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In‐service teacher education:Engaging the dialogiccommunities of teachersJohn E. Ingulsrud aa Kyushu Jogakuln College , 3–12–16 Kurokaml,Kumamoto‐shl, Japan , 860Published online: 14 Sep 2009.

To cite this article: John E. Ingulsrud (1996) In‐service teacher education: Engaging thedialogic communities of teachers , Language, Culture and Curriculum, 9:2, 176-185, DOI:10.1080/07908319609525228

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In-service Teacher Education:Engaging the Dialogic Communitiesof Teachers1

John E. Ingulsrud

Kyushu Jogakuln College, 3-12-16 Kurokaml, Kumamoto-shl, Japan 860

In recent years there is increasing scepticism about the effectiveness of conventionalin-service programmes as a means of improving classroom teaching. The inputmade by the teacher educator is often ignored or forgotten once the teachers returnto their schools, raising fundamental questions about the transfer of knowledge.In this paper, it is argued that the teacher trainer needs to engage in dialogue withteachers, discovering their needs and values. The ensuing adaptation of theory tocontextual constraints can lead to an acceptance of new knowledge and alternativepractice. The approach, based on Bernstein's (1983) notion of 'dialogic community',is illustrated by two such communities that have particular importance for teachersof English in Asia, the Community of the Textbook and the Community of the Test. Itis shown that real dialogue on these topics can transform them from being immovableconstraints and obstacles into sources of empowerment for teachers and students.

The effectiveness of teacher education programmes, in recent years, has beencalled into question. Adrian Holliday (1992) in his article entitled, 'Tissue Rejectionand Informal Orders in ELT Projects: Collecting the Right Information' describeshow little impact the teacher educator, particularly the expatriate one and theprogrammes he or she works on, can make on actual teaching practice. Drawingon his experience in the Sudan and elsewhere, Holliday attempts to explainhow 'tissue rejection' might be minimised by entering into continual dialogue,particularly in an informal manner, with all participants of such programmes:students, teachers, and administrators. Input by the teacher educator is seen asmost effective through informal dialogue. Apart from other considerations, theinformal information that the teacher educator receives provides more accuratedata from which programmes can be evaluated.

The problem of effectiveness in teacher education is not simply aphenomenon in foreign-funded programmes in developing countries. DonaldFreeman (1994), based on his experiences in the United States, asserts thatteacher education programmes assume that the knowledge imparted willtransfer to classroom practice without scrutinising the content of the transferitself. Looking back at the definition of transfer in education over the past40 years, Freeman explains how confidence in the capacity of institutions totransfer knowledge has declined to a 'sense of hope' (1994: 4). Freemansuggests, 'we need to redefine transfer as participation; knowing comes fromdoing and doing is always embedded in contexts of particular people, timesand places' (1994:11). Instead of focusing on how well knowledge transfers,

0790-8318/96/02 0176-10 $10.00/0 © 1996 J.E. IngulsrudLANGUAGE, CULTURE AND CURRICULUM Vol. 9, No. 2, 1996

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the programme should be viewed as part of the total process of the teacher'scareer, not merely a qualifying step. In such a process, teacher educationcan provide teachers with a vocabulary so that dialogue about teaching canbe initiated and sustained.

Meaningful dialogue between teachers and teacher educator, often on aone-to-one basis, as both Holliday and Freeman describe, is essential toin-service teacher education. Dialogue among teachers is just as important.By talking about teaching in an informed manner, a community can developwhere words about teaching take on special meaning. Subtle distinctionscan lead to new ways of thinking. In such dialogic communities wherereflection, assistance, and self-expression take place, teachers can be empoweredto change.

The notion of 'dialogic community' is borrowed from Bernstein (1983) whodescribes gatherings of human beings to engage in meaningful discourse.Such communities are seen as solutions to modern society's fragmentationof traditional systems of personal relationships while traditional inequalitiesin power structures persist. The dialogic community provides for eachparticipant occasion for learning, expression, and empowerment.

Bernstein's communities are idealistic for they assume a basic egalitarianism.In contrast, the communities of teachers described here deal with the realitiesof the modern world. They are imperfect in the sense that they may inadequatelyempower teachers and may offer few opportunities for self-expression. Yet,they are functional, for they provide a degree of support and a degree ofsolidarity formed around real needs. This is why these communities canalready exist even without the input of a teacher educator. A common curriculum,for example, allows teachers to support each other by talking about lessonsthey all have to teach, and this support can lead to a sharing of scarceresources. Also, teachers can express solidarity in the face of nationwidetests, where their value as teachers is judged on the number of their studentsachieving a passing score. Regarding the language-learning environment,Claire Kramsch (1993: 28) points out, 'By identifying and discussing thedialogic context itself, the participants in the dialog are given validity andimportance as speakers and hearers in that dialog; their contributions aregiven breadth and depth'.

Discovering the CommunitiesThe evidence for specific dialogic communities is based on the existence

of specific needs. Although I have observed several communities first hand,two recent volumes of essays by English teachers in tertiary institutions inChina, e.g. Education in China (Fizette, 1995) and College English Teaching inChina: Motives, Materials, and Assessment (Ellis, 1995), present a number ofneeds around which dialogue takes place. The needs that these teachers raiseinclude: the gap between the prescribed syllabus and the goals of students,the desire for more focus on speaking and listening skills in the curriculum,the search for more effective teaching methods, and the desire to help teachers

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remain in the profession.The in-service teacher educator, if he or she is to find dialogic communities

of teachers, must seek out the perceived needs of teachers so that knowledgecan be presented in a relevant context. This task is of special urgency amongexpatriate teacher educators who have to confront, as we do in the People'sRepublic of China, a history of acrimony between the teacher educator fromabroad and the local English teacher. Teacher educators from abroad normallycome with funding; therefore the local teachers and administrators politelylisten, but the implementation of the teacher educator's input is anothermatter. A number of articles (e.g. Burnaby & Sun, 1989; Cotton, 1990; Du,1990; Hayhoe, 1986; Maley, 1983; Scovel, 1983) describe differences of opinionregarding curriculum, teaching methods, and the classroom role of the Englishteacher. For example, Alan Maley (1983) observed that the expatriate teachereducators were eager to provide communicative language learning method-ology, while Chinese teachers preferred to receive training in improving theirown language skills and in background knowledge of the English-speakingworld. Indeed, from my own interviews with teachers who had receivedtraining in the British Council programmes of the 1980's (Oaty, 1990), formertrainees are most appreciative of the training they received not in teachingmethodology, but in English language skills.

The attraction to training in English language skills lies in what is perceivedas being prestigious. For a college teacher, a good command of Englishtogether with a wide knowledge of the English-speaking culture are usefulassets, but it is also prestigious to present their skills and knowledge inlecture form. Reasons for the preference of lecturing in China have beenvarious. Dzau (1990) suggests that it is both the influence of Russia andConfucianism, which allows the teacher to reign while the students remainpassive. From my own observations of teachers, I am lead to believe thatteacher domination of classroom time can be attributed to the image of acollege professor lecturing to the students. This image is a powerful one,and many language teachers at the tertiary level prefer to treat their Englishclasses as a lecture on a 'hard' subject rather than an event facilitatingcommunicative skills — a skills vs. content identity crisis that affects languageteachers around the world (Harshbarger, 1993). In one class I observed, theteacher spoke for the entire two-hour class. When I commented on thisbehaviour, the teacher responded by saying, "The class was all in English'.

To reach teachers for whom prestige is a priority, some negotiation isneeded. When teachers are asked what they think the ideal college professoris like, an inventory of attributes includes: a high income, a large apartment,being able to conduct stimulating lectures, having written many publications,and fame. All of these attributes cannot be acquired right away; however,the teacher educator can begin with those attributes that are accessible suchas, becoming a stimulating teacher and becoming a researcher. While on onehand, helping teachers become more effective in the classroom is central toteacher education, the teacher educator could also provide assistance withresearch. By providing training in research methodology teachers can begin

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engaging in research activities. If issues in the language teaching contextcould be seen not only as endemic problems but as research questions, thenthere is a possibility that both interest in teaching and increase in prestigecan be sustained. Ideally, teacher educators should try to use their influenceto get teachers' work published as Eva Fizette (1995) has done, launchingteachers into the world of inquiry and communication.

Among the many dialogic communities that exist with priorities arisingfrom real needs, such as the teacher prestige community above, I have chosentwo communities: coping with the textbooks and coping with standardisedtests. These two needs form the basis for other needs relating to Englishlanguage teaching methodology. Teachers of English in China at the tertiary-levelinstitutions must deal with a centralised curriculum with specific lessons innationally distributed textbooks. In the same way, teachers must deal witha standardised test all students are required to take. The teachers in focushere are college English teachers, those teachers who teach students notmajoring in English, thus the vast majority of English language students. InChina today, it is estimated over two million students study college Englishwith over 20,000 college English teachers (Li et al, 1988).2

The Community of the Textbook

A teacher from Southern China writes, 'Recently, college English languageteaching became a hot issue causing discussion among English teachers andeducators. ... As an English teacher with little experience, I got advice frommany teachers on teaching' (Yin, 1995: 129). With a nationwide syllabus,there is not a great deal of choice of textbooks. Since 1987, a syllabus forthe two-year college English course has been established (Li et al, 1988).Based on this syllabus, three series of textbooks have been compiled: CollegeEnglish, College Core English, and New College English. The first one, CollegeEnglish, is by far the most popular series, and in contrast with the othertwo, has received the least input by foreign experts. The other two have hadinvolvement by the British Council and the University of Minnesota respec-tively (Brelsforth & Zhang, 1989). The editorial committee for the CollegeEnglish series consists of influential persons on syllabus and testingcommissions. Therefore, this textbook series gives the impression of beingbetter matched to the test even though there is little evidence that one seriesis significantly more appropriate than the others for test preparation. Evenso, individual teachers, or more frequently, teachers collectively in depart-ments do have the choice of textbook, and this provides a theme for discussion.Which textbook follows the syllabus most closely? Which textbook is arrangedbetter in order of difficulty? Which one do the students like? The dialogiccommunity of the textbook exists. An example of the input of the in-serviceteacher education programme on lesson preparation is described below.

As non-native speakers of English, many teachers do not feel entirelysecure in their understanding of the language points or cultural content ofthe textbook lesson. The teacher educator, in my case, at the College English

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Teachers Training Program at Nanjing University, teaches a demonstrationclass. The interest in observing this class was due less to the methodologypresented but more to the information that the teacher educator provided.This included vocabulary and interpretations of reading passages, a native-speaker perspective that was seen to be useful in enhancing the teachers'own teaching of the same lessons.

Another aspect of lesson preparation is time management. The collegeEnglish textbooks contain a large number of exercises, and many teachersand administrators assume that all the exercises must be covered, eventhough it is impossible to do so in a responsible manner. Consequently, mostteachers agree choices must be made. The format of the textbook, for example,begins with a reading passage, followed by a number of exercises. Theteacher then decides whether the focus of the lesson is to be on the passageor on the exercises, or further, on communicative activities related or unrelatedto the textbook lesson. Most in-service teachers feel that they are expectedto at least follow the lesson from beginning to end.

In my own college English class, I noticed a number of students had intheir possession, teachers' books and published textbook commentaries. Uponfurther inquiry, I found that 70% of my students had purchased suchsupplementary materials. That meant the students had the same resourcesat their disposal as their teachers, including answers to the exercises. It wasevident that students could be working on textbook exercises on their ownwithout using classroom time to go over them. By organising the exercisesas homework, at least two hours per week were freed up for speaking andwriting activities.

Initially, however, the teachers felt uncomfortable facing the reality thatstudents had in their possession the same (and often the only) resourcematerials available. Many preferred to go on teaching, ignoring the situation.Through dialogue, various options became apparent. In spite of the wide-spread perception of having to cover the whole lesson, the teachers beganto take advantage of the opportunity that the supplementary materialsprovided to use more classroom time for communicative activities. Theconformity to a common curriculum has, in China, spawned an industryproducing supplementary materials. These materials, in turn, offer teachersan opportunity for greater flexibility.

The Community of the Test

Another mark of prestige for most teachers around the world is givenwhen many of their students pass a test with high marks. As a result, teachersadapt to realities. One teacher (Liu, 1995: 59) says, 'To make my studentsfeel that they have learned something from me, I have to focus on languagepoints and grammar which can help them the most to pass'. At the sametime, teaching for the test is often regarded as the lowest status of pedagogicalacts, because good teaching is seen to provide adequate preparation for thetest. Administrators in China also insist that in-class test preparation is an

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activity teachers should refrain from (Zhizhong Yang, personal communication).The low esteem of teaching for the test lies in the assumption that stand-

ardised tests maintain a high enough degree of validity and reliability thatgood teaching and good learning should automatically result in good scores.Upon close scrutiny of large-scale tests today, there is sufficient evidence tosuspect that the relationship between a positive classroom experience andhigh test scores is lower than desired (Hill & Parry, 1994). Moreover, it canbe questioned whether conventional testing formats (i.e. multiple-choice ordirect writing and speaking) attain high enough levels of reliability andvalidity so that teachers and students can focus on learning and ignore thetest. Reality has shown otherwise. The language skills demanded on the testare insufficiently complementary to either the aims of the syllabus or thereal-life use of the language. In other words, the necessity to maintain reliability(e.g. time limits and objective formats) on large-scale tests tends to diminishthe face validity (the aims of the syllabus and demands of real-world languageuse) that the tests presume to uphold (Ingulsrud, 1994). Tests administerednationwide, by virtue of economy and efficiency, are designed almost entirelyas multiple-choice tests; thus, in the case of foreign language education, theyare poorly designed to measure the communicative skills teachers in in-serviceteacher education programmes are encouraged to develop in their students.Moreover, the social consequences of the test scores are so serious, teachersmust attend to test-preparation if they are going to be seen as being responsiveto student needs. A teacher educator who encourages teachers to teacheffectively while ignoring the power of the test, has overlooked the funda-mental conditions most teachers around the world work under.

By facing the test head on, the teacher educator possesses the opportunityto present methodology in a context where it really matters professionallyand socially. A frequent rationale given for existing methodology is that ithelps students prepare for the test. For example, after observing a teacheremploying the grammar-translation method for two hours in a comprehensiveEnglish language class, the teacher justified his choice of methodology byclaiming that this kind of lesson would help students on the test. It is atthis juncture, instead of bemoaning the existence of the test, the teachereducator can question whether these existing methodologies serve the studentsbest. If test success is so important to both students and teachers, it isimperative for the teacher educator and the teachers to explore seriouslymethods that will attend to this goal.

Since 1987, a series of College English tests have been developed in Chinafor each semester of English study for students who do not major in English.The most important of these is the College English Test — Band Four (CET-Band Four) administered after the fourth semester. The test contains ninetymultiple-choice items covering listening and reading comprehension,grammar and vocabulary, and cloze. This is followed by a thirty-minutedirect writing test (Liu, 1990).

Although the stated aims of the tests are simply to improve the level ofEnglish throughout the country, individual institutions, as well as companies

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and work units, have begun to use the scores of the CET-Band Four for theirown purposes, 'stretching it', as Professor Zhizhong Yang3 puts it, 'far beyondwhat the test was intended for'. For example, a passing score on this test isnecessary, in many institutions, to receive an undergraduate degree. A numberof employers are requiring high scores on the test of people seeking jobs.Professor Yang estimates that 20,000 take the test each year.

There is a College English syllabus and the College English Test syllabus.Obviously, it is the test syllabus that the teachers pay attention to, eventhough the authorities urge teachers to follow the general one. At the sametime, the CET-Band Four is supposed to be an achievement test based onthe test syllabus, but the tests contain material outside the domain of thesyllabus (Huang & Lu, 1993). Moreover, textbook material, as Wang (1995)points out, vocabulary, grammar, and passage genre have very little similarityto the content of the CET Band Four.

These contradictions provide for lively dialogue, especially with teachershungering for the latest information on the test. The teacher educator then,by accepting the existence of test preparation, can focus on teachingmethodology, treating test preparation (inclusive of test-wiseness skills) asa kind of English for Special Purposes. Testing discourse, due to the variousreliability constraints in test preparation and administration, is made up oftexts adapted to certain guidelines and special reading behaviours for theparticular test-taking event. These features, as well as others, make tests aunique discourse genre (Ingulsrud, 1994; Parry, 1994). It is, therefore, vitalfor students to become familiar with these important, decision-making texts.

The teachers in the programme discussed how test preparation could beaddressed while attending to the communicative skills of students. Throughthis dialogic community some suggestions have emerged:

• Administer occasional but regular practice tests. This will not only trainthe motor and concentration skills needed for the test, but will send themessage that the teacher is concerned about the test too.

• Ask students, using practice tests, to prepare reasons for choosing the correctoptions as well as choices for distracters. The class discussion should providea sense of the kinds of information tests tend to ask for, and also provideencouragement, as the reasons for choosing distracters can often indicatethe test-taker's logical response.

• Provide practice in vocabulary and grammar, particularly in error detection.Through the practice, students should get a sense of collocation anddetection of polysemous and homophonous words, because these kinds ofstructures and words lend themselves to easy preparation of multiple-choiceitems.

• Conduct class discussions on the content of reading comprehensionpassages. The focus of the discussion is to distinguish between the kinds ofinterpretation tests tend to require and the various possible interpretationsthat might be made.

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The dialogic community of the test functions as an information exchangeabout the test. The community uses the occasion of the test for teachers toapply to their classes the training programme input — the teachingmethodology and knowledge of linguistics — so that test preparation too,can be utilised to develop communicative language skills.

Conclusion

In-service teacher education programmes with personnel and theory fromEurope and North America have had a less than adequate input, specificallyin China, on the institutions that they have tried to assist. The ones whobenefit most from such programmes are often those who are recipients offunding, not those who receive the ideas. It has long been argued thateffective teacher training must be done in the context of the teacher's culturaland institutional realities. So far, little has been said on what exactly thesecontexts might be. Although the beneficial effect of dialogue with teachershas been stressed, little has been written about what that dialogue mightfocus on.

A dialogue is, at least, a two-way street. A teacher educator cannot expectto be effective by simply gathering the right information and then acting onit. Effective dialogue in teacher training involves compromise and negotiation.To compromise involves dealing with issues professionals from Europe andNorth America might consider non-issues, such as teacher image. Certainteaching methods, like the lecture method, continue to be popular, becausetypically that is how college-level educators teach in most disciplines. Newcurriculum ideas and teaching methodology must be negotiated in terms ofenhancing the teacher's prestige if change is to become a desired option.One way is to present something that will foster more prestige than lecturing,such as research and the published representation of it. By conducting researchon teaching and related issues, teachers can, at least, become actively involvedin what goes on in the classroom.

Two issues have been raised here that provide contexts for dialogue — thetextbook and the test — issues that lead to further inquiry by teachers engagedin dialogue. In the case of the textbook, teaching with a uniform curriculumto students who must take a standardised test is, superficially, a dead-endsituation. Yet through dialogic communities of both the textbook and thetest, these institutional contexts cease to be overpowering. Teachers no longerhave to be locked into covering their lesson as it appears in the textbook.The looming date of the test need not force teachers to lecture, but providesa continuing opportunity for real-world communicative language learning.The difficulties teachers meet in teaching do not have to be seen as problems,but might be recast as questions to be addressed through research. Thein-service teacher education programme, by providing a vocabulary of teachingand methodologies of research, not only promotes informed dialogue, butallows teachers to be less intimidated.

The empowerment of teachers begins when a sense of isolation is lessened

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and a sense of solidarity is increased. Realising that professional needs arenot individual but are shared, may lead to a collective solution to meetingthese needs. The problems encountered with using the textbook, for example,can begin to be solved by hearing how others deal with those problems. Bylearning the basics of testing statistics, for instance, teachers do not have tobe overwhelmed by an expert's presentation, but are able to ask informedquestions.

Knowledge transfer in teacher education, in terms of teacher educator-initiated knowledge, remains tenuous on its own. In our experience in China,knowledge transfer, if it does occur, does so most effectively in the contextof dialogic communities. The contribution of an in-service programme, isnot only its faculty and curriculum, but the environment for connectionsthat teachers are able to make with each other. Whether they become friends,comrades in solidarity, peers with whom they could be judged or collaboratorsin research projects, it is from these relationships that dialogic communitiesof teachers can be formed. The transfer of knowledge in in-service teachereducation, then, may be sustained and expanded to the degree to which thedialogic communities of teachers are engaged.

Notes

1. I thank the teacher trainees of Nanjing University's College English Teacher TrainingProgram for their valuable insights and information.

2. It is difficult to find accurate demographic statistics on China. The numbers presentedhere are estimates and should be viewed in terms of the scope of higher educationin China.

3. Professor Zhizhong Yang is director of the College English Teacher Training Programat Nanjing University. He is on the editorial committee for the College English seriesas well as on the advisory board for the College English Tests. The importance of thetest has risen so quickly that there is little written about it.

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