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Impacts of Disasters in Sri Lanka
2016
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This publication is copyright, but may be reproduced without fee for teaching and reference purposes but not for sale. Formal permission is required from publisher for all such uses. For copying in any other circumstances, or for translation or adaptation, prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher.
The opinions expressed in this publication are not necessarily the official policy of the Disaster Management Centre, A-PAD Sri Lanka or the Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies.
Main Contributors: Disaster Management Centre – Ministry of Disaster Management and Asia Pacific Alliance for Disaster Management Sri Lanka (A-PAD SL).
Published by: The Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies (CHA) 01, Gower Street,Colombo 05, Sri Lanka Tel: 0094 11 4061461 E mail: [email protected] Web : www.humanitariansrilanka.org
The Disaster Management Centre would like to express its gratitude to the Asia Pacific Alliance for Disaster Management (A-PAD) and the People of Japan for committing and supporting this publication.
ISBN: 978-995-1041-54-0
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Contents
1. Introduction 1
Disaster Trends in Sri Lanka 4
2. Hazards Profile and Impacts 6 2.1 Coastal Erosion 6 2.2 Drought 8 2.3 Flood 13 2.4 Landslide 20 2.5 Lightning 25 2.6 Sea-level Rise 30 2.7 Storm Surge 31 2.8 Tropical Cyclone 32 2.9 High Wind 37 2.10 Tsunami 38 2.11 Climate Change 40 2.12 Fire 41 2.13 Earthquake 43 2.14 Human-Elephant Conflict 44
3. Post Disaster Recovery Assistance 47 3.1 Disaster Relief 47 3.2 Assistance to repair/ rehabilitate houses damaged due to disasters 47
Asia Pacific Alliance for Disaster Management Inner back-cover
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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1. Introduction
Natural hazards and their impacts have severe consequences. The poorest and the economically and socially vulnerable are those most at risk. With the growing threat of climate change, hazards are largely unavoidable. However, hazards only become disasters when coping mechanisms of communities are exceeded and they are unable to manage their impacts.
Disasters in any one place can have far-reaching impacts in an increasingly interconnected world. An upward trend in losses is likely to gain momentum with a changing climate and rapid urbanization. In this backdrop decisions about natural disasters have negative short-run fiscal impacts and longer-term consequences for economic growth, development and poverty-reduction. It further constitutes a shock to public finances because of their impact on output and the need for relief and reconstruction.
In the recent past Sri Lanka has been experiencing an increase in natural disasters. Its frequency and impacts are alarming, considerably affecting the economy and development gains. Investments in development need to consider long-term resilience. The tremendous losses disasters could reverberate have been taken seriously by policy makers with the ministry of disaster management taking a lead with relevant stakeholders. Whilst immediate relief and response take centre stage, long term disaster mitigation and resilience requires mechanisms for institutionalization across sectors and communities.
An integrated post-flood assessment conducted in May 2010 by the Disaster Management Centre of Sri Lanka revealed that the combined value of damages and losses in the five districts of Colombo, Kalutara, Gampaha, Galle and Matara amounted to 5,059 million rupees. The impact of disaster was unevenly distributed in geographic or spatial terms. The value of combined damages and losses in the western province (3,091 million rupees) was higher than the southern province (1,960 million rupees). However the impact of disaster in the western province is 0.15% of the western province GDP while in the southern province the effect was 0.36% of the provincial GDP. Therefore relative impact of the southern province was larger (Table1).
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Table 1: Spatial distribution of flood effect and Magnitude
ProvinceIn Rs Million Magnitude % (Total
effect/GDP)Damage Losses TotalWestern 1745 1973 3091 0.15Southern 824 1016 1960 0.36
The flood mainly impacted physical and economic infrastructure, productive activities and social sectors. Breakdown of the values among main sector revealed that infrastructure (2,574 million rupees or 51% of the total effect), productive sector (1,940.5 million rupees or 38% of total effect) and social sector (543 million rupees or 11% of the total effects) were the worst affected. It is interesting to note that damages were borne by the public sector (85% of the total value of damages), economic flow were incurred by the private sector with enterprises and individual absorbing 97 % of the total loss value (Table 2).
Table 2: Summary of Disaster Damages and losses
Main Sector SectorLosses and Damages (LKR million.)
Property Damages Revenue Losses Total
Social 306.7 236 524.7Housing 256.9 230.5 487.4Education 45.3 3.0 48.3Health 2.2 2.5 4.7Culture and Religion 2.3 2.3
Productive 114.1 1,826.3 1,940.5
Agriculture 6.2 1,220.8 1,227Livestock 1.5 10.7 12.2Fishery 0.7 146.9 147.6Industry 66.0 317.0 383.1Commerce 39.7 130.9 170.6
Infrastructure 2,146.3 427.8 2,574.1Road Transport 1,913.7 387.6 2,301.3Railway 8.5 7.5 16.0Air transport 2.8 2.8Water and Sanitation 3.9 21.9 25.8Electricity 9.3 5.0 14.3
Telecommunication 8.8 3.0 11.8Irrigation and Flood Control System 202.0 202.0
Other Public Administration 1.6 1.6
Total 2,568.7 2,490.1 5,058.9Source: Integrated Flood Assessment May 2010
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Losses to industries and commerce are four times higher than that of physical damage. A majority of small scale entrepreneurs were affected more due to lack of awareness on hazards, absence of in-house capability and resources to influence better disaster preparedness and business continuity plans. The National Planning Department of the Ministry of Finance and Planning concluded a data and loss assessment in five districts in north-central and eastern provinces following major floods in 2011. Total damages and losses assessed in five sectors exceeded 77 billion LKR excluding losses incurred by private sector.
Human fatalities due to disasters caused by natural hazards in Sri Lanka show a decreasing trend while disaster damages, losses and the number of people affected are on the increase, similar to the global trend.
Table 3: Loss of lives due to frequently occurring disasters between years 2000-2015
Year Flood Landslide High Winds Lightning
2000 3 0 7 52001 0 3 0 162002 1 12 4 92003 151 218 4 92004 5 8 3 82005 17 4 6 102006 37 38 5 122007 16 34 10 282008 44 19 13 222009 7 11 11 172010 24 4 2 192011 69 6 25 112012 25 16 11 682013 5 6 97 182014 34 45 22 152015 2 3 nil 11
Source : www.disinventar.lk
The UN member countries at the 3rd World Conference on Disasters Risk Reduction adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 2015-2030 emphasising the management of disaster risk as opposed to managing disasters. On completion of the 15 year implementation of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction it expects substantial reduction in disaster risk and losses to lives, and creating economic and community resilience. The private sector will play a key role in understanding disaster risk and take decisions based on the disaster risk assessment to ensure sustainability of investment made in the economic or service sectors.
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SFDRR has made special reference to promote mechanisms for disaster risk transfer, insurance and finance protection for both public and private investment. Irrespective of what the private sector is engaged in, they would be required to assess hazards, vulnerability and risk in geographical areas of their intervention to contribute towards sustainable economic growth of the country. Historical information on disasters in Sri Lanka available in the domain could be accessed to analyse data in understanding disaster trends and risks. The publication of this book will further serve as a resource for all sectors in understanding disaster trends and impacts in Sri Lanka.
Although Sri Lanka established an institutional frame work for disaster management in Sri Lanka in 1996 with the Cabinet directive, Sri Lanka Disaster Management act No 13 of 2005 was enacted in 2005 after the devastating tsunami. The Act has identified 21 natural, human-induced and technological hazards affecting the country. In the recent past, Sri Lanka has experienced an increased number of hazards resulting in economic losses and negatively impacting development gains. Extreme hydro-meteorological events caused by the impacts of climate change; unplanned development and rapid urbanisation; increased vulnerability of population have been identified as the main contributors.
Disaster Trends in Sri Lanka
The database maintained by the Disaster Management Centre (www.DesInventar.lk) provides information on disaster affected losses since 1974 island-wide. Analysed disaster data depicts that there is a clear increase in occurrence of hazard events over the last decades. Compared to the decade ending in 1983, the number of disasters caused by natural hazards has increased by 22 times during the last decade mainly due to increased hydro-meteorological disasters. In terms of the frequency of disasters affecting the people and economy, flood is the highest (56%) followed by drought (18%), high Winds (10%) and Landslide (16%).
The largest loss of lives was due to the Tsunami in 2004, followed by extreme wind events, animal attacks and landslide. Highest destruction to the housing sector has been caused by floods and extreme winds followed by the Tsunami of 2004. Cumulatively more than 36 million people have been affected by natural hazards over a period of 40 years on an average of over 900,000 persons affected annually by these hazards (4.1% of population).
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CHAPTER 2
HAZARDS PROFILE AND IMPACTS
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2. Hazards Profile and Impacts
The Sri Lanka Disaster Management Act No 13 of 2005 has identified 21 natural, human induced and technological hazards affecting the country. The Disaster Management Centre with the assistance of large number of technical agencies and academic institutions have prepared a national level hazard profile for coastal erosion, drought, flood, landslide, lightning, rise in sea level, storm surge, tropical cyclone and tsunami. Hazard profiles are available through www.riskinfo.lk, and www.hazard.lk web sites.
2.1 Coastal Erosion
Unsupervised and illegal sand mining in rivers and its banks has severely reduced large amount of its sediment supply into the sea, accelerating sea erosion in many coastal areas. Human-induced erosion due to extraction of sea sand and corals from the coastal areas too are contributing factors. South-west monsoonal waves are more severe in nature than the north-west monsoonal waves, resulting in severe erosion along the western, southern and south-western coastal lines of Sri Lanka.
Coastal erosion and accretion that are a result of the natural coastal process has been identified as one of the prominent hazards in Sri Lanka. Regular waves cause gradual erosion whilst tsunami and storms cause irreversible erosions. Extraction of sand and corals from coastal areas and improperly sited maritime structures have affected the southern coastal belt. Some counter measures for coastal erosion implemented as a mitigation processes have worsened the situation. An example is the revetments and groynes constructed to protect the Unawatuna beach located south of the island, which is causing severe erosion to adjacent coasts.
Over 44% of the National Gross Domestic production is generated in the coastal region. Fisheries and tourism have now become dominant economic activities. An estimated 25% of the population is settled in coastal areas. The coastal region in Sri Lanka thus provides home and livelihood for a large population whilst contributing significantly to the national economy. Due to the coastal erosion, critical infrastructure, human settlements, livelihood of rural population, and two major sectors of tourism and fisheries are severely affected. Long-term effects could be alarming. Artificial structures placed along the beach to mitigate erosion are an impediment to traditional fishing practices. Proactive measures in dredging and sea sand filling in few critical locations in Negombo have averted erosion to an extent.
The degree of hazard has been displayed linearly on base maps at a scale of 1:50,000. The coastal erosion hazard profile consists of 52 map tiles prepared for the entire
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country. The degree of erosion is ranked to three categories of Low, Medium and High. Figure 2.1 shows the map tiles of all coastal erosion maps in Sri Lanka and Figure 2.2 is a sample of tile no 90 which shows the coastal erosion along the coastal zone of Galle. The information on coastal erosion could be obtained from www.riskinfo.lk.
Figure 2.1Map tile numbers for all coastal erosion maps at a 1:50,000 scale
Figure 2.2: Coastal Erosion Map along the Coastal Zone of Galle - Map tile 90
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“Master Plan for Coastal Erosion Management” (MPCEM) prepared by Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management department has identified 15 key areas and 11 singular sites highly prone to coastal erosion. Of which 12 key areas and 7 singular sites are in the western, south-western and southern coastal stretch. Few cases are being reported in the eastern, north-eastern and northern coasts. The increase in erosion worsening during the monsoon seasons continue to damage many public and private properties annually whilst many are under threat. Fishing, tourism and critical services are disrupted and arrests development. Displacement of coastal dwellers is increasing. Economic losses due to this hazard is substantial. Coastal protection expenditure during the recent past is alarming. Approximately 1,520 million rupees has been spent on erosion control for the period between 1985 to 1999. More than Rs 4 billion has been spent for the period of 2000 – 2006. Over Rs one billion worth of projects have been implemented to protect the coast recently -a classic case of hazards arresting development.
2.2 Drought
Studies conducted on rainfall (Jayamaha 1975) depict Sri Lanka as an island in the warm tropical Indian oceans. Its proximity to the equator, large mass of hills existing at the center of the island, perpendicular to two approaching moisture laden monsoon wind streams and the presence of vast land mass of the Indian sub-continent to the immediate north and northwest of Sri Lanka, considerably influence the rainfall of the island. Despite these factors Sri Lanka has experienced drought from ancient times. Drought is a slow-onset hazard, in contrast to aridity. This recurs due to the reduction of precipitation for extended periods of time, usually one or more seasons causing severe scarcity of water. Inability to cultivate crops for two consecutive seasons due to scarcity of water is the governments’ criteria to provide drought relief. However, for a clear understanding drought has been defined as meteorological (deficiency of precipitation over a period of time), hydrological (precipitation deficiency over a predetermined period of time), agricultural (lack of availability of soil water to support crop and forage growth) and socioeconomic (when the demand for an economic goods exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply) hazard.
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Figure 2.3 : Spatial pattern of drought severity in Yala and Maha* season in Sri Lanka
*Note: Yala -March to September, Maha -October to February
The dark brown area of the map in the left in figure 2.3 indicates the areas severely affected by drought if north east monsoon fails.1 Active north east monsoons will brings sufficient rain allowing all reservoirs in the dry zone to store water to their full capacity and which will allow release of sufficient water to farmers in the Yala season resulting in a good harvest. Rainfall data indicate that low precipitation during north-east monsoon leads to drought in the dry zone areas of the country. It is the north east monsoons that influence social and economic activities in the dry zone to a great extent.
The drought hazard profile for the country has been prepared based on the rainfall of the country. The hazard profile has been developed using daily and monthly rainfall and potential evapotranspiration data. Drought hazard map prepared for Sri Lanka is shown in Figure 2.4.
1Agriculture Practitioners Hand Book Published by Ministry of Agriculture in 2012
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Figure 2.4 Drought Hazard map of Sri Lanka
Source: Hazard Profile of Sri Lanka, Published by the Ministry of Disaster Management
The drought hazard map prepared by DMC is more suitable for macro level planning (1:250,000 scale map). It is to be noted that only rainfall has been considered in developing the map. Surface and underground water availability and soil moisture deficiency which have a high impact on the drought condition of the country, have not been considered in this case.
Analysing the data relating to drought, a more clear picture could be derived with regard to the temporal and spatial distribution of drought impacts. Severe drought events have been reported in 2001, 2004, 2012 and 2014 (Figure 2.5). Scarcity of drinking water has been reported annually in most of the districts.
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Figure 2.5: Temporal distribution of drought hazard
Figure 2.5: Temporal distribution of drought hazard
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(Source: www.desinventar.lk)
Analysis of data from the year 2000 indicates that the impact of drought has been severe in Kurunegala, Puttalam, Hambantota, Anuradhapura, Rathnapura and Moneragala districts (Figure 2.6). Rathnapura district, which is in the wet zone, has also reported the scarcity of drinking water. There is a decreasing trend in people affected by drought during the last ten years due to better water management and new reservoirs built by the Irrigation Department in dry zones.
Figure 2.6: Cumulative number of people affected by drought: 1974-2014(Source: www.desinventar.lk)
Figure 2.6: Cumulative Number of People Affected by Drought: 1974-2014
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(Source: www.desinventar.lk)
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A further analysis of drought impact at divisional levels provides an insight to prioritising investment in reducing drought impacts in its relevant districts. Table 2.1 depicts people affected and damages caused at divisional level in the district of Hambantota.
Table 2.1. Effect of drought from 1978-2014
Divisional SecretariatDivision No of people affected Extent of Paddy & Crops
damaged Ha.
Ambalantota 1074500 32331Angunakolapelessa 76012 1898Beliatta 54505 2883Hambantota 45340 1037Katuwana 61133 1860Lunugamvehera 57385 556Okewela 53600 6556Sooriyawewa 12905 542Tangalle 123231 2228Thissamaharama 56660 2190Walasmulla 78520 4813
Weeraketiya 14133 32331
Source:(www.desinventar.lk)
Figure2.7: Cumulative number of people affected by drought in all divisions from 1978-2004
0200000400000600000800000
10000001200000
Source:(www.desinventar.lk)
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Figure 2.8: Cumulative number of people affected in all divisions except Ambalantota
020000400006000080000100000120000140000
Detailed analyses of the impact of drought in the district of Hambantota indicate that the most affected division was Ambalanthota. Divisions of only Okewela and Walasmulla had minimal impacts. These types of analyses could be done in respect of other highly drought prone districts to assess risk more accurately and channel mitigation endevours effectively.
On average Sri Lanka receives sufficient rainfall annually. The proper storage and managing of water can minimize impacts of drought to a great extent.
Paddy cultivation in the north, north-western, north-central and eastern province were severely affected by drought between 2012-2013. Farmers who cultivated other crops too were affected.
2.3 Floods
Floods are a most destructive but relatively common hazard in Sri Lanka. When inflow of water to an area exceeds the outflow; it fills up rivers, reservoirs and marshy areas before spilling to dry land causing floods. The duration could vary on meteorological, hydrological and topographical factors. Floods cause loss of lives, economic losses and damages depending on the magnitude, area of inundation and duration. However there are beneficial aspect of floods such as replenishing of groundwater aquifers to sustain groundwater supplies to maintain wetland systems, which play a vital role in ecology, providing rich habitats. Excess water helps keep flood plains fertile by depositing rich silt on the riparian lands. Without the buildup of these alluvial deposits, riparian cultivators would have to spend significant amounts on chemical fertilizers for land cultivation.
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Floods have been classified as riverine, coastal, localized (urban) and reservoir-induced based on the sources and nature of flooding. Riverine flood could be predicted with reasonable accuracy to issue a warning. Flash floods are most destructive as it cannot be predicted and the energy of the flood wave is devastating. Flash flood could occur due to temporary obstruction in the river or breach of a dam.
The Department of Irrigation has flood inundation maps for four river basins namely, Kelani, Kalu, Gin and Atthanagalu rivers. Statistics have been collated manually from these rivers following inundations and the affected communities.
Figure 2.9: Flood Inundation map of Kalani River Basin
Source: Irrigation Department
Following severe flooding in 2010, the inundation map of the Kelani River was prepared (Figure 2.9). The flood hazard map prepared by the Irrigation Department indicates total inundation and is not catergorized as high, medium or low hazard levels. Flood maps at a1:100,000 scale would be useful for national scale or strategic planning and has limited use at local level.
The Irrigation Department records flood levels at pre-identified locations along major rivers. Flood levels are catergorized to minor, major and dangerous. Flood warning to population living along the Kelani River Basin is issued based on the threat (Figure
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2.10). Flood inundation in areas other than the river basin has not yet been identified or prepared in order to provide early warning of potential threat to vulnerable population.
Figure 2.10: Kalani Ganga Flood at Nagalagam Street within Colombo Municipal Area
In Gin Ganga (Figure 2.11) and Nilwala Ganga (Figure 2.12) only a solitary flood level is demarcated at an identified location in respect of each river.
Taking in to consideration the limited coverage of flood hazard maps, the Irrigation Department has now commenced a project to prepare flood inundation maps for 11 river basins namely, Mahaweli Ganga, Maha Oya, Deduru Oya, Kelani Ganga, Attanagalu Oya, Kala Oya, Gin Ganga, Nilwala Ganga, Gal Oya and Malwathu Oya and Mundeniaru simulating the inundation using hydraulic models. On completion of the studies accurate early warning could be provided to the people and businesses of that area.
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Figure 2.11: Flood levels of Ginganga at Tawalama measuring station
Source: Department of Irrigation, Sri Lanka
Figure 2.12: Flood levels of Nilwala Ganga at Pitabeddara measuring station
Source: Department of Irrigation, Sri Lanka
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Until more accurate flood inundation maps are available, historical disaster information available in the database www.desinventar.lk could be used to assess hazard impacts and identify areas affected by floods.
As depicted in Figure 2.13, Batticaloa, Amapara, Colombo, Gampaha, Kalutara and Ratnapura districts are the most vulnerable districts affected by floods during the last 40 years. Ampara and Batticaloa districts experience reservoir flooding. Colombo and Gampaha district flooding is mainly due to unplanned urbanisation, establishment of settlements in flood prone areas, infrastructure development neglecting potential flood risk and inadequate maintenance of storm water drainage system.
Figure 2.13: Cumulative Number of people affected by floods: 1974-2015
0
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calo
aAm
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Nuwa
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iyaKa
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Districts
Numb
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ffecte
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(Source: www.desinventar.lk)
Divisions prone to flooding in respective high flooding districts could be analysed for mitigation measures through the DesInventar database. Flood data from 2000 to 2013 indicate that only Hambantota, Tissamaharama and Ambalantota divisions are prone to flood in the Hambantota district. (Figure 2.14). Similar analysis could be carried out for other flood prone districts.
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Table 2.2: Divisions affected by floods from 2000-2013
Divisional Secretary divisions in Hambantota district No. of people affected
Hambantota 45386Thissamaharama 44578Ambalantota 12406Okewela 1632Walasmulla 1560Sooriyawewa 1554Tangalle 1490Katuwana 1389Lunugamvehera 1332Beliatta 415Weeraketiya 297Angunakolapelessa 247
Figure 2.14: Divisions affected by floods from 2000-2013
05000100001500020000250003000035000400004500050000
No
of P
eopl
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It’s only a few districts which are not affected by floods. The combination of intense monsoon rainfall, topography, rapid urbanization, encroachment of waterways, inadequate maintenance of rivers and canal system have contributed to flooding in Sri Lanka. Sand barriers built across river outlets during dry periods to channel and store water is another factor which has aggravated the situation.
Since 2003, a significant reduction in loss of lives due to flooding is recorded. However, improved response capacity at district level with the involvement of armed forces, awareness programmes and effective post-disaster healthcare facilities have contributed to this achievement. The year 20112 (Table 2.3) was unusual, recording three flood events during the same year. According to the Irrigation Department, the return period of the 2011 flood is 1 in every 100 years.
Table 2.3: Loss of lives due to floods from 2000-2015 (*three flood events)
Year Number of districts affected
Number of people affected
Total number of lives lost
Casualties against every 100,000 affected
2003 17 733,479 151 21
2004 19 340,068 05 01
2005 20 415,471 17 42006 20 605,903 37 62007 20 499,887 16 32008 21 1,262,506 44 32009 16 453,429 07 22010 18 453,429 24 22011* 23 2,524,402 69 32012 20 536,318 25 52013 8 158,837 5 3
2014 22 1,171,395 34 3
2015 15 35,886 2 6
Though the average number to loss of lives lost in 2011 compared to the number affected is low, the flood event in January 2011 has recorded the loss of three lives against 100,000 affected, which is slightly higher than year 2010. In 2012 and 2015 the loss of lives due to flood has further increased to 5 and 6 people against 100,000 affected (Table 2.3). Detailed analysis of daily situation reports revealed that loss of lives is mostly due to negligence of individuals and it does not reflect the deficiencies of district response mechanisms. It should be noted that complete prevention or mitigation of disasters is not possible, and as such resilience and response capacities need to be further strengthened.2 Data from Emergency Operations Centre (EOC) of DMC
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Intense precipitation exceeding 300 mm within 24 hours in 2010, 2011 and 2012 generated flash floods highlighting potential climate change impacts. This observation is different to that in 2003 and 2008 where cyclones formed in the Bay of Bengal influenced the weather.
Expenditure for providing food items to victims of flood from 2007 to 2014 has exceeded 1,461 million rupees. This does not include the contribution made by NGOs, Private sector agencies, media institutions and individuals. Stand-alone relief programmes could increase dependency of people. The need to create resilience of people living in hazard prone areas is vital.
2.4 Landslides
Landslides are considered a natural phenomenon and defined as mass movements and processes involving down slope transport of soil and rock material in mass, under gravitational influence. However slopes which stood safe for centuries are now frequented by landslides and hence socioeconomic losses due to its impact are growing. This is mainly due to the expanse of human activities into more vulnerable hill slopes under the pressure of the rising population and associated demands for lands and infrastructure facilities.
Nearly 13,000 km2 (20% area of the country) covering ten administrative districts such as Badulla, Nuwara Eliya, Matale, Kandy, Kegalle, Rathnapura, Kalutara, Galle, Matara and Hambanthota are considered to be highly prone to landslides (Fig 2.14).
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Figure 2.16: Sample landslide hazard zonation map prepared at 1:50000 scale
Figure 2.14: Landslide Prone districts Figure 2.15: Distribution of landslide hazard zones
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Landslide susceptibility maps have been prepared by NBRO for most of the high risk divisional secretariats at a scale of 1:50,000 and are available at www.nbro.gov.lk. These maps could be effectively utilized for policy decisions in the development process of central hilly areas. The private sector could access these maps for development sensitive and sustainable investments. Early warning and relocation of vulnerable communities could be carried out with the aid of the maps. Landslide hazard zonation maps include guidelines to be followed in the development process in hazard zone areas.
Landslide susceptibility maps in 1:50000 scale maps have been developed based on the relative contribution of geological, topographical, land use and land management attributes. Although individual landslides cannot be identified in these maps, it could be utilized in forecasting potential landslide prone areas in protecting lives and property. Systematic evacuation plans for vulnerable population could be mapped. 1:10,000 scale landslide hazard maps in respect of Nuwaraeliya and Galle districts have been finalized by the NBRO.
Landslides are categorized into 4 hazard zones, namely: 'Not Likely', 'Modest', 'To be expected' and 'Most likely to occur'. Guidelines for development in respect of each category is detailed (Table 2.4).
Table 2.4 Guidelines to be followed when developing landslide hazard zones identified by the landslide hazard zonation maps.
Landslide hazard zone Guidelines for development
Landslides not likely to occur
No visible signs of slope instability or danger of landslides exist based on the present state of knowledge. No limitations need to be imposed particularly on well managed lands and engineered construction. Location specific limitations may become necessary particularly for sites that are prone to flooding and erosion.
Modest level of landslide hazard exists
Slight danger of landslide hazard exists. Engineered and regulated new construction and well planned cultivation are permitted. Plans for construction should be technically vetted and certified by specialists.
Landslides are to be expected
Moderate levels of landslide danger exist. New construction should be discouraged and improved land use planning practices should be introduced to halt and reverse the process of slope degradation. All essential construction, remediation and new projects should be subjected to thorough landslide hazard assessment.
Landslides are most likely to occur
Danger and potential threat to life and property exists. No new construction should be permitted. Essential additions in the existing structures may be allowed only after thorough site investigation and adequate precautions which are certified by the specialists. Early warning system should be established if symptoms of landslides are clear and risk levels are high.
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Table 2.5: Percentage of land area in districts prone to landslide
District Land Area km2 % of area prone landslide
Badulla 2872.46 13
Kalutara 1655.64 10
Kandy 1863.63 27
Kegalle 1687.69 36
Matala 1898.48 12
Nuwaraeliya 1707.08 22
Rathnapura 3266.49 34
Significant decrease in number of lives lost since 2003 (Figure 2.17) can be attributed to multiple interventions by NBRO, such as: increased awareness, hazard mapping, modelling, identification of landslide hotspots, national and community level early warning systems. Heavy precipitation recorded in landslide prone districts has triggered landslides impacting lives of people especially in the estate sector (Figure 2.16). Increasing trend in property damages, economic losses as well as provision of relief to victims of landslides are yet to be addressed.
Figure 2.16: Cumulative number of people affected by landslide from 1974-2014
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Figure 2.17: Number of lives lost due to landslides from 2000 - 2014
Significant number of people have been affected due to landslides in Sabaragamuwa and Central provinces during the last 40 years (Figure 2.16). Inadequate maintenance of storm water drainage systems in tea plantations and cutting steep slopes to expand housing units by plantation workers have greatly contributed to this situation. Slope failures due to human interventions are reported after heavy rainfall in all parts of the country. NBRO also has reported an increasing trend in cutting failures. Housing and road construction have significantly contributed to the increasing trend in landslides. In 2014 and 2015, the southern highway and the Kandy- Mahiyangana road had to be closed for traffic on several occasions due to major slope failures. Ensuring safety of users of major roads in hill country districts is a major concern.
Policy decisions are being taken to mitigate the hazard. The Ministry of Disaster Management (MDM) has circulated policy instructions to Local Government Authorities (LGA) in landslide prone districts to request a clearance certificate from NBRO for future construction and development activities including housing. It was reported that the NBRO has received 43,667 requests for land clearing certificates from 01.03.2011 to 30.09.2015 and 93% of the requests have been granted (Table 8). Though obtaining approval for construction of houses is not mandatory, it is encouraged outside UDA declared areas.
Houses in the plantation sector frequently subjected to landslides and slope failures are not covered under the assessment conducted by NBRO as yet.
0
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26
Table 2.6: Request for clearance certificate for lands in landslide prone districts for construction from March 2011- September 2015
District No. of Application Received
No. of applicationCleared % Cleared
Badulla 4945 4713 95Galle 6319 6259 99Hambantota 36 36 100Kalutara 426 419 98Kandy 12,261 10,789 88Kegalle 6501 6325 97Matale 4335 4160 96Matara 1355 1348 99Nuwaraeliya 3670 3538 96Rathnapura 3819 3164 83Total 43,667 40,751 93
2.5 Lightning
Lightning is a natural phenomenon caused by an electrical charge with destructive potential. Energy generated could kill people, destroy buildings, damage electrical appliances including electronic devices and cause fire. Lightning flashes depend on number of parameters such as longitude, latitude, altitude, soil condition, topography, and vegetation of the surrounding area. Lightning heats up the air and sudden expansion produces a vibration wave which could damage buildings and affect the hearing and sight of humans.
As per the Meteorological Department, possibility of lightning striking at locations could be predicted to some extent through lightning flash counter networks and lightning detection systems. In the absence of these facilities in Sri Lanka, the prediction is based on thunder-heard-days data. A 'thunder day' is defined as "a calendar day during which thunder is heard at a given location".
27
Figure 2.18: Yearly behavior of lightning phenomena based on average thunder days
0
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of T
hund
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ays
(Source – Hazard Profile of Sri Lanka)
On average, in the months of April and October lightning activity is relatively high as shown in Figure 2.18. Both monthly and annual lightning hazard maps show behaviour of lightning activities in Sri Lanka. These maps offer more comprehensive and district wise information on lightning activities in specific areas.
Lightning peaks during two inter-monsoon periods; March-April and October-November. However, the month of April seems to have the highest lightning events. During the south-west and north-east monsoon seasons, lightening is confined to areas of Sri Lanka that lie opposite the monsoon sector. Lightning activities are shown in monthly charts clearly indicate that it is more during the two inter-monsoon periods of March-April and October –November and also showed that lightning activities are more in April in most parts of the country. As per the annual lightning distribution, peak activity is recorded in elevated land areas in the southern parts of the island. Monthly behaviour of lightning activities (Figure 2.19) shows the geographical distribution of lightning activities.
Figure 2.21 shows annual average thunder days in Sri Lanka. The map indicates areas most prone to lightening based on the lightning hazard profile. Dissemination of this information across various sectors, including the people, will enable the understanding of hazard-prone areas and seasons for preventive measures. The population could best use this information in restricting their movement during hazardous times.
28
Figure 2.19: Example of maps indicating monthly behaviour of lightning phenomenon.
February
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Ave N
o. of
thund
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ys/m
onth
Figure2.20: Half-hourly distribution of lightning activities
29
Figure 2.21: Average annual thunder frequency in Sri Lanka
Source: Hazard Profile of Sri Lanka December 2012
Since the year 2000, deaths due to lightening on average has been 20 persons killed per year (Figure: 2.22). The injured accounts to 24 per year. Lightning has caused further destruction by triggering fire in commercial sites and homes. Increasing incidence of lightning strikes are not only due to geographical exposure but also due to TV antennas, electrical and telephone wiring systems which creates an easy path for lightning strikes. People are reluctant to report incidents of lightning strikes due to the social stigma attached to it.
30
Figure 2.22: Number of lives lost and injuries caused due to lightning 2000-2015
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Num
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Injured Deaths
In Sri Lanka all districts are prone to lightning strikes. Data analyzed over the last 15 years indicates that loss to lives and injury caused by lightning is widespread across the country (Figure 2.23). However, the districts of Polonnaruwa, Moneragala, Ratnapura, Anuradhapura, Badulla and Galle are the worst affected. Farmers working in paddy fields and those in open areas are more susceptible to lightning strikes.
Figure2.23: Cumulative Number of deaths and injured due to lightning 2000-2001
0102030405060708090
100
Polo
nnar
uwa
Mon
erag
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Anur
adha
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Ratn
apur
aG
alle
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llaKa
ndy
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ampa
haKu
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Ampa
raM
atar
aPu
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amM
atal
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ntot
aCo
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vuni
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mal
eM
ulla
itivu
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ochc
hiM
anna
r
Num
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District
31
2.6 Sea-level Rise
Sea-level rise in Sri Lanka will have a significant impact. An assessment based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report, indicates that 54,828 ha of land mass will be inundated in the event of a sea surge. The districts of Puttlam, Jaffna and Mannar would be most affected. An approximate 48,718 ha of lagoons and fresh water bodies are likely to be affected (Table 2.7). District based information on inundation areas are available in the hazard profile for 25, 50, 75 and 100 years3. Coastal lands are particularly vulnerable; sea level rise is the most obvious climate-related impact. Densely settled and intensively used low-lying coastal plains, islands and deltas are especially vulnerable to coastal erosion and land loss including seawater intrusion to freshwater lenses4.
Table 2.7: Area of water bodies affected by sea level rise.
District Total Area of Water Bodies affected due to sea level rise Ha
Colombo 758Mullaitivu 824Matara 893Kalutara 1,539Ampara 1,587Trincomalee 2,063Batticaloa 2,195Gampaha 3,179Hambantota 3,380Galle 4,846Mannar 7,776Jaffna 9,457Puttalam 10,221Total 48,718
(Source: Hazard Profile of Sri Lanka)
Salt water intrusion in many areas around the coast affecting rivers providing freshwater is a common phenomenon. Kelani, Kalu, Gin and Nilwala rivers experience intrusion. In the recent past, the water intake in the Matara water supply scheme had to be moved upstream due to intrusion of salt water. Islands in the North are extremely vulnerable and temporary measures in constructing structures along intrusion areas are being carried out. Whilst livelihoods of the people are affected, people are deprived of their basic need – access to drinking water. 3 Hazard profile for Sri Lanka published by Disaster Management Center in 2012. 4 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report 1997 for Tropical Asia.
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2.7 Storm Surge
Storm surge is associated with cyclones and high winds pushing over the ocean surface. Height of the storm surge is dependent on the wind speed. Storm surge in Sri Lanka is experienced during the periods of April–May and October–December. The recorded severe cyclonic storm in Trincomalee on 23rd December 1964 recorded a wind speed of 216 km/hour generating a storm surge to the height of 4.5 metres. 650 people were killed with over 400 reported missing. The storm surge inundated the entire Mannar peninsula causing severe damage.
North and East coasts are more prone to cyclone induced storm surge. The north-western coastline and the two peninsulas’ in Jaffna and Mannar too are equally exposed.
The 24th December 1978 cyclone which severely devastated the coast of Batticaloa, had a wind speed of 222 km/hour and generated a storm surge of 1-2 metres. Inland penetration of inundation reached 1.5 km.
Table 2.8: Cyclone hazard scenario
Scenario MaximumWind speed Km/h
Estimated recurrent interval
Ttje probabi;lity of event occurring in the next 25 yeras
1 Worst case scenario 270 300 years 8%
2 Long term event 215 90 years 25%
3 Medium term event 160 30 years 57%
4 Short tern event 110 10 years 92%Source: Hazard Profile of Sri Lanka Published by Ministry of Disaster Management
Figure 2.24: Map of Mannar with storm surge at 270 km/hour wind speed
33
The following scenarios were produced after calibrating and verifying available information related to cyclones in 1964, 1978 and 1992.
Figure 2.25: Tropical cyclone induced storm surge inundation corresponding to scenario-1.
Figure 2.25 indicates possible areas that could be affected due to a storm surge. Storm surge hazard assessment could be effectively used for coastal disaster risk mitigation planning, evacuation, development planning and awareness for greater risk reduction
2.8 Tropical Cyclone
Tropical cyclones are one of the most important tropical weather systems and among the most devastating of all natural hazards. Tropical cyclones are capable of producing very strong winds, torrential rainfall and associated storm surge. It usually is very destructive causing severe damage to coastal communities, infrastructure and the ecosystem. Sea surface temperature, is a major contributing factor for the formation of tropical cyclones. Ocean temperature has to be above 26-27 o C for cyclones to generate. There is no definite return period or frequency of landfall identified in the case of cyclones.
Sri Lanka, as an island nation located off the southern tip of India, is vulnerable to cyclones generated mostly in the southern part of the Bay of Bengal, and to a lesser extent, to those in the South-East of the Arabian Sea. The frequency of cyclones in
34
the Bay of Bengal is about five to six times more than that of cyclones in the Arabian Sea. On average about four to five cyclonic storms develop in the Bay of Bengal every year.
Figure 2.26: Cyclones/Cyclonic storms that hit the coast of Sri Lanka between 1881-2011
(Source: Resource profile of Sri Lanka)
(Source: Resource profile of Sri Lanka)
Sixteen cyclonic storms have made landfall in Sri Lanka during the past 130 years (Figure 2.26). Only two of these cyclones were formed in the Arabian Sea and the rest in the Bay of Bengal. Five were severe cyclonic storms which occurred in March 1907, December 1922, December 1931, December 1964 and November 1978.
Tropical cyclones are classified according to their wind speed. The classifications of cyclonic disturbances in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea region for the exchange of messages among the regional countries are given in (Table 2.9).
35
Table 2.9: Classifications of cyclonic disturbances for the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea regionWeather System Maximum Wind Speed
1 Low pressure area Wind speed less than 17 kt (31 km/h)2 Depression Wind speed between 17 and 33 kt (31 and 61 km/h)3 Cyclonic storm Wind speed between 34 and 47 kt (62 and 88 km/h)4 Severe cyclonic storm Wind speed between 48 and 63 kt (89 and 118 km/h)
5 Very severe cyclonic storm
Wind speed 64 and 119 kt (119 and 221 km/h)with a core of hurricane winds
6 Super cyclonic storm Wind speed 120 kt and above (222 km/h)(Source: Hazard profile of Sri Lanka)
The Meteorological Department has the capability to predict the formation of cyclones and monitor cyclone paths two days prior to it reaching the coast. The standard operation procedure of the Met. Department is to announce a potential cyclone through mass media if the cyclone is 600 km from the coast of Sri Lanka. If its 550 km away, a 12 hour alert bulletin is issued indicating the distance to storm centre, direction of movement and expected wind speed. When the storm is 300 km away, a warning is issued every 6 hours predicted landing area of cyclone and potential affects. When the cyclone is 200 km away from the coast, bulleting is issued 3 hourly. Cyclone alerts with colour code as per figure: 2.27 has been developed by the Met. Department to warn the public.
Figure 2.27: Colour coding for Cyclone alert and warning
Source: Hazard Profile of Sri Lanka
36
Wind speed map developed by Met Department shows a maximum wind speed of 120 Km/h in the western, eastern and north-eastern regions of Sri Lanka. The average and maximum wind hazard susceptibility maps (Figure 2.28) have been generated which could clearly demarcate vulnerable areas. These information and statistics are vital in saving lives and for sustainable investments.
Figure 2.28: Average wind hazard map of Sri Lanka based on data from 1958-2009
Source: Hazard profile Sri Lanka
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The cyclone which devastated the east coast of Sri Lanka in 1978 claimed over 900 lives. A cyclone has not been recorded in Sri Lanka since the year 2000.
Figure 2.29: Monthly distribution of number of tropical cyclones that made landfall in Sri Lanka since 1881
The monthly distribution of tropical cyclones that made landfall in Sri Lanka since 1881 (Figure 2.29) depicts that over 80% of cyclones have occurred in the period between November-December. These two months are considered to be the most cyclone prone.5
Figure 2.30: Number of Houses damaged/destroyed due to cyclone in 2000
050001000015000200002500030000350004000045000
Num
ber o
f hou
ses
District
5 Department of Meteorology, Sri Lanka
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The cyclone recorded in the year 2000 accounted for the loss of 10 lives and injured 75 people. The damages were devastating affecting 8 districts in the northern and north -central provinces. A combined total of 82,149 houses were damaged and destroyed. People and livelihoods affected were staggering (Figure:2.31).
Figure 2.31: Number of people affected due to cyclone in 2000
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Sri Lanka being an island is prone to hazards occurring in the neighboring state of India. In 2008 the northern district of Jaffna was severely affected due to a cyclone landfall in the South Indian coast. Nine people in Jaffna lost their lives and 50,422 houses were partially or fully damaged. 107,045 people were affected. Similarly, in 2010, cyclone ‘Laila” which made landfall in the Southeastern region of India had its affects damaging 478 houses and affecting 2,426 people in Sri Lanka.
2.9 High Wind
There is an increasing trend in human lives losses due to high wind (Figure 2.32). The majority of incidents have been reported in 2011 and 2013. The victims are most often fishermen. The Met Department has enhanced its capacity to track cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and issue timely early warning. However, the early prediction of high wind in the Indian Ocean which could directly affect Sri Lanka is a challenge to the Met Department given the frequent change in tropical weather patterns. A system in providing early warning to fishermen is being formulated by the Ministry of Fisheries and the Disaster Management Centre to mitigate losses.
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Figure 2.32: Number of lives lost due to high winds: 2000 – 2013 (July)
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2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013July
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(Source:www.desinventar.lk)
Since 2000 a total of 886 houses were destroyed and 8,554 houses were damaged due to high winds including tornados. 50,854 people have been directly affected due to high winds over the past 13 years.
2.10 Tsunami
Tsunami waves are caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruption beneath the sea travel at a very high speed. Unlike normal ocean waves which have wave lengths of about 30-40 km, tsunami wave lengths are often hundreds of kilometres. The speed is dependent on the ocean depth. In deep water it travels fast and slows down when reaching shallow waters. DMC with the assistance of the University of Peradeniya has developed tsunami hazard maps for several areas of importance. Travel time of tsunami wave, height, arrival time, and the inland inundation areas could be derived through these maps. These simulated maps could be produced for relevant coastal districts for preparedness and mitigation. High, medium and low impact areas are demarcated in these maps. Figure 2.33 and 2.34 show tsunami inundation maps in respect of Matara and Jaffna town limits. These maps could be well utilized for development planning. The private sector can utilize them for safer investments. Evacuation routes and locations could be designed and the public made aware of potential threats.
40
Figure 2.33: Computed tsunami inundation in the city of Matara. The arrows indicate the primary low paths of onshore inundation
Source: Hazard Profile, Sri Lanka
Figure 2.34: Tsunami Inundation Map of Jaffna District
Source: Department of Irrigation, Sri Lanka
41
The official figures indicate that approximately 30,959 people were killed in Sri Lanka by the Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004. 562,601 people were displaced in 14 coastal districts. Over 113,625 houses and 134 schools were completely destroyed. The total replacement cost to the economy is estimated to be around $1.8 billion6. The tourism and fisheries industries were the worst affected due to loss of income and production. Natural eco systems and coastal infrastructure systems including roads and railways, power, communications, water supply and sanitation facilities and fishing ports were severely damaged by the tsunami waves.
Since then, the DMC has established an early warning system along the coasts for communities. Department of Meteorology has been mandated with the issue of tsunami early warning for the country.
2.11 Potential Climate Change Impact on Disaster Management
The economic sectors highly vulnerable to climate change have been identified as Agriculture, Fisheries, Tourism and Coastal Infrastructure.7 Forecasts by the Dept. of Agriculture in Sri Lanka8 states that the quantum of rainfall and spatial distribution is expected to change due to climate change (Figure 2.35), although there are high doubts about the exact amount of deviations from the average rainfall pattern
Figure 2.35: Predicted deviations in Rainfall due to Climate Change
6 Rebuilding Sri Lanka- Action Plan, TAFREN, 20057 Second National Communication to UNFCCC, Ministry of Environment (2012) 8 Punyawardena, B.V.R., B. Iqbal and S. Mohamood. 2012. Predicted Climate Change over Sri Lanka by PRE-CIS RCM in combination with ECHAM4 GCM for B2 Scenario
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Similarly the average mean annual temperature is also predicted to rise (Figure 2.36). These predictions are important in mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation. Approaches Sri Lanka intends to adopt in this regard include introduction of no-regret options such as water use efficiency, better crop rotations, disaster resilient buildings and agriculture management practices etc. This will enable investments in no-regret options to be resilient. In support of no-regret options DMC is assisting a research to grow paddy in saline affected soil and in flood-prone areas. In addition the 'Farmers' Guidebook' for cropping under drought and flood conditions is being considered as a valuable tool.
Figure 2.36: Predicted deviation in temperature due to Climate Change
(Source: Punyawardena, B.V.R., B. Iqbal and S. Mohamood. 2012)
2.12 Fire
Forest fires are mostly reported in Badulla, Moneragala, Matale and Kandy districts. In Sri Lanka forest fires are a human induced disaster. In 2012 more than 50 incidents were reported from Moneragala and Badulla districts. In cases of severe fire which cannot be curtailed with local assistance, the Air Force is requested to support the effort.
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Galle, Matara, Matale, Polonnaruwa and Vavuniya districts have not reported major fires in urban and rural areas. Colombo, Nuwaraeliya and Puttalam districts report frequent fires in urban areas (Figure 2.37).
Figure 2.37: Number of People affected due to fire 2000-2014
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(Source: www.desinventar.lk)
In the Nuwaraeliya district, houses of plantation workers are constantly affected by fire due to negligence. Unsafe electrical wiring and use of kerosene cookers are primary sources of fire. The estate workers houses are attached to each other thus the spreading of fire is difficult to curtail. In urban areas, the use of LP gas cylinder without adhering to safety measures has caused explosions and fires, resulting in the loss of lives and damages to property. Highest number of deaths reported is from Gampaha district followed by Colombo, Kandy and Nuwaraeliya (Figure 2.38). Municipal/Urban Council ordinances and the Pradeshiya Saba Act provide the mandate for local authorities to take action to control fire within their jurisdiction. However by-laws have not been developed for control of fire by local authorities. UDA regulations require keeping rear space as a control measure against fire. Only the Colombo Municipal Council has a fully equipped fire brigade with 6 substations and a training centre.
UDA regulations require any developer to obtain clearance from a qualified Fire Officer to approve development permits. Safety conditions are applied by the Colombo Municipal Council for high-rise buildings of over 60 meters. Super high rise buildings are required to keep a refuge floor at an interval of 20 floors, two hour fire resistance for structures, fire rated door, voice communication and wet riser, fire fighting shaft and stairway with lobby approach. A special team of officers have been trained to respond to accidents involving hazardous material and to rescue victims in the event of
44
a building collapsing. The Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Council has provided the fire brigade of a selected number of municipal and urban councils with equipment under the Disaster Response Capacity Improvement Project. However, due to a lack of finances and expertise, local government authorities have no capacity in maintaining fully fledged and effective fire services for the area.
Figure 2.38: Number of Deaths due to Fire 2000-2014
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No
of d
eath
s& in
jure
d
District
(Source: www.desinventar.lk)
2.13 Earthquake
Sri Lanka has been identified as a country not likely to be affected by earthquakes due to its location away from plate boundaries. However, history records in 1615 that Colombo Fort area had experienced an earthquake of the magnitude of 6.5 in Richter scale which completely destroyed over 200 houses. Loss to lives due to the earthquake has been recorded as approximately 2000. In 1800, earthquakes within Colombo district too has been recorded. In the recent past, minor tremors have been reported from districts since 2005 (Figure 2.39).
45
Figure 2.39: Districts affected by tremorsDistrict 2005 2007 2008 2009 2011
Kalutara xHambantota x x xKandy xPuttalam xAmpara xAnuradhapura xBadulla xMatale xMatara xMoneragala x
In 2007 minor tremors affected 3 houses in the Kandy district. In the same year the Hambantota District reported tremors, and minor cracks were visible in 13 houses. In 2009 tremors were reported from seven districts. 85 houses in the district of Ampara sustained damages. The Geological Surveys and Mines Bureau (GSMB), the technical agency mandated to investigate earthquake incidents in the country did not have equipment to identify the epicentre of the tremor nor the reasons for continuous tremors. Scientists predict the possibility of a plate boundary 400 – 500 km south of Sri Lanka. However these theories are not confirmed by scientific evidence. The Technical Advisory Committee consisting of academics from Moratuwa and Peradeniya universities and Engineering Organisations appointed by the Disaster Management Centre recommended that the buildings in Colombo should be designed to withstand an earthquake of magnitude M6 with a return period of 200-400 years and horizontal acceleration of 0.2g.9 TheUniversity of Moratuwa is in the process of developing building codes for the design of earthquake resistant buildings.
2.14 Human-Elephant Conflict
Wild elephants occupy 33% of the land mass in 17 administrative districts. North-western, southern, eastern, central provinces and the districts of Polonnaruwa, Anuradhapura, Vavuniya, Killinochchi an Trincomalee are areas in which wild elephants take refuge seasonally. The Department of Wildlife Conservation10, reports that 341 people have lost their lives due to elephant attacks between 2008 and 2012. Districts of Anuradhapura and Kurunegala account for the highest number of death. (Figure 2.40). Human loss of lives in 2012 has been 79.
9 Report by Professor Nimal Seanrathne Peradeniya University. 10 Department of Wildlife Conservation
46
Elephant deaths too are on the increase. Deaths prior to year 2009 have been recorded as being180 elephant deaths. 250 deaths have been reported since. These deaths are mainly due to gun-shot and electrocution. Department of Wildlife Conservation indicates an increase in the elephant population too.
Fragmentation of connectivity of natural forests, absence of proper land use plans, human settlement, commercial farming, and quantitative degradation of elephant habitats have been identified as primary causes of elephants invading villages and farm areas for food and water. This highlights the need and the opportunity for integrated approaches to mitigate the human elephant conflict.
Figure 2.40: Life losses and injure people due to Human Elephant conflict 2000-2014
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47
48
CHAPTER 3
POST DISASTER RECOVERY ASSISTANCE
49
3. Post Disaster Recovery Assistance
3.1. Disaster Relief
The government is mandated to provide assistance to disaster affected populations by providing immediate relief and early recovery. As a policy, the government provides cooked meals to all affected by disaster irrespective of their income level. In addition to food items the relief expenditure includes provision of clothes and personal hygiene kits. However, assistance of other stakeholders is vital depending on the magnitude of the disaster. Government assistance rendered in respect of relief for disasters is indicated in Table 24.
Table 3.1 : Relief expenditure hazard wise: 2007-2014
YearCyclone/high wind
LKR. million
DroughtLKR.
million
FloodLKR.
million
LandslidesLKR.
million
OthersLKR.
million
Total LKR.
million
2007 17.6 19.9 159.1 22.6 24.2 219.32008 11.7 15.3 210. 3 20.5 59.1 3172009 4.4 27.7 202.7 4.9 56.5 296.22010 8.7 16.3 244.1 3.2 8.8 281.12011 21.0 12.3 589.8 34.4 15.9 673.42012 3.8 58.5 113.9 0.6 na 176.82013 8.2 6.26 118.4 0.18 na 133.42014* 1.37 80.7 33.3 0.002 0.21 115.6Total 76.77 236.96 1,461.30 86.3 164.71 2,212.80
Source: Annual Reports of NDRSC
3.2 Assistance to repair/rehabilitate houses damaged due to disasters
The government allocated Rs 1351.26 million in 2014 to provide financial assistance to repair/rehabilitate houses damaged partially or fully. The damages were caused by floods and high winds in 2012, 2013 and 2014 in all 25 districts. The government provides up to a maximum of Rs 100,000.00 for a fully damaged house and Rs 50,000/ for partially damaged house. In 2013 Hambantota, Matale, Kurunegala and Mullativu districts received highest rehabilitation allocations while in 2014 Batticaloa district had received the highest allocation followed by Vavuniya, and Mannar (Table 3.2).
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Table 3.2: Allocation for repair/rehabilitation of fully/partially damaged houses in 2013 and 2014
District
Allocation given in 2013 Rs Million
Allocation given in
2014Rs Million
District
Allocation given in
2013Rs Million
Allocation given in
2014Rs Million
Ampara 9.20 8.23 Kurunegala 50.72 19.17Anuradhapura 8.19 17.03 Mannar 3.90 100.23Badulla 11.09 46.73 Matale 51.40 21.85Batticaloa - 468.35 Matara 16.43 26.41Colombo 1.24 3.17 Moneragala 8.22 8.92Galle 12.42 16.39 Mulativu 41.95 1.79Gampaha 2.10 8.08 Nuwaraeliya 2.35 11.30Hambantota 79.88 43.60 Polonnaruwa 17.36 41.57Jaffna 15.47 24.00 Puttalam - 0.38Kalutara 9.80 59.97 Rathgnapura 15.54 28.81Kandy 15.57 16.80 Tricomale 7.26 5.42Kegalle 4.27 4.34 Vaunia - 351.73
Kilinochchi 40.69 10.99 Total 425.00 1,351.26
Source : Annual reports 2014 and 2015- Ministry of Disaster Management
In 2013, the government disbursed Rs 344 million for the building of 2142 completely destroyed houses and repairing of 9956 partially damaged houses. A total of 12098 people benefited from the government assisted programme.
Table 25: Number of houses repaired and rehabilitated
Extend of damagesNo of houses repaired/rehabilitated
2012 2013 2014
Fully damaged 4799 2142 406
Partially damaged 16601 9956 3423
Source : Annual reports 2014 and 2015- Ministry of Disaster Management
Continued damages to houses in disaster prone districts require special attention to assess vulnerability and develop a sustainable housing rehabilitation programme.
Information and statistics provided in the booklet is vital for relevant sectors and communities in saving lives and investments. Disaster risk reduction through this information will help retain development gains and enhance resilience.
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The Asia Pacific Alliance for Disaster Management (A-PAD)
A pre-agreement among stakeholders about possible cooperation for a natural disaster allows us to implement effective and efficient relief and recovery activities. A-PAD develops national platforms that facilitate cooperation among public, private and civil society sectors for natural disasters in the Asia Pacific nations. When a large-scale disaster hits Asia, the national platforms, the members of A-PAD, collaborate internationally to undertake disaster relief activities.
The Asia Pacific Alliance for Disaster Management Sri Lanka (A-PAD SL)
The Asia Pacific Alliance for Disaster Management Sri Lanka (A-PAD SL) is a public-private partnership national platform that links organizations in humanitarian and development activities in support of disaster risk reduction and response. The Consortium for Humanitarian Agencies (CHA) in partnership with Ceylon Chambers of Commerce (CCC) established A-PAD SL with a vision of working towards disaster resilience in liaison with Ministry of Disaster Management. A-PAD SL is linked to its regional partner platforms in the Asia Pacific.
