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A COMPANION TO THE PUNIC WARS

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BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLDThis series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classi-cal literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, stu-dents, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORYPublishedA Companion to the Roman ArmyEdited by Paul Erdkamp

A Companion to the Roman RepublicEdited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx

A Companion to the Roman EmpireEdited by David S. Potter

A Companion to the Classical Greek WorldEdited by Konrad H. Kinzl

A Companion to the Ancient Near EastEdited by Daniel C. Snell

A Companion to the Hellenistic WorldEdited by Andrew Erskine

A Companion to Late AntiquityEdited by Philip Rousseau

A Companion to Ancient HistoryEdited by Andrew Erskine

A Companion to Archaic GreeceEdited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees

A Companion to Julius CaesarEdited by Miriam Griffin

A Companion to ByzantiumEdited by Liz James

A Companion to Ancient EgyptEdited by Alan B. Lloyd

A Companion to Ancient MacedoniaEdited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington

A Companion to the Punic WarsEdited by Dexter Hoyos

In preparationA Companion to SpartaEdited by Anton Powell

LITERATURE AND CULTURE

PublishedA Companion to Classical ReceptionsEdited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray

A Companion to Greek and Roman HistoriographyEdited by John Marincola

A Companion to CatullusEdited by Marilyn B. Skinner

A Companion to Roman ReligionEdited by Jörg Rüpke

A Companion to Greek ReligionEdited by Daniel Ogden

A Companion to the Classical TraditionEdited by Craig W. Kallendorf

A Companion to Roman RhetoricEdited by William Dominik and Jon Hall

A Companion to Greek RhetoricEdited by Ian Worthington

A Companion to Ancient EpicEdited by John Miles Foley

A Companion to Greek TragedyEdited by Justina Gregory

A Companion to Latin LiteratureEdited by Stephen Harrison

A Companion to Greek and Roman Political ThoughtEdited by Ryan K. Balot

A Companion to OvidEdited by Peter E. Knox

A Companion to the Ancient Greek LanguageEdited by Egbert Bakker

A Companion to Hellenistic LiteratureEdited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss

A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its TraditionEdited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam

A Companion to HoraceEdited by Gregson Davis

A Companion to Families in the Greekand Roman WorldsEdited by Beryl Rawson

In preparationA Companion to the Latin LanguageEdited by James Clackson

A Companion to Greek MythologyEdited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone

A Companion to SophoclesEdited by Kirk Ormand

A Companion to AeschylusEdited by Peter Burian

A Companion to Greek ArtEdited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos

A Companion to TacitusEdited by Victoria Pagán

A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near EastEdited by Daniel Potts

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A COMPANION TO THE PUNIC

WARS

Edited by

Dexter Hoyos

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

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This edition first published 2011© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

Registered OfficeJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

Editorial Offices350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UKThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

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Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. Allbrand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to the Punic Wars / edited by Dexter Hoyos. p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-7600-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Punic wars. I. Hoyos, B. D. (B. Dexter), 1944– DG241.C66 2011 937′.04–dc22

2010033794

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 11/13.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, IndiaPrinted in Singapore

01 2011

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Contents

List of Tables viiiList of Maps ixNotes on Contributors xList of Abbreviations xvi

Introduction: The Punic Wars 1 Dexter Hoyos

PART I Background and Sources 7

1 The Rise of Rome to 264 9 John Serrati

2 Early Relations between Rome and Carthage 28 Barbara Scardigli

3 The Rise of Carthage to 264 39 Walter Ameling

4 Manpower and Food Supply in the First and Second Punic Wars 58

Paul Erdkamp

5 Phalanx and Legion: the “Face” of Punic War Battle 77 Sam Koon

6 Polybius and the Punic Wars 95 Craige B. Champion

7 Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius) 111

Bernard Mineo

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vi Contents

PART II The First Punic War and Aftermath 129

8 The Outbreak of war 131 Dexter Hoyos

9 A War of Phases: Strategies andStalemates 264–241 149

Boris Rankov

10 Roman Politics in the First Punic War 167 Bruno Bleckmann

11 Roman Politics and Expansion, 241–219 184 Luigi Loreto

12 Carthage in Africa and Spain, 241–218 204 Dexter Hoyos

PART III The Second Punic War 223

13 The Reasons for the War 225 Hans Beck

14 Hannibal: Tactics, Strategy, and Geostrategy 242 Michael P. Fronda

15 Hannibal and Propaganda 260 Richard Miles

16 Roman Strategy and Aims in the Second Punic War 280

Klaus Zimmermann

17 The War in Italy, 218–203 299 Louis Rawlings

18 War Abroad: Spain, Sicily, Macedon, Africa 320 Peter Edwell

19 Rome, Latins, and Italians in the Second Punic War 339

Kathryn Lomas

20 Punic Politics, Economy, and Alliances, 218–201 357 Pedro Barceló

21 Roman Economy, Finance, and Politicsin the Second Punic War 376

Toni Ñaco del Hoyo

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Contents vii

PART IV The Last Half-Century of Carthage 393

22 Carthage and Numidia, 201–149 395 Claudia Kunze

23 Italy: Economy and Demography after Hannibal’s War 412

Nathan Rosenstein

24 The “Third Punic War”: The Siege of Carthage (148–146 BC) 430

Yann Le Bohec

PART V Conclusions 447

25 Death and Transfiguration: Punic Cultureafter 146 449

M’hamed-Hassine Fantar

26 Spain, Africa, and Rome after Carthage 467 John Richardson

27 Carthage and Hannibal in Roman and Greek Memory 483

Giovanni Brizzi

References 499Index 531

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Tables

4.1 Census figures for Rome in the third century BC 6317.1 Major engagements involving Hannibal’s army 28423.1 Military mortality 200–168 BC as reported

by the ancient sources 42323.2 Census Returns, 204–124 427

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Maps

1 Carthage xxi2 Rome, third and second centuries, BC xxii3 The Mediterranean, third century BC xxiii4 Punic North Africa xxiv5 Italy and islands xxv

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Notes on Contributors

Walter Ameling took his doctorate at the University of Würzburg. From 1996 to 2008 he taught and researched ancient history at the University of Jena, and since 2008 has held the Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach professorial Chair at the Universität zu Köln. His books include a major study of early Carthage, Karthago: Studien zu Militär, Staat und Gesellschaft (München, 1993).

Pedro Barceló holds the Chair of Ancient History at the Universität Potsdam, after previous Chairs in Eichstätt, Heidelberg, and Erfurt. He is cofounder of the international research group “Potestas,” based at Universität Potsdam and the Universitat Jaume I in Castellón, Spain, and is a member of the Real Academia de la Historia de España. His works embrace many fields of antiquity, and include studies of Constantine’s dynasty, Greek king-ship and tyranny, Roman Spain, and many books on Carthage, most recently Hannibal: Stratege und Staatsmann (2008).

Hans Beck is John MacNaughton Professor and Direc tor of Classical Studies at McGill University in Montreal. He has published widely on the Roman Republic, including a two-volume edition of the early Roman historians, co-authored with Uwe Walter, and a book on the Republican nobility, Karriere und Hierarchie (2005). Other research interests include the history of Greek government and federal ism, ancient historiography, and cross- cultural approaches toward ruling elites. He is the editor of Blackwell’s forthcoming Companion to Ancient Greek Government.

Prof. Dr. Bruno Bleckmann has been full professor of ancient his-tory at the Heinrich Heine University of Düsseldorf since 2003. The various fields of his scholarship include studies in ancient historiog-raphy and source criticism, classic Greek history and the Roman repub-lic, as well as the history of late antiq-uity. Since his Habilitation in Göttingen in 1996 he has held professorships at the institute for

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Notes on Contributors xi

Roman history of Strassbourg Univer sity in France, and at the University of Bern, Switzerland.

Giovanni Brizzi is full Professor of Roman History at Bologna University. He has taught at Sassari and Udine Universities. He was official professor (1993/94 and 2005/06) at the Sorbonne, is Officier de l’Ordre des Palmes Académiques of the French Republic, and is a member of the Academy of the Sciences of the Istituto di Bologna. He is director of the Rivista Storica dell’Antichità, adjoint director of the Revue des Études Militaires Anciennes, and a member of the Scientific Committee of the review Kentron. Giovanni Brizzi is author of more than two hundred publications, in different languages, and is one of the leading scholars in ancient military history.

Craige B. Champion received his graduate training in Classics and Ancient History at Princeton University. He is Associate Professor of Ancient History and Classics in the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs and former Chair of the History Depart ment at Syracuse University. He has published widely on ancient Greek and Roman history and historiogra phy. He is the author of Cultural Poli tics in Polybius’s Histories (Berkeley, 2004), editor of Roman Imperialism: Readings and Sources (Blackwell, 2004), co-editor (with A.M. Eckstein) of the forthcoming Landmark Edition of the Histories of Polybius, in two volumes

(Pantheon Books), and one of the general editors of the forthcoming Blackwell’s Encyclopedia of Ancient History.

Dr Peter Edwell lectures in Roman History and Late Antiquity at Macquarie University, Sydney. He is the former holder of the Macquarie Gale Fellowship at the British School at Rome (2006/7) and is the author of Between Rome and Persia, published in 2008. Dr Edwell is currently working on a book on Roman Mesopotamia.

Paul Erdkamp is Professor of Ancient History at the Flemish Free University of Brussels. His fields of interests include the economy and demogra-phy of the Roman world, social and political aspects of army and warfare, and ancient historiography, in partic-ular Polybius and Livy. His publica-tions include The Grain Market in the Roman Empire (2005). He is editor of A Companion to the Roman Army (2007) and The Cambridge Compan-ion to Ancient Rome (forthcoming).

Professor M’hamed Hassine Fantar is a Senator, Titulaire of President Ben Ali’s Chair for the Dialogue of Civilizations and Religions at the University of Tunis, and PhD in Ancient History and Archaeology (Sorbonne, Paris). He is a specialist in western Semitic languages and Middle East civilizations and former General Director of the National Institute of Archaeology and Art of Tunis (1982–1987). Currently he is Research

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xii Notes on Contributors

Director at the National Institute of Heritage of Tunis, Professor of Ancient History, Archeology and the History of Religions in the Tunisian universities. He is Lecturer in the Universities of Rome, Bologna, Cagliari, Tripoli, and Benghazi, as well as in the French schools and Belgium (Louvain). He is Doctor Honoris causa of the University of Bologna and the University of Sassari (Italy).

Michael P. Fronda is Associate Professor of Roman History in the Department of History and Classical Studies at McGill University. He is the author of Between Rome and Carthage: Southern Italy in the Second Punic War (Cambridge University Press, 2010) as well as several articles on Roman foreign policy and imperi-alism, Roman–Italian relations, and interstate politics during the middle and late Republic.

Dexter Hoyos read Roman History for the DPhil at Oxford (1967–71) and taught Latin and Roman history at the University of Sydney from 1972 until retiring as Associate Professor in 2007. He co-founded the Australian journal Classicum (1975–) and is on the editorial board of the online journal Teaching Classical Languages. He writes on Roman and Carthaginian history – most recently Truceless War (2007), Hannibal: Rome’s Greatest Enemy (2008), and The Carthaginians (2010) – and on issues of reading and comprehending Latin.

Sam Koon did his BA in Ancient History at the University of Nottingham and an MA in Classics at Durham University. He comple ted his PhD, on Livy’s battle descrip tions, in 2007 at the University of Manchester under the supervision of Dr A. Fear. Currently he is a Teaching Fellow in Classics and Ancient History at the University of Manchester. This chapter was completed with the assist-ance of a scholarship from the Fonda-tion Hardt, Geneva.

Claudia Kunze (Goodbrand) stud-ied classics at Churchill College, Cambridge. She currently lives and works in England.

Yann Le Bohec was born in 1943 at Carthage, on the eastern slope of the hill of Byrsa. He studied at Paris; his career took him from the Université de Paris X–Nanterre to Grenoble II, then to Lyon III and finally to the Université de Paris IV–Sorbonne. Currently Prof. Dr., he has specialized in the history of Roman Gaul, Roman Africa, and the Roman army. He has published numerous works and very numerous articles on these three sub-jects. He has never forgotten Carthage.

Dr Kathryn Lomas is Honorary Senior Research Associ ate at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London. She is the author of Rome and the Western Greeks and Roman Italy, 338 BC–AD 200, and has published numerous articles on Roman Italy, urbanism

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Notes on Contributors xiii

and colonization in the Greek and Roman world, and on ethnic and cul-tural identity. Her current research is on literacy in pre-Roman Italy.

Luigi Loreto (born in Rome, 1963), is Professor of Roman History at the Faculty of Law of the Seconda Università di Napoli, where he teaches also the History of International Relations. His several books include Un’epoca di buon senso. Decisione, consenso e stato a Roma nella Media Repubblica, 326–264 a.C. (Amsterdam, 1993); Guerra e libertà nella Repubblica romana. John R. Seeley e le radici intellettuali della Roman Revolution di Ronald Syme (Roma 1999), and Il bellum iustum e i suoi equivoci. Cicerone ed una componente della rappresentazi-one romana del Völkerrecht antico (Napoli 2001).

Richard Miles has been a Newton Trust Lecturer in Classics at Cambridge University and Director of Studies in Classics at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. In 2010 he took up an appointment as lecturer in Ancient History at Sydney University. He has directed archaeological excavations at Carthage and Rome and writes on Punic, Roman, and Vandal North Africa. He has recently published Carthage Must Be Destroyed: the Rise and Fall of an Ancient Mediterranean Civilization (London, 2010).

Bernard Mineo is Professor of Latin Literature at the Université de Nantes (Bretagne, France). He is author of a

monograph on Livy entitled Tite-Live et l’histoire de Rome, and has pub-lished Book XXXII of Livy’s Roman History in the Collection des Universités de France. He is working currently on the publication, in the same Collection, of Pompeius Trogus’ Philippic Histories in the abridgement by Justin.

Toni Ñaco del Hoyo (PhD 1996, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) is a Research Professor in Ancient History at the Catalan Institute of Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA) and the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. He is a specialist on Roman Republican his-tory. His areas of research include taxation and finance, warfare and post-war strategies, and, lately, ancient disasters. He is a former Fulbright Visiting Scholar (UC Berkeley, 2004) and has held several postdoctoral fellowships (1998–2002), particularly at Wolfson College, Oxford, of which he remains a member, before holding a five-year Ramon y Cajal Research Fellowship until September 2009, when he finally joined ICREA.

Boris Rankov has taught in the United States and at the Universities of Oxford, Western Australia, and London. He has published several books and papers on the Roman Army, on ancient warships, and on ancient fleets and their infrastruc-tures. He is currently Pro fessor of Ancient History at Royal Holloway, University of London.

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xiv Notes on Contributors

Dr Louis Rawlings is Lecturer and Head of the Ancient History Department at Cardiff University. He has published various articles on Punic, Italian, and Gallic warfare. He is the author of The Ancient Greeks at War, (2007, Manchester University Press) and co-editor (with H. Bowden) of Herakles and Hercules: Exploring a Graeco-Roman Divinity (2005, Classical Press of Wales).

John Richardson was Professor of Classics in the University of Edinburgh from 1987 to 2002 and is now Emeritus Professor there. He has produced several books on the Romans in Spain, and has also written on Roman imperialism and Roman law. His most recent book is The Language of Empire: Rome and the idea of empire from the third century BC to the second century AD (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008).

Nathan Rosenstein is Professor of History at The Ohio State University. His research focuses on the political culture, economy, demography, and military history of the middle and late Republic. He is the author of Imperatores Victi: Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic (1990), Rome At War: Farms, Families, and Death in the Middle Republic (2004), numerous articles, and the editor (with Robert Morstein-Marx) of A Companion to the Roman Repub-lic (2006, published by Wiley-

Blackwell) and (with Kurt Raaflaub) of War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: Asia, The Med-iterranean, Europe, and Mesoamerica (1999).

Prof. Barbara Scardigli studied classical philology and ancient history at the Universities of Frankfurt, Vienna and Heidelberg, and from the 1960s has taught and pursued research in Italy at the Universities of Bari, Urbino, Siena, and Florence. She is the author of many articles and books, includ ing Die Römerbiographien Plutarchs (München, 1979), I Trattati romano-cartaginesi (Pisa, 1991), and, as editor, Essays on Plutarch’s Lives (Oxford, 1995).

John Serrati is a faculty member in the Department of History and Classics at McGill University in Montreal, Canada. He obtained his doctorate in 2001 at the University of St Andrews under the supervision of Christopher Smith. He has pub-lished assorted chapters and articles concerning imperialism, Greek and Roman warfare, early Roman provin-cial administration, Roman diplo-macy, Roman provincial government in Sicily, and Hieron II of Syracuse.

Klaus Zimmermann read for his PhD at Bamberg with Prof. Werner Huss, then held appointments at Jena until 2009. In that year he took up a Chair in the Seminar für Alte Geschichte at the Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster and the Directorship of its “Forschungstelle

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Notes on Contributors xv

Asia Minor.” His main fields of research are Greek epigraphy, the his-tory of religions, historical geogra-phy, and Carthage. His books include

Libyen. Das Land südlich des Mittelmeers im Weltbild der Griechen (1995) and Rom und Karthago (2005; 2nd edn, 2009).

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Abbreviations

Acta Tr.: Fasti TriumphalesAHB: Ancient History BulletinAJA: American Journal of ArchaeologyAJP: American Journal of PhilologyAnc. Hist. Bull.: see AHBAnc. Soc.: Ancient SocietyAnn.: AnnalesAntAfr: Antiquités AfricainesANRW: Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen WeltApol.: see ApuleiusAppian, BC: Bella Civilia Hann.: Hannibalica Iber.: Iberica Ill.: Illyrica Lib.: Libyca Mac.: Macedonica Mith.: Mithridatica Samn.: Samnitica Sic.: Sicelica Syr.: SyriacaAristotle, Pol.: PoliticsBAfr.: Bellum AfricumBAlex.: Bellum AlexandrinumBIDR: Bullettino dell’Istituto di Diritto Romanoca.: circaCaesar, BCiv.: Bellum Civile BGall.: Bellum GallicumCAH: Cambridge Ancient History (1st edn.)CAH2: Cambridge Ancient History (2nd edn.)cf.: (= confer) compare

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List of Abbreviations xvii

Cic.: Cicero 2 Verr.: Second Verrines Amic.: de Amicitia Att.: ad Atticum Balb.: pro Balbo Cato Maior = de Senectute Div.: de Divinationes Fin.: de Finibus Leg. Man.: pro Lege Manilia (= de Imperio Cn. Pompei) Nat. D.: de Natura Deorum Off.: de Officiis Rep.: de Republica Senect.: de SenectuteCIG: Corpus Inscriptionum GraecarumCIL: Corpus Inscriptionum LatinarumCISA: Contributi dell’Istituto di storia anticaClass. Philol.: Classical Philologycos.: consul (with year of office)CP: Classical PhilologyCQ: Classical QuarterlyCR: Classical ReviewCUF: Collections des Universités de FranceD.H.: Dionysius of HalicarnassusDCPP: Dictionnaire des Civilisations Phénicienne et Puniquede Vir. Ill.: de Viris IllustribusDiod.: DiodorusDion. Hal.: Dionysius of Halicarnassused.: editor, edited (by)edn.: editioneds.: editorsEnnius V3: Ennius, ed. Vahlen (3rd edn.)Epist.: EpistulaeEpit.: EpitomeEutr.: EutropiusF. Cap.: Fasti CapitoliniFGrH: Fragmente der Griechischen HistorikerFlor.: Florusfr., frg., frgs.: fragment(s)FRH: Die Frühen Römischen Historiker (ed. Beck & Walter)Front. Strat.: StrategemataFTr: Fasti TriumphalesG&R: Greece & Rome

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xviii List of Abbreviations

Gell.: GelliusGRBS: Greek, Roman & Byzantine StudiesHAAN: see Gsell (Bibliography)Hdt.: HerodotusHN: see PlinyHor. Od.: Horace, OdesHRR: Peter, Historicorum Romanorum ReliquiaeHSCP: Harvard Studies in Classical PhilologyHZ: Historische ZeitschriftI Congr. di Studi Fen. e Pun.: I Congresso di Studi Fenici e PuniciIG: Inscriptiones GraecaeIGRR: Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas

pertinentesILLRP: Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei PublicaeILS: Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae SelectaeInscr. It.: Degrassi, Inscriptiones ItalicaeJRS: Journal of Roman StudiesJust.: JustinKAI: H. Donner & W. Röllig (eds.),

Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften, 3rd edn., 3 vols., Wiesbaden, 164

LCM: Liverpool Classical MonthlyLivy, Per.: PeriochaeLTUR: Lexicon Topographicum Urbis RomaeMDAI (R): Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen

Instituts (Römische Abteilung)MEFRA: Mélanges de l’École française à Rome

(Antiquité)Mél.: MélangesMél. École Fr. de Rome (Ant.): see MEFRAMitteil. d. Deutsch Arch.Instituts (Röm. Abt.): see MDAI (R)MRR: Broughton, Magistrates of the Roman

RepublicMus. Afr.: Museum Africumn., nn.: note(s)Naevius, fr. com.: fragmenta comicaNC: Numismatic ChronicleNep. Hamil.: Nepos, HamilcarNep. Hann.: Nepos, HannibalORF: Malcovati, Oratorum Romanorum

Fragmenta

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List of Abbreviations xix

Orig.: OriginesOros.: OrosiusP, P2 (citations ofRoman historians): HRR ed. PeterPaul. Diac., Hist. Lang.: Paul the Deacon, Historia LangobardorumPCPS: Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological SocietyPer.: see Livy, Per.PHamb.: Hamburg PapyriPRyl.: Rylands PapyriPliny, HN & NH: Historia NaturalisPlut.: Plutarch Fab.: Fabius Flam.: Flaminius Lys.: Lysander Marc.: Marcellus Mor.: Moralia Pyrrh.: Pyrrhus Ti. Gr.: Tiberius GracchusPol.: Polybiuspraef.: praefatio

Roman Praenomina: A. (Aulus), Ap. (Appius), C. (Gaius), Cn. (Gnaeus), D. (Decimus), L. (Lucius), M. (Marcus), M’. (Manius), N. (Numerius), P. (Publius), Q. (Quintus), Ser. (Servius),T. (Titus), Ti. (Tiberius)

R&C: Religioni e CiviltàRE: Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der Klassischen

AltertumswissenschaftRÉA: Revue des Études AnciennesRep.: see CiceroRev. Afr.: Revue AfricaineRev. Ét. Anc.: see RÉARev. Hist.: Revue HistoriqueRFC: Rivista di Filologia ClassicaRhM: Rheinisches Museum für PhilologieRIDA: Revue internationale des Droits de l’AntiquitéRIN: Rivista italiana di numismatica e scienze affiniROL: Warmington, Remains of Old LatinRSA: Rivista Storica dell’AntichitàSall. BJ: Sallust, Bellum IugurthinumSchol. Bob.: Scholia Bobiensia

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xx List of Abbreviations

Sen. Ep(ist).: Seneca, Epistula(e)Serv. ad Georg., ad Aen.: Servius on Georgics, AeneidSil., Pun.: Silius Italicus, PunicaSNG: Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, numerous vols.Stob. Flor.: Stobaeus, FlorilegiumSuet. Rhet.,Gramm., Div. Iul., Tib.: Suetonius, de Rhetoribus, de Grammaticis, Divus Iulius, TiberiusSVA: (Bengtson, Schmitt) Die Staatsverträge des

Altertums, vols. 2 and 3Syll.: SyllogeTac.: TacitusTAPA: Transactions of the American Philological AssociationThuc.: ThucydidesTLE: (Pallotino) Testimonia Lingua Etruscaetr.: translator, translated byVal. Max.: Valerius MaximusVarro, Rust.: de Re Rustica (= de Agricultura) LL: de Lingua LatinaVell. Pat.: Velleius PaterculusZon.: ZonarasZos.: ZosimusZPE: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik

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ME

GA

RA

M E G A R A

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Hoyos_flast.indd xxiHoyos_flast.indd xxi 12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM

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Hoyos_flast.indd xxiiHoyos_flast.indd xxii 12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM

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Hoyos_flast.indd xxiiiHoyos_flast.indd xxiii 12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM

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Hoyos_flast.indd xxivHoyos_flast.indd xxiv 12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM12/2/2010 9:24:42 PM

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Hoyos_flast.indd xxvHoyos_flast.indd xxv 12/2/2010 9:24:43 PM12/2/2010 9:24:43 PM

Hoyos_flast.indd xxviHoyos_flast.indd xxvi 12/2/2010 9:24:43 PM12/2/2010 9:24:43 PM

Introduction: The Punic Wars

It was a welcome opportunity to be invited to edit the Blackwell Companion to the Punic Wars and so to gather a body of specialist contributors who would illuminate not only the military aspects of these famous conflicts but also many other linked themes. The Companion aims to fit the warfare into its complex environment to illuminate the culture, background, demography and postwar fortunes of the two states that fought each other to the death over a hundred and twenty years.

The Punic Wars marked the beginning of Rome’s imperial expansion and ended Carthage’s. The issue was not a foregone conclusion until 201 BC: more than once, especially during the Second War, it could have turned the other way. Together with a range of Roman leaders celebrated in lit-erature and tradition — Regulus, Fabius the Delayer, Marcellus the captor of Syracuse, Scipio Africanus, his adoptive grandson Scipio Aemilianus, and Cato the Censor — the conflicts made famous the only Carthaginian with as notable a name today, not always for accurate reasons, as in the ancient world, and two other great North African leaders who by contrast are undeservedly forgotten, Hannibal’s father Hamilcar and Masinissa of Numidia.

The historical record of these figures and their world is variedly askew. Apart from a few quotations and papyrus fragments, the written accounts that survive are all by Greek and Roman authors, from Polybius who watched Carthage burn in 146 BC to sometimes uncomprehending summary-compilers of late Roman times. Roman tradition, and increasingly Greek, viewed the Carthaginians as quintessential fraudsters and warmongers, memorably summed up by the philosopher-biographer Plutarch around AD 100:

A Companion to the Punic Wars, First Edition. Edited by Dexter Hoyos. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Hoyos_cintro.indd 1Hoyos_cintro.indd 1 12/2/2010 9:24:39 PM12/2/2010 9:24:39 PM

2 Introduction: The Punic Wars

bitter, sullen, subservient to their magistrates, harsh to their subjects, most abject when afraid, most savage when enraged, stubborn in adhering to decisions, disagreeable and hard in their attitude towards playfulness and urbanity. (Moralia 799D)

By contrast, Rome and the Romans of this era of conflict were largely held to be solidly virtuous and heroic, not to mention much put upon by their cun-ning adversaries: who, it followed logically, were entirely to blame for the wars. This bias forms one of the modern scholar’s constant preoccupations when assessing any aspect of the Punic Wars, as this Companion illustrates in every chapter.

The ancient accounts are askew in other ways too. They survive unevenly, another scholarly cross to bear, for most detailed Greek and Roman historical works did not make it unscathed out of the Middle Ages. Those that treat of the three Punic Wars are in a particularly unfortunate state. Only Polybius’ first five books (out of 40) are complete, although we do have sizeable extracts from the rest; Livy’s account of only the Second War has come through, though with short epitomes of his books on the others; Diodorus’ world his-tory is down to excerpts for the centuries after 300 BC; and Dio’s monumental history of Rome is represented solely in excerpts and in a Byzantine epitome for all the centuries before Cicero’s and Caesar’s. As a result our knowledge of the First Punic War and the Third is lopsided and almost monochrome: the only detailed information on the First comes in Polybius’ condensed version and, on the Third, in Appian’s fairly short narrative which, in agreeable con-trast to his treatment of the previous two, draws partly on Polybius’ lost account — but also devotes plenty of space to rather less admirable, Appian-composed speeches.

That Appian is the major source for a war fought three centuries before his own day illustrates another problem. Polybius alone was a contemporary of any war; Livy and Diodorus lived and wrote 100 to 150 years after him, and the rest still later. How all of them utilized earlier sources, including docu-ments like the texts of treaties, what sources each chose to utilize, and how they organized the information they drew from these are among the most debated issues in Punic Wars studies. Livy, for example, used Polybius exten-sively and thus could read his verbatim quotation of Hannibal’s treaty with Macedon, as we still can: why did he choose to offer without comment an improbably biased version, presumably found in an earlier Roman author?

A fourth source problem is compounded by the other three. Most Greek and Roman authors were inexpert or uninterested in technical matters, from military realities to topography and chronology, and their decided preference was for dramatic and psychological retellings. Polybius does offer some dis-cussion, almost too compressed, of why the First Punic War broke out, whereas

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