History of History of OceanographOceanographyy

Why study historic Why study historic oceanography?oceanography? Connected to the Connected to the

world’s overall world’s overall history history – Commerce, Commerce,

warfare, resources, warfare, resources, weatherweather

The oceans have The oceans have shaped shaped humanity’s pasthumanity’s past

Why study Why study Oceanographic Oceanographic History?History? Understand how and why people Understand how and why people

apply marine sciences todayapply marine sciences today

Oceanography’s history is about Oceanography’s history is about people, people, not just oceans and test not just oceans and test tubes.tubes.

Ancient Uses and Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. to Explorations (5000 B.C. to 800 A.D.)800 A.D.)

Not sure when ocean voyages Not sure when ocean voyages actually began actually began – Fish hooks and spears dated Fish hooks and spears dated

approximately 5000 B.C.approximately 5000 B.C.

Earliest recorded sea voyage – Earliest recorded sea voyage – Egyptians about 3200 B.C.Egyptians about 3200 B.C.

Phoenician Phoenician ExplorationsExplorations

Most important early Most important early Western seafarersWestern seafarers

Motivated by trade, Motivated by trade, Phoenicians traveled Phoenicians traveled incredible distancesincredible distances

Established first trade Established first trade routes throughout the routes throughout the Mediterranean and as Mediterranean and as far north as Great far north as Great BritainBritain

Phoenician NavigationPhoenician Navigation Stayed within sight of landStayed within sight of land Traveled at night – steered by Traveled at night – steered by

observing constellations and the observing constellations and the North Star.North Star.

In the ancient world, the North In the ancient world, the North Star was called the Phoenician Star was called the Phoenician StarStar

Polynesian ExplorationPolynesian Exploration

Between 2000 and 500 B.C.Between 2000 and 500 B.C. Often traveled thousands of kilometers Often traveled thousands of kilometers

across open oceanacross open ocean Open canoes cut from tree trunksOpen canoes cut from tree trunks Developed stick maps with ocean Developed stick maps with ocean

currentscurrents Settled most of the islands in the Pacific Settled most of the islands in the Pacific

Ocean hundreds of years before Ocean hundreds of years before Europeans reached Pacific OceanEuropeans reached Pacific Ocean

Polynesian Polynesian SignificanceSignificance Earliest known Earliest known

regular, long-regular, long-distance, distance, open-ocean open-ocean seafaring seafaring beyond sight beyond sight of landof land

Greek ExplorationGreek Exploration First who used mathematical First who used mathematical

principles and developed principles and developed sophisticated maps for seafaringsophisticated maps for seafaring

Pytheas – Greek explorer, noted that Pytheas – Greek explorer, noted that he could predict tides in Atlantic he could predict tides in Atlantic based on phases of moonbased on phases of moon

He also measured angle between He also measured angle between horizon and the North Star to horizon and the North Star to determine position – improved determine position – improved navigationnavigation

Eratosthenes Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C)(264-194 B.C)

2 major 2 major contributions that contributions that furthered Pytheas’ furthered Pytheas’ workwork

Calculated Earth’s Calculated Earth’s Circumference Circumference ~40,000 km~40,000 km

Invented first Invented first latitude/longitude latitude/longitude systemsystem

Map of World – Map of World – According to According to EratosthenesEratosthenes

Ptolemy Ptolemy (100-168 A.D.)(100-168 A.D.)

Created map of Earth that showed a portion of Created map of Earth that showed a portion of the Earth as a sphere on flat paper.the Earth as a sphere on flat paper.

Produced first world atlasProduced first world atlas

Improved longitude/latitude systemImproved longitude/latitude system– System still used todaySystem still used today

Middle AgesMiddle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)(800 A.D.-1400)

Vikings Vikings (790 A.D. to 1100)(790 A.D. to 1100)

Vikings of Scandinavia were active Vikings of Scandinavia were active explorers during The 9explorers during The 9thth century century

Discovered Iceland and GreenlandDiscovered Iceland and Greenland Leif Eriksson – son of Eric The Red, Leif Eriksson – son of Eric The Red,

set off in search of timber for set off in search of timber for Greenland Colony and discovered Greenland Colony and discovered North America (Newfoundland, North America (Newfoundland, Canada)Canada)

Chinese ExplorationChinese Exploration

The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent large The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent large convoys of ships out on missions in convoys of ships out on missions in which seven voyages were madewhich seven voyages were made

There ships were more There ships were more technologically advanced than technologically advanced than anything in Europe, consisting of five anything in Europe, consisting of five masts and magnetic compasses and masts and magnetic compasses and navigational charts navigational charts

The Ming Dynasty reached as far as The Ming Dynasty reached as far as AfricaAfrica

European Exploration European Exploration and the Renaissanceand the Renaissance

Prince Henry the navigatorPrince Henry the navigator, , (1420’s) founded first school of (1420’s) founded first school of navigationnavigation

Christopher ColumbusChristopher Columbus (1490’s) was (1490’s) was attempting to find a west-ward route attempting to find a west-ward route to India when he reached the Bahama to India when he reached the Bahama IslandsIslands

Ferdinand Magellan Ferdinand Magellan (1520) led the (1520) led the expedition that first circumnavigated expedition that first circumnavigated the word; he was killed in the the word; he was killed in the Philippines Philippines

Magellan’s Magellan’s Circumnavigation of Circumnavigation of WorldWorld

The The Beginning of Beginning of Ocean Ocean ScienceScience

1818thth Century Century

Previous exploration driven by Previous exploration driven by military, trade, or conquest military, trade, or conquest objectivesobjectives

Royal Navy of Britain launched Royal Navy of Britain launched voyages with objectives of voyages with objectives of exploration, mapping and exploration, mapping and projecting British presence projecting British presence around the worldaround the world

Cook’s ExpeditionCook’s Expedition(1768 – 1779)(1768 – 1779)

Made 1Made 1stst accurate maps of many accurate maps of many regions in the ocean w/ new regions in the ocean w/ new inventioninvention

Chronometer invented by John Chronometer invented by John HarrisonHarrison

Chronometer is a time piece Chronometer is a time piece capable of keeping accurate time capable of keeping accurate time aboard ship at seaaboard ship at sea

Ben Franklin and the Ben Franklin and the Gulf Stream (1777)Gulf Stream (1777) Noted northerly routed ship from Europe Noted northerly routed ship from Europe

took longer than ships that came by a took longer than ships that came by a longer more southerly routelonger more southerly route

Learned about gulf stream from nephew, Learned about gulf stream from nephew, who gave his uncle a chartwho gave his uncle a chart

Franklin had the chart printed and Franklin had the chart printed and distributed to the captains of mail ships.distributed to the captains of mail ships.

They shortened their inbound voyages by They shortened their inbound voyages by avoiding the current and they shortened avoiding the current and they shortened their outbound voyages by using the their outbound voyages by using the current. current.

Father of Father of Oceanography… Oceanography… Matthew MauryMatthew Maury

Matthew Maury, in charge of the Matthew Maury, in charge of the Depot of Naval charts and Depot of Naval charts and instruments.instruments.

Organized first international Organized first international meteorological conference to meteorological conference to establish uniform methodsestablish uniform methods

Published a summarized version of Published a summarized version of data in first Oceanographic textbook data in first Oceanographic textbook in 1855in 1855

Darwin, Coral Reefs Darwin, Coral Reefs and Biological and Biological EvolutionEvolution From 1831 to 1836 a naturalist for From 1831 to 1836 a naturalist for

the HMS Beagle circumnavigated the the HMS Beagle circumnavigated the southern oceans and oceanic islands.southern oceans and oceanic islands.

Darwin observed birds and other Darwin observed birds and other organisms on isolated islands, most organisms on isolated islands, most of his research took place in the of his research took place in the Galapagos Islands.Galapagos Islands.

In 1859, his observations were In 1859, his observations were published in the book “On the origin published in the book “On the origin of Species”.of Species”.

The Rosses, Edward The Rosses, Edward Forbes, and life in the Forbes, and life in the deep seadeep sea

John Ross took samples and animals in Baffin John Ross took samples and animals in Baffin bay (Canada) Later James Ross took samples bay (Canada) Later James Ross took samples from Antarctic ocean bottom at 4.3 Milesfrom Antarctic ocean bottom at 4.3 Miles

John Ross and James Ross found that there John Ross and James Ross found that there are some bottom dwelling creatures in Baffin are some bottom dwelling creatures in Baffin Bay and Antarctic Ocean. They discovered Bay and Antarctic Ocean. They discovered that deep Atlantic is uniformly cold.that deep Atlantic is uniformly cold.

Forbes – Oceans divided into life-depth zones; Forbes – Oceans divided into life-depth zones; concluded that ocean life decrease as depth concluded that ocean life decrease as depth increases. This contrasted with Rosses finings increases. This contrasted with Rosses finings and created dispute for decades in Britain.and created dispute for decades in Britain.

The Ocean as The Ocean as Laboratory : The Laboratory : The

Challenger Expedition Challenger Expedition (1872-1876)(1872-1876)

The expedition covered 79,178 The expedition covered 79,178 miles.miles.

Directed by C. Wyville ThompsonDirected by C. Wyville Thompson 2 contributions:2 contributions:

– Discovery and classification of 4,717 Discovery and classification of 4,717 new marine speciesnew marine species

– Measurement of record water depth Measurement of record water depth at the Mariana Trench of 26,847 feet.at the Mariana Trench of 26,847 feet.

Alexander AgassizAlexander Agassiz(1836-1919)(1836-1919)

multimillionaire benefactor to multimillionaire benefactor to oceanography, especially in the oceanography, especially in the U.S.U.S.

11stst to use steel cables for deep to use steel cables for deep sea dredgingsea dredging

Victor Henson and Victor Henson and Marine EcologyMarine Ecology Victor Henson solved the problem Victor Henson solved the problem

about population fluctuations in about population fluctuations in commercial fish.commercial fish.

Coined the term planktonCoined the term plankton He found that cold water is more He found that cold water is more

nutrient rich, leading to more nutrient rich, leading to more plankton, and a larger fish plankton, and a larger fish population.population.

Polar oceanography Polar oceanography begins with the voyage begins with the voyage of the of the FramFram Fridtjof Nansen set out with a Fridtjof Nansen set out with a

crew of 13 on a boat called Fram crew of 13 on a boat called Fram to explore the Artic sea.to explore the Artic sea.

His boat became frozen in ice and His boat became frozen in ice and drifted for 3 yearsdrifted for 3 years

His drift proved that there was no His drift proved that there was no continent in the Artic sea. continent in the Artic sea.

Twentieth Twentieth century century oceanographyoceanography

Voyage of the MeteorVoyage of the Meteor

First drilling shipFirst drilling ship Ship came from GermanyShip came from Germany Set the standard for Set the standard for

multidisciplinary studies of the multidisciplinary studies of the OceanOcean

Mapped the ocean bottom by Mapped the ocean bottom by echo sounding echo sounding

Meteor sailed for 25 monthsMeteor sailed for 25 months

Oceanography gets Oceanography gets institutionalizedinstitutionalized MusMusée océanographic – Europeée océanographic – Europe Scripps institution of Oceanography (1Scripps institution of Oceanography (1stst

institute in U.S.) – Californiainstitute in U.S.) – California Woods Hole Ocean. Inst. (Boston)Woods Hole Ocean. Inst. (Boston) Lamont Geological Observatory - New Lamont Geological Observatory - New

York York Rosenstiel school of Marine & Rosenstiel school of Marine &

Atmosphere Sciences - MiamiAtmosphere Sciences - Miami Texas A&M University administered The Texas A&M University administered The

Ocean Drilling Program Ocean Drilling Program

SCRIPPSSCRIPPS

Woods HoleWoods Hole

Lamont Lamont

The expansion of The expansion of oceanographyoceanography German U-boat led to the invention of German U-boat led to the invention of

the echo sounder to detect submarinesthe echo sounder to detect submarines WW2_military performed and WW2_military performed and

supported many studies on supported many studies on transmission of sound in the ocean transmission of sound in the ocean waves, currents, and ocean- floor waves, currents, and ocean- floor topography.topography.

After WW2 U.S. government After WW2 U.S. government established a Sea Grant program to established a Sea Grant program to fund ocean researchfund ocean research

Large-scale and Large-scale and international international oceanographic researchoceanographic research The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was

the 1the 1stst large-scale cooperative effort in large-scale cooperative effort in academic ocean researchacademic ocean research

The Glomar Challenger began 1The Glomar Challenger began 1stst leg of leg of deep sea drillingdeep sea drilling

The deep sea drilling project became the The deep sea drilling project became the ocean drilling program (ODP)ocean drilling program (ODP)

The ODP drill ship JOIDES Resolution, The ODP drill ship JOIDES Resolution, which is a lot larger than the Glomar which is a lot larger than the Glomar Challenger, conducted its first scientific Challenger, conducted its first scientific cruise and the JOIDES program continues cruise and the JOIDES program continues today.today.

The history behind The history behind plate tectonic theoryplate tectonic theory

In 1915, Alfred Wegener developed the theory of In 1915, Alfred Wegener developed the theory of continental drift.continental drift.– He conceived of a single ancient landmass called He conceived of a single ancient landmass called

Pangaea that began to break 180 million years ago.Pangaea that began to break 180 million years ago. Fredrick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided Fredrick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided

evidence for sea floor spreading in 1963evidence for sea floor spreading in 1963– They mapped magnetic patterns of the ocean floor, They mapped magnetic patterns of the ocean floor,

which showed parallel bands of similarly magnetized which showed parallel bands of similarly magnetized reaches on either side of oceanic mountain ranges. reaches on either side of oceanic mountain ranges. Which were records of changes in Earth’s magnetic Which were records of changes in Earth’s magnetic field over timefield over time

Humans invade the deep Humans invade the deep oceanocean

Increased pressure on body cavities and gases Increased pressure on body cavities and gases dissolved in body tissues limits duration of dives.dissolved in body tissues limits duration of dives.

Decompressing is necessary at greater depths Decompressing is necessary at greater depths because rapid ascending turns dissolved gases because rapid ascending turns dissolved gases in tissues into nitrogen. These nitrogen bubbles in tissues into nitrogen. These nitrogen bubbles can stop blood flow. This is know as the bends can stop blood flow. This is know as the bends and is extremely painful illness which can be and is extremely painful illness which can be fatal.fatal.– To protect oneself, a strict decompression To protect oneself, a strict decompression

schedule which includes stopping at different schedule which includes stopping at different depthsdepths

– Jim suit allows a person to repair machinery at Jim suit allows a person to repair machinery at the ocean floor at surface pressurethe ocean floor at surface pressure

SubmersiblesSubmersibles William Beebe- descended to a depth of William Beebe- descended to a depth of

923 meters off Bermuda in a tethered 923 meters off Bermuda in a tethered bathysphere to observe deep-sea life.bathysphere to observe deep-sea life.

Jacques Piccard- designed untethered Jacques Piccard- designed untethered vessel Trieste - 1960vessel Trieste - 1960

Alvin, Sea Cliff- 2 most widely used Alvin, Sea Cliff- 2 most widely used submersiblessubmersibles

Japan’s Shinkai- to study microbes in Japan’s Shinkai- to study microbes in the deep sea the deep sea

Trieste (1960)Trieste (1960)

The bathyscaphe, The bathyscaphe, Trieste, descends Trieste, descends to 10,915 metersto 10,915 meters

Into Marianas Into Marianas Trench Trench

Deepest depth in Deepest depth in the oceanthe ocean

SubmersiblesSubmersibles Factors of manned sub:Factors of manned sub:

– Risk to human lifeRisk to human life– High cost of the systems requiredHigh cost of the systems required– Relatively short time that can be spent making observationsRelatively short time that can be spent making observations

Advantages of ROVs (remotely operated vehicles)Advantages of ROVs (remotely operated vehicles)– No risk to humansNo risk to humans– Can make computer-assisted maps (based on sonar)Can make computer-assisted maps (based on sonar)– Stay down in water for a long timeStay down in water for a long time

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Autonomous Underwater Vehicles – Programmed to carry out specific data gatherings missions Programmed to carry out specific data gatherings missions

of long durations without human lifeof long durations without human life

A.U.V.s vs. R.O.V.sA.U.V.s vs. R.O.V.s

Living under the seaLiving under the sea

Jacques Cousteau- began designing and Jacques Cousteau- began designing and testing the underwater living chamber in testing the underwater living chamber in the 1950sthe 1950s

In the 1970s teams lived undersea In the 1970s teams lived undersea chambers for up to 60 dayschambers for up to 60 days

May be placed on ocean floor or May be placed on ocean floor or suspendedsuspended

Can respond and equalize to any pressureCan respond and equalize to any pressure

AquariusAquarius

Remote sensingRemote sensing

Sometimes ocean is observed from space; they Sometimes ocean is observed from space; they can measure temp., ice cover, color, etc.can measure temp., ice cover, color, etc.

Seasat A - 1Seasat A - 1stst dedicated oceanographic satellite. dedicated oceanographic satellite. Nimbus 7- mapped phyto-plankton populationsNimbus 7- mapped phyto-plankton populations

TOPEX/ Poseidon- mapped global sea level and TOPEX/ Poseidon- mapped global sea level and got data on ocean –atmosphere interaction.got data on ocean –atmosphere interaction.

Global Positioning system- allows ship to Global Positioning system- allows ship to determine positions with in a meterdetermine positions with in a meter

SEASAT ASEASAT A

TOPEX / POSEIDONTOPEX / POSEIDON

Terms & EquipmentTerms & Equipment

Secchi diskSecchi disk- - Determines how Determines how transparency of transparency of

the waterthe water Core SamplerCore Sampler- - takes samples of core takes samples of core

sedimentssediments HydrometerHydrometer- - Determines the density of the Determines the density of the waterwater DredgeDredge- - scoops up marine lifescoops up marine life AlvinAlvin- - famous submarine that famous submarine that

explored explored deep seadeep sea

Terms & EquipmentTerms & Equipment

Side-scan sonarSide-scan sonar- - sonar that can scan in allsonar that can scan in all directionsdirections Current meterCurrent meter- - determines the speed and determines the speed and direction of the currentdirection of the current Underwater camera Underwater camera camera that can camera that can

work work underwaterunderwater FlipFlip- - a bottle like vessel thata bottle like vessel that

can flip sideways in thecan flip sideways in the waterwater Purse seine netPurse seine net- - used to capture schoolsused to capture schools

of fishof fish