Last Interglacial peopling of Siberia: the Middle Palaeolithic site Ust‘-Izhul’, the upper Yenisei area

Last Interglacial peopling of Siberia: the Middle Palaeolithic site Ust’-Izhul’, the upper Yenisei area

JIRI CHLACHULA, NIKOLAI I. DROZDOV AND NIKOLAI D. OVODOV

Chlachula, J., Drozdov, N. I. & Ovodov, N. D. 2003 (September): Last Interglacial peopling of Siberia: theMiddle Palaeolithic site Ust’-Izhul’, the upper Yenisei area.Boreas, Vol. 32, pp. 506–520. Oslo. ISSN 0300-9483.

Multidisciplinary Quaternary investigations in the Minusinsk Basin in the upper Yenisei River region and othersouthern Siberian continental depressions have produced evidence of prehistoric peopling pre-dating the lastglacial stage (�100 ka BP). Abundant ‘pebble tools’ and bone artefacts exposed from eroded alluvia of theYenisei River terraces indicate repeated occupation of this territory since the Middle Pleistocene. A new stage ofexpansion of the early human occupation habitat occurred around the last interglacial (OIS 5e) by a MiddlePalaeolithic (Neanderthaloid?) population characterized by a core and flake stone industry and open-airoccupation sites. The key camp/kill-processing site at Ust’-Izhul’, dated toc. 125 ka BP and documentingcomplex behavioural activities, is so far the most completein situ pre-Late Palaeolithic site found in Siberia. Thisunique record provides new insights into the timing and the palaeoenvironmental conditions of the Pleistocenecolonization of north-central Asia.

Jiri Chlachula (e-mail: [email protected]), Laboratory for Paleoecology, University Zlin, CZ-762 72 Zlin, CzechRepublic; Nikolai I. Drozdov and Nikolai D. Ovodov, Laboratory for Archaeology and Palaeogeography ofCentral Siberia, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 660 036 Krasnoyarsk, Russia; received 1stJuly 2002, accepted 5th February 2003.

Siberia, being a vast territory ofc. 15000000 km2

encompassing the northern part of Asia, has majorsignificance for our understanding processes of envir-onmental adaptation of prehistoric people to highlatitudes as well as for reconstruction of the initialcolonization of the American continent. Until relativelyrecently, the earliest human occupation of north Asiawas believed to be represented by Late Palaeolithiccultures (e.g. Larichevet al. 1987; Abramova 1989;Derevianko 1990; Ranov 1990). This view tends topersist in some scientific circles, particularly in NorthAmerica (e.g. West 1997). Since the 1980s, large-scaleriver erosion within the major southern and centralSiberian river basins as well as industrial activitiesdisturbing the original surficial cover between the IrtyshRiver in the west and the Lena River in the east haverevealed several hundred palaeolithic archaeologicalsites, some of potentially great antiquity (Dereviankoetal. 1990; Deviatkin et al. 1992; Mochanov 1988;Nikolaev & Markin 1990; Ranov 1992). Apart fromthe Kuzbass and Angara Basins (Zudinet al. 1982;Medvedevet al. 1990), the most intensive research hasbeen in the northern Minusinsk Basin in the steppe zoneof the upper Yenisei River valley in the south of theKrasnoyarsk Region (Fig. 1). The Yenisei River wasdammed in the early 1970s, similarly to the other majorSiberian rivers (Ob, Angara and Lena) to form the400 km long and 5–20 km wide Krasnoyarsk Lake.Consequently, the river level rose to 40–100 m abovethe original floodplain, triggering intensive erosion ofthe adjacent landscape formed by unconsolidated

loessic deposits overlying the Early and MiddlePleistocene alluvial terraces.

Systematic geoarchaeological investigations startedin the late 1980s in the main study area (the KurtakArchaeological Region) after progressive erosion of thesurrounding slopes had exposed 10–40 m high sectionsalong the western lake shore. Lake level fluctuationshave caused a gradual, up to 4 km lateral slope retreatover the last 30 years and have revealed a complete,high-resolution Late Quaternary loess-palaeosol record(Chlachula et al. 1997, 1998; Chlachula 1999) andnumerous Early, Middle and Late Palaeolithic stoneartefacts and rich fossil faunal remains contextuallyassociated with the geological formation (Drozdov1990; Drozdovet al. 1990a, b, 1999; Laukhinet al.1990; Dereviankoet al. 1992; Chlachula 2001b). As inother areas of Siberia, the oldest previously knownarchaeological finds in the area are dated to about 30 kaBP (Tseitlin 1979; Praslov 1984). Because of theerosional nature of the settings, the cultural andpalaeontological material, particularly from the earlierstages, is rarely found in its original stratigraphicalposition. The Early/Middle Palaeolithic records areassociated with the Middle Pleistocene (65–80 m)Yenisei River terraces and alluvial fan deposits. Twoseries of stone tool assemblages made from quartzite,quartz, chalcedony and basalt cobbles have beenrecognized by their degree of corrosion and patination,tentatively dated to early and late Middle Pleistocenestages, respectively (Chlachulaet al. 1994). The Middleand Late Palaeolithic industries are found in 30–40 m

DOI 10.1080/03009480310003397� 2003 Taylor & Francis

thick loess sections and interstratified palaeosols whichoverlie the terrace and fan deposits. Erosion continuesto modify the exposed lake-shore sections and producesnew cultural materials every year. The present findsfrom the broader area show that parts of southernSiberia were occupied at several stages during theMiddle Pleistocene, corroborating the archaeologicalevidence from the Kuzbass and upper Angara RiverBasins (Derevianko 1990; Medvedevet al. 1990;Medvedev 1993; Chlachulaet al. in press). Thepalaeolithic site Ust’-Izhul’, described below, is ratherexceptional among the pre-Late Palaeolithic sites foundin Siberia.

Site location and palaeogeography

The study area is located in the Northern MinusinskBasin belonging to the Yenisei River drainage system ofthe southern part of the Krasnoyarsk Region (Fig. 1).The basin, with average altitude of 250–300 m a.s.l. inthe central part, is one of a series of tectonic depressionsin the eastern sector of the Altai–Sayan Mountain

System. It is bordered on the west by the KuznetskiyAlatau Mountains (max. elevation 2178 m a.s.l.) and bythe western foothills of the Eastern Sayan Mountains onthe east. The present climate (with MAT�0.5°C) isstrongly continental with cold and dry winters andwarm to hot summers, andc. 300 mm annual precipita-tion in the central steppe zone.

The Ust’-Izhul site is situated on the western side ofKrasnoyarsk Lake (the dammed Yenisei River) in thenorthern part of the Kurtak Archaeological Districtformally established in 1988 as one of the loci of themost intensive multidisciplinary Quaternary investiga-tions in Siberia (Drozdovet al. 1990a, b, 1999;Chlachula et al. 1994; Chlachula 2001b). The sur-rounding topography is formed by undulating land-scape of open parkland-steppe (Fig. 2). Geologically,the locality lies on the 65–70 m Yenisei River terracecovered by 10–40 m thick loess deposits. At the time ofinvestigation, the site was positioned at the edge of theeroded beach,c. 100 m wide, which developed during alateral retreat of the river-eroded unconsolidated slopecover.

The site was discovered during a field survey alongthe eroding lake-shore face in summer 1993 after amajor lake level drop by about 2.5 m from the originalstand exposed numerous Pleistocene fauna bones, bonefragments and stone artefacts scattered over the nearbybeach. The rescue geoarchaeological investigation wassubsequently carried out in summer 1994. The excava-tion under renewed progressive river erosion hadexposed an intact concentration of mammoth bonesfrom the basal part of a 0.5–1.2 m high shore cliff, theupper part of which (10–12 m thick) was removedduring a former high-level stand of the lake. In thefollowing year (1995) the lake level rose again by 6 mand most of the locality became flooded. From theoriginal geological situation and the documented strati-graphic position, there is no question that the siterepresents an erosional feature of the overlying loessicdeposits and not a more recent accumulation.

The palaeo-landscape in the vicinity of the siteexperienced significant development and change inthe local topography. Intensive erosion during theLate Pleistocene is apparent from the inclined orienta-tion of the Kurtak Pedocomplex dated toc. 30–22 ka BPand the overlying late last glacial loess deposits dippingin the direction of the formerly excavated palaeo-gully.The surficial deposits generally slope down the ancientYenisei valley from the Yenisei-Chulym water divideover high (Early and Middle Pleistocene) alluvialterraces (110–150 m) and are draped over the edge ofthe 60–70 m high terrace above the Holocene riverfloodplain prior to its flooding by the Krasnoyarskreservoir. Inclination of the cover deposits becomesgradually gentler further upslope with the increasingdistance from the natural (now flooded) escarpment ofthe left wall of the river valley. The early site was foundabout 90 m from the present valley erosion wall

Fig. 1. Geographical location of the Ust’-Izhul’ site in the MinusinskBasin, south-central Siberia with respect to other principal palaeo-lithic sites recorded in the region: 1 – Kurtak, 2 – Ust’-Izhul’, 3 –Malaiya Siya, 4 – Listvenka, 5 – Afontova Gora, 6 – Maina, 7 – Ui.

BOREAS 32 (2003) Last Interglacial peopling of Siberia 507

exposing a complex stratigraphic structure of theQuaternary cover deposits (Figs 3, 4). The reliefmorphology of the Ust’-Izhul’ promontory was con-siderably different at the time of the palaeolithicinhabitation than at the present time. Assuming thelast interglacial age of the locality (discussed below),the site was situated on a gently inclined MiddlePleistocene Yenisei River terrace, 200–250 m wideand elevated 30–40 m above the former floodplain.During the following millennia the locality becameburied by thick loess deposits intercalated by a series ofvariably developed palaeosols in response to climaticfluctuations.

Site stratigraphy

A detailed stratigraphy of the Ust’-Izhul’ locality wasmapped in the intact composite profile above 70 m west

from the palaeolithic occupation site exposing theoriginal sedimentary cover sequence (Figs 3, 4). Thesection is formed by aeolian loess and partly colluvialloessic deposits overlying the 60–70 m high YeniseiRiver terrace. The fine (silt) sediments include a suite ofvariably developed palaeosols, representing altogetherabout 25 single stratigraphic units (Fig. 3) correspond-ing to OIS 1–6.

The upper part of the section (Units 1–3) includesc.2.2-m-thick silty deposits below the present surfacetopped by the parkland-steppe chernozem with a verydark brown (10YR 3/1 d) and prominent, 25-cm-thick,humus-rich Ah horizon. The silty formation below has amassive, light grey (2.5Y 7/2 d) structure, intercalatedby two, 30–40 cm thick, pale brown (10YR 6/3 d) andpartly colluviated pedogenic (Bmkg) horizons, withsome dispersed charcoal, signs of gleying and second-ary calcium carbonates precipitated in the bottom parts.

The underlying (2.2–4.2 m),c. 2-m-thick aeolian

Fig. 2. Present geomorphological setting of the site with the site location.

508 Jiri Chlachula et al. BOREAS 32 (2003)

deposit includes two palaeosols (Units 4, 5) of theKurtak Pedocomplex, well documented in the studyarea (correlated with OIS 3 and radiocarbon-dated to22–31 ka BP) (Chlachula 2001b). The upper, prominentchernozemic palaeosol (Unit 4), secondarily trans-formed into a turbic cryosol, is distinguished by adark greyish brown (10YR 4/2 d), 10–20 cm thick, Ahhorizon, rich in charcoal and fossil wood (Pinus sp.),and forming a partly discontinuous stratum with anabrupt (cryogenically involuted) boundary. The under-lying palaeosol, distinguished by a silty-clay, yellowishbrown (10YR 5/4 d) Bmk(g) horizon with somecharcoal and krotovinas above a well-developed BCcahorizon, represents a partly truncated fossil parkland-steppe chernozem.

The lower part of the section (4.2–7.9 m) (Units 6–11) comprises laminated, light grey (2.5Y 7/2 d) to lightolive grey (5Y 6/2 d), loessic deposits, interstratified bythree, 40–60 cm thick, very pale brown (10YR 7/3 d)and secondarily colluviated pedogenic (Ckg) horizons(Units 7, 8, 11) indicative of incipient (regosolic) soildevelopment with signs of gleying and secondary

carbonate precipitation. The above pedogenic features,along with fossil grass rootlets, are characteristic of acold tundra-steppe setting.

The central part of the stratigraphic profile (7.9–11.5 m) is represented by a prominent pedocomplex(Units 12–18). The upper part of the pedocomplex (Unit13) includes a leached chernozem with a 20–40 cmthick, dark brown (10YR 3/3 d), silty clayey, humic(Ah) horizon displaying a syndepositional pedogenicdevelopment grading into the overlying massive, lightolive grey (5Y 6/2 d) loess (Unit 12). The palaeosol isdistinguished by a strongly developed BCca horizonwith a high concentration of secondary carbonates. Thelower, most-developed steppe chernozem (Unit 16),separated from the above soil by a 60–80 cm thick, palebrown (10YR 6/3 d) loess (Unit 14) with a cryogeni-cally deformed surface, is characterized by a 40-cm-thick, dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2 d), silty clay hu-mic (Ah) horizon with dispersed charcoal, secondarilydistorted by up to 80 cm frost-wedge casts reaching intothe underlying dark brown (10YR 4/3 d), silt-loamy Bmhorizon and the below BCca horizon with abundant

Fig. 3. A Late Quaternary (OIS 6-1) loess section of the Ust’-Izhul’locality (Site I) with thestratigraphic position of thecultural horizon (indicated by thearrow), corresponding to OIS 5eand represented by a chernozemicpalaeosol, being a most prominentregional stratigraphic marker inthe Siberian loess belt dated at thesite to 125 ka BP.


carbonate concretions. The palaeosol surface is overlainby a 10–30 cm thick, dark brown (10YR 3/3), stronglybioturbated and secondarily cryoturbated humic layer(Unit 15) with abundant krotovinas and charcoal. Loessbeneath the palaeosol (Unit 17) includes a 40-cm-thick,pedogenically altered, pale brown (10YR 6/3 d), siltyclayey horizon (Unit 18) with some krotovinas andcharcoal in the sedimentary matrix.

The lower part of the section (11.5–14 m) (Units 19–20) is formed by a massive and partly colluviated loess,interstratified by 0.2–1 cm, light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2 d) to light olive grey (5Y 6/2 d) silty and loamy layerswith minor frost wedge casts and involutions. Rootletchannels with concentrations of black manganesemottles and small calcium carbonate concretionsindicative of a progressive gleying show an incipientpedogenic development at several levels within thedeposit. Finally, the basal part of the stratigraphicsequence (Units 21–25) was documented in the exca-vated trench at the foot of the natural erosion (14–16.5 m below the upper surface). This is formed bylaminated, reddish-brown, sandy and silty-clayeylayers, likely including admixture of redepositedPalaeozoic sediments forming the local bedrock andoverlying the 60–70 m Yenisei terrace. A relic of anilluvial soil horizon (Unit 22) with krotovinas wasrecorded in the middle part of the excavated profile (Fig.4). The trench excavated along the entire lengthbetween the exposed archaeological site and the lateral

slope section provided a secure stratigraphic control forthe geological position of the exposed palaeolithic site.

Geology of the Ust’-Izhul’ section (Fig. 3) corre-sponds well with the documented Late Quaternarystratigraphy of the Kurtak area along the left bank of theKrasnoyarsk Lake (Drozdovet al. 1990a). The tworecorded pedocomplexes are securely chronostratigra-phically correlated with the mid-last glacial (Karginsk)interval (OIS 3e) (Units 3–5) and the last interglacialstage (OIS 5) (Units 12–18), respectively, separated bythe early last glacial (OIS 4) loess intercalated byseveral weakly developed (steppe-tundra) regosolic soilhorizons (Units 6–11) (Chlachulaet al. 1997; Chlachula1999).

Palaeontological evidence

The early cultural record is associated with the lowerlast interglacial palaeosol and included a major anthro-pogenic concentration of skeletal remains of thePleistocene animals (Figs 4–6). The recorded fossilremains were concentrated in a discrete area ofc.6� 8 m and rested on a 30-cm-thick chernozemicpalaeosol (Ah horizon), correlated with the last inter-glacial (OIS 5e) chernozem (Kamenolozhskaya Soil),and sealed by a 60–80 cm thick gleyed pedogenicmatrix (Bmk horizon) and the overlying colluviatedsilty deposits (Fig. 9). The upper, colluviated, part of the

Fig. 4. A view of the Middle Palaeolithic occupation site (in the front right) exposed at the base of the eroded slope section. The trianglesindicate segments of a composite Late Quaternary stratigraphic profile (Fig. 3) with the lower strata (Units 15–25) interconnected with thearchaeological site by an excavated trench. The arrow shows the stratigraphic position of the OIS 5 pedocomplex.


gleyed palaeosol horizon is interstratified with yellow-grey-green silty sediments. Within the concentration ofthe skeletal remains, the humus horizon and the lower

part of the reddish-brown pedogenic matrix shows abluish-grey tint probably due to gleying and putrefac-tion of the accumulated remnants of the animal

Fig. 5. Site excavation with a concentration of large fauna bones (mainly an early form ofMammuthus primigenius) on top of the lastinterglacial (OIS 5e) chernozem. The arrows show location of two fireplaces associated with the fossil remains (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. An excavation plan of the site with distribution of the Pleistocene fauna remains, stone artefacts (indicated by triangles) and twofireplaces (F1, F2); overlying parts of skeletons have been removed.


carcases. The uppermost bones exposed along thelakeshore were partly secondarily buried byc. 10 cmof the present beach deposits formed by reworked silts

and clays. The main accumulation of the fossil fauna,however, was sealedin situ in the original pedogeniclayers and partly dipping into the humic horizon of the

Fig. 7. Accumulation of mammoth bones bearing numerous percussion marks and cut marks as a result of butchering. Some skeletal partswere found in an articulated anatomical position, suggesting transportation of pieces of the killed animals to the site (scale 1 m).

Fig. 8. A close view of a mammoth mandible with molar teethin situ (scale 30 cm).


underlying chernozem of the last interglacial pedocom-plex (Fig. 9).

The fossil fauna is represented by an early form ofmammoth (Mammuthus primigenius Blum.), woollyrhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) [1 distal humerusfragment], a very small form of bison (Bison priscus?)[a cranium with horns; with the horn-core diameter atthe base 6.8 cm and 22 cm in length], a large form ofhorse (Equus mosbachensis germanicus) [7 metacarpusfragments], elk (Cervus elaphus) [2 horn fragments],deer (Alces sp.) [1 limb fragment], marmot (Marmotacf. baibacina) [1 fragment], beaver (Castor sp.) [1fragment], badger (Meles meles) [2 fragments] and aform of Myospalax [1 bone fragment]). The smallfauna, without apparent butchery marks, can be inter-preted as casual inhabitants/scavengers (badger) orsimply coincident at the site, or their remains couldhave been washed up onto the site given the small sizeof the bones. Mammoth, the most abundant species, wasrepresented by a high number of intact bones andseveral hundred bone fragments, and 42 molar teethfrom at least 12 individuals of different biological age(Figs 7, 8), including�40-year-old animals as well asone juvenile (�1 year). The fossil remains, recordedpartly in articulated anatomical order, occupiedapproximately one-third of the excavated area of about146 m2, but are thought to have been significantly moreextensive prior to recent erosion (Fig. 5).

Molluscs from the cultural horizon on top of theinterglacial palaeosol (Vallonia tenuilabris Braun,Vallonia costata Mull., Vallonia pulchela, Pupilla sp.,Pupilla densegyrata Lzk., Pupilla muscorum Lzk.,Pupilla loessica Lzk., Succinea oblonga elongataSand.,Nesovitrea petronella Pfr.,Nesovitrea hammonisStrom., etc.) include mostly species indicative of axerotheric continental grassland environment. Thepresence of thermophylous taxa (Bradybaena schrenskiMidd, Limnacidae,Euconulus fulvis Mull.) as well asabout a five times larger distribution ofVallonia costataMull., diagnostic of humid settings, indicates intergla-cial conditions warmer than those existing under theformation of the overlying colluvial and pedogenicallyaltered deposits sealing the cultural record, and domi-nated by a typical cold loessic malacofauna (Pupilla sp.,Succinea oblonga elongata Sand.) (Table 1).

The recorded fossil rodent taxa from the chernozemicpalaeosol (Sorex sp., Phodopus sungorus / Cricetulussp., Arvicola terrestris germ. antiquus, Microtus gre-galis and Microtus cf. arvalis) are generally charac-teristic of open parkland/steppe by the absence ofperiglacial tundra and forest taxa. The specimens ofPhodopus sungorus andCricetulus sp. recorded at thesite are beyond the present distribution limits, which arelocated farther southwest, suggesting warmer condi-tions in the Yenisei region than at the present time incorroboration with the intensity of pedogenic weath-

Fig. 9. Fossil fauna remains embedded on top of the last interglacial (OIS 5e) palaeosol luminescence-dated to 125 ka BP overlain by a gleyedsilty deposit dated to 105 ka BP.


ering and the thickness of the Ah horizon of the parklad-steppe chernozem related to the last interglacial climaticoptimum.

Archaeological evidence

The archaeological record, found in direct associationwith the fossil fauna, comprised numerous stonetools, flaked and otherwise culturally modified bone

and bone fragments and some contextually associatedcultural habitation features (Fig. 6). The lithicindustry is represented by a well-preserved stonetool assemblage of about 220 artefacts (53 specimensrecordedin situ (Fig. 10) and 167 morphologicallyidentical specimens found scattered in the nearestproximity of the excavation area). The artefacts,mainly unmodified or only marginally retouchedprimary flakes (204 pcs) and rudimentarily flakedpebbles (16 pcs) were produced from the local clasticmaterials and used directly at the site as evidenced bytheir fresh morphology with clearly visible percussionmarks. The majority of the flakes (Fig. 11A), whichcan be partly refitted into several large cobblesoriginating from the present 60–70 m terrace gravels,do not show secondary modification, suggesting thatthey were employed as an expedient industry todismember and process the slaughtered animals. Thisfact has been confirmed by SEM analysis, whichdisclosed numerous use-wear marks on the utilizedflake edges. Only a few pieces display a moremeticulous modification into more distinct stonetool forms such as choppers and unifacially retouchedscrapers (Fig. 11B). Overall, the palaeolithic recordrepresents a simple core and flake industry with someindices of the Levallois (i.e. prepared core) technol-ogy typical of the Mousterian (Neanderthal) tradition(Fig. 11A top left).

Human activity at the site is further manifested byflaked, cut and scraped bones of rhinoceros (Coelodonta

Table 1. Percentage distribution of malacofauna at the occupationsite (the cultural horizon and the sealing sedimentary matrix).Analyses by A. F. San’ko and V. Lozˇek.

Unit 16 Unit 15

Pupilla sp. 7 (%) 21 (%)Pupilla loessica Lzk. 1 1Pupilla densegyrata Lzk. 9 9Succinea oblonga elongata Sand. 1 16Vallonia sp. 6 0Vallonia tenuilabris Braun 54 35Vallonia costata Mull. 18 3Vallonia pulchela Mull. 1 0Nesovitrea hammonis Strom. 0 1Nesovitrea petronella Pfr. 1 0Vertigo genessii Gredl. 1 1Vertigo cf. geyeii Lind. 0 1Cochlicopa lubrica Mull. 1 0Bradybaena schrenski Midd. 2 0Limaceae 1 0

Fig. 10. Stone artefacts scatteredin situ within the cultural horizon in association with the fossil fauna remains (scale 5 cm).


Fig. 11. A. Artefacts from the occupation site with characteristics of the Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) tradition and the Levallois(prepared-core) flaking technique. Unused or partly retouched flakes that can be refitted into several original river cobbles provide explicitevidence of a cultural stone flaking taking place directly at the site. B. Stone tools (side scrapers [left] and a chopper) made of quartzite andsiltstone cobbles, respectively, associated with the butchered Pleistocene megafauna (scale 5 cm).


antiquitatis) and bison (Bison priscus), bone and tuskfragments of mammoth and a flaked elk antler fragment.Mammoth long bones and shoulder-blades were frac-tured by large stones, as indicated by vigoroushammerstone indentation marks (Fig. 12A) and by ananvil-percussion technique evidenced on bone shafts byspiral fractures (Fig. 12B). Cut marks and thin parallelstriations on bones clearly relate to meat-processingactivities; concentrated percussion marks on flat,shattered bone fragments suggest a subsequent use aspedestals for artefact retouching. Among the humanlymodified skeletal material, a 10-cm-long, flaked, two-platform core on a juvenile mammoth tusk fragmentwith parallel bidirectional blade removals is of particu-lar interest (Fig. 12C). The concentration and config-uration of the skeletal remains suggest that the animalswere hunted nearby and transported in dissected piecesto the site as evidenced by intact parts of cranial andpost-cranial skeletons including, among others, threemammoth skulls with joining vertebrae, two left femursstill attached to the tibiae and a bison skull with horns(Fig. 6).

The associated behavioural cultural features at theUst’-Izhul’ site included three fireplaces evidenced byconcentration of charcoal in the form of 5–15 cm thicklayers. The first fireplace (F1), radiocarbon-dated to�42190 yr BP (AECV 2034C), occurred as charcoalconcentrated overc. 1 m2 (partly scattered over an areaof about 4 m2) and situated between a large mammothtusk and a broken caribou antler (Fig. 6). The secondfireplace (F2), 1–1.5 m in diameter (�40050 yr BP;AECV 2033C), was found 2 m from the first one. Thethird fireplace (F3) (�41810 yr BP; AECV 2032C) waslocated 70 m north of the main occupation site; a smallset of artefacts, including a well-produced unifacialchopper fashioned from a flat quartzite cobble, wasfound nearby (Fig. 11B, right). Charcoal analysisshowed that fir (Abies sp.) was used as fuel in all thefireplaces.

Site chronology

The last interglacial age (sensu lato) of the site is based

Fig. 12. A. Indentation marks on a mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius Blum.) scapula caused by vigorous percussion by a stone cobble. B.Anthropogenically induced spiral fracture on a deer (Alces alces) humerus. C. A bipolar core on a juvenile mammoth tusk fragment withparallel blade removal scars providing evidence of the earliest human ivory flaking so far recorded in Siberia. D. A rhinoceros (Coelodontaantiquitatis) humerus with carnivorous (likely hyena) gnaw-marks indicating the presence of scavengers at the Middle Palaeolithic occupationsite (scale 5 cm).


on its original stratigraphic position beneath a series ofthe Late Pleistocene palaeosols prior to the lake erosionthat are documented in the adjacent, 14-m-high section.The uppermost prominent fossil soil (a chernozemiccryosol) is dated to 30010� 1470 yr BP (SOAN 3312)and is associated with a more recent (Late Palaeolithic)occupation horizon at the nearby site Ust’-Izhul’ 2located about 270 m north of Site 1 (Laukhin &Gnibidenko 1999). The above14C dates on charcoalfrom the fireplaces provided by the radiocarbonlaboratory in Vegreville, Alberta, Canada, are consis-tent with the subsequently obtained date of�45000 yrBP (SOAN 3334) on a bone fragment from theradiocarbon laboratory of the Siberian Branch of theRussian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk (Ovodov &Tomilova 1998) (Table 2).

The chernozemic palaeosol, characteristic of openparkland steppe, embedding the cultural record andpalaeontological remains, is the most distinct chrono-stratigraphic marker in the Kurtak area fixed by meansof climate-dependent multi-proxy data (magnetic sus-ceptibility, grain-size, TOC) correlated with the�18Orecords with the last interglacial optimum (OIS 5e)(Chlachulaet al. 1998, in prep.). The fossil soil can beuniformly traced across the entire southern Siberianloess region, with its equivalents in the lower soils of theBerdsk Pedocomplex on the Priobie Loess Plateau(Volkov & Zykina 1984) and the Igetei Pedocomplex inthe upper Angara Basin (Medvedevet al. 1990).

The last interglacial chronology of the site is alsoconfirmed palaeomagnetically: the Blake Event (117–111 ka BP) is recorded in a loess unit, correlated withthe OIS 5 d above the last interglacial steppe chernozem(Sk24 in the key chronostratigrahic section Kurtak 29)

(Chlachulaet al. 1997, 1998). A corresponding mag-netic anomaly (D 235°, I–18°) has also been reported inthe same stratigraphic position in the Ust’-Izhul’ Isection profile, about 9.8 m below the present soilsurface, following the analysis of 522 oriented samplesfrom 298 discrete stratigraphic levels (Laukhin &Gnibidenko 1999). The pre-last glacial age of thecultural record is corroborated by the mammoth remains(radiocarbon-dated to�42100 yr BP; AECV 1939C),which belong to an early thick-enamel mammoth form(thickness of teeth enamel plates of the last (M3) molarsis 2.5–2.25 mm), which occupied the northern Eurasiaduring the last and penultimate interglacials (OIS 5e andOIS 7) (Foronova 1999). This time assignment corre-sponds to the chronology of the associated remains ofhorse, described asEquus mosbachensis germanicus,taxonomically comparable to Equidae distributed insouthern Siberia during the (late) Middle Pleistocene(Foronova 1990).

Finally, the temporal fixation of the site has beenconfirmed by reproducible luminescence (IRSL) datesof c. 125� 5 ka BP (Sib-3) and 105� 10 ka BP (Sib-2)from the archaeological horizon and the overlyingcolluviated pedogenic unit, respectively (Lamothe1997) (Table 2). The above luminescence dates, incongruence with the site stratigraphy, sustain previousassumptions on the last interglacial age of the occupa-tion site (Ovodov & Tomilova 1998) and do not supportthe alternative (late) Middle Pleistocene (Shirta /Riss1[2] Interglacial, OIS 7) site chronology (Laukhinet al.1999).

Site function and palaeolithic adaptation

Finds of accumulations of bones of the late form ofmammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) (sometimes called‘graveyards’) are known from several locations inSiberia (Abramova 1989; Mochanov 1977; Vereshcha-gin 1972). Preserved skeletal remains of earlier forms ofmammoth, however, are rare and, until the discovery ofthe Ust’-Izhul’ locality, were limited to isolated bonesor teeth, and largerin situ concentrations of the fossilmegafauna were absent. The Ust’-Izhul’ I site is, in thisrespect, an exceptional palaeontological as well asarchaeological site among all sites discovered inSiberia.

The origin of the concentration of the fossil faunaremains is clearly linked with the (Middle) Palaeolithicpopulation reaching the Yenisei area in the process ofthe early hominid expansion across the territory ofSiberia. This is eloquently documented by the numerousartefacts scattered among the bones of killed animals aswell as the traces of anthropogenic working of theskeletal remains (carving, splitting, fracturing, indenta-tion marks) (Fig. 12A–C). It has been assumed thatformation of the skeletal accumulation was a result of amultiple specialized driving-type hunt predisposed by

Table 2. Radiocarbon and luminescence (IRSL) chronology of theUst’-Izhul’ locality.

Site/horizon Date Material

Ust’-Izhul’ 2 30010� 1470 yr BP(SOAN 3312)1

Wood (spruce)

Ust’-Izhul’ 1 �42190 yr BP(AECV 2034C)2

Charcoal


Charcoal2


Charcoal


Bone (mammoth)

Ust’-Izhul’ 1 �45000 yr BP(SOAN 3334)1

Bone (mammoth)

Ust’-Izhul’ 1/25 105� 10 ka BP(Sib 2); 352 De(Gy) /3.35 (mGy/a)3

Silty/clay sediment

Ust’-Izhul’ 1/26 125� 5 ka BP(Sib 3); 440 De(Gy) /3.52 (mGy/a)3

Silty pedogenic matrix

Dates provided by1 Radiocarbon laboratory SB RAS, Novosibirsk;2 Radiocarbon laboratory Vegreville, Alberta;3 Laboratoire deluminescence UQAM, Montreal.


the local arrow-headed morphology of the location atthe junction of the deep palaeo-valleys of the Yeniseiand Izhul’ Rivers (Fig. 2). The Chulym-Yenisei waterdivide, forming a flat plateau, grades gently into thesurfaces of the 140–150 m high Early PleistoceneYenisei River terraces and terminated at a steepescarpment at a height of 100–110 m above theHolocene floodplain prior to the modern reservoirformation (Laukhinet al. 1999). The location of thesite on a promontory above the confluence of the Ust’-Izhul’ and Yenisei palaeo-valleys suggests that the largeanimals may have been driven across the 100–110 mterrace and over a 30–45 m high steep slope onto thepresent 65–70 m terrace (which would then haveformed the former floodplain) (Laukhinet al. 1999).This scenario preconditions a certain transportation ofparts of the ambushed animals, with the rest being left atthe kill site. An alternative explanation that the Ust’-Izhul’ site was a river-bank site, with the large animalshaving been driven into a riverside, marshy area, takingadvantage of soft ground, seems more likely. The sitepalaeo-setting near water is supported by the presenceof small mammal species, such as beaver.

The anatomical position, particularly of the mam-moth remains, shows that these were accumulated withsoft tissue still attached to the bones and does notcontradict either of the explanations. The age composi-tion of the assemblage (with 3 individuals�40 yearsold, 8 adults 10–40 years old and 1 juvenile) suggeststhat they may have been killed either individually or asthe result of a single over-bank/riverside driving-typehunt. Both cases required a certain degree of socialorganization and behavioural complexity. Nevertheless,the presence of skeletal remains of other species,including those of small fauna, indicates an earlyhuman food-procurement diversity and suggests certain(seasonal?) duration of the site (and/or its repeated usebetween spring and fall) as is also evidenced by theremains of small hibernating mammals as well asmammoth juveniles. The character of the expedientlithic industry with prevalence of unmodified primaryflakes ideal for meat cutting and the limited number offinished tools reinforces the interpretation that Ust’-Izhul’ was a short-term Middle Palaeolithic camp-/food-processing site. Alternative explanations that thesite might have been linked to some ritual activities ofthe early humans or representing primitive structures(Laukhin et al. 1999) are less likely.

The presence of hyenas or other scavengers isdocumented by frequent and rather vigorous gnaw-marks on distal parts of long bones, particularly wellillustrated on a rhinoceros humerus (Fig. 12D), and byseveral mammothtibiae with deep openings, whichwould have allowed marrow extraction. Together withother Pleistocene megafaunal assemblages from theMinusinsk Basin, the Ust’-Izhul’ record bears witness tothe rich biological potential of the upper Yenisei areafor early human occupation.

Analogous Middle Palaeolithic records typical of theMousterian tradition found either in a well-documentedstratigraphic context in the OIS 5e and 5c chernozemicsoils (Kamenyy Log, Berezhekovo) or scattered alongthe shore elsewhere in the Kurtak area indicate anintensive local occupation during the last interglacial. Inview of its antiquity and unique taphonomic andcontextual completeness, Ust’-Izhul’ I is withoutparallel in Siberia and may well be one of the best-preserved Middle Palaeolithic sites discovered inEurasia. It also provides further evidence of coloniza-tion of northern Asia prior to the last glacial.

The Middle Palaeolithic peopling of Siberia

Contrary to earlier stages of human peopling of Siberia,still insufficiently documented, the Middle Palaeolithicdispersal represents a more distinctive cultural markerrecorded throughout the territory and presumablyassociated with the major climatic amelioration at thebeginning of the Late Pleistocene. During the lastinterglacial optimum (OIS 5e), large parts of southernSiberia were covered by open parkland vegetation, withmixed southern taiga forests dominated by spruce, pine,Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica) and birch. During inter-glacials and warmer interstadials, conditions similar tothe present prevailed with steppe and forest-steppe.Rich fossil fauna records buried in loess-palaeosolformations throughout the territory (Foronova & Zudin1999; Drozdovet al. 1990a, b) illustrate the high bioticpotential of the southern Siberian parkland-steppe zoneat various stages during the Middle and Late Pleisto-cene. The presence of cold-adapted species (i.e.Ursussp.,Equus sp.,Coelodonta antiquitatis Blum., Capreo-lus capreolus L., Megaloceros giganteus Blum., Ran-gifer tarandus L., Bison priscus Boj., Ovis sp., Lepussp., Allactaga sp., Myospalax sp., Lagurus lagurusPall.,Saiga tatarica, etc.) documents the environmentalviability of the periglacial forest-tundra and steppe-tundra for establishment of diverse, non-analoguefaunal communities.

The last interglacial climatic optimum contributed toa variety of natural habitats, in particular geographicaland topographic settings across the Siberian territory.High summer temperatures (increased by 4-5°C inrespect of the present values) and annual precipitation(by c. 100 mm) led to the northward expansion ofsouthern taiga farther north by about 500–700 kmbeyond the present distribution limits (Volkova 1977;Velichko et al. 1992), with dark coniferous forestsdominated by Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica), fir andspruce reaching the Central Siberian Plateau. Mixedtaiga forests covered most of southern Siberia, indicat-ing a less continental climate than today, correspondingto the MAT increase by 1–3°C (Velichko 1993). Awarm and humid climatic regime in central easternSiberia (the Angara-Baikal region) promoted pine-birch


forests, including some thermophylous taxa absent inSiberia today (Corylus, Tilia, Quercus, Fagus, Tsuga)(Belova 1985; Rezanov & Kalmikov 1999). Coniferousand mixed taiga withPinus sibirica, Picea sp.,Tsuga,Betula, Larix, Salix and Alnaster were broadly dis-tributed in the Altai and Sayan Mountains, indicating amoderate continental climate similar to the present one(Nemchinovet al. 1999; Chlachula 2001a).

At present, there is no consensus that the MiddlePalaeolithic lithic industry from southern Siberia can becorrelated with the classical European and Near EasternNeanderthal milieu, although Mousterian influences areevident in the Altai cave sites (Ranov 1990; Derevianko& Markin 1992, 1999; Chlachula 2001a). Similar findsare known from Khakasia (Praslov 1984; Abramova1989) and the middle Angara River Basin (Medvedevetal. 1990; Chlachulaet al. in press). Expansion of theearly human occupation into marginal mountain areas islikely to have occurred during warmer, early lastglacial, interstadials. Cultural remains are absent fromthe early last glacial (OIS 4) maximum. Late Palaeo-lithic sites (dated to 35–21 ka BP) with time-transgres-sive stone tool technologies indicate a possible regionalMiddle-Late Palaeolithic cultural continuity (Dere-vianko & Markin 1999). Overall, the palaeolithic recordfrom the steppe-foothill zone of southern Siberiaprovides evidence that this territory was occupiedrepeatedly during the Pleistocene. Variations in climateand the associated shifts in the natural habitat precondi-tioned the intensity and timing of the early peopling ofSiberia.

The evolutionary process of the palaeolithic colon-ization of Siberia is still poorly understood, althoughgeoarchaeological investigations supply new and some-times rather unexpected evidence about the earliesthuman prehistory of the broad territory between theUral Mountains and the Pacific coast. The early culturalrecords represent a significant source of palaeoenviron-mental proxy data complementing the fossil biotic andpedogenic evidence. Recent discoveries disprove thelong-held assumption of a late penetration by palaeo-lithic people into the middle and high latitudes ofnorthern Asia (Waterset al. 1997) and show that theywere present long before the last glacial. The Pleisto-cene climate cycles regulated movement of earlyhumans northwards from Central Asia and Mongolia.During glacial maxima, most of Siberia seems to havebeen vacated, especially during the earlier stages,because of the expansion of continental glaciers in thenorth and inhospitable periglacial environments in thesouth. Gradual human adaptation to cold habitatsaccelerated during the Late Pleistocene as a result ofcultural and biological evolution, enabling people tosettle permanently in the vast Siberian territory.

Acknowledgements. – Quaternary investigations in the KurtakArchaeological Region were supported by the Siberian Branch,

Russian Academy of Sciences, the National Geographic Society andthe Polar and Northern Boreal Institute of Canada. We thank Dr. A.F. San’ko (Minsk) and Dr. V. Lozˇek (Prague) for analysing the sitemalacofauna, Dr. I. Horaćek (Prague) for osteological classificationof the rodent fauna and Dr. M. Lamothe (Montreal) for IRSL datingof the Ust’-Izhul’ locality. Dr. S. A. Laukhin (Tyumen’) assisted withthe geological investigations at the site, Dr. N. R. Catto (St. John’s)provided helpful comments on a previous draft of this article.

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Documents

Last Interglacial peopling of Siberia: the Middle Palaeolithic site Ust‘-Izhul’, the upper Yenisei area