Integrated Water Integrated Water Resources Resources

Management and Management and the Manufactured the Manufactured Scarcity of Water Scarcity of Water

in Africain AfricaBy Simphiwe NojiyezaBy Simphiwe Nojiyeza

What is IWRMWhat is IWRM Definition of IWRMDefinition of IWRM IWRM has been defined by the Global Water IWRM has been defined by the Global Water

Partnership (GWP) as: “a process that Partnership (GWP) as: “a process that promotes the coordinated management and promotes the coordinated management and development of water, earth, and related development of water, earth, and related resources in order to maximize the social resources in order to maximize the social and economic benefits that will result in an and economic benefits that will result in an equitable manner, without compromising the equitable manner, without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems” (GWP, sustainability of vital ecosystems” (GWP, 2000, de Moran and Ballestero, 2003:5, 2000, de Moran and Ballestero, 2003:5, Biswas, 2008:7, Sanavanan, et. al., 2008:5, Biswas, 2008:7, Sanavanan, et. al., 2008:5, Mukhtarov, 2009:1, Lloyd, et. al, 2006:13).Mukhtarov, 2009:1, Lloyd, et. al, 2006:13).

Characteristics of IWRMCharacteristics of IWRM

Decision making in participatory mannerDecision making in participatory manner A systematic process that look at the A systematic process that look at the

hydrological cycle as a whole i.e. social, hydrological cycle as a whole i.e. social, political, health, pollution, balancing political, health, pollution, balancing interests of various usersinterests of various users

Reforming water institutions, Reforming water institutions, decentralisation, river basin as a unit of decentralisation, river basin as a unit of analysis, devolution of powers, analysis, devolution of powers, deconcentrationdeconcentration

Principles of IWRM (Dublin Principles of IWRM (Dublin Principles)Principles)

Freshwater is finite and vulnerable Freshwater is finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, resource, essential to sustain life, development and environmentdevelopment and environment

Water development and management Water development and management should be based on a participatory should be based on a participatory approach involving users, planners and approach involving users, planners and policy makers at all levels.policy makers at all levels.

Woman play a central part in the provision, Woman play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of watermanagement and safeguarding of water

Water has an economic value in all its Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognised competing uses and should be recognised as an economic goodas an economic good

Impacts of IWRM Impacts of IWRM implementationimplementation

Competition amongst various users, Competition amongst various users, pollutionpollution

The need for reliability and buffersThe need for reliability and buffers Attention to social dimensionsAttention to social dimensions Reliable and sustained financingReliable and sustained financing Water security, efficient use, Water security, efficient use,

improved waste management, improved waste management, gender equitygender equity

Barriers to the Barriers to the implementation of IWRMimplementation of IWRM

Willingness to changeWillingness to change Lack of tools and systems for integrationLack of tools and systems for integration Domination by water administration Domination by water administration

expertsexperts Lack of quantitative knowledge on water Lack of quantitative knowledge on water

resourcesresources Sustainability, operation and maintenanceSustainability, operation and maintenance No blueprints, imposition by donors, No blueprints, imposition by donors,

technical other than social focus technical other than social focus

Manufactured scarcity and Manufactured scarcity and African case StudiesAfrican case Studies

Water Resources in Accra, Water Resources in Accra, Ghana and Balaka, Tcheu, Ghana and Balaka, Tcheu,

Mangochi (Malawi)Mangochi (Malawi) Ghana is well endowed with water Ghana is well endowed with water

resources. The Volta River system basin, resources. The Volta River system basin, consisting of the Oti, Daka, Pru, Sene and consisting of the Oti, Daka, Pru, Sene and Afram rivers as well as the White and Afram rivers as well as the White and Black Volta rivers, covers 70% of the Black Volta rivers, covers 70% of the country area.country area.

Another 22% of Ghana is covered by the Another 22% of Ghana is covered by the southwestern river system watershed southwestern river system watershed comprising the Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra comprising the Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra rivers. The coastal river system watershed, rivers. The coastal river system watershed, comprising the Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi comprising the Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, Ayensu, Densu and Tordzi rivers, Amissah, Ayensu, Densu and Tordzi rivers, covers the remaining 8% of the country.covers the remaining 8% of the country.

Accra Water Resources Accra Water Resources StatusStatus

Groundwater with a mean yield of 3.9 Groundwater with a mean yield of 3.9 cubic metres a day depending on whether cubic metres a day depending on whether it is Dahomeyan, Togo series to the total it is Dahomeyan, Togo series to the total recharge of 0.0381 cubic km per yearrecharge of 0.0381 cubic km per year

Annual rainfall of 756 mm, surface water Annual rainfall of 756 mm, surface water with a drainage of 2.500 cubic km with a drainage of 2.500 cubic km squared in Densu Basin, Weija Dam, squared in Densu Basin, Weija Dam, Akosombo Dam, Songo-Mokwe Akosombo Dam, Songo-Mokwe Catchment, Sakumo 2 catchment, Volta Catchment, Sakumo 2 catchment, Volta river/ Lake are some of water resources river/ Lake are some of water resources (Birner, et. al, 2011:54).(Birner, et. al, 2011:54).

Malawi water resourcesMalawi water resources

Malawi is endowed with a variety of Malawi is endowed with a variety of natural resources which include natural resources which include expanses of water systems (MIWD, expanses of water systems (MIWD, 2005:1, Mkandawire, et. al, 2011:7) 2005:1, Mkandawire, et. al, 2011:7) Malawi is generally considered to be Malawi is generally considered to be relatively rich in water resources, which relatively rich in water resources, which are stored in the form of lakes, rivers, are stored in the form of lakes, rivers, and aquifers (Ng’ong’ola, 1999:8, and aquifers (Ng’ong’ola, 1999:8, Ferguson and Mulwafu, 2004:3, FAO, Ferguson and Mulwafu, 2004:3, FAO, 2007, Mkandawire, et. al, 2011:8). 2007, Mkandawire, et. al, 2011:8).

Malawi Water Resources Malawi Water Resources abundanceabundance

Lake Malawi is the third largest freshwater Lake Malawi is the third largest freshwater lake in Africa and the eleventh largest in the lake in Africa and the eleventh largest in the world, has a total surface area of 28,760 kmworld, has a total surface area of 28,760 km22

Other lakes Chilwa, Malombe and ChiutaOther lakes Chilwa, Malombe and Chiuta Water resources storage in the form of 700-Water resources storage in the form of 700-

750 dams, Precambrian and quaternary 750 dams, Precambrian and quaternary aquifers, shallow wells and boreholes , aquifers, shallow wells and boreholes , Songwe, Shire and Ruo are part of 17 Water Songwe, Shire and Ruo are part of 17 Water Resources area and 78 water resources units Resources area and 78 water resources units (Mkandawire et. al, 2011)(Mkandawire et. al, 2011)

The water systems cover 21% of the countryThe water systems cover 21% of the country

Water supply statusWater supply status The main source of water supply is boreholes, lack of The main source of water supply is boreholes, lack of

regulation and compliance with drilling standardsregulation and compliance with drilling standards There is one Water purification plant in the research There is one Water purification plant in the research

area (Balaka town), water borne toilets in Balaka, area (Balaka town), water borne toilets in Balaka, Mangochi and Ncheu served with VIP and Traditional Mangochi and Ncheu served with VIP and Traditional Latrines Latrines

Sanitation facilities are unimproved and VIP pit Sanitation facilities are unimproved and VIP pit latrines, storm water and drainage non existent. latrines, storm water and drainage non existent. Water quality in Lake Malawi compromised due to Water quality in Lake Malawi compromised due to latrine effluent (DOIWD) latrine effluent (DOIWD)

5 waste water treatment plants (Performance at the 5 waste water treatment plants (Performance at the average of 80%, lack or drainage system, Kumasi VIP average of 80%, lack or drainage system, Kumasi VIP latrines, flush (3 pressure systems) toilets, septic latrines, flush (3 pressure systems) toilets, septic tanks are main features in Accra (EPA, 2011).tanks are main features in Accra (EPA, 2011).

Effluents discharged into rivers, lagoons, causing Effluents discharged into rivers, lagoons, causing diseasesdiseases

Research questionsResearch questions The broad objective of this thesis is to examine The broad objective of this thesis is to examine

water and sanitation governance, new water and sanitation governance, new institutional economics and environmental institutional economics and environmental economics regarding the implementation of economics regarding the implementation of IWRM. The focus on water governance means IWRM. The focus on water governance means that we are interested in collective action with that we are interested in collective action with respect to water and sanitation issues. Water and respect to water and sanitation issues. Water and sanitation governance is linked to institutional sanitation governance is linked to institutional mechanisms, property rights (private property mechanisms, property rights (private property vs. public property) and whether provision is vs. public property) and whether provision is public or private, decentralization or public or private, decentralization or centralization and the role of market mechanisms centralization and the role of market mechanisms (Kuks, 2004:13,Wunsch, 2001, Indranil, 2010, (Kuks, 2004:13,Wunsch, 2001, Indranil, 2010, Franks, 2004, Batterbury and Fernando,2006, Franks, 2004, Batterbury and Fernando,2006, Castro 2007, Oxhorn, Tulehin and Selee,2004).Castro 2007, Oxhorn, Tulehin and Selee,2004).

New Institutional New Institutional EconomicsEconomics

The focus on new institutional economics The focus on new institutional economics means that we are interested in transaction means that we are interested in transaction costs, institutional evolution, constitutional costs, institutional evolution, constitutional choice, collective action, information costs, choice, collective action, information costs, law and economics of contracts, institutional law and economics of contracts, institutional transaction costs and how the theory of transaction costs and how the theory of institutions could be utilised to analyse water institutions could be utilised to analyse water governance and institutional frameworks governance and institutional frameworks ( Richter, 2003, Saleth, 2003, North, 1990, ( Richter, 2003, Saleth, 2003, North, 1990, Miller, 2003, Saleth and Dinar, 2003, Klein, Miller, 2003, Saleth and Dinar, 2003, Klein, 1999, Williamson, 1999, Williamson 1995, 1999, Williamson, 1999, Williamson 1995, Furubotn and Richter, Feige, 1990, Fiani, Furubotn and Richter, Feige, 1990, Fiani, 2004, Streeck and Thelen, 2006, Selznick, 2004, Streeck and Thelen, 2006, Selznick, 1996).1996).

Environmental Environmental economicseconomics

The focus on environmental economics The focus on environmental economics is based on eco efficiency, is based on eco efficiency, environmental performance, environmental performance, sustainability, physical scarcity and sustainability, physical scarcity and economic scarcity and externalities as economic scarcity and externalities as either benefits or losses associated either benefits or losses associated with a water governance model and an with a water governance model and an institutional framework (Massarutto, institutional framework (Massarutto, 2008, Asafu-Adjaye, 2000, Schaltegger 2008, Asafu-Adjaye, 2000, Schaltegger and Synnestvedt, 2002). and Synnestvedt, 2002).

Sub- QuestionsSub- Questions The main research question is whether the The main research question is whether the

implementation of IWRM reduces or perpetuates implementation of IWRM reduces or perpetuates water and sanitation poverty by recognizing water as water and sanitation poverty by recognizing water as an economic good and promoting decentralization an economic good and promoting decentralization governance models. governance models.

What is the main institutional shift in water and What is the main institutional shift in water and sanitation governance that can be perceived in Africa sanitation governance that can be perceived in Africa as a result of the introduction of IWRM?as a result of the introduction of IWRM?

How can we elaborate the elements of a water and How can we elaborate the elements of a water and sanitation governance structure in terms of sanitation governance structure in terms of institutional mechanisms, property rights, service institutional mechanisms, property rights, service provision (public or private), centralization or provision (public or private), centralization or decentralization and market mechanisms?decentralization and market mechanisms?

How can these water governance instruments be How can these water governance instruments be explained in terms of institutional conditions under explained in terms of institutional conditions under which they operate?which they operate?

Other Sub QuestionsOther Sub Questions What transaction costs, institutional What transaction costs, institutional

evolution, constitutional choice, collective evolution, constitutional choice, collective action, information costs, law and action, information costs, law and economics of contracts and institutional economics of contracts and institutional transaction costs could be associated with transaction costs could be associated with the introduction of IWRM in AfDB the introduction of IWRM in AfDB supported water and sanitation projects? supported water and sanitation projects?

What eco efficiency, environmental What eco efficiency, environmental performance, physical scarcity and performance, physical scarcity and economic scarcity trends, sustainability economic scarcity trends, sustainability and externalities, could be associated with and externalities, could be associated with the introduction of IWRM in Africa and the introduction of IWRM in Africa and elsewhere?elsewhere?

Key Preliminary FindingsKey Preliminary Findings Water and Sanitation GovernanceWater and Sanitation Governance In both case studies there are both formal (Meso) and In both case studies there are both formal (Meso) and

informal (Micro). District, Local and Sub councils, informal (Micro). District, Local and Sub councils, Ministries such as Food and agriculture, Public Ministries such as Food and agriculture, Public Works and Housing, Health, Fisheries, Community Works and Housing, Health, Fisheries, Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Environmental Water and Sanitation Agency, Environmental Protection Agency, Volta River basin, Water Protection Agency, Volta River basin, Water Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company Limited are Formal in Ghana- roles defined in various Limited are Formal in Ghana- roles defined in various acts and policiesacts and policies

Tindanas (Spiritual leaders), Traditional Leaders Tindanas (Spiritual leaders), Traditional Leaders (National, Local and Regional Houses) Water and (National, Local and Regional Houses) Water and sanitation committees, Water User Associations are sanitation committees, Water User Associations are informal- roles are not written but play meaningful informal- roles are not written but play meaningful roles in community water management, irrigation roles in community water management, irrigation land allocation and demand management land allocation and demand management

Meso and Micro Meso and Micro Institutions in MalawiInstitutions in Malawi

Ministries for Irrigation and Water Development, Ministries for Irrigation and Water Development, Agriculture, Natural Resources, Health, Agriculture, Natural Resources, Health, Meteorological Services, National Water Resources Meteorological Services, National Water Resources Authority, 5 Water Utilities, District Assemblies, Authority, 5 Water Utilities, District Assemblies, Mpira Water Authority, are formal water institutions Mpira Water Authority, are formal water institutions established in accordance with Water Resources Act established in accordance with Water Resources Act of 1969, Water policy of 2005, Sanitation Policy of of 1969, Water policy of 2005, Sanitation Policy of 2007, Water Works Act of 1995.2007, Water Works Act of 1995.

Traditional Leaders, Irrigation boards, tap and Traditional Leaders, Irrigation boards, tap and sanitation committees are informal (non statutory), sanitation committees are informal (non statutory), but responsible for tariffs setting, operation and but responsible for tariffs setting, operation and maintenance of boreholes, shallow wells, irrigation maintenance of boreholes, shallow wells, irrigation scheme control etc.scheme control etc.

Village Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) Village Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) Teams are also informal although their training is Teams are also informal although their training is done by MOIWDdone by MOIWD

Veblenian DichotomyVeblenian Dichotomy In both countries the implementation of IWRM In both countries the implementation of IWRM

tends to be techno-scientific, dominated by tends to be techno-scientific, dominated by hydrologists, water engineers and socio hydrologists, water engineers and socio economic, cultural aspects are ignored in economic, cultural aspects are ignored in CMAs, Irrigation boards, WUAs, WATSAN and CMAs, Irrigation boards, WUAs, WATSAN and this lead to Veblenian Dichotomy (Nabli and this lead to Veblenian Dichotomy (Nabli and Nugent, 1989, Miller, 2003).Nugent, 1989, Miller, 2003).

Collective Action in Accra with the Collective Action in Accra with the establishment of Coalition Against Water establishment of Coalition Against Water privatisation hosted by ISODEC, CONIWAS and privatisation hosted by ISODEC, CONIWAS and MOLE conferences and citizen action and MOLE conferences and citizen action and assemblies, Malawi Economic Justice Network, assemblies, Malawi Economic Justice Network, Action Aid, WES-NGOs resisted private sector Action Aid, WES-NGOs resisted private sector participation in the water sector, campaigned participation in the water sector, campaigned for food securityfor food security

Principles of water and Principles of water and sanitation governancesanitation governance

Malawi recently completed a very open, Malawi recently completed a very open, transparent, participative, accountable, effective, transparent, participative, accountable, effective, coherent, efficient, communicative, equitable, coherent, efficient, communicative, equitable, integrative…. IWRM process which involved integrative…. IWRM process which involved government, private sector, CSOs, academia government, private sector, CSOs, academia (Mkandawire, et. al, 2011)… the challenges (Mkandawire, et. al, 2011)… the challenges revolves around implementationrevolves around implementation

The establishment of Water user associations, The establishment of Water user associations, WATSAN Committees, representation of CSOS in WATSAN Committees, representation of CSOS in the Water Resources Commission is the Water Resources Commission is commendable, but the structures are not working commendable, but the structures are not working and collection of 5% capital costs of boreholes, and collection of 5% capital costs of boreholes, small dams and operation and maintenance and small dams and operation and maintenance and pay as you use is criticized as undermining the pay as you use is criticized as undermining the very principles of IWRM (Laube, 2007)very principles of IWRM (Laube, 2007)

Institutional Institutional MechanismsMechanisms

The formal rules of the game such as Water The formal rules of the game such as Water resources Commission Act of Ghana, Water Works resources Commission Act of Ghana, Water Works Act of 1995 (Malawi), the availability of institutions Act of 1995 (Malawi), the availability of institutions such as Environmental Protection Agency (Ghana), such as Environmental Protection Agency (Ghana), Water Resources Board (Malawi) could not prevent Water Resources Board (Malawi) could not prevent sedimentation of dams, over use of wetlands, effluent sedimentation of dams, over use of wetlands, effluent discharging in rivers and lakes causing discharging in rivers and lakes causing diseconomies / externalitiesdiseconomies / externalities

Price determinism vs institutionalisms- increasing Price determinism vs institutionalisms- increasing tariffs to benefit the poor dominates Accra Urban tariffs to benefit the poor dominates Accra Urban Water Management and Vision 2030 strategy, Water Management and Vision 2030 strategy, enforcing payments and cut offs dominates the enforcing payments and cut offs dominates the thinking in Southern Water Board that disconnects thinking in Southern Water Board that disconnects households in Balaka, and Rural parts of Lilongwehouseholds in Balaka, and Rural parts of Lilongwe

Lowering the demand for water, water rationing Lowering the demand for water, water rationing (Ghana) (Ghana)

Property RightsProperty Rights In both countries Water is a public property In both countries Water is a public property

owned by Heads of states- but irrigation schemes owned by Heads of states- but irrigation schemes are constructed by farmers and managed by are constructed by farmers and managed by Water User AssociationsWater User Associations

Households that are not paying in Accra are not Households that are not paying in Accra are not allowed to cultivate during dry seasonsallowed to cultivate during dry seasons

Water schemes in Accra are utilities, vendors, Water schemes in Accra are utilities, vendors, community managed, private providers- the price community managed, private providers- the price is determined by who render the serviceis determined by who render the service

No regulation to protect fish species and water No regulation to protect fish species and water quality- private property elements- government quality- private property elements- government aloof, decentralised everything to users- self aloof, decentralised everything to users- self regulationregulation

Public and Private Public and Private ProvisionProvision

Ghana Water Company limited responsible for urban Ghana Water Company limited responsible for urban water, Community Water and sanitation Agency is water, Community Water and sanitation Agency is responsible for rural and small town provisionresponsible for rural and small town provision

In Greater Accra, GWCL is assisted by Aqua Vitens In Greater Accra, GWCL is assisted by Aqua Vitens Rand Limited through a 5 years management Rand Limited through a 5 years management contractcontract

Other providers are private kiosks, vendors, Other providers are private kiosks, vendors, community managed schemes with different tariff community managed schemes with different tariff systems- GWCL is the cheapest but inaccessible to systems- GWCL is the cheapest but inaccessible to people who rent property, informal dwellers and people who rent property, informal dwellers and other poorother poor

5 commercial water boards serve water in Urban 5 commercial water boards serve water in Urban Malawi, NGO funded schemes, community Malawi, NGO funded schemes, community management in boreholes, shallow wells, private management in boreholes, shallow wells, private irrigation schemes irrigation schemes

Malawi Growth and Development Strategy- PRSPMalawi Growth and Development Strategy- PRSP

Decentralisation and Decentralisation and CentralisationCentralisation

Ghana Water Company ltd., District Assemblies, Ghana Water Company ltd., District Assemblies, WUAs, WATSAN, CWSA, are decentralised WUAs, WATSAN, CWSA, are decentralised institutions that serve water and sanitation. institutions that serve water and sanitation.

Private providers such as vendors , kiosks, Private providers such as vendors , kiosks, community management schemes using demand community management schemes using demand led – Price elasticity models are also a form of led – Price elasticity models are also a form of decentralisationdecentralisation

In Malawi commercialised and state water boards, In Malawi commercialised and state water boards, MOIWD serve water in rural areas- proposed MOIWD serve water in rural areas- proposed CMAs, NGOs, private sector, assemblies are CMAs, NGOs, private sector, assemblies are institutions established as a result of institutions established as a result of decentralisation Act of 1998, recommended by decentralisation Act of 1998, recommended by Donors, but MOIWD does most of the work.Donors, but MOIWD does most of the work.

Decentralised institutions lacks revenue to Decentralised institutions lacks revenue to discharge their responsibilities discharge their responsibilities

The Role of Market The Role of Market MechanismsMechanisms

Distribution channels – reticulation in Accra is Distribution channels – reticulation in Accra is done by GWCL, AVRL, Vendors, CWSA, done by GWCL, AVRL, Vendors, CWSA, Community Management Schemes, Water User Community Management Schemes, Water User Associations, NGOsAssociations, NGOs

Bulk Water Supply is expected to be sold to Bulk Water Supply is expected to be sold to WUAs, WATSANWUAs, WATSAN

Reticulation in Malawi is done by Regional water Reticulation in Malawi is done by Regional water Boards , NGOs, MIWDBoards , NGOs, MIWD

Access / consumption- 500 metres (Accra), 200 Access / consumption- 500 metres (Accra), 200 metres (Balaka) average 40 Kilolitres p /h/month metres (Balaka) average 40 Kilolitres p /h/month (12 People)(12 People)

Willingness to pay dominates thinking in both Willingness to pay dominates thinking in both countries, no cross subsidisation in the pipelinecountries, no cross subsidisation in the pipeline

Transaction and Transaction and Information CostsInformation Costs

Construction of water reservoirs – (by 2003) Construction of water reservoirs – (by 2003) Cd1.3 Billion, rehabilitation costs- Cd.885 Cd1.3 Billion, rehabilitation costs- Cd.885 million, community contribution of 5%million, community contribution of 5%

Transaction costs- administrative costs of Transaction costs- administrative costs of planning and supervising dam construction, planning and supervising dam construction, capacity building of WUAs, negotiation of land capacity building of WUAs, negotiation of land rights and land registration- very high rights and land registration- very high transaction coststransaction costs

Environmental Impact Assessment cost- Environmental Impact Assessment cost- Information cost – not always enforced in Information cost – not always enforced in irrigationirrigation

Cost benefit analysis- 10 years use before Cost benefit analysis- 10 years use before breakeven point is reached- ROA and ROI is breakeven point is reached- ROA and ROI is very lowvery low

Institutional EvolutionInstitutional Evolution Institutions such as VLOM, Tap and Institutions such as VLOM, Tap and

Borehole committees evolved to advance Borehole committees evolved to advance demand management and shift from supply demand management and shift from supply led led

Even institutions such as WUAs, WATSAN Even institutions such as WUAs, WATSAN evolved to recover costs of construction, evolved to recover costs of construction, collect costs of operation and maintenance, collect costs of operation and maintenance, transaction and information costs.transaction and information costs.

These are institutions of super exploitation These are institutions of super exploitation of the poor and vulnerableof the poor and vulnerable

CMAs evolved to support river basin CMAs evolved to support river basin approach to IWRMapproach to IWRM

Constitutional Choice and Constitutional Choice and Law of ContractsLaw of Contracts

The Constitution of Mpira Water Authority and The Constitution of Mpira Water Authority and Volta River Basin are examples of constitutional Volta River Basin are examples of constitutional choices supporting institutional arrangementschoices supporting institutional arrangements

EPA, Water Resources Board and Water Resources EPA, Water Resources Board and Water Resources Commission enforces water rights, abstraction Commission enforces water rights, abstraction rights- Water Management contract – GWCL- AVRL rights- Water Management contract – GWCL- AVRL (5year), not easy to opt out(5year), not easy to opt out

Water Resources Act of 1969 elaborated on Water Resources Act of 1969 elaborated on custodianship of water resources, water custodianship of water resources, water withdrawal, non revenue, Water Works Act explain withdrawal, non revenue, Water Works Act explain the role of Commercial and regional Water Boards- the role of Commercial and regional Water Boards- implementation not clearimplementation not clear

Law of Contract protect transacting parties e.g. Law of Contract protect transacting parties e.g. water cut off if farmers are not contributing 5% water cut off if farmers are not contributing 5% before cultivationbefore cultivation

Eco Efficiency and Eco Efficiency and SustainabilitySustainability

Discharging effluents from the 5 waste Discharging effluents from the 5 waste water treatment works in Accra violated water treatment works in Accra violated the right to health and for future the right to health and for future generations to live in a healthy generations to live in a healthy environmentenvironment

Such pollution result in degradation of Such pollution result in degradation of the ecosystem, killing of the fish the ecosystem, killing of the fish (Aquaculture) and pollution of rivers, (Aquaculture) and pollution of rivers, sedimentation, salinisation of the lagoons sedimentation, salinisation of the lagoons , upstream- downstream divide , upstream- downstream divide

Environmental Environmental PerformancePerformance

Willingness to pay for environmental Willingness to pay for environmental friendly products pose a challenge in friendly products pose a challenge in fertilizer used in agriculture affecting fertilizer used in agriculture affecting quality of waterquality of water

Lack of optimum environmental Lack of optimum environmental performance through establishing performance through establishing environmental cost accounting, environmental cost accounting, ecological control systemsecological control systems

Lack of enforcement of environmental Lack of enforcement of environmental laws and principles of polluter pays laws and principles of polluter pays

ExternalitiesExternalities In all case studies market instruments In all case studies market instruments

were used, e.g. pollution tax, levies and were used, e.g. pollution tax, levies and subsidies imposed in order to internalise subsidies imposed in order to internalise externalitiesexternalities

Social Costs of charging both the polluter Social Costs of charging both the polluter and the victim is very prevalentand the victim is very prevalent

Soft loans, tax allowances were given to Soft loans, tax allowances were given to industries to reduce pollution, market industries to reduce pollution, market emission permits in a bid processemission permits in a bid process

There was lack of pollution reduction There was lack of pollution reduction standards and enforcement mechanismsstandards and enforcement mechanisms