortified ship

composite—made of multiple materials

Confederacy—the Confederate States of America; the eleven southern states that left the United States in 1860 and 1861 and sought to form their own independent nation. These were, in order of secession, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina.

CSS—abbreviation for Confederate States Ship

CSS Virginia—Confederate ironclad created from the former USS Merrimack. Some people continued to call the Virginia by its former name.

hull—the body of a ship

ironclad—originally a wooden ship that had iron plate attached to its sides to protect it from damage; later expanded to describe any Civil War ship that was made of iron

screw propeller—a rotating device consisting of blades attached to a central hub, that when attached to the underside of a ship, pushes water past the ship and moves the ship forward

steam condenser—a device which captures steam to create fresh water. Fresh water was needed for the boilers of steamships, because salt would collect and block the pipes; a steam condenser enabled ironclads to make their own fresh water instead of having to carry it onboard.

steam engine—a motor that gets its power from compressed steam. When a ship with a steam engine is moving it is generally said to be “steaming,” or “under steam.”

tactic—strategy or a plan of action

turret—a round, armored structure, usually revolving horizontally, within which guns are mounted, as on a fortification or ship

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Union—the United States; during the Civil War, the states that did not secede

USS—abbreviation for United States Ship

USS Merrimack—a ship burned by the Union to prevent its capture. The Confederacy raised its remains and built the CSS Virginia on its hull. It was in service from 1856–1860.

USS Monitor—a distinctive-looking ironclad warship, designed by Swedish-American engineer Jon Ericsson, and built for the U.S. government in just over 100 days in 1862

vessel—a ship

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Time Line of Events

1592 The first metal-armored ships are Korean vessels, called “turtle ships”, that fight a Japanese fleet.

1858 The French begin building the first true ironclad ocean-going naval vessels. The Gloire is launched in 1859.

1860 The British launch the HMS Warrior, the largest, fastest, and most powerful ironclad of its time.

1861 April 12 Confederate forces fire on Fort Sumter, South Carolina. Two days later, they take the fort. The Civil War begins. April 20 Under threat of Confederate attack, the Union abandons Gosport Navy Yard in Norfolk, Virginia, burning the ships there to avoid their capture. The Confederates capture the Navy Yard, including the sunken hull of the USS Merrimack, which did not burn completely.

April 24 USS Cumberland begins seizing Confederate ships off the coast of Virginia, beginning the Union’s blockade of the Confederacy that would last throughout the war.

May 30 Confederates raise the sunken hull of the USS Merrimack.

July 11 Confederates begin the conversion of the USS Merrimack hull to the CSS Virginia, at Gosport Navy Yard.

July 21 Union and Confederate troops fight the first great battle of the Civil War, at Manassas Junction near Bull Run Creek, only 30 miles south of Washington, D.C.

August 3 U.S. Congress authorizes the creation of an Ironclad Board for the U.S. Navy.

October 4 The U.S. Navy awards a contract to Swedish-American engineer John Ericsson for his design of an “ironclad battery.”

October 25 The keel is laid for Ericsson’s vessel at Continental Ironworks in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn, New York.

November 7 Union forces capture Port Royal, South Carolina, which becomes the base of operations for the Union blockade of the Confederacy, which lasted throughout the war.

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1862 January 20 Ericsson names his ironclad Monitor.

January 30 The Monitor is launched at Continental Ironworks in Brooklyn.

February 17 The Confederacy launches and commissions the USS Merrimack,rechristening it as the CSS Virginia.

March 6 The Monitor heads south to Hampton Roads, Virginia.

March 8 During the Battle of Hampton Roads, the CSS Virginia engages several of the Union’s wooden ships, sinks the USS Cumberland, destroys the USS Congress, and runs others aground.

March 9 The CSS Virginia faces off against the USS Monitor in a battle that ends in a draw.

May 10 Union forces capture the city of Norfolk, Virginia.

May 11 To keep the CSS Virginia from being captured by Union forces, the ship’s crew blows it up near Craney Island, Virginia.

May 15 The Monitor, along with several other vessels in the Union fleet, engages with Confederate troops at Drury’s Bluff on the James River. The Monitor soon retreats because its guns are not able to elevate high enough to effectively fire on the fort. December 31 The USS Monitor sinks off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Of the crew of 63, sixteen were lost with the ship.

1865 April 9 Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrenders to Union forces at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, ending the last major battle of the Civil War. Remaining Confederate troops surrender throughout April and May.

1973 August 27 A team of experts from Duke University, M.I.T., the North Carolina Division of Archives and History, the University of Delaware, and National Geographic investigate the sinking and current location of the USS Monitor.

1974 March 8 The team announces to the public that they have located the wreck of the Monitor.

1975 January 30 The Monitor wreck site is designated by Congress as the first National Marine Sanctuary, administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

2002 August 5 A team from NOAA, the U.S. Navy, and the Mariners’ Museum raises the turret of the USS Monitor, including the two Dahlgren guns (large cannons) from the ship. The remains of two men are found within the artifact.

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2007 March 9 The USS Monitor Center opens at the Mariners’ Museum in Newport News, Virginia.

2013 March 8 The remains of the two men recovered from the Monitor turret are interred at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors.

TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE OF HAMPTON ROADS

March 8 • CSS Virginia emerges from Norfolk, where it was built.

• CSS Virginia rams USS Cumberland, which sinks, but CSS Virginia’s ram becomes stuck and breaks off.

• CSS Virginia bombards the USS Congress, which burns and explodes later that evening.

• Union troops fire on CSS Virginia from the shore. Virginia’s commanding officer Franklin Buchanan is wounded. Command passes to Catesby ap Roger Jones.

• USS Minnesota runs aground trying to attack CSS Virginia, but the tide falls. The Virginia risks running aground if it approaches the Minnesota.

• CSS Virginia retreats to Norfolk.

March 9 • Overnight, the USS Monitor arrives in Hampton Roads. The CSS Virginia returns to Hampton Roads in the morning.

• CSS Virginia and USS Monitor fire at each other for two hours and inflict limited damage. The Virginia is more difficult to maneuver than the Monitor, but the Monitor’s gun turret is difficult to aim. People gather on the shore to watch the battle.

• CSS Virginia runs aground, but is able to get loose.

• Shot from the stern gun on the CSS Virginia strikes the USS Monitor’s pilothouse, wounding the commanding officer, John L. Worden. The Monitor veers off onto a shoal for crewmen to assess the damage to the ship.

• With the tide falling and the USS Monitor standing off, Catesby Jones orders the CSS Virginia back to its mooring and claims victory.

• On the USS Monitor, the wounded Worden passes command to Samuel Dana Greene, with orders to protect the USS Minnesota. Greene sees the Virginia leaving and claims victory.

• The battle is considered a draw.

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In the Midst of the BattleINTRODUCTION

Many people think that the battle of Hampton Roads was a brief fight between the Monitor and the Virginia (formerly the Merrimack), but it took place over the course of two days—March 8 and 9, 1862. The battle on March 8 showed the devastating effectiveness of an iron-clad battleship—the Virginia—against wooden vessels. The outcome of that fight could well have been the control by the Confederacy of the Chesapeake Bay—a key geographic area that would have given the Confederacy access to capture Washington, D.C. The Union fleet seemed to be powerless against this new foe.

Overnight, however, the Union ship Monitor arrived in the bay. On March 9, this innovative warship was able to fight off the Virginia and prevent further destruction of the U.S. fleet or the capture of the waterways. Therefore, despite the fight on March 9 being only a brief engagement with no clear winner, the battle itself was a strategic Union victory, was a turning point in naval technology, and could have been a turning point in the entire war.

Due to its location, the battle was observed from many different vantage points. In this lesson, students examine primary sources—eyewitness and contemporary accounts—to discover what it was like for the participants. They then assume the character of one of these individuals, and interview other students about the experiences of their characters. This lesson makes extensive use of primary source documents.

OBJECTIVESAfter completing this lesson, students will be able to:

1. Analyze some of the events that led to the battle of Hampton Roads.2. “Interview” a variety of people who participated in or witnessed the battle. 3. Create an editorial cartoon, illustration, classified advertisement, or letter to the editor about

the battle, and present the project to the class.

STANDARDS OF LEARNINGFor correlations to national and state standards including Common Core, visit http://efts.history.org/statestandards

MATERIALSGuiding QuestionsMaps of the Battle of Hampton RoadsPrimary Sources 1–10Images (for Extension or Adaptation)

STRATEGY1. Using the information in the Introduction to the lesson, brief students about the battle of Hampton

Roads. (You may also wish to provide students with a copy of the Timeline of the Battle of Hampton Roads, available online with the other resources from the Electronic Field Trip “Civil War Ironclads.”)

2. Explain to students that they will portray people who were present at the battle of Hampton Roads. Explain that we know what some of these people saw and heard because of primary sources.

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3. Ask students what they think primary sources are. Use the following definition to guide a discussion: a primary source is an original document, artifact, record, or other material created by an

individual who participated in, witnessed, or lived through a certain time or event.4. Divide the class into groups of three students each. Give each student in a group the same copy

of one of the Primary Sources 1–11, and give the group one copy of the Maps of the Battle of Hampton Roads. Have one copy per group of the Guiding Questions ready to distribute in a few moments. Explain that the accounts they will read are transcribed from the original documents,

with no corrections made to spelling, grammar, or punctuation. 5. Students work within their groups to read the assigned Primary Source, referring to the Maps

of the Battle for reference as needed. Then, distribute one copy to each group of the Guiding Questions. (For advanced students, you may wish to have them work in groups of three but assign

a different Primary Source to each student.)6. When all groups have completed the Guiding Questions for their group’s assigned Primary

Source, “jigsaw” the groups, so that each student in a group has a different Primary Source (For advanced students, shuffle the group members so students will encounter new Primary

Sources in their new group.) Inform students that each student in their new groups will assume the persona of the creator of their assigned Primary Source.

7. Give each student two new copies of the Guiding Questions on which to record their notes as they interview their group members. Now, students work within their new groups to interview

each member of their group about the battle of Hampton Roads. Students answer questions as if they were the source’s creator. What happened? What was it like to be a part of it? Students may use their Guiding Questions to help craft the interview, but should be encouraged to ask new, different questions of the interviewee.

8. Have students share with the class what they learned about the battle through these accounts. Ask students how their Primary Source differed from those assigned to others. Do those differences make some sources incorrect? Why might people have had different perspectives?

EVALUATIONHave each student choose one of the following projects to create, based on their assigned Primary Source.

a. A political cartoonb. A letter to a newspaper editor explaining their opinion of the new technology they witnessed

during the battlec. An illustration of the event from the point of view of the creator of their assigned sourced. A classified advertisement requesting items based on sailors’ needs after the battle

You may choose to have students present their completed projects to the class, or hang the completed projects around the room for student viewing.

EXTENSIONHave students work in their groups to examine one or both of the Images, using the questions listed on each image to guide them.

ADAPTATIONS FOR STRUGGLING LEARNERSYou may choose to assign the shorter Primary Sources to students who need extra time or assistance when reading, or pair lower-level readers with more proficient students to complete the Guiding Questions. Alternatively, assign reluctant readers one of the two Images (used in the Extension) to analyze instead of a Primary Source text. Have them answer the questions on the Image page they are assigned, instead of using the Guiding Questions.

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ADAPTATION FOR ADVANCED LEARNERSHave students take notes while they interview each other. Then, each group of three writes a newspaper feature article about the battle of Hampton Roads, using quotes from each of their group’s assigned Primary Sources.

TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATIONSScan and display student projects on a class Web page or blog.

Have students work in threes to film a video interview. All three students should work together on the script for the interview. One student will then be the reporter. A second will take on the persona of the creator of their Primary Source from the battle of Hampton Roads. The third student will film the interview between the reporter and the source, in which the reporter asks the source about their experience at the battle.

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Guiding Questions

1. What is your job?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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2. Where were you at the time of the battle on March 8 and 9, 1862?

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3. Describe what you saw and heard.

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4. What things did you notice about the ironclad ships that were different from the wooden ships?

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5. In your opinion, who won the battle?

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Source: The Daily Press, Newport News, Va., March 2012, Used with permission.

Map of the Battle of Hampton Roads: March 8, 1862 (Day 1)

Map of the Battle of Hampton Roads: March 9, 1862 (Day 2)

Area Shown

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Primary Source 1

March 8, 1862.—At 12:40 p. m. observed the rebel ironclad steam frigate Merrimack [Virginia] coming down the Elizabeth River. At 12:55 fired a shot in the direction of the enemy to attract the attention of the senior officer to our signal. Sent a boat to ask the senior officer to send us a tug to tow us into action, our machinery being apart and our fires not lighted. At 1:30 observed the U.S. frigates Minnesota and Roanoke weigh their anchors and proceed in the direction of the enemy in tow of steam tugs. . . . Our boat returned with the information that the senior officer needed the only tugs at his disposal for the above-named frigates. Endeavored to procure a tug from the quartermasters department withoutsuccess. At 2:15 the action commenced between the U.S. frigates Congress and Cumberland and the battery at Newport News and the enemy, consisting of the Merrimack, Yorktown, Jamestown, and three smaller steamers. At 2:20 shots were exchanged between the rebel batteries at Sewells Point and the flagship Minnesota. At 3:20 the Minnesota grounded near Newport News. Heavy firing going on between all the vessels engaged. At 4 observed the U.S. frigate Congress hoist the white flag. At 4:30 sent on shore for the machinery of this vessel that was being repaired there. At 5:15 the U. S. frigate St. Lawrence passed up on her way to the scene of action in tow of U.S.S. Cambridge, the action still continuing. At 6:30 the U.S. frigate Roanoke returned to the roads, also the U.S.S. Mystic. The combatants ceased firing for the night. At 8:30 discovered the U.S. frigate Congress to be on fire. The U.S. S[hip] St. Lawrence returned to the roads. At 11:30 the U.S. ironclad battery Monitor passed up toward Newport News. Received the machinery from the shore, none of it being repaired. Lighted the fires and commenced getting up steam.

March 9.—At 12:30 a.m. observed the U.S.S. Congress blow up. At daylight observed three rebel steamers coming down toward Sewells Point. Backed the vessel down toward the senior officers’ ship and fired a shot at the enemy, which fell short. From 8 to meridian: Heavy firing going on between the Minnesota and ironclad battery Monitor on one side and the Merrimack, Yorktown, and Jamestown on the other. At 11:30 proceeded alongside the U.S. storeship Brandywine to take her in tow. At meridian proceeded with the Brandywine in tow. At sunset New Point Comfort distant 6 miles.

Source: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, vol. 7: North Atlantic Blockading Squadron (March 8–Sept. 4, 1862), 29–30.

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Primary Source 2

Abstract log of the USS Mount Vernon.

Abstract log of the U. S. storeship Brandywine.

March 8, 1862.—At 1:30 p.m. the Merrimack [meaning the CSS Virginia] hove in sight steering for Newport News, in company with three tugs. At 2, frigates Roanoke and Minnesota got underway and proceeded to Newport News. At 2:25 firing commenced from the Rip Raps, Sewells Point, Craney Island, and Newport News. 4: firing still continues from five rebel boats and replied to by the Congress, Cumberland, and others on our side. At 5:30 p.m. the frigate St. Lawrence came in, towed by the steamer Cambridge, and proceeded to Newport News to assist our force there. All hands to quarters. At 8:30 p.m. saw fires at Newport News, found to be the frigate Congress burning; continued to burn during the watch. At 11:30 the Ericsson battery [Monitor] came in and proceeded to Newport News. March 9.—Commences with calm, clear weather. The Congress still burning. At 12:30 a.m. the Congress blew up. At 5:30, day breaking, saw the Minnesota in position. At 6 saw three rebel steamers approaching. Called all hands to quarters. United States gunboat hoisted signal, got underway, and fired a gun. At 8 firing commenced from the Merrimack, which was returned by the Ericsson battery [the Monitor] and Minnesota. It has been reported here that the U.S. ship Cumberland has been sunk by the Merrimack. All hands still at quarters. From 8 to 12 p.m. the Merrimack and Ericsson battery [Monitor] engaged each other. Approximately 12 a.m., the U.S.S. Mount Vernon came alongside with orders to take this ship to Baltimore.

Source: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, vol. 7: North Atlantic Blockading Squadron (March 8–Sept. 4, 1862), 32.

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Primary Source 3

Report of Major-General Wool, U. S. Army, commanding Department of Virginia. HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF VIRGINIA, Port Monroe, Va., March 9, 1862.

GENERAL: Two hours after I sent my hurried dispatch to the Secretary of War last evening the Monitor arrived and saved the Minnesota and St. Lawrence, which were both aground when she arrived. Merrimack [CSS Virginia], supported by the Yorktown and Jamestown, commenced an attack on the Minnesota (still aground) early this morning, and after a contest of five hours was driven off in a sinking condition by the Monitor, aided by the Minnesota, and towed by the Jamestown and Yorktown toward Norfolk, for the purpose [of putting her] in the dry dock for repairs. . . . It is reported that [General] Magruder is approaching Newport News with a large force of infantry. I have reenforced that post with three regiments, a light battery of six pieces, and a company of dragoons. The command consists altogether of over or about 8,000 men. My command consists altogether of 10,000 effective men. The Cumberland was sunk, and we lost more than one half of her crew. The Congress surrendered, but the crew was released and the officers taken as prisoners. The Minnesota has got off, but it is reported she is in a sinking condition. It is to be hoped that I will be largely reenforced, including two additional light batteries. The Monitor is far superior to the Merrimack. The first has only two guns, while the Merrimack has eight.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

JOHN E. WOOL, Major-General GEORGE B. MCCLELLAN, Major- General. Commanding the Army,

Washington, D. C. (Similar report to Secretary of War.)

Source: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, vol. 7: North Atlantic Blockad-ing Squadron (March 8–Sept. 4, 1862), 34.

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Primary Source 4

Report of Brigadier-General Mansfield, U.S. Army, commanding brigade.

HDQRS. FIRST BRIG., FIRST DIV., DEPT. OF VIRGINIA,Newport News, March 10, 1862.

SIR: I have the honor to report that in the forenoon of Saturday, the 8th instant, the commanders of the Congress and Cumberland, at anchor in the stream, notified me that the ironclad Merrimack [Virginia] steamer of the enemy was approaching from Norfolk to attack them, and I immediately telegraphed you to that effect. At about 2 o’clock p. m. she approached very near these vessels slowly, engaged first the Congress, and passed on to the Cumberland and ran into her, and all within a mile of our batteries. I immediately ordered Lieutenant-Colonel G. Nauman, chief of artillery, to open our batteries of four columbiads [cannons] and one 42-pounder James gun [cannon] to fire on her. It was done with alacrity [quickly] and kept up continuously with spirit as long as she was in range, and although our shot often struck her, they made no impression on her at all. . . . no visible serious damage to her from our guns was done, such was the strength of her mail [armor]. . . .

During the sinking of the Cumberland, the Congress slipped her cable and hoisted sail and ran ashore just above Signal Point, where many of her men escaped to the shore, and was then followed by the Merrimack, and after two raking shots she hauled down her flag and hoisted a white flag and ceased action. The enemy then sent two steamers with Confederate flags flying and made thus on either side of her, with a view to haul her off or burn her. As soon as I saw this I ordered Colonel Brown . . . to send two rifle companies (A and K) to the beach. The two rifled guns, under Captain Howard, and a rifled Dahlgren howitzer, manned by Master Stuyvesant and fourteen sailors of the Cumberland, went into action from a raking position on the beach . . . against these steamers. . . .

Thus closed the tragedy of the day. The enemy retired at dark toward the opposite shore, and the Congress illuminated the heavens and varied the scene by the firing of her own guns and the flight of her [cannon]balls through the air till about 2 o’clock in the morning, when her magazine exploded and a column of burning matter appeared high in the air, to be followed by the stillness of death. . . . All was done that it was possible to do under the circumstances to save these ships from the enemy. . . .

The loss on the part of our Navy must have been great by the bursting of shells and the drowning by the sinking of the Cumberland, although our best efforts were made to save them. Our ships were perfectly helpless against the Merrimack, as their broadsides produced no material effect on her.

All of which is respectfully submitted. Jos. K. F. MANSFIELD,

Brigadier-General, Commanding. Major-General JOHN E. WOOL, Commanding Department of Virginia.

Source: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, vol. 7: North Atlantic Blockad-ing Squadron (March 8–Sept. 4, 1862), 34–36.

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Primary Source 5

U S Steamer MonitorHampton RoadsMarch 9th, 18622 o’clock P.M.

My Dear Wife & Children, I have but a few minutes to spare to say that I am safe. We have had an engagement with

the Merrimac [CSS Virginia] continuing for three hours & have driven her off, we think in a sinking condition. We have three men disabled, among them & the worst is our noble Captain who has lost his sight, I hope only temporarily. The first opportunity I get you shall have full details & my own experience.with my best & kindest love to you all.

William

We fought her at 20 feet distance a part of the time, the two vessels were touching. My hands are all dirt & powder smoke as you will discover by the paper-

U.S. Steamer MonitorOff Sandy Hook[letter dated] March 6th, 1862 [portions written after March 9th]

The announcement of breakfast brought also the news that the Merrimac [Virginia] was coming & our coffee was forgotten. . . .

I experienced a peculiar sensation, I do not think it was fear, but it was different from anything I ever knew before. We were enclosed in what we supposed to be an impenetrable armour—we knew that a powerful foe was about to meet us—ours was an untried experiment & our enemy’s first fire might make it a coffin for us all. . . .

The suspense was awful as we waited in the dim light expecting every moment to hear the crash of our enemy’s shot.

Soon came the report [sound] of a gun, then another & another at short intervals, then a rapid discharge. Then a thundering broadside & the infernal howl (I can’t give it a more appropriate name) of the shells as they flew over our vessel was all the broke the silence & made it seem still more terrible. . . .

O, what a relief it was, when at the word, the gun over my head thundered out its challenge with a report which jarred our vessel, but it was music to us all. . . .

Until we fired, the Merrimac had taken no notice of us, confining her attentions to the Minnesota. Our second shot struck her & made the iron scales rattle on her side. She seemed for the first time to be aware of our presence & replied to our solid shot with grape & canister which rattled on our iron decks like hail stones. . . .

The vessels were now sufficiently near to make our fire effective & our two heavy pieces were worked as rapidly as possible, every shot telling— . . .

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The men at the guns had stripped themselves to their waists & were covered with powder & smoke, the perspiration falling from them like rain.

Below, we had no idea of the position of our unseen antagonist, her mode of attack, or her distance from us, except what was made known through the orders of the Capt. . . .

“Look out now they’re going to run us down, give them both guns.”

This was the critical moment, one that I had feared from the beginning of the fight—if she could so easily pierce the heavy oak beams of the Cumberland, she surely could go through the ½-inch iron plates of our lower hull.

A moment of terrible suspense, a heavy jar [jolt] nearly throwing us from our feet—a rapid glance to detect the expected gush of water—she had failed to reach us below the water and we were safe.

The sounds of the conflict at this time were terrible. The rapid firing of our own guns amid the clouds of smoke, the howling of the Minnesota’s shells, which was firing whole broadsides at a time just over our heads (two of her shot struck us), mingled with the crash of solid shot against our sides & the bursting of shells all around us. Two men had been sent down from the turret, who were knocked senseless by balls striking the outside of the turret while they happened to be in contact with the inside. . . .

At this time a heavy shell struck the pilot house—I was standing near, waiting an order, heard the report which was unusually heavy, a flash of light & a cloud of smoke filled the house. I noticed the Capt. [John L. Worden] stagger and put his hands to his eyes—I ran up to him & asked if he was hurt.

“My eyes,” says he, “I am blind.”

With the assistance of the Surgeon I got him down & called Lieut. Greene from the turret. . . .

[Captain Worden] said, “Gentlemen I leave it with you, do what you think best. . . . do not mind me. Save the Minnesota if you can.” . . .

Lieut. Greene took Capt. W.’s position & our bow was again pointed for the Merrimac. As we neared her she seemed inclined to haul off & after a few more guns on each side, Mr. Greene gave the order to stop firing as she was out of range & hauling off. We did not pursue as we were anxious to relieve Capt. W. & have more done for him than could be done aboard. . . .

In a few minutes we were surrounded by small steamers & boats from Newport News, the Fortress, the various men or war, all eager to learn the extent of our injuries & congratulate us on our victory. They told us of the intense anxiety with [which] the conflict was witnessed by thousands of spectators from the shipping & from the shore & their astonishment was no less on learning that though we were somewhat marked we were uninjured & ready to open the fight again. . . .

The battle commenced at ½ past 8 A.M. & we fired the last gun at 10 minutes past 12 M [meaning midday or noon].

Source: William Keeler, Aboard the USS Monitor: 1862: the Letters of Acting Paymaster William Frederick Keeler, U.S. Navy to His Wife, Anna, ed. Robert W. Daly (Annapolis, Md.: United States Naval Institute, 1964), 26, 33–39.

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Primary Source 6

Dear Wife,

I shall write you very little about our Fight as you shall see it in all the Papers. I was on duty in the fire room when the action commenced but was relieved and went to my station hoisting up shot and shell to the Tower [turret] Guns. I often thought of you and the little darlings when the fight was going on and what would become of you should I be killed but I should have no more such fears as our ship resisted every thing they could fire at her as though they were spit balls. I want you to send me the Times that has an account of our doings. I was not a bit sea sick and stood the trip well our only difficulty was that the water washed into us and kept us all soaking wet and did not give us any chance to sleep and when we got about ten miles off the Fortress we could hear the guns very plain and at once got to our places and were all ready to commence but passed a sleepless night for nothing which made four nights in succession we had gone with no sleep and were pretty well [in] need of. Our ship is crowded with generals and officers of all grades both Army & Navy they are wild with Joy and say if any of us men come to the Fort we can have all we want free as we have saved 100s of lives and millions of property to the government

[George Geer]

Source: The Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va., http://www.marinersmuseum.org/uss-monitor-center/life-board, Geer Letters Interactive.

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Primary Source 7

Lieutenant Rochelle, a Confederate sailor aboard the C.S.S. Patrick Henry:

C. S. S. PALMETTO STATE, Charleston, S. C., January 30, 1865.

DEAR SIR: I am glad to learn from you that Flag-Officer Lynch has been directed by the Department to prepare a narrative of the memorable and gallant deeds of the Confederate Navy. . . .

At the first peep of dawn on the 9th of March the Confederate squadron was underway, it having been determined to destroy the Minnesota that near as the vessel being still aground Newport News. [As] daylight increased the Minnesota was discovered in her old position, but the Minnesota was not the only thing to attract attention. Close alongside of her there lay such a craft as the eyes of a seaman never looked upon before an immense shingle floating on the water, with a gigantic cheese box rising from its center; no sails, no wheels, no smokestack, no guns. What could it be? On board the Patrick Henry many were the surmises [guesses] as to the strange craft. Some thought it a water tank sent to supply the Minnesota with water; others were of opinion that it was a floating magazine replenishing her exhausted stock of ammunition; a few visionary characters feebly intimated that it might be the Monitor which the Northern papers had been boasting about for a long time. All doubts about the stranger were soon dispelled. As the Virginia steamed down upon the Minnesota the cheese box and shingle steamed out to meet her. It was indeed the Monitor, and then and there commenced the first combat that had ever taken place between ironclads. The Patrick Henry and the other wooden vessels took little part in the events of the day, except to exchange shots with the Monitor at long range as she passed and repassed during her maneuvering with the Virginia. At one time the Virginia did not seem to move. Apprehensions were entertained that she had got aground or that some part of her machinery was damaged. Signal flags were run up on board of her, but the flags did not blow out clear and it was some minutes before the signal officer of the Patrick Henry could make out the numbers. At length he reported the signal to be “Disabled my propeller is.” No wooden vessel could have floated twenty minutes under the fire that the Virginia was undergoing, but if her propeller was disabled it was necessary to attempt to tow her back to the cover of our batteries, so the Patrick Henry and Jamestown started to make the attempt. They had gone but a short distance before the Virginia was seen to move and her propeller to turn, and the sacrifice was not necessary. That evening all the Confederate vessels went into the harbor of Norfolk and anchored. . . .

Source: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, vol. 7: North Atlantic Blockad-ing Squadron (March 8–Sept. 4, 1862), 49, 52–53.

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Primary Source 8H. Ashton Ramsay, Chief Engineer on the CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads

March 8, 1862

. . . As we rounded into view the white-winged sailing craft that sprinkled the bay and long lines of tugs and small boats scurried to the far shore like chickens on the approach of a hovering hawk. They had seen our black hull which looked like the roof of a barn afloat. Suddenly huge volumes of smoke began to pour from the funnels of the frigates Minnesota and Roanoke at Old Point. They had seen us, too, and were getting up steam. Bright colored signal flags were run up and down the masts of all the ships of the Federal fleet. The Congress shook out her topsails. Down came the clothes line on the Cumberland, and boats were lowered and dropped astern. . . .

[Later] We now turned to the Congress, which had tried to escape but had grounded, and the battle raged once more, broadside upon broadside, delivered at close range, the Merrimac [CSS Virginia] working closer all the time with her bow pointed as if to ram the Congress. A shell from Lieutenant Wood’s gun sped through their line of [gun]powder-passers, not only cutting down the men, but exploding the [gun]powder buckets in their hands, spreading death and destruction and setting fire to the ship.

At last came the order, “Cease firing.”“The Congress has surrendered,” someone cried. “Look out of the port. See, she has run up white

flags. The officers are waving their handkerchiefs.” . . .When it was fully evident that there was to be a suspension of hostilities, and these details had all

been attended to, several of the officers went to stand beside Buchanan on the upper grating.The whole scene was changed. A pall of black smoke hung about the ships and obscured the

clean-cut out lines of the shore. Down the river were the three frigates St. Lawrence, Roanoke, and Minnesota, also enveloped in the clouds of battle that now and then reflected the crimson lightnings of the god of war. The masts of the Cumberland were protruding above the water. The Congress presented a terrible scene of carnage. . . .

Leaving the Congress wrapped in sheets of flame, we made for the three other frigates. The St. Lawrence and Roanoke had run aground, but were pulled off by tugs and made their escape. The Minnesota was not so fortunate, but we drew twenty-three feet of water and could not get near enough to destroy her, while our guns could not be elevated owing to the narrow embrasures, and their range was only a mile; so we made for our moorings at Sewall’s Point.

All the evening we stood on deck watching the brilliant display of the burning ship. Every part of her was on fire at the same time, the red-tongued flames running up shrouds, masts, and stays, and extending out to the yard-arms. She stood in bold relief against the black background, lighting up the Roads and reflecting her lurid lights on the bosom of the now placid and hushed waters. Every now and then the flames would reach one of the loaded cannon and a shell would hiss at random through the darkness. About midnight came the grand finale. The magazines [ammunition storage] exploded, exploded, shooting up a huge column of firebrands hundreds of feet in the air, and then the burning hulk burst asunder and melted into the waters, while the calm night spread her sable mantle over Hampton Roads.

[H. Ashton RamseyChief Engineer, CSS Virginia]

Source: John Lorimer Worden, et al. The Monitor and the Merrimac: Both Sides of the Story, told by Lieut. J. L. Worden, Lieut. Greene of the Monitor and H. Ashton Ramsay, Chief Engineer of the Merrimac (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1912), 33–34, 41–42, 43–44, 46–47.

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Primary Source 9

Watching the “Merrimac.” By R. E. Colston, Brigadier-General, C.S.A.

In March, 1862, I was in command of a Confederate brigade and of a district on the south side of the James River embracing all the river forts and batteries down to the mouth of Nansemond River. My pickets were posted all along the shore opposite Newport News. From my headquarters at Smithfield I was in constant and rapid communication through relays of couriers and signal stations with my department commander, Major-General Huger, stationed at Norfolk.

About 1 P.M. on the 8th of March, a courier dashed up to my headquarters with this brief dispatch: “The Virginia is coming up the river.” Mounting at once, it took me but a very short time to gallop twelve miles down to Ragged Island.

I had hardly dismounted at the water’s edge when I [saw] the Merrimac [Virginia] approaching. The Congress was moored about a hundred yards below the land batteries, and the Cumberland a little above them. As soon as the Merrimac came within range, the batteries and war-vessels opened fire. She passed on up, exchanging broadsides with the Congress, and making straight for the Cumberland, at which she made a dash, firing her bow-guns as she struck the doomed vessel with her prow. I could hardly believe my senses when I saw the masts of the Cumberland begin to sway wildly. After one or two lurches, her hull disappeared beneath the water, guns firing to the last moment. Most of her brave crew went down with their ship, but not with their colors, for the Union flag still floated defiantly from the masts, which projected obliquely for about half their length above the water after the vessel had settled unevenly upon the river-bottom. This first act of the drama was over in about thirty minutes, but it seemed to me only a moment. . . .

As soon as it was known at Fort Monroe that the Merrimac had come out, the frigates Minnesota, Roanoke, and St. Lawrence were ordered to the assistance of the blockading squadron. The Minnesota, assisted by two tugs, was the first to reach the scene, but the Cumberland and the Congress were already past help. As soon as she came within range, a rapid cannonade commenced between her and the Merrimac, aided by the Patrick Henry and the Jamestown, side-wheel river steamers transformed into gun-boats. The Minnesota, drawing nearly as much water as the Merrimac, grounded upon a shoal in the North Channel. This at once put an end to any further attacks by ramming; but the lofty frigate, towering above the water, now offered an easy target to the rifled guns of the Merrimac and the lighter artillery of the gun-boats. A shot from her exploded the Patrick Henry’s boiler, causing much loss of life and disabling that vessel for a considerable time. . . .

[The next day, March 9] The sun was just rising when the Merrimac . . . headed toward the Minnesota. . . . As soon as the Merrimac approached her old adversary, the Monitor darted out from behind the Minnesota, whose immense bulk had effectually concealed her from view. No words can express the surprise with which we beheld this strange craft, whose appearance was tersely and graphically described by the exclamation of one of my oarsmen, “A tin can on a shingle!” Yet this insignificant-looking object was at that moment the most powerful war-ship in the world. The first shots of the Merrimac were di-rected at the Minnesota, which was again set on fire, while one of the tugs alongside of her was blown up, creating great havoc and consternation; but the Monitor, having the advantage of light draught [draft], placed herself between the Merrimac and her intended victim, and from that moment the con-flict became a heroic single combat between the two iron-clads. For an instant they seemed to pause,

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as if to survey each other. Then advancing cautiously, the two vessels opened fire as soon as they came within range, and a fierce artillery duel raged between them without perceptible effect, although the entire fight was within close range, from half a mile at the farthest down to a few yards. For four hours, from 8 to 12 (which seemed three times as long), the cannonading continued with hardly a moment’s intermission. I was now within three-quarters of a mile of them, and more than once stray shots came near enough to dash the spray over my barge, but the grandeur of the spectacle was so fascinating that they passed by unheeded. During the evolutions, in which the Monitor had the advantage of light draught, the Merrimac ran aground. After much delay and difficulty she was floated off. Finding that her shot made no impression whatever upon the Monitor, the Merrimac, seizing a favorable chance, succeeded in striking her foe with her stem. Soon afterward they ceased firing and separated as if by common consent. The Monitor steamed away toward Old Point. Captain Van Brunt, commander of the Minnesota, states in his official report that when he saw the Monitor disappear, he lost all hope of saving his ship. But, fortunately for him, the Merrimac steamed slowly toward Norfolk, evidently disabled in her motive power. The Monitor, accompanied by several tugs, returned late in the afternoon and they succeeded in floating the Minnesota and conveying her to Old Point.

Source: Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence Clough Buel, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Vol. 1 (New York: The Century Co., 1884–1887), 712–714.

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Primary Source 10Captain Worden told the story, of which the following is the substance:

“. . . The Monitor had been hurried from the laying of her keel. Her engines were new, and her machinery did not move smoothly. Never was a vessel launched that so much needed trial-trips to test her machinery and get her crew accustomed to their novel duties. . . . We had a very hard trip down the coast, and officers and men were weary and sleepy. But when informed that our fight would probably open at daylight, and that the Monitor must be put in order, every man went to his post with a cheer. That night there was no sleep aboard the Monitor.

“In the gray of the early morning we saw a vessel approaching, which our friends on the Minnesota said was the Merrimac [CSS Virginia]. . . . We had come a long way to fight her, and did not intend to lose our opportunity. . . .

“I laid the Monitor close alongside the Merrimac, and gave her a shot. She returned our compliment by a shell weighing one hundred and fifty pounds, fired when we were close together, which struck the turret so squarely that it received the whole force. Here you see the scar, two and a half inches deep in the wrought iron, a perfect mold of the shell. If anything could test the turret, it was that shot. It did not start a rivet-head or a nut! It stunned the two men who were nearest where the [cannon]ball struck, and that was all.

“I had decided how I would fight her in advance. I would keep the Monitor moving in a circle just large enough to give time for loading the guns. At the point where the circle impinged upon the Merrimac our guns should be fired, and loaded while we were moving around the circuit. Evidently the Merrimac would return the compliment every time. At our second exchange of shots, she returning six or eight [shots] to our two, another of her large shells struck our ‘plank-shear’ at its angle, and tore up one of the deck-plates, as you see. The shell had struck what I believed to be the weakest point in the Monitor. We had already learned that the Merrimac swarmed with sharpshooters, for their bullets were constantly spattering against our turret and our deck. If a man showed himself on deck he would draw their fire. But I did not much consider the sharpshooters. It was my duty to investigate the effects of that shot. . . . The hull was uninjured, except for a few splinters in the wood. I walked back and crawled into the turret—the bullets were falling on the iron deck all about me as thick as hail-stones in a storm. None struck me. . . . We gave them two more guns[hots], and then I told the men, what was true, that the Merrimac could not sink us if we let her pound us for a month. The men cheered; the knowledge put new life into all.

“[T]hen the Merrimac tried new tactics. She endeavored to ram us, to run us down. Once she struck us about amidships with her iron ram. . . . It gave us a shock, pushed us around, and that was all the harm. . . . Ours being the smaller vessel, and more easily handled, I had no difficulty in avoiding her ram. I ran around her several times, planting our shot in what seemed to be the most vulnerable places. In this way, reserving my fire until I got the range and the mark, I planted two more shots almost in the very spot I had hit when she tried to ram us. Those shots must have been effective, for they were followed by a shower of bars of iron. . . .

“I was below the deck when the corner of the pilot-house was first struck by a shot or a shell. It either burst or was broken, and no harm was done. A short time after I had given the signal and, with my eye close against the lookout crack, was watching the effect of our shot, something happened to me—my part in the fight was ended. . . .”

Source: John Lorimer Worden, et al. The Monitor and the Merrimac: Both Sides of the Story, told by Lieut. J. L. Worden, Lieut. Greene of the Monitor and H. Ashton Ramsay, Chief Engineer of the Merrimac (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1912), 5–6, 8, 10–14, 16.

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Image 1Sinking of the Cumberland by James Gurney

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Questions1. Describe what the sailors on the USS Cumberland experienced.2. Describe what the sailors on the CSS Virginia experienced as they bombarded the Cumberland.

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Image 2Battle Between the Monitor and Merrimac by Kurz & Allison

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Questions1. Create a Venn diagram comparing the Monitor and the Virginia (Merrimack).2. Who do you think won that battle? What features in the image make you say so?

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We would enjoy copies of some of your students’ work from any of Colonial Williamsburg’s educational materials. If you care to share examples, please send them to:

Gina DeAngelisEducation OutreachThe Colonial Williamsburg FoundationP.O. Box 1776Williamsburg, VA 23187-1776

Thanks for their help to:Glenna Raper, Davis, OklahomaChris Whitehead, Mesa, Arizona

The Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, Va.:Anna Holloway, vice president, Collections and ProgramsAnne Marie Millar, director of educationWisteria Perry, education specialist, history and language arts

The National Civil War Naval Museum at Port Columbus, Ga.:Ken Johnston, executive director

and to the following staff members of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation:

Nathan Conner, research assistantLeslie Doiron, associate producerMike Durling, producer/directorWilliam Fetsko, curriculum specialistClaire Gould, editor-writerStacy Hasselbacher, manager of educational media, producerShelby Hawthorne, educational reviewerAmanda Hernandez, research assistantAnnie Lewis, production associateTara Mastrangelo, research assistantAbigail Schumann, producerAaron Wolfe, production associate

Special thanks to:José Barcita, graphic designer

The teacher materials were underwritten by the William and Gretchen Kimball Young Patriots Fund.

çolonial  ®

A “powder monkey” was a young boy whose job was to carry gunpowder to the guns dur-ing battles at sea. “Powder monkey by gun of U.S.S. New Hampshire off Charleston, S.C.,” between 1864 and 1865. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washing-ton, D.C. [LC-DIG-cwpb-03515].